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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and Implements, by 
+James Owen Dorsey,
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and Implements
+       Thirteenth Annual Report of the Beaurau of American
+       Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
+       1891-1892, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1896
+       pages 263-288
+
+Author: James Owen Dorsey,
+
+Release Date: November 24, 2006 [EBook #19913]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Verity White and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  +-------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Note:                       |
+  |                                           |
+  |  [p] or [P] represents a turned p or P.   |
+  |  [T] represents a turned T.               |
+  |                                           |
+  +-------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS
+
+BY
+
+JAMES OWEN DORSEY
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                             Page
+  Introductory note                           269
+  Dwellings                                   269
+    Earth lodges                              269
+    Lodges of bark or mats                    271
+    Skin lodges or tents                      271
+  Furniture and implements                    275
+    Fireplaces                                275
+    Beds and bedding                          275
+    Cradles                                   275
+    Children's swings                         276
+    Brooms                                    276
+    Pottery                                   276
+    Mortars and pestles                       276
+    Spoons, ladles, and drinking vessels      277
+    Water vessels                             277
+    Other vessels                             278
+    Hoes and axes                             278
+    Knives                                    278
+    Implements connected with fire            279
+    Smoking paraphernalia                     279
+    Equipage for horses                       280
+    Traveling gear                            281
+    Boats                                     281
+    Musical instruments                       281
+  Weapons                                     283
+    Clubs                                     283
+    Tomahawks                                 284
+    Spears                                    284
+    Bows                                      285
+    Arrows                                    286
+    Quivers                                   287
+    Shields and armor                         287
+    Firearms                                  288
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                      Page
+  Fig. 306. Yellow Smoke's earth lodge                 270
+       307. Ground plan of Osage lodge                 271
+       308. Omaha tent                                 272
+       309. Exterior parts of an Omaha tent            273
+       310. [P]ejequde's tent                          274
+       311. Omaha cradle--plan                         276
+       312. Omaha cradle--side view                    276
+       313. Omaha mortar                               277
+       314. Omaha pestle                               277
+       315. Omaha calumet                              279
+       316. Omaha pipe used on ordinary occasions      280
+       317. Skin drum                                  282
+       318. Box drum                                   282
+       319. Omaha large flute                          283
+       320. Omaha club (jaⁿ-[p]aᴐna)                   283
+       321. Omaha club (jaⁿ-[p]aᴐna)                   284
+       322. Omaha club (weaq¢ade)                      284
+       323. Omaha bow (zaⁿzi-mandĕ)                    285
+       324. Omaha bow (ʇaʞaⁿ-mandĕ)                    285
+       325. Omaha hunting arrow                        286
+       326. Omaha war arrow                            286
+       327. Omaha style of hidé-ʇáce                   286
+
+
+
+
+OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS
+
+BY JAMES OWEN DORSEY
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
+
+
+The accompanying paper is one of the results of personal investigations
+among the Omaha of Nebraska and cognate tribes of Indians, beginning in
+1878 and continued from time to time during late years.
+
+While the paper treats of the Omaha tribe, much that is said is
+applicable to the Ponka, as the two tribes have long had similar
+environments and a common dialect, for, until 1877, their habitats were
+almost contiguous, and since 1880 about one-third of the Ponka tribe has
+been dwelling on its former reservation near the town of Niobrara,
+Nebraska.
+
+Acknowledgments are due Dr. O. T. Mason for many valuable suggestions
+early in the progress of the work.
+
+
+
+
+DWELLINGS.
+
+
+The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges of earth
+or, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or tents. It may
+be observed that there were no sacred rites connected with the earth
+lodge-building or tent-making among the Omaha and Ponka.
+
+
+Earth Lodges.
+
+When earth lodges were built, the people did not make them in a tribal
+circle, each man erecting his lodge where he wished; yet kindred
+commonly built near one another.
+
+The earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended principally
+for summer use, when the people were not migrating or going on the hunt.
+Those built by the Omaha and Ponka were constructed in the following
+manner: The roof was supported by two series of vertical posts, forked
+at the top for the reception of the transverse connecting pieces of each
+series. The number in each series varied according to the size of the
+lodge; for a small lodge only four posts were erected in the inner
+series, for an ordinary lodge eight were required, and ten generally
+constituted the maximum. When Mr. Say[1] visited the Kansa Indians, he
+occupied a lodge in which twelve of these posts placed in a circle
+formed the outer series, and eight longer ones constituted the inner
+series, also describing a circle. The wall was formed by setting upright
+slabs of wood back of the outer posts all around the circumference of
+the lodge. These slabs were not over 6 feet in height, and their tops
+met the cross timbers on which the willow posts rested. Stocks of hard
+willow about 2 inches in diameter rested with their butts on the tops of
+the upright slabs and extended on the cross timbers nearly to the
+summit. These poles were very numerous, touching one another and
+extending all around in a radiating manner, supporting the roof like
+rafters. The rafters were covered with grass about a foot thick; and
+over the whole lodge, including the sides or slabs, earth was piled from
+a foot to 2 feet in depth. Such a covering lasted generally about twenty
+years. A hole in the middle served as an exit for the smoke.
+
+[Footnote 1: James' account of Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains
+in 1819-'20.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 306.--Yellow Smoke's earth lodge.]
+
+In addition to the lodge proper there was a covered way about 10 feet
+long and 5 feet wide, the entrance to which had a covering of tanned or
+dried buffalo hides. This covering consisted of two hides hanging side
+by side, with the inner borders slightly overlapping. They were fastened
+to the passageway at the top and at the outer sides, but were loose at
+the bottom where they overlapped. This part was raised by a person
+entering the lodge. A similar covering was placed at the interior end of
+the passageway.
+
+Subsequently to 1855, the Omaha dwelt in three villages composed of
+earth lodges, as follows: (1) Biku′de, a village near the agency; (2)
+Windja′ge, Standing Hawk's village, near the Presbyterian mission house;
+and (3) Jaⁿ¢a′te ("Wood Eaters,") named after an insect found under the
+bark of trees Sanssouci's village, near the town of Decatur, Nebraska.
+
+Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings, such as feasts,
+councils, or dances. Occasionally there was a depression in the center
+of the lodge which was used as a fireplace; but it was not over 6 inches
+deep. Each earth lodge had a ladder, made by cutting a series of deep
+notches along one side of a log. On a bluff near the Omaha agency I
+found the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances on the
+southern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100 feet in
+diameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow about 3 feet
+deep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the lodge.
+
+
+Lodges of Bark or Mats.
+
+The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy, as did the
+Iowa and Sak. [T]iu′¢ipu jiñ′ga, or low lodges covered with mats, were
+used by the Omaha in former days. Such lodges are still common among the
+Winnebago, the Osage, and other tribes. The ground plan of such a lodge
+forms an ellipse. The height is hardly over 7 feet from the ground. The
+tent poles are arranged thus: Each pole has one end planted in the
+ground, the other end being bent down and fastened to the pole
+immediately opposite; a number of poles thus arranged in pairs formed
+both wall posts and rafters.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 307.--Ground plan of Osage lodge.]
+
+Generally there was one fireplace and one smokehole in such a lodge; but
+when I visited the Osage in 1883, I entered a low lodge with two
+fireplaces, each equidistant from its end of the lodge and the entrance,
+each fireplace having its smokehole.
+
+
+Skin Lodges or Tents.
+
+The tent was used when the people were migrating, and also when they
+were traveling in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite abode
+of a household during the winter season, as the earth lodge was
+generally erected in an exposed situation, selected on account of
+comfort in the summer. The tent could be pitched in the timber or brush,
+or down in wooded ravines, where the cold winds never had full sweep.
+Hence, many Indians abandoned their houses in winter and went into their
+tents, even when they were of canvas.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 308.--Omaha tent (from a photograph by W. H.
+Jackson).]
+
+The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned buffalo
+skins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10 to 12 feet
+high, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a foot and a
+half in diameter at the top, which served as a smokehole (ʇihuʞaⁿ).
+Besides the interior tent poles (ʇici--3, figure 309) and the tent skin
+(ʇiha--1), the tent had the ʇi¢umaⁿhaⁿ, or the place where the skins
+were fastened together above the entrance (4). The ʇi¢umaⁿhaⁿ was
+fastened with the ʇihu¢ubaxaⁿ(5), which consisted of sticks or pieces of
+hide thrust crosswise through the holes in the tent skins. The bottom of
+the tent was secured to the ground by pins (ʇihu¢ugadaⁿ--6) driven
+through holes (ʇihugaq¢uge) in the bottom of the skins, made when the
+latter were tanned and before they had become hard. The entrance
+(ʇijebe) was generally opposite the quarter from which the wind was
+blowing. A door flap (ʇijebeg¢aⁿ--7) hung over the entrance; it was made
+of skin with the hair outside, so as to turn water, and was held taut by
+a stick fastened to it transversely. The bottom of the door flap was
+loose, but the top was fastened to the tent.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 309--Exterior parts of an Omaha tent.]
+
+The smokehole was formed by the two ʇihugab¢iⁿ¢a(9), or triangular ends
+of tent skins, immediately above the entrance and ʇi¢umaⁿhaⁿ. When there
+was no wind both of the ʇihugab¢iⁿ¢a were kept open by means of the
+ʇihu¢ubajiⁿ(8) or exterior tent poles, which were thrust through the
+ujiha, or small sacks, in the corners of the ʇihugab¢iⁿ¢a. When the wind
+blew one of the ʇihu¢ubajiⁿ was raised to the windward and the other was
+lowered, pulling its skin close to the tent and leaving an opening for
+the escape of the smoke; but if the wind came directly against the
+entrance both the flaps were raised, closing the smokehole to prevent
+the wind from blowing down it. When the wind blew the people used
+nandi¢agaspe to keep the bottom of each tent skin in place. These
+consisted of twisted grass, sticks, stones, or other heavy objects.
+
+Figure 310 represents the tent of [P]ejequde, an Omaha. The banners or
+standards, which were carried by the leaders of a war party or a party
+going on a dancing tour, are depicted with their decorations of strips
+of red and blue Indian cloth. Sometimes these standards were ornamented
+with feathers instead of with cloth. Each standard could be used in four
+war expeditions.
+
+No totem posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent of the principal
+man of each gens was decorated on the outside with his gentile badge,
+which was painted on each side of the entrance as well as on the back of
+the tent.[1] The furniture of the sacred tents resembled that of the
+ordinary ones.
+
+Before the introduction of canvas tents by the whites no needles or
+thread were used by the Siouan tribes. The women used sinew of the deer
+or buffalo instead of thread, and for needles they had awls made of elk
+horn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 310.--[P]ejequde's tent.]
+
+Since there were no outbuildings, public granaries, or other structures
+of this description, each household stored away its own grain and other
+provisions. There were no special tribal or communal dwellings; but
+sometimes two or more households occupied a single earth lodge. When a
+council was held, it took place in the earth lodge of one of the head
+chiefs, or else two or three common tents were united, making one large
+one.[2] There were no public baths, as the Missouri river was near, and
+they could resort to it whenever they desired. Dance houses were
+improvised either of earth lodges or skin tents.
+
+Sweat-lodges were in the form of low tents (ʇiu¢ipu).[3] Stones were not
+boiled for the sweat-lodge, but were put into the fire to be heated.
+They were removed from the fire by means of sticks called iⁿߵĕbasi¢aⁿ,
+and then water from the kettle was poured on them, creating steam. Cedar
+fronds were dropped on the stones, causing a perfume to arise.
+
+[Footnote 1: Third Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology for 1882-'83, p. 230; also
+"A Study of Siouan Cults," in Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology,
+1889-'90, p. 351.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Third Ann. Rep., op. cit., p. 294.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. vi, 1890,
+pp. 152, 169, and 234.]
+
+
+
+
+FURNITURE AND IMPLEMENTS.
+
+
+Fireplaces.
+
+Within the tent, in the center, was the fireplace (une¢ĕ), formed by
+excavating a small hollow. Beside this was erected a forked post
+(isag¢ĕ), on which was hung the apparatus for suspending a kettle over
+the fire. This apparatus was called ¢exe u¢ugacke by the Ponka,
+literally, "that by means of which the kettle is hung." The Omaha have
+two names for it, uhaⁿ u¢ugacke, and u¢ugackeg¢e, the last syllable of
+the latter name referring to the attitude of the post. Around the
+fireplace was a circular space for the feet of the people as they sat
+about the fire. The couches of the occupants of the tent were arranged
+outside of and all around this circular space.
+
+
+Beds and Bedding.
+
+A couch was formed by laying down two or three winter hides dried with
+the hair on. These hides were placed around the fireplace at a safe
+distance. In the earth lodges, according to Joseph La Flèche, the Omaha
+used sahi, or grass mats, for seats, as is the present custom of the
+Winnebago; but at night they reclined on dressed hides with thick hair
+on them, and covered themselves with similar hides.
+
+For pillows they used ibehiⁿ or iⁿbehiⁿ. When the vegetation was about 3
+inches high in the spring, the Indians killed deer and pulled off the
+hair in order to remove the thin skin or tissue next to it. This latter,
+when thoroughly dried, is smooth and white, resembling parchment. It was
+used for pillows and moccasin-strings. When used for pillows the case
+was filled with goose feathers or the hair of the deer until it was
+about 2 feet long and 9 inches high. During the day, and whenever there
+was occasion, they were used as seats; but if none could be had, the
+people sat on winter robes or hides forming the couches.[1] Back of the
+couches and next to the interior tent-poles were placed the baggage,
+sacks of corn, and other household properties.
+
+The upright tent is one form of the Dakota "wake′ya," the plural of
+which, "wake′yapi," undoubtedly gave rise to the familiar "wick′iup" of
+the plains, and also to "wä-ka′-yo" of Morgan.[2]
+
+
+Cradles.
+
+A board of convenient size, usually about a yard long and a foot wide,
+was selected to form a cradle or u¢uhe. No pillow was needed. A soft
+skin ([p]aq¢uqaha ¢aⁿ) covered with plenty of thick hair was laid on the
+board, and on it was placed the infant.
+
+[Footnote 1: Hammocks and bedsteads were unknown prior to their
+introduction by the traders and other white people.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. iv., 1881,
+p. 114.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 311.--Omaha cradle--plan.]
+
+In the annexed figures, <i>a</i> is the ĭndua¢isiⁿkaⁿhe, the object painted
+on the board at the end where the infant's head is laid; <i>b</i> is the
+ĭndei¢idĭndiⁿ ("that which is drawn taut over the face"), the two
+strings of beads and sinew or thread (sometimes made of red calico
+alone), which keep in place the fan, etc.; the fan (ĭndeagani), which is
+suspended from a bow of wood, (<i>c</i>) is about 6 inches square, and is
+now made of interwoven sinew on which beads have been strung. Occasionally
+thimbles and other bright objects dangle from the bottom of the fan. The
+i¢a¢istage (<i>d</i>) is the band by which the infant is fastened to the
+cradle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 312.--Omaha cradle--side view.]
+
+
+Children's Swings.
+
+For swings the ends of two withes of buffalo hide were secured to four
+trees or posts which formed the corners of a parallelogram. A blanket
+was thrown across the withes and folded over on them. The infant was
+laid on top of the fold and swung from side to side without falling.
+
+
+Brooms.
+
+Brooms were of two kinds. One form was made of sticks tied together, and
+was used for sweeping the ground outside of the tent or earth lodge, and
+the interior of the earth lodge, except the fireplace. The other kind
+was made of goose or turkey feathers, and was used for sweeping the
+fireplace of an earth lodge.
+
+
+Pottery.
+
+Pottery has not been made by the Omaha for more than fifty years. The
+art of making it has been forgotten by the tribe.
+
+
+Mortar and Pestles.
+
+A mortar was made by burning a large hole in a round knot or piece of
+wood about 7 inches in diameter. The lower end was sharpened to a
+point, which was thrust into the ground when needed for use. After
+putting corn in a mortar of this description, the woman grasped the
+wooden pestle in the middle, with the larger end upward; the smaller
+end, which was about an inch in diameter, was put into the mortar. The
+operation of pounding corn among the Omaha was called "he." The mortar
+(uhe) and pestle (wehe) were both made commonly of elm, although
+sometimes they were fashioned of white oak. Mortars were of various
+sizes, some of them measuring 2 feet in diameter. Pestles were always of
+hard and heavy wood, and fully 3 feet long, taperring from 4 inches to
+an inch in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 314.--Omaha pestle.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 313.--Omaha mortar.]
+
+
+Spoons, Ladles and Drinking Vessels.
+
+Spoons were made of horn, wood, or pottery. The black spoons made of
+buffalo horn (ʇehe sabĕ), are not used by such Omaha as belong to the
+Buffalo gentes (Iñkesabĕ, Ȼatada, [T]esinde, etc.) which may not touch a
+buffalo head. Other horn spoons of light color are made of cow horn.
+These are of modern origin. Wooden spoons (jaⁿʇehe) were made of knobs
+or knots of trees. Spoons made of buffalo horn are found among the Omaha
+and Ponka, but the Osage, Kansa, and Kwapa use clam shells (ʇihaba, in
+Ȼegiha; tcühaba, tcühuba, in Kansa), so the Kansa call a small spoon,
+tcühaba jiñga. Spoons of buffalo horn had their handles variously
+ornamented by notches and other rude carving, often terminating in the
+head of a bird, the neck or handle of each being elevated at an angle of
+50° or 60° with the bowl, which, was about 3 inches in width by about 5
+in length. As the handle of such a spoon usually terminates in a head or
+hook, it was impossible for it to slip into the bowl when the hook
+rested on the outside of the rim of the bowl.
+
+Food was served in bowls of a very wide and simple form and of various
+sizes, generally carved out of large knots of wood. These served as
+drinking cups (ni′i¢átaⁿ), but now cups of tin or earthenware are used
+for that purpose.
+
+
+Water Vessels
+
+When pottery was made, they used bowls and kettles. Some used wooden
+bowls of different sizes, the largest being about 2 feet in diameter.
+When they went on the hunt, they used the ínijeha (or sack made of the
+muscular coating of the buffalo paunch, by filling with, grass to make
+it stand out and keep its shape until dried). When the ínijeha was
+filled with water the mouth was tied, and it was kept covered and in the
+shade that it might remain cool. After being used for a few days it
+became strong smelling, and was thrown away, another taking its place.
+Some preferred the "ʇenăn′de uq¢a′ha ¢aⁿ" or pericardium(?) of the
+buffalo, which is like sinew. This does not smell unpleasant, even when
+used for seven or ten days. But at the expiration of that time it is
+unfit for further service.
+
+Jugs have been introduced by the traders.
+
+
+Other Vessels.
+
+Provision sacks or parflèche cases were made of dried buffalo hide. When
+used for carrying the dried meat, they were called weábastá. After two
+or three years' use they became soft and were fit only for making
+moccasin soles. These sacks had the hair taken off, and were sometimes
+made in trunk fashion.
+
+Fruit baskets were of three kinds. The Ponka made them of the bark of a
+tree, called tawáߵaⁿhe, which is found on the old Ponka reservation in
+Dakota. Northern Indians make boats of this bark. The Omaha do not find
+the tree on their land, so they make the fruit baskets of other kinds of
+bark. The three kinds of baskets are as follows: Naⁿ′pa ú¢isĕ, used for
+chokecherries; ag¢añ′kamañge ú¢isĕ, used for raspberries; and bact
+ú¢isĕ, used for strawberries. When the Ponka wished to make the baskets,
+they stripped off the bark in horizontal sections, not pulling upward or
+downward.
+
+In modern times the Omaha have learned to make sacks of thread of
+different colors drawn from black, red, blue, and white blankets.
+Different figures are woven. Each sack is about a foot deep, 16 inches
+from the mouth to the opposite side, and from 2 to 2-1/2 feet long. The
+opening is on one of the long sides, and when the articles are put in a
+gathering string is drawn and tied.
+
+
+Hoes and Axes.
+
+For hoes, the Omaha used the shoulder blades of the buffalo. Axes and
+hatchets are now made of iron, hence, the Omaha name, maⁿ′ze-pe, sharp
+iron. But the Kansa have the ancient name, maⁿ′hi-spe, answering to the
+Dakota, waⁿhiⁿ′-kpe, sharp flint. The hatchet is distinguished from the
+ax by adding "jiñga," small. Some of the stone axes and hatchets have
+been found on the Omaha reservation, but they could hardly have been
+used for cutting. It is not known what tools were used for felling
+trees.
+
+
+Knives.
+
+Knives were made of stone. A prominent butte, near the old Ponka agency,
+Nebraska, is known as "Máhiⁿ-ʇu," signifying blue knife, from the
+character of the stone with which its surface is covered. It is several
+miles from the mouth of Ponka creek and nearly opposite the month of
+Choteau creek, South Dakota.
+
+
+Implements Connected with Fire.
+
+In former ages, the Ȼegiha made fire by rubbing or turning a stick round
+and round between the hands. On the present Omaha reservation, and in
+that region, the Omaha use elm roots for that purpose. In the country
+called [P]izábahéhe, near the source of Elkhorn river, there is a grass
+known as "duáduáhi," which has about a hundred fine shoots from each
+root, which is half the size of the head. The stalk was used for hand
+drills and fire sticks. One stalk was cut almost flat, and the man puts
+his feet on the ends to steady them. Then, holding the other stick in
+his hands, with one end touching the stalk on the ground, he turned it
+round and round till the friction produced fire. Sometimes a small
+quantity of dry sand was placed on the flat stick. The same flat stick
+answered for several occasions. When the cavity made by turning the hand
+drill became too large, the point of contact was shifted to another part
+of the flat stick, and so on until the whole of that stick was used,
+when it was thrown away and another was obtained. Duáduáhi, according to
+Mr. Francis La Flesche, may be found in Judiciary square, Washington,
+District of Columbia. After the coming of the white man, but before the
+introduction of friction matches, which are now used by the whole tribe,
+the Omaha used flints and tinder for making fire.
+
+Spits for roasting, etc., náqpe, or wébasnaⁿ, were made of any kind of
+wood.
+
+For tongs they used the [p]edi¢a¢isande ("fire-holder"), made by
+slitting one end of a stick. This implement was also called, jaⁿ jiñga
+nini ibista ("the stick that presses the fire against the tobacco"),
+because it was used for lighting pipes.
+
+
+Smoking Paraphernalia.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 315.--Omaha calumet]
+
+The pipes in use among the Omaha are of three kinds: the sacred pipe
+(niniba waqube, mysterious pipe), including the war pipes and those used
+by the chiefs in making peace; the niniba weawaⁿ or calumet (illustrated
+in figure 315), used in the calumet dance or dance of adoption,[1] and
+the hatchet pipe or maⁿzepe niniba, introduced since the coming of the
+white man. One form of the pipe used on ordinary Tobacco pouches
+(niniújiha) were made of deer or antelope skin, and were ornamented with
+porcupine quills or a fringe of deerskin. Sometimes buffalo bladders
+were used for this purpose. The women used them as receptacles for their
+porcupine quills.
+
+[Footnote 1: See "Omaha Sociology," Third Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethnology,
+chap. vi.]
+
+occasions is shown in figure 316. This pipe has a bowl of catlinite, and
+the stem is decorated with horsehair.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 316.--Omaha pipe used on ordinary occasions.]
+
+
+Equipage for Horses.
+
+Saddles (cánakág¢e) were in use before the coming of the whites. They
+were made of wood, around which was wrapped hide, while still
+"ʇaha-nuʞa" (green or soft). According to Joseph La Flèche these saddles
+did not rub sores on the backs of the native horses (Indian ponies), but
+Dougherty[1] said, in 1819, "The Indians are generally cruel
+horse-masters, perhaps in a great measure through necessity; the backs
+of their horses are very often sore and ulcerated, from the friction of
+the rude saddle, which is fashioned after the Spanish manner, being
+elevated at the pummel and croup, and resting on skin saddle cloths
+without padding." They ride very well, and make frequent use of the whip
+and their heels, the latter being employed instead of spurs.
+
+For bridles and halters they used strips of hide, out of which material
+they made also lariats. The bridle used consisted of a withe, one end of
+which was wrapped two or three times around the animal's lower jaw,
+while the other was held in the hand, forming but a single rein. This
+did not hinder the rider from guiding his horse, as he was able to turn
+him to the left by pressing the single rein against the animal's neck,
+as well as by the use of the right heel against its side. When he wished
+to turn to the right, he pulled the rein and pressed his left heel
+against the horse's side.
+
+Whips were of three kinds. The wahí wégasapi was attached to a bone
+handle. The handle of a ja^{u}′uke¢iⁿ wégasapi was made of common wood.
+That of a zaⁿzí wégasapi was made of Osage orange wood, which is very
+hard. The whip was attached to the wrist by a broad band, which passed
+through a hole near the end of the handle. The handle was about 15
+inches long and was very stout. A specimen that has been deposited in
+the National Museum (a gift to the author from an Omaha) has a lash 2
+feet long, composed of 8 thongs one-fifth of an inch wide. These are
+plaited together in one rounded plait for 18 inches, the rest of the
+lash being in 2 plaits of 4 thongs each, knotted near the ends.
+
+The lasso was called maⁿ′tanah-í¢ize, i.e., "that by which (a) wild
+(horse) is taken." It was made by taking the hair from the head of a
+buffalo and plaiting it into a very strong rope as thick as one's thumb.
+This rope was called "ʇaha-¢isaⁿ," and was utilized by the Omaha and
+Ponka instead of the common lasso for catching wild horses in
+northwestern Nebraska. One end of the rope was formed into a noose large
+enough to slip over a horse's head, and the ends of this noose were
+secured to a long pole by small cords. The other end of the rope,
+arranged in a coil, was fastened to the belt or waist of the man. He
+rode with the pole held in one hand and tried to thrust the noose in
+front of a horse. When he succeeded in passing the noose over the head
+of an animal, he threw away the stick, which had become separated from
+the noose, and held the rope alone, which he pulled toward him. When the
+horse was caught, the man made an ĭndú¢iciⁿ. (bridle or face cover),
+being careful to place some buffalo hair over the nose and under the
+chin, to guard against paining the horse, whose eyes remained uncovered.
+
+[Footnote 1: Long, S. H.; Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 1, p. 291, Phila., 1822]
+
+Trappings for the saddle (sĭn′de-ehé¢ĕ) were used. Some years ago a
+specimen of Omaha trapping was presented by the writer to the
+Anthropological Society of Washington, and subsequently was deposited in
+the National Museum.
+
+
+Traveling Gear.
+
+Snow-shoes (sé-hiⁿbe) were worn by the Omaha and Ponka when they
+traversed a region, north of their modern, habitat.
+
+For traveling on foot a staff (hí-mañg¢e) was used when it was necessary
+to pass over mountains; also when, heavy loads had to be carried. This
+staff differed from the crutch (í-mañg¢e).
+
+The women had mácaʞa^n, or straps, for aiding them in carrying loads of
+wood, etc.
+
+
+Boats.
+
+When they wished to cross streams they made hide boats, or mandéha.
+These were manufactured from dried buffalo hides, which were sewed
+together with sinew, and so tightly that no water could penetrate the
+seams. Ten branches of red willow were placed within, the ends being
+bent upward and fastened by withes to two other saplings, which extended
+the whole length of the boat at the inside of the gunwale. The ten
+pieces were the ʇíci-íki[p]ádaⁿ. The rudder or steering oar (í¢isaⁿ′¢ĕ)
+was fashioned like the oars (mandú¢ugáhi), with the blade flat and of
+the breadth of two hands. The rowers (u¢úgahi aká) sat near the bow, and
+the steersman (¢isaⁿ′¢a aká) took his seat at the stern.
+
+
+Musical Instruments.
+
+Battles were of five kinds, [P]exe were generally gourds; wataⁿ′ [p]exe,
+gourd rattles, were always round, and were partially filled with seed,
+fine shot, or gravel, [T]ahánuʞa [p]éxe, green-hide rattles, were of two
+sorts, one of which is "¢igúje," bent a little. Specimens of this form
+are in the National Museum.
+
+Two kinds of rattles were called ʇa-cáge, i.e., "deers-claws," from the
+composition of one variety, though the other was made of molars of the
+elk.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 317--Skin drum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 318--Box drum.]
+
+The Omaha used three styles of drums. The ¢éxe-gaʞú b¢áska, or flat
+drum, is illustrated by a specimen (no. 21675) in the National Museum.
+The ¢éxe-gaʞú gadáje is made of buffalo hide, cowhide, or the skin of a
+horse. An example of this drum (no. 24682) is also in the National
+Museum, and is illustrated by the accompanying figure 317. The jaⁿ′
+¢éxe-gaʞú, or ʞúge ¢éxe-gaʞú, is a wooden or box drum, represented by
+the accompanying figure 318, also from a specimen (no. 58610) in the
+National Museum.
+
+Whistles were made of elder (baʇúci-hi, or popgun wood) by pushing out
+the pith. No holes were made in the sides of the tube.
+
+Nisúde ʇañ′ga, or large flutes, were made of red cedar. A branch was cut
+off, rounded, split open with a knife, and hollowed out; then six holes
+were made in the side of one of them, and the halves were stuck together
+again. When one of these instruments is blown it produces quavering
+notes. The best specimens were made by [P]á¢iⁿ-ʇañ′ga, Big Pawnee.
+
+The large flute is illustrated in figure 319.[1] Wahí nisúde, or bone
+flutes, were made of the long bones from the eagle wing. These small
+flutes have only one hole. Reed flutes, ¢íq¢e nisúde, were made of a
+kind of reed which grows south of the Omaha territory, probably in
+Kansas. The Omaha obtained the reeds from some of the southern tribes
+and made them into flutes having but one hole each.
+
+[Footnote 1: Compare Ree fife, "AMM 129-8429, Gray and Matthews," in the
+National Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 319.--Omaha large flute.]
+
+
+
+
+WEAPONS.
+
+
+Clubs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 320.--Omaha club (jaⁿ-[p]áᴐna).]
+
+The jaⁿ-wétiⁿ, "striking-wood," is a four-sided club. It is made of ash,
+and is as long as from the elbow to the tips of the fingers. The
+ja^n-dáona, "wood with a smooth head," is a club made of ironwood, which
+is very hard. According to the late Joseph La Flèche, the Omaha form of
+this weapon had a steel point projecting from the ball.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 321.--Omaha club (jaⁿ-dáᴐna).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 322.--Omaha club (weaq¢ade).]
+
+Figures 320 and 321 are forms of the jaⁿ-[p]áᴐna which may be seen in
+the National Museum (nos. 2649 and 22419). The weaq¢ade, another kind of
+war club, is made of some kind of hard wood. There are two varieties,
+one of which is shown in figure 322 (National Museum no. 23729). The
+other has a ball carved at the end of a straight handle, with a wooden
+point (of one piece with the ball and handle) projecting from the ball,
+making an angle of about 130° with one side of the handle. There is a
+steel point inserted in the ball, forming an angle of about 110° with
+the other side of the handle. The iⁿ′-wate-jiñ′ga is something like a
+slung shot. A round stone is wrapped in a piece of hide which is
+fastened to a wooden handle about 2 feet long.
+
+
+Tomahawks.
+
+The heads of tomahawks as well as of battle-axes were at first made of
+stone; but within the last century and a half they have been fashioned
+of iron.
+
+
+Spears.
+
+Lances, darts, or spears are designated by the general term man′dĕhi.
+The jaⁿ′-man'dĕhi are made of ash, and are from 6 to 8 feet long. There
+are two kinds, of one of which the handle is round, and about an inch in
+diameter, and the point is flat and about the width of three fingers at
+its juncture with the handle.
+
+Besides these there are the lances, called waq¢exe-¢áze, of which there
+are two varieties. One consists of a straight pole, which has been
+thrust through a piece of buffalo hide that has its long end sewed
+together, forming a sort of covering. To this hide are fastened feathers
+of the crow and miⁿ′xa-saⁿ, or swan, in alternate rows or bunches.
+Between the feathers are fastened square pieces of blanket. About the
+middle of the pole a space of nearly 6 inches is left without feathers,
+and this is the place where the spear is grasped. When the pole was not
+set into a metal point the lower end was cut very sharp.[1] The other
+variety, or mandĕhi ¢iguje, "bent spear," is the weapon which the Dakota
+call "wahukeza." It is ornamented with eagle feathers placed at
+intevals, one being at the end of the curved part; and it generally
+terminates at the bottom in an iron point. It is possible for one of
+these waq¢exe¢aze to reach a man about 6 feet distant; and even mounted
+men have been killed by them. Spears are used also in some of the
+dances. Around the shaft is wrapped the skin of a swan or brant. The end
+feather at the top is white; the other feathers are white or spotted.
+The bent spear is no longer employed by the Omaha, though the Osage,
+Pawnee, and other tribes still use it to a greater or lesser extent.
+
+
+Bows.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 323.--Omaha bow (zaⁿzi-mandĕ).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 324.--Omaha bow (ʇaʞaⁿ-mandĕ)]
+
+Bows (man-dĕ) are of two kinds. One is the man-dĕ or zaⁿzi-mandĕ
+(bow-wood bow), having an unbroken curve past the grip to within an inch
+or two of each nock.[2] The other kind is the ʇaʞaⁿ-mandĕ, so called
+because it has deer sinew glued on its back.[3] Bows were made of
+hickory, ash, ironwood, or zaⁿzi, the last being greatly preferred. It
+is a wood resembling that of the Osage orange, with which some persons
+confound it; but it is black and much harder than the former, the Osage
+orange wood being yellow, soft, and easily cut. The zaⁿzi is probably
+that which Dougherty[4] called "bow-wood (<i>Maclura aurantiaca</i> of
+Nuttall)."
+
+[Footnote 1: See First Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, 1879-'80;
+1881, Pl. X, "Tolkotin cremation."]
+
+[Footnote 2: This may be the "self-bow" mentioned in the American
+Naturalist for July, 1886, p. 675.]
+
+[Footnote 3: This is the sinew-backed bow above mentioned.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Long's Expedition, op. cit., vol. I, p. 290.]
+
+Bowstrings were made of the twisted sinew of the elk and buffalo, as
+among other tribes.
+
+
+Arrows.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 325.--Omaha hunting arrow.]
+
+The arrows (maⁿ) used in former days were of several kinds. The hunting
+arrow, used for killing the buffalo, was generally about 2 feet long, of
+the usual cylindric form, and armed with an elongate triangular point,
+made at first of flint, afterward of sheet iron. The shoulders of the
+arrow were rounded instead of angular, as in the ordinary barbed form.
+The point, or head, was firmly secured to the shaft by deer sinew
+wrapped around the neck of the point, and over that was spread some
+cement, made in a manner to be afterward explained. The flight of the
+arrow was equalized by three half-webs of feathers, neatly fastened near
+its base in the usual manner.
+
+Another kind of hunting arrow was the hidé nazí¢ĕ, which was altogether
+of wood. About 6 inches from the point the shaft was triangular or
+quadrangular; and the point was made by holding the shaft close to a
+fire and turning it round and round till the heat had reduced it to the
+proper shape and had hardened it. This was used for killing fish, deer,
+and small game.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 326.--Omaha war arrow.]
+
+The war arrow (<i>b</i>) differed from that used in hunting in having a
+barbed point, which was very slightly attached to the shaft, so that if
+it penetrated the body of an enemy it could not be withdrawn without
+leaving the point in the wound.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 327.--Omaha style of hidé-ʇáce]
+
+Children used the hidé-ʇáce, or target arrow, when they began to learn
+the use of the bow. With this a boy could kill small birds and animals.
+
+The Ponka used to make arrowshafts (maⁿsa) of jaⁿ-′qude-hí, "gray wood,"
+juneberry wood, which grew in their country, but is not found among the
+Omaha. Most of the Omaha made their shafts of the ma^n'saqtihí, or "real
+arrow-wood," (<i>Viburnum</i>) as that was the wood best suited for the
+purpose. Sometimes they were made of chokecherry wood; and Joseph
+LaFlèche informs me that he has made them of ash and hickory.
+
+Arrowshafts were held lengthwise directly in a line with the eyes of the
+workman, who sighted along them to see if they were straight. If one was
+bent, he held one end of it between his teeth, while he pressed against
+the rest of it with his hands. They were polished by means of the
+polishers, or maⁿ′-¢iq¢áde, two pieces of sandstone, each of which had
+a groove in the middle of one side. These grooves were brought together,
+and the arrow was drawn between them.
+
+War arrows had crooked lines drawn along the shafts from the points to
+the other ends, down which, so I was informed by the Indians, it was
+intended that the blood of a wounded foe should trickle.
+
+Arrowheads (máhiⁿ-sí), when made of flint, as at the first, were called
+"iⁿ′ߵĕ mahiⁿsí," stone arrowheads. In more recent times, they were
+manufactured of pieces of sheet iron; as, for example, hoops of pails
+and barrels.
+
+Arrow cement (hiⁿ′pa), for attaching the heads to the shafts, was
+usually made from the skin taken off a buffalo or elk head. This was
+boiled a long time, till ready to fall to pieces. When the gelatinous
+matter forming the cement rose to the top of the water, a stick (called
+hiⁿpá-jaⁿjiñ′ga) was thrust in and turned round and round, causing the
+material to be wrapped around it. When cooled it was smoothed with the
+hand. Then the act was repeated till a large quantity was collected on
+the stick. When needed for use, it was warmed by placing either in the
+mouth or in hot water. The skin of the big turtle was also used for
+making cement.
+
+A set of arrows were called, collectively, "maⁿwiⁿ′daⁿ." A set generally
+consisted of ten arrows, but the number varied; sometimes there were
+two, four, or even twenty. When a man had arrows left in his quiver, he
+compared them with that which was in the slain animal. When he had none
+left, he appealed to some one who knew his style of arrow.
+
+There were no clan or gentile marks on arrows. One set was distinguished
+from another by the order of the paint stripes on them, by the kind of
+feathers used, by the mode in which the arrowheads were made, etc. The
+Oto made bad arrows; those of the Pawnee were better, but they were
+inferior to those made by the Dakota, Ponka, and Omaha.
+
+The feathers, half-webs generally, put on arrows were those of the
+eagle, buzzard, wild turkey, great owl, and goose. Sometimes hawk or
+crow feathers were employed.
+
+
+Quivers.
+
+Quivers (maⁿ′jiha) for men were made of buffalo hide; but boys' quivers
+were made either of otter skins or of the skins of cougars, with the
+tail of the animal hanging down from the upper extremity. A skin case
+was attached to the quiver for carrying the bow when not in use. The
+wrist was defended from the percussion of the bowstring by the leather
+wristguard or áqande-[p]a.
+
+
+Shields and Armor.
+
+Shields (ʇaháwag¢e) were made of the hides of buffalo bulls. They were
+round and very thick, reaching to the waist of the bearer. Arrows did
+not penetrate them. Joseph La Flèche never heard of the use of defensive
+armor, such as helmet and mail, among the Omaha and Ponka.
+
+He had heard of a Pawnee who made a coat from four elk skins, two
+forming the front and two the back. Between each pair of skins was
+placed sand. A helmet was made in like manner. It covered the back of
+the head and extended over the forehead, coming down as far as the eyes.
+When the Pawnee noticed an arrow coming toward him, he bowed his head
+forward.
+
+
+Firearms.
+
+Firearms were introduced among the Omaha prior to 1819, when Dougherty
+says that they preferred those called "Mackinaw guns."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Armor, Absence of, among the Omaha                               287
+         of the Pawnee                                             288
+  Arrows of the Omaha                                              286
+  Axes of the Omaha                                                278
+
+  Bark, Omaha lodges of                                       269, 271
+  Basketry of the Omaha                                            278
+  Baths, public, Absence of, among the Omaha                       274
+  Beds and bedding of the Omaha                                    275
+  Big Pawnee, Flutes made by                                       282
+  Bikúde, an Omaha village                                         270
+  Bladders used as receptacles                                     280
+  Boats of hide of the Omaha                                       281
+  Bone hoes of the Omaha                                           278
+  Bridles of the Omaha                                             280
+  Brooms of the Omaha                                              276
+  Buffalo, gents of the Omaha                                      277
+
+  Ȼegiha fire-making                                            279
+  Cement used by the Omaha                                         287
+  Children, Omaha, Target arrows of the                            286
+  Clubs, War, of the Omaha                                         283
+  Couches of the Omaha                                             275
+  Cradles of the Omaha                                             275
+
+  Dakota, Arrows of the                                            287
+  Dance houses of the Omaha                                        274
+  Decoration of Omaha tents                                        274
+  Dorsey J. O., on Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements  263-288
+  Dougherty, --, on Omaha bow-wood                                 285
+                          firearms                                 288
+                          horse equipage                           280
+  Drilling, with grass-stalks                                      279
+  Drinking vessels of the Omaha                                    277
+  Drums of the Omaha                                               282
+  Dwellings, furniture and implements of the Omaha             263-288
+
+  Equipage for horses                                              280
+
+  Firearms among the Omaha                                         288
+  Fire implements of the Omaha                                     279
+  Fireplace in Omaha lodge                                         271
+            of the Omaha and Ponka                                 275
+  Flute of the Omaha                                               282
+  Furniture, dwellings, and implements of the Omaha            263-288
+
+  Gentile marks, Absence of, on Omaha arrows                       287
+  Grain, Storage of, among the Omaha                               274
+
+  Halters of the Omaha                                             280
+  Hammocks introduced among the Omaha                              275
+  Hoes, Bone, of the Omaha                                         278
+  Horn spoons of the Omaha                                         277
+
+  Implements of the Omaha                                      263-278
+  Iowa indians, Bark lodges of                                     271
+
+  Jaⁿ′¢ate, an Omaha village                               270
+
+  Kansa, Lodges of the                                             270
+  Knives of the Omaha                                              268
+
+  Ladles of the Omaha                                              277
+  La Flèche, Joseph, on Omaha armor                                287
+                              arrowshafts                          286
+                              mats                                 275
+                              saddles                              280
+                              war-clubs                            283
+  La Flesche, Francis, on grass-stalk drills                       279
+  Lances of the Omaha                                              285
+  Lariats of the Omaha                                             280
+  Lodges of earth, Use of                                          271
+                 , Omaha, how constructed                          269
+  Long, S. H., on Kansa lodge                                      269
+                  Omaha bow-wood                                   285
+                  indian horsemanship                              280
+
+  Mason, O. T., Acknowledgements to                                269
+  Mats, cane, the Omaha and Winnebago                              275
+            , Omaha lodges of,                                269, 271
+  Mortars of the Omaha                                             276
+  Musical instruments of the Omaha                                 281
+
+  Omaha dwellings, furniture and implements                    263-288
+  Osage indians, Bent spear used by                                285
+               , Lodges of, described                              271
+  Oto, Arrows of the                                               287
+
+  Pawnee, Armor of the                                             288
+        , Arrows of the                                            287
+        , Bent spear used by the                                   285
+  [P]ejqude, Tent of                                          273, 274
+  Pestles of the Omaha                                             176
+  Pillows of the Omaha                                             275
+  Pipes of the Omaha                                               279
+  Ponka, Armor not used by the                                     287
+       , Arrows of the                                             287
+         dwellings, furniture and implements                       269
+       , Ropes of the                                              281
+  Pottery, formerly made by the Omaha                         276, 277
+  Provision sacks of the Omaha                                     278
+
+  Quivers of the Omaha                                             287
+
+  Rattles of the Omaha                                             281
+  Riding, Omaha method of                                          280
+
+  Sacks of the Omaha                                               278
+  Saddles of the Omaha                                             280
+  Sanssouci, Village of                                            271
+  Sauk, Bark lodges of the                                         271
+  Say, T., on Kansa lodge                                          269
+  Sewing among the Siouan tribes                                   274
+  Shields of the Omaha                                             287
+  Skin lodge of the Omaha                                     269, 271
+  Smoke holes of Omaha lodge                                       273
+  Smoking paraphernalia, Omaha                                     279
+  Snow-shoes, Omaha and Ponka                                      281
+  Spears of the Omaha                                              284
+  Spoons of the Omaha                                              277
+  Standards, War, of the Omaha                                     273
+  Standing Hawk Village of                                         270
+  Stone arrowheads of the Omaha                                    287
+        axes of the Omaha                                          278
+        knives of the Omaha                                        278
+  Sweat-houses of the Omaha                                        274
+  Swings of Omaha children                                         276
+
+  Tobacco pouches of the Omaha                                     284
+  Tomahawks of the Omaha                                           284
+  Tongs of the Omaha                                               279
+  Totem posts, Absence of, among the Omaha                         274
+  Traveling gear, Omaha and Ponka                                  281
+
+  Utensils of the Omaha                                            277
+
+  Water vessels of the Omaha                                       277
+  Weapons of the Omaha                                             283
+  Whips of the Omaha                                               280
+  Whistles of the Omaha                                            282
+  Wickiup, Origin of term                                          275
+  Winjage, an Omaha village                                        270
+  Winnebago grass mats                                             275
+            lodges described                                       271
+  Women, Omaha lodges made by                                      269
+  Wood, Spoons of, of the Omaha                                    277
+  Wristguards used by the Omaha                                    287
+
+  Yellow Smoke, Earth lodge of                                     270
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and
+Implements, by James Owen Dorsey,
+
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diff --git a/19913-0.zip b/19913-0.zip
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+++ b/19913-0.zip
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+++ b/19913-8.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and Implements, by 
+James Owen Dorsey,
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and Implements
+       Thirteenth Annual Report of the Beaurau of American
+       Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
+       1891-1892, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1896
+       pages 263-288
+
+Author: James Owen Dorsey,
+
+Release Date: November 24, 2006 [EBook #19913]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Verity White and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Biblioth�que nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  +-------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Note:                       |
+  |                                           |
+  | ^{x} represents a superscripted letter    |
+  |  [x] represents a turned letter           |
+  |  ['] represents a prime                   |
+  | [|x] represents a letter with a stroke    |
+  | [)x] represents a letter with a breve     |
+  |  [,] represents a turned comma            |
+  +-------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS
+
+BY
+
+JAMES OWEN DORSEY
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                             Page
+  Introductory note                           269
+  Dwellings                                   269
+    Earth lodges                              269
+    Lodges of bark or mats                    271
+    Skin lodges or tents                      271
+  Furniture and implements                    275
+    Fireplaces                                275
+    Beds and bedding                          275
+    Cradles                                   275
+    Children's swings                         276
+    Brooms                                    276
+    Pottery                                   276
+    Mortars and pestles                       276
+    Spoons, ladles, and drinking vessels      277
+    Water vessels                             277
+    Other vessels                             278
+    Hoes and axes                             278
+    Knives                                    278
+    Implements connected with fire            279
+    Smoking paraphernalia                     279
+    Equipage for horses                       280
+    Traveling gear                            281
+    Boats                                     281
+    Musical instruments                       281
+  Weapons                                     283
+    Clubs                                     283
+    Tomahawks                                 284
+    Spears                                    284
+    Bows                                      285
+    Arrows                                    286
+    Quivers                                   287
+    Shields and armor                         287
+    Firearms                                  288
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                      Page
+  Fig. 306. Yellow Smoke's earth lodge                 270
+       307. Ground plan of Osage lodge                 271
+       308. Omaha tent                                 272
+       309. Exterior parts of an Omaha tent            273
+       310. [P]ejequde's tent                          274
+       311. Omaha cradle--plan                         276
+       312. Omaha cradle--side view                    276
+       313. Omaha mortar                               277
+       314. Omaha pestle                               277
+       315. Omaha calumet                              279
+       316. Omaha pipe used on ordinary occasions      280
+       317. Skin drum                                  282
+       318. Box drum                                   282
+       319. Omaha large flute                          283
+       320. Omaha club (ja^{n}-[p]a[c]na)              283
+       321. Omaha club (ja^{n}-[p]a[c]na)              284
+       322. Omaha club (weaq[|c]ade)                   284
+       323. Omaha bow (za^{n}zi-mand[)e])              285
+       324. Omaha bow ([t]a[k]a^{n}-mand[)e])          285
+       325. Omaha hunting arrow                        286
+       326. Omaha war arrow                            286
+       327. Omaha style of hid�-[t]�ce                 286
+
+
+
+
+OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS
+
+BY JAMES OWEN DORSEY
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
+
+
+The accompanying paper is one of the results of personal investigations
+among the Omaha of Nebraska and cognate tribes of Indians, beginning in
+1878 and continued from time to time during late years.
+
+While the paper treats of the Omaha tribe, much that is said is
+applicable to the Ponka, as the two tribes have long had similar
+environments and a common dialect, for, until 1877, their habitats were
+almost contiguous, and since 1880 about one-third of the Ponka tribe has
+been dwelling on its former reservation near the town of Niobrara,
+Nebraska.
+
+Acknowledgments are due Dr. O. T. Mason for many valuable suggestions
+early in the progress of the work.
+
+
+
+
+DWELLINGS.
+
+
+The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges of earth
+or, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or tents. It may
+be observed that there were no sacred rites connected with the earth
+lodge-building or tent-making among the Omaha and Ponka.
+
+
+Earth Lodges.
+
+When earth lodges were built, the people did not make them in a tribal
+circle, each man erecting his lodge where he wished; yet kindred
+commonly built near one another.
+
+The earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended principally
+for summer use, when the people were not migrating or going on the hunt.
+Those built by the Omaha and Ponka were constructed in the following
+manner: The roof was supported by two series of vertical posts, forked
+at the top for the reception of the transverse connecting pieces of each
+series. The number in each series varied according to the size of the
+lodge; for a small lodge only four posts were erected in the inner
+series, for an ordinary lodge eight were required, and ten generally
+constituted the maximum. When Mr. Say[1] visited the Kansa Indians, he
+occupied a lodge in which twelve of these posts placed in a circle
+formed the outer series, and eight longer ones constituted the inner
+series, also describing a circle. The wall was formed by setting upright
+slabs of wood back of the outer posts all around the circumference of
+the lodge. These slabs were not over 6 feet in height, and their tops
+met the cross timbers on which the willow posts rested. Stocks of hard
+willow about 2 inches in diameter rested with their butts on the tops of
+the upright slabs and extended on the cross timbers nearly to the
+summit. These poles were very numerous, touching one another and
+extending all around in a radiating manner, supporting the roof like
+rafters. The rafters were covered with grass about a foot thick; and
+over the whole lodge, including the sides or slabs, earth was piled from
+a foot to 2 feet in depth. Such a covering lasted generally about twenty
+years. A hole in the middle served as an exit for the smoke.
+
+[Footnote 1: James' account of Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains
+in 1819-'20.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 306.--Yellow Smoke's earth lodge.]
+
+In addition to the lodge proper there was a covered way about 10 feet
+long and 5 feet wide, the entrance to which had a covering of tanned or
+dried buffalo hides. This covering consisted of two hides hanging side
+by side, with the inner borders slightly overlapping. They were fastened
+to the passageway at the top and at the outer sides, but were loose at
+the bottom where they overlapped. This part was raised by a person
+entering the lodge. A similar covering was placed at the interior end of
+the passageway.
+
+Subsequently to 1855, the Omaha dwelt in three villages composed of
+earth lodges, as follows: (1) Biku[']de, a village near the agency; (2)
+Windja[']ge, Standing Hawk's village, near the Presbyterian mission
+house; and (3) Ja^{n}[|c]a[']te ("Wood Eaters,") named after an insect
+found under the bark of trees Sanssouci's village, near the town of
+Decatur, Nebraska.
+
+Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings, such as feasts,
+councils, or dances. Occasionally there was a depression in the center
+of the lodge which was used as a fireplace; but it was not over 6 inches
+deep. Each earth lodge had a ladder, made by cutting a series of deep
+notches along one side of a log. On a bluff near the Omaha agency I
+found the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances on the
+southern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100 feet in
+diameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow about 3 feet
+deep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the lodge.
+
+
+Lodges of Bark or Mats.
+
+The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy, as did the
+Iowa and Sak. [T]iu['][|c]ipu ji�[']ga, or low lodges covered with
+mats, were used by the Omaha in former days. Such lodges are still
+common among the Winnebago, the Osage, and other tribes. The ground plan
+of such a lodge forms an ellipse. The height is hardly over 7 feet from
+the ground. The tent poles are arranged thus: Each pole has one end
+planted in the ground, the other end being bent down and fastened to the
+pole immediately opposite; a number of poles thus arranged in pairs
+formed both wall posts and rafters.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 307.--Ground plan of Osage lodge.]
+
+Generally there was one fireplace and one smokehole in such a lodge; but
+when I visited the Osage in 1883, I entered a low lodge with two
+fireplaces, each equidistant from its end of the lodge and the entrance,
+each fireplace having its smokehole.
+
+
+Skin Lodges or Tents.
+
+The tent was used when the people were migrating, and also when they
+were traveling in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite abode
+of a household during the winter season, as the earth lodge was
+generally erected in an exposed situation, selected on account of
+comfort in the summer. The tent could be pitched in the timber or brush,
+or down in wooded ravines, where the cold winds never had full sweep.
+Hence, many Indians abandoned their houses in winter and went into their
+tents, even when they were of canvas.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 308.--Omaha tent (from a photograph by
+W. H. Jackson).]
+
+The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned buffalo
+skins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10 to 12 feet
+high, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a foot and a
+half in diameter at the top, which served as a smokehole
+([t]ihu[k]a^{n}). Besides the interior tent poles ([t]ici--3,
+figure 309) and the tent skin ([t]iha--1), the tent had the
+[t]i[|c]uma^{n}ha^{n}, or the place where the skins were fastened
+together above the entrance (4). The [t]i[|c]uma^{n}ha^{n} was fastened
+with the [t]ihu[|c]ubaxa^{n}(5), which consisted of sticks or pieces of
+hide thrust crosswise through the holes in the tent skins. The bottom of
+the tent was secured to the ground by pins ([t]ihu[|c]ugada^{n}--6)
+driven through holes ([t]ihugaq[|c]uge) in the bottom of the skins, made
+when the latter were tanned and before they had become hard. The
+entrance ([t]ijebe) was generally opposite the quarter from which the
+wind was blowing. A door flap ([t]ijebeg[|c]a^{n}--7) hung over the
+entrance; it was made of skin with the hair outside, so as to turn
+water, and was held taut by a stick fastened to it transversely. The
+bottom of the door flap was loose, but the top was fastened to the tent.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 309--Exterior parts of an Omaha tent.]
+
+The smokehole was formed by the two [t]ihugab[|c]i^{n}[|c]a(9), or
+triangular ends of tent skins, immediately above the entrance and
+[t]i�uma^{n}ha^{n}. When there was no wind both of the
+[t]ihugab[|c]i^{n}[|c]a were kept open by means of the
+[t]ihu[|c]ubaji^{n}(8) or exterior tent poles, which were thrust
+through the ujiha, or small sacks, in the corners of the
+[t]ihugab[|c]i^{n}[|c]a. When the wind blew one of the
+[t]ihu[|c]ubaji^{n} was raised to the windward and the other was
+lowered, pulling its skin close to the tent and leaving an opening for
+the escape of the smoke; but if the wind came directly against the
+entrance both the flaps were raised, closing the smokehole to prevent
+the wind from blowing down it. When the wind blew the people used
+nandi[|c]agaspe to keep the bottom of each tent skin in place. These
+consisted of twisted grass, sticks, stones, or other heavy objects.
+
+Figure 310 represents the tent of [P]ejequde, an Omaha. The banners or
+standards, which were carried by the leaders of a war party or a party
+going on a dancing tour, are depicted with their decorations of strips
+of red and blue Indian cloth. Sometimes these standards were ornamented
+with feathers instead of with cloth. Each standard could be used in four
+war expeditions.
+
+No totem posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent of the principal
+man of each gens was decorated on the outside with his gentile badge,
+which was painted on each side of the entrance as well as on the back of
+the tent.[1] The furniture of the sacred tents resembled that of the
+ordinary ones.
+
+Before the introduction of canvas tents by the whites no needles or
+thread were used by the Siouan tribes. The women used sinew of the deer
+or buffalo instead of thread, and for needles they had awls made of elk
+horn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 310.--[P]ejequde's tent.]
+
+Since there were no outbuildings, public granaries, or other structures
+of this description, each household stored away its own grain and other
+provisions. There were no special tribal or communal dwellings; but
+sometimes two or more households occupied a single earth lodge. When a
+council was held, it took place in the earth lodge of one of the head
+chiefs, or else two or three common tents were united, making one large
+one.[2] There were no public baths, as the Missouri river was near, and
+they could resort to it whenever they desired. Dance houses were
+improvised either of earth lodges or skin tents.
+
+Sweat-lodges were in the form of low tents ([t]iu[|c]ipu).[3] Stones
+were not boiled for the sweat-lodge, but were put into the fire to be
+heated. They were removed from the fire by means of sticks called
+i^{n}[,][)e]basi[|c]a^{n}, and then water from the kettle was poured on
+them, creating steam. Cedar fronds were dropped on the stones, causing a
+perfume to arise.
+
+[Footnote 1: Third Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology for 1882-'83, p. 230; also
+"A Study of Siouan Cults," in Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology,
+1889-'90, p. 351.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Third Ann. Rep., op. cit., p. 294.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. vi, 1890,
+pp. 152, 169, and 234.]
+
+
+
+
+FURNITURE AND IMPLEMENTS.
+
+
+Fireplaces.
+
+Within the tent, in the center, was the fireplace (une[|c][)e]), formed
+by excavating a small hollow. Beside this was erected a forked post
+(isag[|c][)e]), on which was hung the apparatus for suspending a kettle
+over the fire. This apparatus was called [|c]exe u[|c]ugacke by the
+Ponka, literally, "that by means of which the kettle is hung." The Omaha
+have two names for it, uha^{n} u[|c]ugacke, and u[|c]ugackeg[|c]e, the
+last syllable of the latter name referring to the attitude of the post.
+Around the fireplace was a circular space for the feet of the people as
+they sat about the fire. The couches of the occupants of the tent were
+arranged outside of and all around this circular space.
+
+
+Beds and Bedding.
+
+A couch was formed by laying down two or three winter hides dried with
+the hair on. These hides were placed around the fireplace at a safe
+distance. In the earth lodges, according to Joseph La Fl�che, the Omaha
+used sahi, or grass mats, for seats, as is the present custom of the
+Winnebago; but at night they reclined on dressed hides with thick hair
+on them, and covered themselves with similar hides.
+
+For pillows they used ibehi^{n} or i^{n}behi^{n}. When the vegetation
+was about 3 inches high in the spring, the Indians killed deer and
+pulled off the hair in order to remove the thin skin or tissue next to
+it. This latter, when thoroughly dried, is smooth and white, resembling
+parchment. It was used for pillows and moccasin-strings. When used for
+pillows the case was filled with goose feathers or the hair of the deer
+until it was about 2 feet long and 9 inches high. During the day, and
+whenever there was occasion, they were used as seats; but if none could
+be had, the people sat on winter robes or hides forming the couches.[1]
+Back of the couches and next to the interior tent-poles were placed the
+baggage, sacks of corn, and other household properties.
+
+The upright tent is one form of the Dakota "wake[']ya," the plural of
+which, "wake[']yapi," undoubtedly gave rise to the familiar "wick[']iup"
+of the plains, and also to "w�-ka[']-yo" of Morgan.[2]
+
+
+Cradles.
+
+A board of convenient size, usually about a yard long and a foot wide,
+was selected to form a cradle or u[|c]uhe. No pillow was needed. A
+soft skin ([p]aq[|c]uqaha [|c]a^{n}) covered with plenty of thick hair
+was laid on the board, and on it was placed the infant.
+
+[Footnote 1: Hammocks and bedsteads were unknown prior to their
+introduction by the traders and other white people.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. iv., 1881,
+p. 114.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 311.--Omaha cradle--plan.]
+
+In the annexed figures, <i>a</i> is the [)i]ndua[|c]isi^{n}ka^{n}he, the
+object painted on the board at the end where the infant's head is laid;
+<i>b</i> is the [)i]ndei[|c]id[)i]ndi^{n} ("that which is drawn taut over
+the face"), the two strings of beads and sinew or thread (sometimes made of
+red calico alone), which keep in place the fan, etc.; the fan
+([)i]ndeagani), which is suspended from a bow of wood, (<i>c</i>) is about
+6 inches square, and is now made of interwoven sinew on which beads have
+been strung. Occasionally thimbles and other bright objects dangle from
+the bottom of the fan. The i[|c]a[|c]istage (<i>d</i>) is the band by which
+the infant is fastened to the cradle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 312.--Omaha cradle--side view.]
+
+
+Children's Swings.
+
+For swings the ends of two withes of buffalo hide were secured to four
+trees or posts which formed the corners of a parallelogram. A blanket
+was thrown across the withes and folded over on them. The infant was
+laid on top of the fold and swung from side to side without falling.
+
+
+Brooms.
+
+Brooms were of two kinds. One form was made of sticks tied together, and
+was used for sweeping the ground outside of the tent or earth lodge, and
+the interior of the earth lodge, except the fireplace. The other kind
+was made of goose or turkey feathers, and was used for sweeping the
+fireplace of an earth lodge.
+
+
+Pottery.
+
+Pottery has not been made by the Omaha for more than fifty years. The
+art of making it has been forgotten by the tribe.
+
+
+Mortar and Pestles.
+
+A mortar was made by burning a large hole in a round knot or piece of
+wood about 7 inches in diameter. The lower end was sharpened to a
+point, which was thrust into the ground when needed for use. After
+putting corn in a mortar of this description, the woman grasped the
+wooden pestle in the middle, with the larger end upward; the smaller
+end, which was about an inch in diameter, was put into the mortar. The
+operation of pounding corn among the Omaha was called "he." The mortar
+(uhe) and pestle (wehe) were both made commonly of elm, although
+sometimes they were fashioned of white oak. Mortars were of various
+sizes, some of them measuring 2 feet in diameter. Pestles were always of
+hard and heavy wood, and fully 3 feet long, taperring from 4 inches to
+an inch in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 314.--Omaha pestle.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 313.--Omaha mortar.]
+
+
+Spoons, Ladles and Drinking Vessels.
+
+Spoons were made of horn, wood, or pottery. The black spoons made of
+buffalo horn ([t]ehe sab[)e]), are not used by such Omaha as belong to
+the Buffalo gentes (I�kesab[)e], [|C]atada, [T]esinde, etc.) which may
+not touch a buffalo head. Other horn spoons of light color are made of
+cow horn. These are of modern origin. Wooden spoons (ja^{n}[t]ehe) were
+made of knobs or knots of trees. Spoons made of buffalo horn are found
+among the Omaha and Ponka, but the Osage, Kansa, and Kwapa use clam
+shells ([t]ihaba, in [|C]egiha; tc�haba, tc�huba, in Kansa), so the
+Kansa call a small spoon, tc�haba ji�ga. Spoons of buffalo horn had
+their handles variously ornamented by notches and other rude carving,
+often terminating in the head of a bird, the neck or handle of each
+being elevated at an angle of 50� or 60� with the bowl, which, was about
+3 inches in width by about 5 in length. As the handle of such a spoon
+usually terminates in a head or hook, it was impossible for it to slip
+into the bowl when the hook rested on the outside of the rim of the
+bowl.
+
+Food was served in bowls of a very wide and simple form and of various
+sizes, generally carved out of large knots of wood. These served as
+drinking cups (ni[']i[|c]�ta^{n}), but now cups of tin or earthenware
+are used for that purpose.
+
+
+Water Vessels
+
+When pottery was made, they used bowls and kettles. Some used wooden
+bowls of different sizes, the largest being about 2 feet in diameter.
+When they went on the hunt, they used the �nijeha (or sack made of the
+muscular coating of the buffalo paunch, by filling with, grass to make
+it stand out and keep its shape until dried). When the �nijeha was
+filled with water the mouth was tied, and it was kept covered and in the
+shade that it might remain cool. After being used for a few days it
+became strong smelling, and was thrown away, another taking its place.
+Some preferred the "[t]en[)a]n[']de uq[|c]a[']ha [|c]a^{n}" or
+pericardium(?) of the buffalo, which is like sinew. This does not smell
+unpleasant, even when used for seven or ten days. But at the expiration
+of that time it is unfit for further service.
+
+Jugs have been introduced by the traders.
+
+
+Other Vessels.
+
+Provision sacks or parfl�che cases were made of dried buffalo hide. When
+used for carrying the dried meat, they were called we�bast�. After two
+or three years' use they became soft and were fit only for making
+moccasin soles. These sacks had the hair taken off, and were sometimes
+made in trunk fashion.
+
+Fruit baskets were of three kinds. The Ponka made them of the bark of a
+tree, called taw�[,]a^{n}he, which is found on the old Ponka reservation
+in Dakota. Northern Indians make boats of this bark. The Omaha do not
+find the tree on their land, so they make the fruit baskets of other
+kinds of bark. The three kinds of baskets are as follows: Na^{n}[']pa
+�[|c]is[)e], used for chokecherries; ag[|c]a�[']kama�ge �[|c]is[)e],
+used for raspberries; and bact �[|c]is[)e], used for strawberries. When
+the Ponka wished to make the baskets, they stripped off the bark in
+horizontal sections, not pulling upward or downward.
+
+In modern times the Omaha have learned to make sacks of thread of
+different colors drawn from black, red, blue, and white blankets.
+Different figures are woven. Each sack is about a foot deep, 16 inches
+from the mouth to the opposite side, and from 2 to 2-1/2 feet long. The
+opening is on one of the long sides, and when the articles are put in a
+gathering string is drawn and tied.
+
+
+Hoes and Axes.
+
+For hoes, the Omaha used the shoulder blades of the buffalo. Axes and
+hatchets are now made of iron, hence, the Omaha name, ma^{n}[']ze-pe,
+sharp iron. But the Kansa have the ancient name, ma^{n}[']hi-spe,
+answering to the Dakota, wa^{n}hi^{n}[']-kpe, sharp flint. The hatchet
+is distinguished from the ax by adding "ji�ga," small. Some of the stone
+axes and hatchets have been found on the Omaha reservation, but they
+could hardly have been used for cutting. It is not known what tools were
+used for felling trees.
+
+
+Knives.
+
+Knives were made of stone. A prominent butte, near the old Ponka agency,
+Nebraska, is known as "M�hi^{n}-[t]u," signifying blue knife, from the
+character of the stone with which its surface is covered. It is several
+miles from the mouth of Ponka creek and nearly opposite the month of
+Choteau creek, South Dakota.
+
+
+Implements Connected with Fire.
+
+In former ages, the [|C]egiha made fire by rubbing or turning a stick
+round and round between the hands. On the present Omaha reservation, and
+in that region, the Omaha use elm roots for that purpose. In the country
+called [P]iz�bah�he, near the source of Elkhorn river, there is a grass
+known as "du�du�hi," which has about a hundred fine shoots from each
+root, which is half the size of the head. The stalk was used for hand
+drills and fire sticks. One stalk was cut almost flat, and the man puts
+his feet on the ends to steady them. Then, holding the other stick in
+his hands, with one end touching the stalk on the ground, he turned it
+round and round till the friction produced fire. Sometimes a small
+quantity of dry sand was placed on the flat stick. The same flat stick
+answered for several occasions. When the cavity made by turning the hand
+drill became too large, the point of contact was shifted to another part
+of the flat stick, and so on until the whole of that stick was used,
+when it was thrown away and another was obtained. Du�du�hi, according to
+Mr. Francis La Flesche, may be found in Judiciary square, Washington,
+District of Columbia. After the coming of the white man, but before the
+introduction of friction matches, which are now used by the whole tribe,
+the Omaha used flints and tinder for making fire.
+
+Spits for roasting, etc., n�qpe, or w�basna^{n}, were made of any kind
+of wood.
+
+For tongs they used the [p]edi[|c]a[|c]isande ("fire-holder"), made by
+slitting one end of a stick. This implement was also called, ja^{n}
+ji�ga nini ibista ("the stick that presses the fire against the
+tobacco"), because it was used for lighting pipes.
+
+
+Smoking Paraphernalia.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 315.--Omaha calumet]
+
+The pipes in use among the Omaha are of three kinds: the sacred pipe
+(niniba waqube, mysterious pipe), including the war pipes and those used
+by the chiefs in making peace; the niniba weawa^{n} or calumet
+(illustrated in figure 315), used in the calumet dance or dance of
+adoption,[1] and the hatchet pipe or ma^{n}zepe niniba, introduced since
+the coming of the white man. One form of the pipe used on ordinary
+Tobacco pouches (nini�jiha) were made of deer or antelope skin, and
+were ornamented with porcupine quills or a fringe of deerskin. Sometimes
+buffalo bladders were used for this purpose. The women used them as
+receptacles for their porcupine quills.
+
+[Footnote 1: See "Omaha Sociology," Third Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethnology,
+chap. vi.]
+
+occasions is shown in figure 316. This pipe has a bowl of catlinite, and
+the stem is decorated with horsehair.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 316.--Omaha pipe used on ordinary
+occasions.]
+
+
+Equipage for Horses.
+
+Saddles (c�nak�g[|c]e) were in use before the coming of the whites. They
+were made of wood, around which was wrapped hide, while still
+"[t]aha-nu[k]a" (green or soft). According to Joseph La Fl�che these
+saddles did not rub sores on the backs of the native horses (Indian
+ponies), but Dougherty[1] said, in 1819, "The Indians are generally
+cruel horse-masters, perhaps in a great measure through necessity; the
+backs of their horses are very often sore and ulcerated, from the
+friction of the rude saddle, which is fashioned after the Spanish
+manner, being elevated at the pummel and croup, and resting on skin
+saddle cloths without padding." They ride very well, and make frequent
+use of the whip and their heels, the latter being employed instead of
+spurs.
+
+For bridles and halters they used strips of hide, out of which material
+they made also lariats. The bridle used consisted of a withe, one end of
+which was wrapped two or three times around the animal's lower jaw,
+while the other was held in the hand, forming but a single rein. This
+did not hinder the rider from guiding his horse, as he was able to turn
+him to the left by pressing the single rein against the animal's neck,
+as well as by the use of the right heel against its side. When he wished
+to turn to the right, he pulled the rein and pressed his left heel
+against the horse's side.
+
+Whips were of three kinds. The wah� w�gasapi was attached to a bone
+handle. The handle of a ja^{u}[']uke[|c]i^{n} w�gasapi was made of
+common wood. That of a za^{n}z� w�gasapi was made of Osage orange wood,
+which is very hard. The whip was attached to the wrist by a broad band,
+which passed through a hole near the end of the handle. The handle was
+about 15 inches long and was very stout. A specimen that has been
+deposited in the National Museum (a gift to the author from an Omaha)
+has a lash 2 feet long, composed of 8 thongs one-fifth of an inch wide.
+These are plaited together in one rounded plait for 18 inches, the rest
+of the lash being in 2 plaits of 4 thongs each, knotted near the ends.
+
+The lasso was called ma^{n}[']tanah-�[|c]ize, i.e., "that by which (a)
+wild (horse) is taken." It was made by taking the hair from the head of
+a buffalo and plaiting it into a very strong rope as thick as one's
+thumb. This rope was called "[t]aha-[|c]isa^{n}," and was utilized by
+the Omaha and Ponka instead of the common lasso for catching wild horses
+in northwestern Nebraska. One end of the rope was formed into a noose
+large enough to slip over a horse's head, and the ends of this noose
+were secured to a long pole by small cords. The other end of the rope,
+arranged in a coil, was fastened to the belt or waist of the man. He
+rode with the pole held in one hand and tried to thrust the noose in
+front of a horse. When he succeeded in passing the noose over the head
+of an animal, he threw away the stick, which had become separated from
+the noose, and held the rope alone, which he pulled toward him. When the
+horse was caught, the man made an [)i]nd�[|c]ici^{n}. (bridle or face
+cover), being careful to place some buffalo hair over the nose and under
+the chin, to guard against paining the horse, whose eyes remained
+uncovered.
+
+[Footnote 1: Long, S. H.; Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 1, p. 291, Phila., 1822]
+
+Trappings for the saddle (s[)i]n[']de-eh�[|c][)e]) were used. Some years
+ago a specimen of Omaha trapping was presented by the writer to the
+Anthropological Society of Washington, and subsequently was deposited in
+the National Museum.
+
+
+Traveling Gear.
+
+Snow-shoes (s�-hi^{n}be) were worn by the Omaha and Ponka when they
+traversed a region, north of their modern, habitat.
+
+For traveling on foot a staff (h�-ma�g[|c]e) was used when it was
+necessary to pass over mountains; also when, heavy loads had to be
+carried. This staff differed from the crutch (�-ma�g[|c]e).
+
+The women had m�ca[k]a^n, or straps, for aiding them in carrying loads
+of wood, etc.
+
+
+Boats.
+
+When they wished to cross streams they made hide boats, or mand�ha.
+These were manufactured from dried buffalo hides, which were sewed
+together with sinew, and so tightly that no water could penetrate the
+seams. Ten branches of red willow were placed within, the ends being
+bent upward and fastened by withes to two other saplings, which extended
+the whole length of the boat at the inside of the gunwale. The ten
+pieces were the [t]�ci-�ki[p]�da^{n}. The rudder or steering oar
+(�[|c]isa^{n}['][|c][)e]) was fashioned like the oars (mand�[|c]ug�hi),
+with the blade flat and of the breadth of two hands. The
+rowers (u[|c]�gahi ak�) sat near the bow, and the steersman
+([|c]isa^{n}['][|c]a ak�) took his seat at the stern.
+
+
+Musical Instruments.
+
+Battles were of five kinds, [P]exe were generally gourds; wata^{n}[']
+[p]exe, gourd rattles, were always round, and were partially filled with
+seed, fine shot, or gravel, [T]ah�nu[k]a [p]�xe, green-hide rattles,
+were of two sorts, one of which is "[|c]ig�je," bent a little. Specimens
+of this form are in the National Museum.
+
+Two kinds of rattles were called [t]a-c�ge, i.e., "deers-claws," from
+the composition of one variety, though the other was made of molars of
+the elk.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 317--Skin drum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 318--Box drum.]
+
+The Omaha used three styles of drums. The [|c]�xe-ga[k]� b[|c]�ska, or
+flat drum, is illustrated by a specimen (no. 21675) in the National
+Museum. The [|c]�xe-ga[k]� gad�je is made of buffalo hide, cowhide, or
+the skin of a horse. An example of this drum (no. 24682) is also in the
+National Museum, and is illustrated by the accompanying figure 317. The
+ja^{n}['] [|c]�xe-ga[k]�, or [k]�ge [|c]�xe-ga[k]�, is a wooden or box
+drum, represented by the accompanying figure 318, also from a specimen
+(no. 58610) in the National Museum.
+
+Whistles were made of elder (ba[t]�ci-hi, or popgun wood) by pushing out
+the pith. No holes were made in the sides of the tube.
+
+Nis�de [t]a�[']ga, or large flutes, were made of red cedar. A branch was
+cut off, rounded, split open with a knife, and hollowed out; then six
+holes were made in the side of one of them, and the halves were
+stuck together again. When one of these instruments is blown it
+produces quavering notes. The best specimens were made by
+[P]�[|c]i^{n}-[t]a�[']ga, Big Pawnee.
+
+The large flute is illustrated in figure 319.[1] Wah� nis�de, or bone
+flutes, were made of the long bones from the eagle wing. These small
+flutes have only one hole. Reed flutes, [|c]�q[|c]e nis�de, were made of
+a kind of reed which grows south of the Omaha territory, probably in
+Kansas. The Omaha obtained the reeds from some of the southern tribes
+and made them into flutes having but one hole each.
+
+[Footnote 1: Compare Ree fife, "AMM 129-8429, Gray and Matthews," in the
+National Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 319.--Omaha large flute.]
+
+
+
+
+WEAPONS.
+
+
+Clubs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 320.--Omaha club (ja^{n}-[p]�[c]na).]
+
+The ja^{n}-w�ti^{n}, "striking-wood," is a four-sided club. It is made
+of ash, and is as long as from the elbow to the tips of the fingers. The
+ja^n-d�ona, "wood with a smooth head," is a club made of ironwood, which
+is very hard. According to the late Joseph La Fl�che, the Omaha form of
+this weapon had a steel point projecting from the ball.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 321.--Omaha club (ja^{n}-d�[c]na).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 322.--Omaha club (weaq[|c]ade).]
+
+Figures 320 and 321 are forms of the ja^{n}-[p]�[c]na which may be seen
+in the National Museum (nos. 2649 and 22419). The weaq[|c]ade, another
+kind of war club, is made of some kind of hard wood. There are two
+varieties, one of which is shown in figure 322 (National Museum no.
+23729). The other has a ball carved at the end of a straight handle,
+with a wooden point (of one piece with the ball and handle) projecting
+from the ball, making an angle of about 130� with one side of the
+handle. There is a steel point inserted in the ball, forming an angle of
+about 110� with the other side of the handle. The i^{n}[']-wate-ji�[']ga
+is something like a slung shot. A round stone is wrapped in a piece of
+hide which is fastened to a wooden handle about 2 feet long.
+
+
+Tomahawks.
+
+The heads of tomahawks as well as of battle-axes were at first made of
+stone; but within the last century and a half they have been fashioned
+of iron.
+
+
+Spears.
+
+Lances, darts, or spears are designated by the general term
+man[']d[)e]hi. The ja^{n}[']-man'd[)e]hi are made of ash, and are from 6
+to 8 feet long. There are two kinds, of one of which the handle is
+round, and about an inch in diameter, and the point is flat and about
+the width of three fingers at its juncture with the handle.
+
+Besides these there are the lances, called waq[|c]exe-[|c]�ze, of which
+there are two varieties. One consists of a straight pole, which has been
+thrust through a piece of buffalo hide that has its long end sewed
+together, forming a sort of covering. To this hide are fastened feathers
+of the crow and mi^{n}[']xa-sa^{n}, or swan, in alternate rows or
+bunches. Between the feathers are fastened square pieces of blanket.
+About the middle of the pole a space of nearly 6 inches is left without
+feathers, and this is the place where the spear is grasped. When the
+pole was not set into a metal point the lower end was cut very sharp.[1]
+The other variety, or mand[)e]hi [|c]iguje, "bent spear," is the weapon
+which the Dakota call "wahukeza." It is ornamented with eagle feathers
+placed at intevals, one being at the end of the curved part; and it
+generally terminates at the bottom in an iron point. It is possible for
+one of these waq[|c]exe[|c]aze to reach a man about 6 feet distant; and
+even mounted men have been killed by them. Spears are used also in some
+of the dances. Around the shaft is wrapped the skin of a swan or brant.
+The end feather at the top is white; the other feathers are white or
+spotted. The bent spear is no longer employed by the Omaha, though the
+Osage, Pawnee, and other tribes still use it to a greater or lesser
+extent.
+
+
+Bows.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 323.--Omaha bow (za^{n}zi-mand[)e]).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 324.--Omaha bow ([t]a[k]a^{n}-mand[)e])]
+
+Bows (man-d[)e]) are of two kinds. One is the man-d[)e] or
+za^{n}zi-mand[)e] (bow-wood bow), having an unbroken curve past the grip
+to within an inch or two of each nock.[2] The other kind is the
+[t]a[k]a^{n}-mand[)e], so called because it has deer sinew glued on its
+back.[3] Bows were made of hickory, ash, ironwood, or za^{n}zi, the last
+being greatly preferred. It is a wood resembling that of the Osage
+orange, with which some persons confound it; but it is black and much
+harder than the former, the Osage orange wood being yellow, soft, and
+easily cut. The za^{n}zi is probably that which Dougherty[4] called
+"bow-wood (<i>Maclura aurantiaca</i> of Nuttall)."
+
+[Footnote 1: See First Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, 1879-'80;
+1881, Pl. X, "Tolkotin cremation."]
+
+[Footnote 2: This may be the "self-bow" mentioned in the American
+Naturalist for July, 1886, p. 675.]
+
+[Footnote 3: This is the sinew-backed bow above mentioned.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Long's Expedition, op. cit., vol. I, p. 290.]
+
+Bowstrings were made of the twisted sinew of the elk and buffalo, as
+among other tribes.
+
+
+Arrows.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 325.--Omaha hunting arrow.]
+
+The arrows (ma^{n}) used in former days were of several kinds. The
+hunting arrow, used for killing the buffalo, was generally about 2 feet
+long, of the usual cylindric form, and armed with an elongate triangular
+point, made at first of flint, afterward of sheet iron. The shoulders of
+the arrow were rounded instead of angular, as in the ordinary barbed
+form. The point, or head, was firmly secured to the shaft by deer sinew
+wrapped around the neck of the point, and over that was spread some
+cement, made in a manner to be afterward explained. The flight of the
+arrow was equalized by three half-webs of feathers, neatly fastened near
+its base in the usual manner.
+
+Another kind of hunting arrow was the hid� naz�[|c][)e], which was
+altogether of wood. About 6 inches from the point the shaft was
+triangular or quadrangular; and the point was made by holding the shaft
+close to a fire and turning it round and round till the heat had reduced
+it to the proper shape and had hardened it. This was used for killing
+fish, deer, and small game.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 326.--Omaha war arrow.]
+
+The war arrow (<i>b</i>) differed from that used in hunting in having a
+barbed point, which was very slightly attached to the shaft, so that if
+it penetrated the body of an enemy it could not be withdrawn without
+leaving the point in the wound.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 327.--Omaha style of hid�-[t]�ce]
+
+Children used the hid�-[t]�ce, or target arrow, when they began to learn
+the use of the bow. With this a boy could kill small birds and animals.
+
+The Ponka used to make arrowshafts (ma^{n}sa) of ja^{n}-[']qude-h�,
+"gray wood," juneberry wood, which grew in their country, but is not
+found among the Omaha. Most of the Omaha made their shafts of the
+ma^n'saqtih�, or "real arrow-wood," (<i>Viburnum</i>) as that was the wood
+best suited for the purpose. Sometimes they were made of chokecherry
+wood; and Joseph LaFl�che informs me that he has made them of ash and
+hickory.
+
+Arrowshafts were held lengthwise directly in a line with the eyes of the
+workman, who sighted along them to see if they were straight. If one was
+bent, he held one end of it between his teeth, while he pressed against
+the rest of it with his hands. They were polished by means of the
+polishers, or ma^{n}[']-[|c]iq[|c]�de, two pieces of sandstone, each of
+which had a groove in the middle of one side. These grooves were
+brought together, and the arrow was drawn between them.
+
+War arrows had crooked lines drawn along the shafts from the points to
+the other ends, down which, so I was informed by the Indians, it was
+intended that the blood of a wounded foe should trickle.
+
+Arrowheads (m�hi^{n}-s�), when made of flint, as at the first, were
+called "i^{n}['][,][(e] mahi^{n}s�," stone arrowheads. In more recent
+times, they were manufactured of pieces of sheet iron; as, for example,
+hoops of pails and barrels.
+
+Arrow cement (hi^{n}[']pa), for attaching the heads to the shafts, was
+usually made from the skin taken off a buffalo or elk head. This was
+boiled a long time, till ready to fall to pieces. When the gelatinous
+matter forming the cement rose to the top of the water, a stick (called
+hi^{n}p�-ja^{n}ji�[']ga) was thrust in and turned round and round,
+causing the material to be wrapped around it. When cooled it was
+smoothed with the hand. Then the act was repeated till a large quantity
+was collected on the stick. When needed for use, it was warmed by
+placing either in the mouth or in hot water. The skin of the big turtle
+was also used for making cement.
+
+A set of arrows were called, collectively, "ma^{n}wi^{n}[']da^{n}." A
+set generally consisted of ten arrows, but the number varied; sometimes
+there were two, four, or even twenty. When a man had arrows left in his
+quiver, he compared them with that which was in the slain animal. When
+he had none left, he appealed to some one who knew his style of arrow.
+
+There were no clan or gentile marks on arrows. One set was distinguished
+from another by the order of the paint stripes on them, by the kind of
+feathers used, by the mode in which the arrowheads were made, etc. The
+Oto made bad arrows; those of the Pawnee were better, but they were
+inferior to those made by the Dakota, Ponka, and Omaha.
+
+The feathers, half-webs generally, put on arrows were those of the
+eagle, buzzard, wild turkey, great owl, and goose. Sometimes hawk or
+crow feathers were employed.
+
+
+Quivers.
+
+Quivers (ma^{n}[']jiha) for men were made of buffalo hide; but boys'
+quivers were made either of otter skins or of the skins of cougars, with
+the tail of the animal hanging down from the upper extremity. A skin
+case was attached to the quiver for carrying the bow when not in use.
+The wrist was defended from the percussion of the bowstring by the
+leather wristguard or �qande-[p]a.
+
+
+Shields and Armor.
+
+Shields ([t]ah�wag[|c]e) were made of the hides of buffalo bulls. They
+were round and very thick, reaching to the waist of the bearer. Arrows
+did not penetrate them. Joseph La Fl�che never heard of the use of
+defensive armor, such as helmet and mail, among the Omaha and Ponka.
+
+He had heard of a Pawnee who made a coat from four elk skins, two
+forming the front and two the back. Between each pair of skins was
+placed sand. A helmet was made in like manner. It covered the back of
+the head and extended over the forehead, coming down as far as the eyes.
+When the Pawnee noticed an arrow coming toward him, he bowed his head
+forward.
+
+
+Firearms.
+
+Firearms were introduced among the Omaha prior to 1819, when Dougherty
+says that they preferred those called "Mackinaw guns."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Armor, Absence of, among the Omaha                               287
+         of the Pawnee                                             288
+  Arrows of the Omaha                                              286
+  Axes of the Omaha                                                278
+
+  Bark, Omaha lodges of                                       269, 271
+  Basketry of the Omaha                                            278
+  Baths, public, Absence of, among the Omaha                       274
+  Beds and bedding of the Omaha                                    275
+  Big Pawnee, Flutes made by                                       282
+  Bik�de, an Omaha village                                         270
+  Bladders used as receptacles                                     280
+  Boats of hide of the Omaha                                       281
+  Bone hoes of the Omaha                                           278
+  Bridles of the Omaha                                             280
+  Brooms of the Omaha                                              276
+  Buffalo, gents of the Omaha                                      277
+
+  [|C]egiha fire-making                                            279
+  Cement used by the Omaha                                         287
+  Children, Omaha, Target arrows of the                            286
+  Clubs, War, of the Omaha                                         283
+  Couches of the Omaha                                             275
+  Cradles of the Omaha                                             275
+
+  Dakota, Arrows of the                                            287
+  Dance houses of the Omaha                                        274
+  Decoration of Omaha tents                                        274
+  Dorsey J. O., on Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements  263-288
+  Dougherty, --, on Omaha bow-wood                                 285
+                          firearms                                 288
+                          horse equipage                           280
+  Drilling, with grass-stalks                                      279
+  Drinking vessels of the Omaha                                    277
+  Drums of the Omaha                                               282
+  Dwellings, furniture and implements of the Omaha             263-288
+
+  Equipage for horses                                              280
+
+  Firearms among the Omaha                                         288
+  Fire implements of the Omaha                                     279
+  Fireplace in Omaha lodge                                         271
+            of the Omaha and Ponka                                 275
+  Flute of the Omaha                                               282
+  Furniture, dwellings, and implements of the Omaha            263-288
+
+  Gentile marks, Absence of, on Omaha arrows                       287
+  Grain, Storage of, among the Omaha                               274
+
+  Halters of the Omaha                                             280
+  Hammocks introduced among the Omaha                              275
+  Hoes, Bone, of the Omaha                                         278
+  Horn spoons of the Omaha                                         277
+
+  Implements of the Omaha                                      263-278
+  Iowa indians, Bark lodges of                                     271
+
+  Ja^{n}[|c]a[']te, an Omaha village                               270
+
+  Kansa, Lodges of the                                             270
+  Knives of the Omaha                                              268
+
+  Ladles of the Omaha                                              277
+  La Fl�che, Joseph, on Omaha armor                                287
+                              arrowshafts                          286
+                              mats                                 275
+                              saddles                              280
+                              war-clubs                            283
+  La Flesche, Francis, on grass-stalk drills                       279
+  Lances of the Omaha                                              285
+  Lariats of the Omaha                                             280
+  Lodges of earth, Use of                                          271
+                 , Omaha, how constructed                          269
+  Long, S. H., on Kansa lodge                                      269
+                  Omaha bow-wood                                   285
+                  indian horsemanship                              280
+
+  Mason, O. T., Acknowledgements to                                269
+  Mats, cane, the Omaha and Winnebago                              275
+            , Omaha lodges of,                                269, 271
+  Mortars of the Omaha                                             276
+  Musical instruments of the Omaha                                 281
+
+  Omaha dwellings, furniture and implements                    263-288
+  Osage indians, Bent spear used by                                285
+               , Lodges of, described                              271
+  Oto, Arrows of the                                               287
+
+  Pawnee, Armor of the                                             288
+        , Arrows of the                                            287
+        , Bent spear used by the                                   285
+  [P]ejqude, Tent of                                          273, 274
+  Pestles of the Omaha                                             176
+  Pillows of the Omaha                                             275
+  Pipes of the Omaha                                               279
+  Ponka, Armor not used by the                                     287
+       , Arrows of the                                             287
+         dwellings, furniture and implements                       269
+       , Ropes of the                                              281
+  Pottery, formerly made by the Omaha                         276, 277
+  Provision sacks of the Omaha                                     278
+
+  Quivers of the Omaha                                             287
+
+  Rattles of the Omaha                                             281
+  Riding, Omaha method of                                          280
+
+  Sacks of the Omaha                                               278
+  Saddles of the Omaha                                             280
+  Sanssouci, Village of                                            271
+  Sauk, Bark lodges of the                                         271
+  Say, T., on Kansa lodge                                          269
+  Sewing among the Siouan tribes                                   274
+  Shields of the Omaha                                             287
+  Skin lodge of the Omaha                                     269, 271
+  Smoke holes of Omaha lodge                                       273
+  Smoking paraphernalia, Omaha                                     279
+  Snow-shoes, Omaha and Ponka                                      281
+  Spears of the Omaha                                              284
+  Spoons of the Omaha                                              277
+  Standards, War, of the Omaha                                     273
+  Standing Hawk Village of                                         270
+  Stone arrowheads of the Omaha                                    287
+        axes of the Omaha                                          278
+        knives of the Omaha                                        278
+  Sweat-houses of the Omaha                                        274
+  Swings of Omaha children                                         276
+
+  Tobacco pouches of the Omaha                                     284
+  Tomahawks of the Omaha                                           284
+  Tongs of the Omaha                                               279
+  Totem posts, Absence of, among the Omaha                         274
+  Traveling gear, Omaha and Ponka                                  281
+
+  Utensils of the Omaha                                            277
+
+  Water vessels of the Omaha                                       277
+  Weapons of the Omaha                                             283
+  Whips of the Omaha                                               280
+  Whistles of the Omaha                                            282
+  Wickiup, Origin of term                                          275
+  Winjage, an Omaha village                                        270
+  Winnebago grass mats                                             275
+            lodges described                                       271
+  Women, Omaha lodges made by                                      269
+  Wood, Spoons of, of the Omaha                                    277
+  Wristguards used by the Omaha                                    287
+
+  Yellow Smoke, Earth lodge of                                     270
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and
+Implements, by James Owen Dorsey,
+
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+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Omaha Dwellings, Furniture, and Implements, by James Owen Dorsey.
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and Implements, by 
+James Owen Dorsey,
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and Implements
+       Thirteenth Annual Report of the Beaurau of American
+              Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
+              1891-1892, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1896
+              pages 263-288
+
+Author: James Owen Dorsey,
+
+Release Date: November 24, 2006 [EBook #19913]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Verity White and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Biblioth�que nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table class="note" summary="note" cellpadding="5">
+<tr>
+<td>Transcriber's Note:<br /> [p] or [P] represents a turned p or P.<br/> [T] represents a turned T.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="page263" id="page263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1>OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>JAMES OWEN DORSEY</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="60%" summary="contents">
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right">Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Introductory note</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Dwellings</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em">Earth lodges</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lodges of bark or mats</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Skin lodges or tents</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Furniture and implements</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fireplaces</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beds and bedding</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cradles</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Children's swings</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Brooms</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Pottery</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mortars and pestles</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spoons, ladles, and drinking vessels</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Water vessels</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Other vessels</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hoes and axes</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Knives</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Implements connected with fire</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Smoking paraphernalia</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Equipage for horses</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Traveling gear</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page281">281</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Boats</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page281">281</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Musical instruments</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page281">281</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Weapons</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page283">283</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clubs</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page283">283</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tomahawks</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page284">284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spears</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page284">284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Bows</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Arrows</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page286">286</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Quivers</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Shields and armor</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Firearms</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page288">288</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="page267" id="page267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<table cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="60%" summary="contents">
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td align="right">Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="right">Fig.</td>
+<td>306. Yellow Smoke's earth lodge</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page270">270</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>307. Ground plan of Osage lodge</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>308. Omaha tent</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page272">272</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>309. Exterior parts of an Omaha tent</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page273">273</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>310. [P]ejequde's tent</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page274">274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>311. Omaha cradle&mdash;plan</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>312. Omaha cradle&mdash;side view</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>313. Omaha mortar</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>314. Omaha pestle</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>315. Omaha calumet</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>316. Omaha pipe used on ordinary occasions</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>317. Skin drum</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page282">282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>318. Box drum</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page282">282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>319. Omaha large flute</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page283">283</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>320. Omaha club (ja<sup>n</sup>-[p]a&#596;na)</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page283">283</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>321. Omaha club (ja<sup>n</sup>-[p]aa&#596;na)</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page283">283</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>322. Omaha club (weaq&#572;ade)</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page284">284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>323. Omaha bow (za<sup>n</sup>zi-mand&#277;)</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>324. Omaha bow (&#647;a&#670;a<sup>n</sup>-mand&#277;)</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>325. Omaha hunting arrow</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page286">286</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>326. Omaha war arrow</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page286">286</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>327. Omaha style of hid&eacute;-&#647;&aacute;ce</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page286">286</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="page269" id="page269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS</h2>
+
+<h3>BY JAMES OWEN DORSEY</h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INTRODUCTORY_NOTE" id="INTRODUCTORY_NOTE"></a>INTRODUCTORY NOTE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The accompanying paper is one of the results of personal investigations
+among the Omaha of Nebraska and cognate tribes of Indians, beginning in
+1878 and continued from time to time during late years.</p>
+
+<p>While the paper treats of the Omaha tribe, much that is said is
+applicable to the Ponka, as the two tribes have long had similar
+environments and a common dialect, for, until 1877, their habitats were
+almost contiguous, and since 1880 about one-third of the Ponka tribe has
+been dwelling on its former reservation near the town of Niobrara,
+Nebraska.</p>
+
+<p>Acknowledgments are due Dr. O. T. Mason for many valuable suggestions
+early in the progress of the work.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>DWELLINGS.</h2>
+
+<p>The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges of earth
+or, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or tents. It may
+be observed that there were no sacred rites connected with the earth
+lodge-building or tent-making among the Omaha and Ponka.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Earth Lodges.</span></h3>
+
+<p>When earth lodges were built, the people did not make them in a tribal
+circle, each man erecting his lodge where he wished; yet kindred
+commonly built near one another.</p>
+
+<p>The earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended principally
+for summer use, when the people were not migrating or going on the hunt.
+Those built by the Omaha and Ponka were constructed in the following
+manner: The roof was supported by two series of vertical posts, forked
+at the top for the reception of the transverse connecting pieces of each
+series. The number in each series varied according to the size of the
+lodge; for a small lodge only four posts were erected in the inner
+series, for an ordinary lodge eight were required, and ten generally
+constituted the maximum. When Mr. Say<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> visited
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page270" id="page270">[Pg 270]</a></span>
+
+the Kansa Indians, he
+occupied a lodge in which twelve of these posts placed in a circle
+formed the outer series, and eight longer ones constituted the inner
+series, also describing a circle. The wall was formed by setting upright
+slabs of wood back of the outer posts all around the circumference of
+the lodge. These slabs were not over 6 feet in height, and their tops
+met the cross timbers on which the willow posts rested. Stocks of hard
+willow about 2 inches in diameter rested with their butts on the tops of
+the upright slabs and extended on the cross timbers nearly to the
+summit. These poles were very numerous, touching one another and
+extending all around in a radiating manner, supporting the roof like
+rafters. The rafters were covered with grass about a foot thick; and
+over the whole lodge, including the sides or slabs, earth was piled from
+a foot to 2 feet in depth. Such a covering lasted generally about twenty
+years. A hole in the middle served as an exit for the smoke.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/fig306.jpg" width="300" height="287" alt="fig306" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 306.&mdash;Yellow Smoke's earth lodge.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In addition to the lodge proper there was a covered way about 10 feet
+long and 5 feet wide, the entrance to which had a covering of tanned or
+dried buffalo hides. This covering consisted of two hides hanging side
+by side, with the inner borders slightly overlapping. They were fastened
+to the passageway at the top and at the outer sides, but were loose at
+the bottom where they overlapped. This part was raised by a person
+entering the lodge. A similar covering was placed at the interior end of
+the passageway.</p>
+
+<p>Subsequently to 1855, the Omaha dwelt in three villages composed of
+earth lodges, as follows: (1) Biku&#8242;de, a village near the agency; (2)
+Windja&#8242;ge, Standing Hawk's village, near the Presbyterian mission
+house; and (3) Ja<sup>n</sup>&#572;a&#8242;te ("Wood Eaters,") named after an insect
+found
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page271" id="page271">[Pg 271]</a></span>
+
+under the bark of trees Sanssouci's village, near the town of
+Decatur, Nebraska.</p>
+
+<p>Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings, such as feasts,
+councils, or dances. Occasionally there was a depression in the center
+of the lodge which was used as a fireplace; but it was not over 6 inches
+deep. Each earth lodge had a ladder, made by cutting a series of deep
+notches along one side of a log. On a bluff near the Omaha agency I
+found the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances on the
+southern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100 feet in
+diameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow about 3 feet
+deep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the lodge.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">1</span></a>
+James' account of Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains
+in 1819-'20.</p></div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Lodges of Bark or Mats.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy, as did the
+Iowa and Sak. [T]iu&#8242;&#572;ipu ji&ntilde;&#8242;ga, or low lodges covered with
+mats, were used by the Omaha in former days. Such lodges are still
+common among the Winnebago, the Osage, and other tribes. The ground plan
+of such a lodge forms an ellipse. The height is hardly over 7 feet from
+the ground. The tent poles are arranged thus: Each pole has one end
+planted in the ground, the other end being bent down and fastened to the
+pole immediately opposite; a number of poles thus arranged in pairs
+formed both wall posts and rafters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig307.jpg" width="600" height="200" alt="fig307" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 307.&mdash;Ground plan of Osage lodge.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Generally there was one fireplace and one smokehole in such a lodge; but
+when I visited the Osage in 1883, I entered a low lodge with two
+fireplaces, each equidistant from its end of the lodge and the entrance,
+each fireplace having its smokehole.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Skin Lodges or Tents.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The tent was used when the people were migrating, and also when they
+were traveling in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite abode
+of a household during the winter season, as the earth lodge was
+generally erected in an exposed situation, selected on account of
+comfort in the summer. The tent could be pitched in the timber or brush,
+or down in wooded ravines, where the cold winds never had full sweep.
+Hence, many Indians abandoned their houses in winter and went into their
+tents, even when they were of canvas.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/fig308.jpg" width="300" height="391" alt="fig308" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 308.&mdash;Omaha tent (from a photograph by W. H. Jackson).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned buffalo
+skins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10 to
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page272" id="page272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
+
+12 feet
+high, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a foot and a
+half in diameter at the top, which served as a smokehole
+(&#647;ihu&#670;a<sup>n</sup>). Besides the interior tent poles (&#647;ici&mdash;3, figure
+309) and the tent skin (&#647;iha&mdash;1), the tent had the
+&#647;i&#572;uma<sup>n</sup>ha<sup>n</sup>, or the place where the skins were fastened
+together above the entrance (4). The &#647;i&#572;uma<sup>n</sup>ha<sup>n</sup> was fastened
+with the &#647;ihu&#572;ubaxa<sup>n</sup>(5), which consisted of sticks or pieces of
+hide thrust crosswise through the holes in the tent skins. The bottom of
+the tent was secured to the ground by pins (&#647;ihu&#572;ugada<sup>n</sup>&mdash;6)
+driven through holes (&#647;ihugaq&#572;uge) in the bottom of the skins, made
+when the latter were tanned and before they had become hard. The
+entrance (&#647;ijebe) was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page273" id="page273">[Pg 273]</a></span>
+generally opposite the quarter from which the
+wind was blowing. A door flap (&#647;ijebeg&#572;a<sup>n</sup>&mdash;7) hung over the
+entrance; it was made of skin with the hair outside, so as to turn
+water, and was held taut by a stick fastened to it transversely. The
+bottom of the door flap was loose, but the top was fastened to the tent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/fig309.jpg" width="300" height="389" alt="fig309" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 309&mdash;Exterior parts of an Omaha tent.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The smokehole was formed by the two &#647;ihugab&#572;i<sup>n</sup>&#572;a(9), or
+triangular ends of tent skins, immediately above the entrance and
+&#647;i&cent;uma<sup>n</sup>a<sup>n</sup>. When there was no wind both of the
+&#647;ihugab&#572;i<sup>n</sup>&#572;a were kept open by means of the
+&#647;ihu&#572;ubaji<sup>n</sup>(8) or exterior tent poles, which were thrust through
+the ujiha, or small sacks, in the corners of the
+&#647;ihugab&#572;i<sup>n</sup>&#572;a. When the wind blew one of the
+&#647;ihu&#572;ubaji<sup>n</sup> was raised to the windward and the other was
+lowered, pulling its skin close to the tent and leaving an opening for
+the escape of the smoke; but if the wind came directly against the
+entrance both the flaps were raised, closing the smokehole to prevent
+the wind from blowing down it. When the wind blew the people used
+nandi&#572;agaspe to keep the bottom of each tent skin in place. These
+consisted of twisted grass, sticks, stones, or other heavy objects.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 310 represents the tent of [P]ejequde, an Omaha. The banners or
+standards, which were carried by the leaders of a war party or a party
+going on a dancing tour, are depicted with their decorations of strips
+of red and blue Indian cloth. Sometimes these standards were ornamented
+with feathers instead of with cloth. Each standard could be used in four
+war expeditions.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="page274" id="page274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No totem posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent of the principal
+man of each gens was decorated on the outside with his gentile badge,
+which was painted on each side of the entrance as well as on the back of
+the tent.<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">1</a> The furniture of the sacred tents resembled that of the
+ordinary ones.</p>
+
+<p>Before the introduction of canvas tents by the whites no needles or
+thread were used by the Siouan tribes. The women used sinew of the deer
+or buffalo instead of thread, and for needles they had awls made of elk
+horn.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/fig310.jpg" width="300" height="405" alt="fig310" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 310.&mdash;[P]ejequde's tent.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Since there were no outbuildings, public granaries, or other structures
+of this description, each household stored away its own grain and other
+provisions. There were no special tribal or communal dwellings; but
+sometimes two or more households occupied a single earth lodge. When a
+council was held, it took place in the earth lodge of one of the head
+chiefs, or else two or three common tents were united, making one large
+one.<a name="FNanchor_2_3" id="FNanchor_2_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_3" class="fnanchor">2</a> There were no public baths, as the Missouri river was near, and
+they could resort to it whenever they desired. Dance houses were
+improvised either of earth lodges or skin tents.</p>
+
+<p>Sweat-lodges were in the form of low tents (&#647;iu&#572;ipu).<a name="FNanchor_3_4" id="FNanchor_3_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_4" class="fnanchor">3</a> Stones
+were not boiled for the sweat-lodge, but were put into the fire to be
+heated. They were removed from the fire by means of sticks called
+i<sup>n</sup>&#2037;&#277;basi&#572;a<sup>n</sup>,
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page275" id="page275">[Pg 275]</a></span>
+
+and then water from the kettle was poured on
+them, creating steam. Cedar fronds were dropped on the stones, causing a
+perfume to arise.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">1</span></a>
+Third Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology for 1882-'83, p. 230; also
+"A Study of Siouan Cults," in Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology,
+1889-'90, p. 351.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_3" id="Footnote_2_3"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_2_3"><span class="label">2</span></a>
+Third Ann. Rep., op. cit., p. 294.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_4" id="Footnote_3_4"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_3_4"><span class="label">3</span></a>
+Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. vi, 1890,
+pp. 152, 169, and 234.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>FURNITURE AND IMPLEMENTS.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Fireplaces.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Within the tent, in the center, was the fireplace (une&#572;&#277;), formed
+by excavating a small hollow. Beside this was erected a forked post
+(isag&#572;&#277;), on which was hung the apparatus for suspending a kettle
+over the fire. This apparatus was called &#572;exe u&#572;ugacke by the
+Ponka, literally, "that by means of which the kettle is hung." The Omaha
+have two names for it, uha<sup>n</sup> u&#572;ugacke, and u&#572;ugackeg&#572;e, the
+last syllable of the latter name referring to the attitude of the post.
+Around the fireplace was a circular space for the feet of the people as
+they sat about the fire. The couches of the occupants of the tent were
+arranged outside of and all around this circular space.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Beds and Bedding.</span></h3>
+
+<p>A couch was formed by laying down two or three winter hides dried with
+the hair on. These hides were placed around the fireplace at a safe
+distance. In the earth lodges, according to Joseph La Fl&egrave;che, the Omaha
+used sahi, or grass mats, for seats, as is the present custom of the
+Winnebago; but at night they reclined on dressed hides with thick hair
+on them, and covered themselves with similar hides.</p>
+
+<p>For pillows they used ibehi<sup>n</sup> or i<sup>n</sup>behi<sup>n</sup>. When the vegetation
+was about 3 inches high in the spring, the Indians killed deer and
+pulled off the hair in order to remove the thin skin or tissue next to
+it. This latter, when thoroughly dried, is smooth and white, resembling
+parchment. It was used for pillows and moccasin-strings. When used for
+pillows the case was filled with goose feathers or the hair of the deer
+until it was about 2 feet long and 9 inches high. During the day, and
+whenever there was occasion, they were used as seats; but if none could
+be had, the people sat on winter robes or hides forming the couches.<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5" class="fnanchor">1</a>
+Back of the couches and next to the interior tent-poles were placed the
+baggage, sacks of corn, and other household properties.</p>
+
+<p>The upright tent is one form of the Dakota "wake&#8242;ya," the plural of
+which, "wake&#8242;yapi," undoubtedly gave rise to the familiar "wick&#8242;iup"
+of the plains, and also to "w&auml;-ka&#8242;-yo" of Morgan.<a name="FNanchor_2_6" id="FNanchor_2_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_6" class="fnanchor">2</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1_5"><span class="label">1</span></a>
+Hammocks and bedsteads were unknown prior to their
+introduction by the traders and other white people.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_6" id="Footnote_2_6"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_2_6"><span class="label">2</span></a>
+Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. iv., 1881,
+p. 114.</p></div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Cradles.</span></h3>
+
+<p>A board of convenient size, usually about a yard long and a foot wide,
+was selected to form a cradle or u&#572;uhe. No pillow was needed. A
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page276" id="page276">[Pg 276]</a></span>
+
+soft skin ([p]aq&#572;uqaha &#572;a<sup>n</sup>) covered with plenty of thick hair
+was laid on the board, and on it was placed the infant.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig311.jpg" width="600" height="171" alt="fig311" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 311.&mdash;Omaha cradle&mdash;plan.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the annexed figures, <i>a</i> is the &#301;ndua&#572;isi<sup>n</sup>ka<sup>n</sup>he, the
+object painted on the board at the end where the infant's head is laid;
+<i>b</i> is the &#301;ndei&#572;id&#301;ndi<sup>n</sup> ("that which is drawn taut over the
+face"), the two strings of beads and sinew or thread (sometimes made of
+red calico alone), which keep in place the fan, etc.; the fan
+(&#301;ndeagani), which is suspended from a bow of wood, (<i>c</i>) is about 6
+inches square, and is now made of interwoven sinew on which beads have
+been strung. Occasionally thimbles and other bright objects dangle from
+the bottom of the fan. The i&#572;a&#572;istage (<i>d</i>) is the band by which
+the infant is fastened to the cradle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig312.jpg" width="600" height="154" alt="fig312" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 312.&mdash;Omaha cradle&mdash;side view.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Children's Swings.</span></h3>
+
+<p>For swings the ends of two withes of buffalo hide were secured to four
+trees or posts which formed the corners of a parallelogram. A blanket
+was thrown across the withes and folded over on them. The infant was
+laid on top of the fold and swung from side to side without falling.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Brooms.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Brooms were of two kinds. One form was made of sticks tied together, and
+was used for sweeping the ground outside of the tent or earth lodge, and
+the interior of the earth lodge, except the fireplace. The other kind
+was made of goose or turkey feathers, and was used for sweeping the
+fireplace of an earth lodge.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Pottery.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Pottery has not been made by the Omaha for more than fifty years. The
+art of making it has been forgotten by the tribe.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Mortar and Pestles.</span></h3>
+
+<p>A mortar was made by burning a large hole in a round knot or piece of
+wood about 7 inches in diameter. The lower end was sharpened
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page277" id="page277">[Pg 277]</a></span>
+
+to a point, which was thrust into the ground when needed for use. After
+putting corn in a mortar of this description, the woman grasped the
+wooden pestle in the middle, with the larger end upward; the smaller
+end, which was about an inch in diameter, was put into the mortar. The
+operation of pounding corn among the Omaha was called "he." The mortar
+(uhe) and pestle (wehe) were both made commonly of elm, although
+sometimes they were fashioned of white oak. Mortars were of various
+sizes, some of them measuring 2 feet in diameter. Pestles were always of
+hard and heavy wood, and fully 3 feet long, taperring from 4 inches to
+an inch in diameter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/fig313.jpg" width="300" height="66" alt="fig313" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 314.&mdash;Omaha pestle.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/fig314.jpg" width="300" height="149" alt="fig314" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 313.&mdash;Omaha mortar.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Spoons, Ladles and Drinking Vessels.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Spoons were made of horn, wood, or pottery. The black spoons made of
+buffalo horn (&#647;ehe sab&#277;), are not used by such Omaha as belong to
+the Buffalo gentes (I&ntilde;kesab&#277;, &#571;atada, [T]esinde, etc.) which may
+not touch a buffalo head. Other horn spoons of light color are made of
+cow horn. These are of modern origin. Wooden spoons (ja<sup>n</sup>&#647;ehe) were
+made of knobs or knots of trees. Spoons made of buffalo horn are found
+among the Omaha and Ponka, but the Osage, Kansa, and Kwapa use clam
+shells (&#647;ihaba, in &#571;egiha; tc&uuml;haba, tc&uuml;huba, in Kansa), so the
+Kansa call a small spoon, tc&uuml;haba ji&ntilde;ga. Spoons of buffalo horn had
+their handles variously ornamented by notches and other rude carving,
+often terminating in the head of a bird, the neck or handle of each
+being elevated at an angle of 50&deg; or 60&deg; with the bowl, which, was about
+3 inches in width by about 5 in length. As the handle of such a spoon
+usually terminates in a head or hook, it was impossible for it to slip
+into the bowl when the hook rested on the outside of the rim of the
+bowl.</p>
+
+<p>Food was served in bowls of a very wide and simple form and of various
+sizes, generally carved out of large knots of wood. These served as
+drinking cups (ni&#8242;i&#572;&aacute;ta<sup>n</sup>), but now cups of tin or earthenware
+are used for that purpose.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Water Vessels</span></h3>
+
+<p>When pottery was made, they used bowls and kettles. Some used wooden
+bowls of different sizes, the largest being about 2 feet in diameter.
+When they went on the hunt, they used the &iacute;nijeha (or sack made of the
+muscular coating of the buffalo paunch, by filling
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page278" id="page278">[Pg 278]</a></span>
+
+with, grass to make
+it stand out and keep its shape until dried). When the &iacute;nijeha was
+filled with water the mouth was tied, and it was kept covered and in the
+shade that it might remain cool. After being used for a few days it
+became strong smelling, and was thrown away, another taking its place.
+Some preferred the "&#647;en&#259;n&#8242;de uq&#572;a&#8242;ha &#572;a<sup>n</sup>" or
+pericardium(?) of the buffalo, which is like sinew. This does not smell
+unpleasant, even when used for seven or ten days. But at the expiration
+of that time it is unfit for further service.</p>
+
+<p>Jugs have been introduced by the traders.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Other Vessels.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Provision sacks or parfl&egrave;che cases were made of dried buffalo hide. When
+used for carrying the dried meat, they were called we&aacute;bast&aacute;. After two
+or three years' use they became soft and were fit only for making
+moccasin soles. These sacks had the hair taken off, and were sometimes
+made in trunk fashion.</p>
+
+<p>Fruit baskets were of three kinds. The Ponka made them of the bark of a
+tree, called taw&aacute;&#2037;a<sup>n</sup>he, which is found on the old Ponka reservation
+in Dakota. Northern Indians make boats of this bark. The Omaha do not
+find the tree on their land, so they make the fruit baskets of other
+kinds of bark. The three kinds of baskets are as follows: Na<sup>n</sup>&#8242;pa
+&uacute;&#572;is&#277;, used for chokecherries; ag&#572;a&ntilde;&#8242;kama&ntilde;ge &uacute;&#572;is&#277;,
+used for raspberries; and bact &uacute;&#572;is&#277;, used for strawberries. When
+the Ponka wished to make the baskets, they stripped off the bark in
+horizontal sections, not pulling upward or downward.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times the Omaha have learned to make sacks of thread of
+different colors drawn from black, red, blue, and white blankets.
+Different figures are woven. Each sack is about a foot deep, 16 inches
+from the mouth to the opposite side, and from 2 to 2-1/2 feet long. The
+opening is on one of the long sides, and when the articles are put in a
+gathering string is drawn and tied.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Hoes and Axes.</span></h3>
+
+<p>For hoes, the Omaha used the shoulder blades of the buffalo. Axes and
+hatchets are now made of iron, hence, the Omaha name, ma<sup>n</sup>&#8242;ze-pe,
+sharp iron. But the Kansa have the ancient name, ma<sup>n</sup>&#8242;hi-spe,
+answering to the Dakota, wa<sup>n</sup>hi<sup>n</sup>&#8242;-kpe, sharp flint. The hatchet
+is distinguished from the ax by adding "ji&ntilde;ga," small. Some of the stone
+axes and hatchets have been found on the Omaha reservation, but they
+could hardly have been used for cutting. It is not known what tools were
+used for felling trees.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Knives.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Knives were made of stone. A prominent butte, near the old Ponka agency,
+Nebraska, is known as "M&aacute;hi<sup>n</sup>-&#647;u," signifying blue knife, from the
+character of the stone with which its surface is covered. It is
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page279" id="page279">[Pg 279]</a></span>
+
+several miles from the mouth of Ponka creek and nearly opposite the month of
+Choteau creek, South Dakota.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Implements Connected with Fire.</span></h3>
+
+<p>In former ages, the &#571;egiha made fire by rubbing or turning a stick
+round and round between the hands. On the present Omaha reservation, and
+in that region, the Omaha use elm roots for that purpose. In the country
+called [P]iz&aacute;bah&eacute;he, near the source of Elkhorn river, there is a grass
+known as "du&aacute;du&aacute;hi," which has about a hundred fine shoots from each
+root, which is half the size of the head. The stalk was used for hand
+drills and fire sticks. One stalk was cut almost flat, and the man puts
+his feet on the ends to steady them. Then, holding the other stick in
+his hands, with one end touching the stalk on the ground, he turned it
+round and round till the friction produced fire. Sometimes a small
+quantity of dry sand was placed on the flat stick. The same flat stick
+answered for several occasions. When the cavity made by turning the hand
+drill became too large, the point of contact was shifted to another part
+of the flat stick, and so on until the whole of that stick was used,
+when it was thrown away and another was obtained. Du&aacute;du&aacute;hi, according to
+Mr. Francis La Flesche, may be found in Judiciary square, Washington,
+District of Columbia. After the coming of the white man, but before the
+introduction of friction matches, which are now used by the whole tribe,
+the Omaha used flints and tinder for making fire.</p>
+
+<p>Spits for roasting, etc., n&aacute;qpe, or w&eacute;basna<sup>n</sup>, were made of any kind
+of wood.</p>
+
+<p>For tongs they used the [p]edi&#572;a&#572;isande ("fire-holder"), made by
+slitting one end of a stick. This implement was also called, ja<sup>n</sup>
+ji&ntilde;ga nini ibista ("the stick that presses the fire against the
+tobacco"), because it was used for lighting pipes.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Smoking Paraphernalia.</span></h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig315.jpg" width="600" height="182" alt="fig315" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 315.&mdash;Omaha calumet</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The pipes in use among the Omaha are of three kinds: the sacred pipe
+(niniba waqube, mysterious pipe), including the war pipes and those used
+by the chiefs in making peace; the niniba weawa<sup>n</sup> or calumet
+(illustrated in figure 315), used in the calumet dance or dance of
+adoption,<a name="FNanchor_1_7" id="FNanchor_1_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_7" class="fnanchor">1</a> and the hatchet pipe or ma<sup>n</sup>zepe niniba, introduced since
+the coming of the white man. One form of the pipe used on ordinary
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page280" id="page280">[Pg 280]</a></span>
+
+Tobacco pouches (nini&uacute;jiha) were made of deer or antelope skin, and
+were ornamented with porcupine quills or a fringe of deerskin. Sometimes
+buffalo bladders were used for this purpose. The women used them as
+receptacles for their porcupine quills.</p>
+
+<p>occasions is shown in figure 316. This pipe has a bowl of catlinite, and
+the stem is decorated with horsehair.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig316.jpg" width="600" height="135" alt="fig316" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 316.&mdash;Omaha pipe used on ordinary occasions.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_7" id="Footnote_1_7"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1_7"><span class="label">1</span></a>
+See "Omaha Sociology," Third Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethnology,
+chap. vi.</p></div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Equipage for Horses.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Saddles (c&aacute;nak&aacute;g&#572;e) were in use before the coming of the whites. They
+were made of wood, around which was wrapped hide, while still
+"&#647;aha-nu&#670;a" (green or soft). According to Joseph La Fl&egrave;che these
+saddles did not rub sores on the backs of the native horses (Indian
+ponies), but Dougherty<a name="FNanchor_1_8" id="FNanchor_1_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_8" class="fnanchor">1</a> said, in 1819, "The Indians are generally
+cruel horse-masters, perhaps in a great measure through necessity; the
+backs of their horses are very often sore and ulcerated, from the
+friction of the rude saddle, which is fashioned after the Spanish
+manner, being elevated at the pummel and croup, and resting on skin
+saddle cloths without padding." They ride very well, and make frequent
+use of the whip and their heels, the latter being employed instead of
+spurs.</p>
+
+<p>For bridles and halters they used strips of hide, out of which material
+they made also lariats. The bridle used consisted of a withe, one end of
+which was wrapped two or three times around the animal's lower jaw,
+while the other was held in the hand, forming but a single rein. This
+did not hinder the rider from guiding his horse, as he was able to turn
+him to the left by pressing the single rein against the animal's neck,
+as well as by the use of the right heel against its side. When he wished
+to turn to the right, he pulled the rein and pressed his left heel
+against the horse's side.</p>
+
+<p>Whips were of three kinds. The wah&iacute; w&eacute;gasapi was attached to a bone
+handle. The handle of a ja<sup>n</sup>&#8242;uke&#572;i<sup>n</sup> w&eacute;gasapi was made of
+common wood. That of a za<sup>n</sup>z&iacute; w&eacute;gasapi was made of Osage orange wood,
+which is very hard. The whip was attached to the wrist by a broad band,
+which passed through a hole near the end of the handle. The handle was
+about 15 inches long and was very stout. A specimen that has been
+deposited in the National Museum (a gift to the author from an Omaha)
+has a lash 2 feet long, composed of 8 thongs one-fifth of an inch wide.
+These are plaited together in one rounded plait for 18 inches, the rest
+of the lash being in 2 plaits of 4 thongs each, knotted near the ends.</p>
+
+<p>The lasso was called ma<sup>n</sup>&#8242;tanah-&iacute;&#572;ize, i.e., "that by which (a)
+wild (horse) is taken." It was made by taking the hair from the head of
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page281" id="page281">[Pg 281]</a></span>
+
+a buffalo and plaiting it into a very strong rope as thick as one's
+thumb. This rope was called "&#647;aha-&#572;isa<sup>n</sup>," and was utilized by
+the Omaha and Ponka instead of the common lasso for catching wild horses
+in northwestern Nebraska. One end of the rope was formed into a noose
+large enough to slip over a horse's head, and the ends of this noose
+were secured to a long pole by small cords. The other end of the rope,
+arranged in a coil, was fastened to the belt or waist of the man. He
+rode with the pole held in one hand and tried to thrust the noose in
+front of a horse. When he succeeded in passing the noose over the head
+of an animal, he threw away the stick, which had become separated from
+the noose, and held the rope alone, which he pulled toward him. When the
+horse was caught, the man made an &#301;nd&uacute;&#572;ici<sup>n</sup>. (bridle or face
+cover), being careful to place some buffalo hair over the nose and under
+the chin, to guard against paining the horse, whose eyes remained
+uncovered.</p>
+
+<p>Trappings for the saddle (s&#301;n&#8242;de-eh&eacute;&#572;&#277;) were used. Some years
+ago a specimen of Omaha trapping was presented by the writer to the
+Anthropological Society of Washington, and subsequently was deposited in
+the National Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_8" id="Footnote_1_8"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1_8"><span class="label">1</span></a>
+Long, S. H.; Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 1, p. 291, Phila., 1822</p></div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Traveling Gear.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Snow-shoes (s&eacute;-hi<sup>n</sup>be) were worn by the Omaha and Ponka when they
+traversed a region, north of their modern, habitat.</p>
+
+<p>For traveling on foot a staff (h&iacute;-ma&ntilde;g&#572;e) was used when it was
+necessary to pass over mountains; also when, heavy loads had to be
+carried. This staff differed from the crutch (&iacute;-ma&ntilde;g&#572;e).</p>
+
+<p>The women had m&aacute;ca&#670;a^n, or straps, for aiding them in carrying loads
+of wood, etc.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Boats.</span></h3>
+
+<p>When they wished to cross streams they made hide boats, or mand&eacute;ha.
+These were manufactured from dried buffalo hides, which were sewed
+together with sinew, and so tightly that no water could penetrate the
+seams. Ten branches of red willow were placed within, the ends being
+bent upward and fastened by withes to two other saplings, which extended
+the whole length of the boat at the inside of the gunwale. The ten
+pieces were the &#647;&iacute;ci-&iacute;ki[p]&aacute;da<sup>n</sup>. The rudder or steering oar
+(&iacute;&#572;isa<sup>n</sup>&#8242;&#572;&#277;) was fashioned like the oars (mand&uacute;&#572;ug&aacute;hi),
+with the blade flat and of the breadth of two hands. The rowers
+(u&#572;&uacute;gahi ak&aacute;) sat near the bow, and the steersman
+(&#572;isa<sup>n</sup>&#8242;&#572;a ak&aacute;) took his seat at the stern.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Musical Instruments.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Battles were of five kinds, [P]exe were generally gourds; wata<sup>n</sup>&#8242;
+[p]exe, gourd rattles, were always round, and were partially filled with
+seed, fine shot, or gravel, [T]ah&aacute;nu&#670;a [p]&eacute;xe, green-hide rattles,
+were of two sorts, one of which is "&#572;ig&uacute;je," bent a little. Specimens
+of this form are in the National Museum.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="page282" id="page282">[Pg 282]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Two kinds of rattles were called &#647;a-c&aacute;ge, i.e., "deers-claws," from
+the composition of one variety, though the other was made of molars of
+the elk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/fig317.jpg" width="300" height="343" alt="fig317" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 317&mdash;Skin drum.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Omaha used three styles of drums. The &#572;&eacute;xe-ga&#670;&uacute; b&#572;&aacute;ska, or
+flat drum, is illustrated by a specimen (no. 21675) in the National
+Museum. The &#572;&eacute;xe-ga&#670;&uacute; gad&aacute;je is made of buffalo hide, cowhide, or
+the skin of a horse. An example of this drum (no. 24682) is also in the
+National Museum, and is illustrated by the accompanying figure 317. The
+ja<sup>n</sup>&#8242; &#572;&eacute;xe-ga&#670;&uacute;, or &#670;&uacute;ge &#572;&eacute;xe-ga&#670;&uacute;, is a wooden or box
+drum, represented by the accompanying figure 318, also from a specimen
+(no. 58610) in the National Museum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/fig318.jpg" width="300" height="220" alt="fig318" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 318&mdash;Box drum.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whistles were made of elder (ba&#647;&uacute;ci-hi, or popgun wood) by pushing out
+the pith. No holes were made in the sides of the tube.</p>
+
+<p>Nis&uacute;de &#647;a&ntilde;&#8242;ga, or large flutes, were made of red cedar. A branch was
+cut off, rounded, split open with a knife, and hollowed out; then six
+holes were made in the side of one of them, and the halves were stuck
+together again. When one of these instruments is blown it produces
+quavering notes. The best specimens were made by
+[P]&aacute;&#572;i<sup>n</sup>-&#647;a&ntilde;&#8242;ga, Big Pawnee.</p>
+
+<p>The large flute is illustrated in figure 319.<a name="FNanchor_1_9" id="FNanchor_1_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_9" class="fnanchor">1</a> Wah&iacute; nis&uacute;de, or bone
+flutes, were made of the long bones from the eagle wing. These small
+flutes have only one hole. Reed flutes, &#572;&iacute;q&#572;e nis&uacute;de, were made of
+a kind of reed which grows south of the Omaha territory, probably in
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page283" id="page283">[Pg 283]</a></span>
+
+Kansas. The Omaha obtained the reeds from some of the southern tribes
+and made them into flutes having but one hole each.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/fig319.jpg" width="300" height="290" alt="fig319" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 319.&mdash;Omaha large flute.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_9" id="Footnote_1_9"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1_9"><span class="label">1</span></a>
+Compare Ree fife, "AMM 129-8429, Gray and Matthews," in the
+National Museum.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>WEAPONS.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Clubs.</span></h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/fig320.jpg" width="400" height="182" alt="fig320" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 320.&mdash;Omaha club (ja<sup>n</sup>-[p]&aacute;&#596;na).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ja<sup>n</sup>-w&eacute;ti<sup>n</sup>, "striking-wood," is a four-sided club. It is made
+of ash, and is as long as from the elbow to the tips of the fingers. The
+ja^n-d&aacute;ona, "wood with a smooth head," is a club made of ironwood, which
+is very hard. According to the late Joseph La Fl&egrave;che, the Omaha form of
+this weapon had a steel point projecting from the ball.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="page284" id="page284">[Pg 284]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/fig321.jpg" width="400" height="245" alt="fig321" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 321.&mdash;Omaha club (ja<sup>n</sup>-d&aacute;&#596;na).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Figures 320 and 321 are forms of the ja<sup>n</sup>-[p]&aacute;&#596;na which may be seen
+in the National Museum (nos. 2649 and 22419). The weaq&#572;ade, another
+kind of war club, is made of some kind of hard wood. There are two
+varieties, one of which is shown in figure 322 (National Museum no.
+23729). The other has a ball carved at the end of a straight handle,
+with a wooden point (of one piece with the ball and handle) projecting
+from the ball, making an angle of about 130&deg; with one side of the
+handle. There is a steel point inserted in the ball, forming an angle of
+about 110&deg; with the other side of the handle. The i<sup>n</sup>&#8242;-wate-ji&ntilde;&#8242;ga
+is something like a slung shot. A round stone is wrapped in a piece of
+hide which is fastened to a wooden handle about 2 feet long.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig322.jpg" width="600" height="283" alt="fig322" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 322.&mdash;Omaha club (weaq&#572;ade).</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Tomahawks.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The heads of tomahawks as well as of battle-axes were at first made of
+stone; but within the last century and a half they have been fashioned
+of iron.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Spears.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Lances, darts, or spears are designated by the general term
+man&#8242;d&#277;hi. The ja<sup>n</sup>&#8242;-man'd&#277;hi are made of ash, and are from 6
+to 8 feet long. There
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page285" id="page285">[Pg 285]</a></span>
+
+are two kinds, of one of which the handle is
+round, and about an inch in diameter, and the point is flat and about
+the width of three fingers at its juncture with the handle.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these there are the lances, called waq&#572;exe-&#572;&aacute;ze, of which
+there are two varieties. One consists of a straight pole, which has been
+thrust through a piece of buffalo hide that has its long end sewed
+together, forming a sort of covering. To this hide are fastened feathers
+of the crow and mi<sup>n</sup>&#8242;xa-sa<sup>n</sup>, or swan, in alternate rows or
+bunches. Between the feathers are fastened square pieces of blanket.
+About the middle of the pole a space of nearly 6 inches is left without
+feathers, and this is the place where the spear is grasped. When the
+pole was not set into a metal point the lower end was cut very sharp.<a name="FNanchor_1_10" id="FNanchor_1_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_10" class="fnanchor">1</a>
+The other variety, or mand&#277;hi &#572;iguje, "bent spear," is the weapon
+which the Dakota call "wahukeza." It is ornamented with eagle feathers
+placed at intevals, one being at the end of the curved part; and it
+generally terminates at the bottom in an iron point. It is possible for
+one of these waq&#572;exe&#572;aze to reach a man about 6 feet distant; and
+even mounted men have been killed by them. Spears are used also in some
+of the dances. Around the shaft is wrapped the skin of a swan or brant.
+The end feather at the top is white; the other feathers are white or
+spotted. The bent spear is no longer employed by the Omaha, though the
+Osage, Pawnee, and other tribes still use it to a greater or lesser
+extent.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_10" id="Footnote_1_10"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1_10"><span class="label">1</span></a>
+See First Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, 1879-'80;
+1881, Pl. X, "Tolkotin cremation."</p></div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Bows.</span></h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig323.jpg" width="600" height="59" alt="fig323" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 323.&mdash;Omaha bow (za<sup>n</sup>zi-mand&#277;).</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig324.jpg" width="600" height="51" alt="fig324" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 324.&mdash;Omaha bow (&#647;a&#670;a<sup>n</sup>-mand&#277;)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Bows (man-d&#277;) are of two kinds. One is the man-d&#277; or
+za<sup>n</sup>zi-mand&#277; (bow-wood bow), having an unbroken curve past the grip
+to within an inch or two of each nock.<a name="FNanchor_2_11" id="FNanchor_2_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_11" class="fnanchor">2</a> The other kind is the
+&#647;a&#670;a<sup>n</sup>-mand&#277;, so called because it has deer sinew glued on its
+back.<a name="FNanchor_3_12" id="FNanchor_3_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_12" class="fnanchor">3</a> Bows were made of hickory, ash, ironwood, or za<sup>n</sup>zi, the last
+being greatly preferred. It is a wood resembling that of the Osage
+orange, with which some persons confound it; but it is black and much
+harder than the former, the Osage orange wood being yellow, soft, and
+easily cut. The za<sup>n</sup>zi is probably that which Dougherty<a name="FNanchor_4_13" id="FNanchor_4_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_13" class="fnanchor">4</a> called
+"bow-wood (<i>Maclura aurantiaca</i> of Nuttall)."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="page286" id="page286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Bowstrings were made of the twisted sinew of the elk and buffalo, as
+among other tribes.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_11" id="Footnote_2_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_11"><span class="label">2</span></a> This may be the "self-bow" mentioned in the American
+Naturalist for July, 1886, p. 675.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_12" id="Footnote_3_12"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_3_12"><span class="label">3</span></a>
+This is the sinew-backed bow above mentioned.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_13" id="Footnote_4_13"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_4_13"><span class="label">4</span></a>
+Long's Expedition, op. cit., vol. I, p. 290.</p></div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Arrows.</span></h3>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 75px;">
+<img src="images/fig325.jpg" width="75" height="231" alt="fig325" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 325.&mdash;Omaha hunting arrow.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The arrows (ma<sup>n</sup>) used in former days were of several kinds. The
+hunting arrow, used for killing the buffalo, was generally about 2 feet
+long, of the usual cylindric form, and armed with an elongate triangular
+point, made at first of flint, afterward of sheet iron. The shoulders of
+the arrow were rounded instead of angular, as in the ordinary barbed
+form. The point, or head, was firmly secured to the shaft by deer sinew
+wrapped around the neck of the point, and over that was spread some
+cement, made in a manner to be afterward explained. The flight of the
+arrow was equalized by three half-webs of feathers, neatly fastened near
+its base in the usual manner.</p>
+
+<p>Another kind of hunting arrow was the hid&eacute; naz&iacute;&#572;&#277;, which was
+altogether of wood. About 6 inches from the point the shaft was
+triangular or quadrangular; and the point was made by holding the shaft
+close to a fire and turning it round and round till the heat had reduced
+it to the proper shape and had hardened it. This was used for killing
+fish, deer, and small game.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/fig326.jpg" width="200" height="197" alt="fig326" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 326.&mdash;Omaha war arrow.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The war arrow (<i>b</i>) differed from that used in hunting in having a
+barbed point, which was very slightly attached to the shaft, so that if
+it penetrated the body of an enemy it could not be withdrawn without
+leaving the point in the wound.</p>
+
+<p>Children used the hid&eacute;-&#647;ece, or target arrow, when they began to learn
+the use of the bow. With this a boy could kill small birds and animals.</p>
+
+<p>The Ponka used to make arrowshafts (ma<sup>n</sup>sa) of ja<sup>n</sup>-&#8242;qude-h&iacute;,
+"gray wood," juneberry wood, which grew in their country, but is not
+found among the Omaha. Most of the Omaha made their shafts of the
+ma<sup>n</sup>&#697;saqtih&iacute;, or "real arrow-wood," (<i>Viburnum</i>) as that was the wood
+best suited for the purpose. Sometimes they were made of chokecherry
+wood; and Joseph LaFl&egrave;che informs me that he has made them of ash and
+hickory.</p>
+
+<p>Arrowshafts were held lengthwise directly in a line with the eyes of the
+workman, who sighted along them to see if they were straight. If one was
+bent, he held one end of it between his teeth, while he pressed against
+the rest of it with his hands. They were polished by means of the
+polishers, or ma<sup>n</sup>&#8242;-&#572;iq&#572;&aacute;de, two pieces of sandstone, each of
+which had
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="page287" id="page287">[Pg 287]</a></span>
+
+a groove in the middle of one side. These grooves were
+brought together, and the arrow was drawn between them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/fig327.jpg" width="600" height="49" alt="fig327" title="Illustration" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 327.&mdash;Omaha style of hid&eacute;-&#647;&aacute;ce</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>War arrows had crooked lines drawn along the shafts from the points to
+the other ends, down which, so I was informed by the Indians, it was
+intended that the blood of a wounded foe should trickle.</p>
+
+<p>Arrowheads (m&aacute;hi<sup>n</sup>-s&iacute;), when made of flint, as at the first, were
+called "i<sup>n</sup>&#8242;&#2037;&#277; mahi<sup>n</sup>s&iacute;," stone arrowheads. In more recent times,
+they were manufactured of pieces of sheet iron; as, for example, hoops
+of pails and barrels.</p>
+
+<p>Arrow cement (hi<sup>n</sup>&#8242;pa), for attaching the heads to the shafts, was
+usually made from the skin taken off a buffalo or elk head. This was
+boiled a long time, till ready to fall to pieces. When the gelatinous
+matter forming the cement rose to the top of the water, a stick (called
+hi<sup>n</sup>p&aacute;-ja<sup>n</sup>ji&ntilde;&#8242;ga) was thrust in and turned round and round,
+causing the material to be wrapped around it. When cooled it was
+smoothed with the hand. Then the act was repeated till a large quantity
+was collected on the stick. When needed for use, it was warmed by
+placing either in the mouth or in hot water. The skin of the big turtle
+was also used for making cement.</p>
+
+<p>A set of arrows were called, collectively, "ma<sup>n</sup>wi<sup>n</sup>&#8242;da<sup>n</sup>." A
+set generally consisted of ten arrows, but the number varied; sometimes
+there were two, four, or even twenty. When a man had arrows left in his
+quiver, he compared them with that which was in the slain animal. When
+he had none left, he appealed to some one who knew his style of arrow.</p>
+
+<p>There were no clan or gentile marks on arrows. One set was distinguished
+from another by the order of the paint stripes on them, by the kind of
+feathers used, by the mode in which the arrowheads were made, etc. The
+Oto made bad arrows; those of the Pawnee were better, but they were
+inferior to those made by the Dakota, Ponka, and Omaha.</p>
+
+<p>The feathers, half-webs generally, put on arrows were those of the
+eagle, buzzard, wild turkey, great owl, and goose. Sometimes hawk or
+crow feathers were employed.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Quivers.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Quivers (ma<sup>n</sup>&#8242;jiha) for men were made of buffalo hide; but boys'
+quivers were made either of otter skins or of the skins of cougars, with
+the tail of the animal hanging down from the upper extremity. A skin
+case was attached to the quiver for carrying the bow when not in use.
+The wrist was defended from the percussion of the bowstring by the
+leather wristguard or &aacute;qande-[p]a.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Shields and Armor.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Shields (&#647;ah&aacute;wag&#572;e) were made of the hides of buffalo bulls. They
+were round and very thick, reaching to the waist of the bearer. Arrows
+did not penetrate them. Joseph La Fl&egrave;che never heard of the use of
+defensive armor, such as helmet and mail, among the Omaha and Ponka.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="page288" id="page288">[Pg 288]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>He had heard of a Pawnee who made a coat from four elk skins, two
+forming the front and two the back. Between each pair of skins was
+placed sand. A helmet was made in like manner. It covered the back of
+the head and extended over the forehead, coming down as far as the eyes.
+When the Pawnee noticed an arrow coming toward him, he bowed his head
+forward.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Firearms.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Firearms were introduced among the Omaha prior to 1819, when Dougherty
+says that they preferred those called "Mackinaw guns."</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<table cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" width="60%" summary="contents">
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Armor</span>, Absence of, among the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 3.4em;">of the Pawnee</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page288">288</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Arrows</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page286">286</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Axes</span>, of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Bark</span>, Omaha lodges of</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page269">269</a>, <a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Basketry</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Baths</span>, public, Absence of, among the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page274">274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Beds</span> and bedding of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Big Pawnee</span>, Flutes made by</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page282">282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Bik&uacute;de</span>, an Omaha village</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page270">270</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Bladders</span> used as receptacles</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Boats</span> of hide of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page281">281</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Bone</span> hoes of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Bridles</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Brooms</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Buffalo</span>, gents of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">&#571;egiha</span> fire-making</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Cement</span> used by the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Children</span>, Omaha, Target arrows of the</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page286">286</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Clubs</span>, War, of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page283">283</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Couches</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Cradles</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Dakota</span>, Arrows of the</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Dance</span> houses of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page274">274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Decoration</span> of Omaha tents</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page274">274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Dorsey</span> J. O., on Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page263">263</a>-<a href="#page288">288</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Dougherty</span>, &mdash;, on Omaha bow-wood</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 11.1em;">firearms</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page288">288</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 11.1em;">horse equipage</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Drilling</span>, with grass-stalks</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Drinking</span> vessels of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Dwellings</span>, furniture and implements of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page263">263</a>-<a href="#page288">288</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Equipage</span> for horses</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Firearms</span> among the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page288">288</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Fire implements</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Fireplace</span> in Omaha lodge</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">of the Omaha and Ponka</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Flute</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page282">282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Furniture</span>, dwellings, and implements of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page263">263</a>-<a href="#page288">288</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Gentile</span> marks, Absence of, on Omaha arrows</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Grain</span>, Storage of, among the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page274">274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Halters</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Hammocks</span> introduced among the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Hoes</span>, Bone, of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Horn</span> spoons of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Implements</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page263">263</a>-<a href="#page278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Iowa</span> indians, Bark lodges of</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Ja<sup>n</sup>&#572;a&#8242;te</span>, an Omaha village</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page270">270</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Kansa</span>, Lodges of the</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page270">270</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Knives</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">La Fl&egrave;che, Joseph</span>, on Omaha armor</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 12.4em;">arrowshafts</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page286">286</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 12.4em;">mats</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 12.4em;">saddles</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 12.4em;">war-clubs</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page283">283</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">La Flesche, Francis</span>, on grass-stalk drills</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Lances</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Lariats</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Lodges</span> of earth, Use of</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 3.1em;">, Omaha, how constructed</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Long, S. H.</span>, on Kansa lodge</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 5.1em;">Omaha bow-wood</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 5.1em;">indian horsemanship</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Mason, O. T</span>, Acknowledgements to</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Mats</span>, cane, the Omaha and Winnebago</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 3em;">, Omaha lodges of</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page269">269</a>, <a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Mortars</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Musical instruments</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page281">281</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Omaha</span> dwellings, furniture and implements</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page263">263</a>-<a href="#page288">288</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Osage indians</span>, Bent spear used by</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 6.3em;">, Lodges of, described</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Oto</span>, Arrows of the</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Pawnee</span>, Armor of the</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page288">288</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">, Arrows of the</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">, Bent spear used by the</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page285">285</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">[P]ejqude</span>, Tent of</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page273">273</a>, <a href="#page274">274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Pestles</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Pillows</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Pipes</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Ponka</span>, Armor not used by the</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2.9em;">, Arrows of the</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2.9em;">dwellings, furniture and implements</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 2.9em;">, Ropes of the</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page281">281</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Pottery</span>, formerly made by the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page276">276</a>, <a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Provision sacks</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Quivers</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Riding</span>, Omaha method of</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Sacks</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Saddles</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Sanssouci</span>, Village of</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Sauk</span>, Bark lodges of the</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Say, T.</span>, on Kansa lodge</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Sewing</span> among the Siouan tribes</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page274">274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Shields</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Skin</span> lodge of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page269">269</a>, <a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Smoke holes</span> of Omaha lodge</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page273">273</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Smoking</span> paraphernalia, Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Snow-shoes</span>, Omaha and Ponka</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page281">281</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Spears</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page284">284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Spoons</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Standards</span>, War, of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page273">273</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Standing Hawk</span> Village of</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page270">270</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Stone</span> arrowheads of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 3em;">axes of the Omaha</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 3em;">knives of the Omaha</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page278">278</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Sweat-houses</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page274">274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Swings</span> of Omaha children</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page276">276</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Tobacco pouches</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page284">284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Tomahawks</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page284">284</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Tongs</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page279">279</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Totem posts</span>, Absence of, among the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page274">274</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Traveling</span> gear, Omaha and Ponka</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page281">281</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Utensils</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Water</span> vessels of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Weapons</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page283">283</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Whips</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page280">280</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Whistles</span> of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page282">282</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Wickiup</span>, Origin of term</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Winjage</span>, an Omaha village</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page270">270</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Winnebago</span> grass mats</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page275">275</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span style="margin-left: 5.3em;">lodges described</span></td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page271">271</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Women</span>, Omaha lodges made by</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page269">269</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Wood</span>, Spoons of, of the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page277">277</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Wristguards</span>, of stone used by the Omaha</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page287">287</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><span class="smcap">Yellow Smoke</span>, Earth lodge of</td>
+<td align="right"><a href="#page270">270</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,1493 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and Implements, by
+James Owen Dorsey,
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and Implements
+       Thirteenth Annual Report of the Beaurau of American
+       Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
+       1891-1892, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1896
+       pages 263-288
+
+Author: James Owen Dorsey,
+
+Release Date: November 24, 2006 [EBook #19913]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Verity White and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  +-------------------------------------------+
+  | Transcriber's Note:                       |
+  |                                           |
+  | ^{x} represents a superscripted letter    |
+  |  [x] represents a turned letter           |
+  |  ['] represents a prime                   |
+  | [|x] represents a letter with a stroke    |
+  | [)x] represents a letter with a breve     |
+  |  [,] represents a turned comma            |
+  +-------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS
+
+BY
+
+JAMES OWEN DORSEY
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                             Page
+  Introductory note                           269
+  Dwellings                                   269
+    Earth lodges                              269
+    Lodges of bark or mats                    271
+    Skin lodges or tents                      271
+  Furniture and implements                    275
+    Fireplaces                                275
+    Beds and bedding                          275
+    Cradles                                   275
+    Children's swings                         276
+    Brooms                                    276
+    Pottery                                   276
+    Mortars and pestles                       276
+    Spoons, ladles, and drinking vessels      277
+    Water vessels                             277
+    Other vessels                             278
+    Hoes and axes                             278
+    Knives                                    278
+    Implements connected with fire            279
+    Smoking paraphernalia                     279
+    Equipage for horses                       280
+    Traveling gear                            281
+    Boats                                     281
+    Musical instruments                       281
+  Weapons                                     283
+    Clubs                                     283
+    Tomahawks                                 284
+    Spears                                    284
+    Bows                                      285
+    Arrows                                    286
+    Quivers                                   287
+    Shields and armor                         287
+    Firearms                                  288
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                      Page
+  Fig. 306. Yellow Smoke's earth lodge                 270
+       307. Ground plan of Osage lodge                 271
+       308. Omaha tent                                 272
+       309. Exterior parts of an Omaha tent            273
+       310. [P]ejequde's tent                          274
+       311. Omaha cradle--plan                         276
+       312. Omaha cradle--side view                    276
+       313. Omaha mortar                               277
+       314. Omaha pestle                               277
+       315. Omaha calumet                              279
+       316. Omaha pipe used on ordinary occasions      280
+       317. Skin drum                                  282
+       318. Box drum                                   282
+       319. Omaha large flute                          283
+       320. Omaha club (ja^{n}-[p]a[c]na)              283
+       321. Omaha club (ja^{n}-[p]a[c]na)              284
+       322. Omaha club (weaq[|c]ade)                   284
+       323. Omaha bow (za^{n}zi-mand[)e])              285
+       324. Omaha bow ([t]a[k]a^{n}-mand[)e])          285
+       325. Omaha hunting arrow                        286
+       326. Omaha war arrow                            286
+       327. Omaha style of hide-[t]ace                 286
+
+
+
+
+OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS
+
+BY JAMES OWEN DORSEY
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
+
+
+The accompanying paper is one of the results of personal investigations
+among the Omaha of Nebraska and cognate tribes of Indians, beginning in
+1878 and continued from time to time during late years.
+
+While the paper treats of the Omaha tribe, much that is said is
+applicable to the Ponka, as the two tribes have long had similar
+environments and a common dialect, for, until 1877, their habitats were
+almost contiguous, and since 1880 about one-third of the Ponka tribe has
+been dwelling on its former reservation near the town of Niobrara,
+Nebraska.
+
+Acknowledgments are due Dr. O. T. Mason for many valuable suggestions
+early in the progress of the work.
+
+
+
+
+DWELLINGS.
+
+
+The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges of earth
+or, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or tents. It may
+be observed that there were no sacred rites connected with the earth
+lodge-building or tent-making among the Omaha and Ponka.
+
+
+Earth Lodges.
+
+When earth lodges were built, the people did not make them in a tribal
+circle, each man erecting his lodge where he wished; yet kindred
+commonly built near one another.
+
+The earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended principally
+for summer use, when the people were not migrating or going on the hunt.
+Those built by the Omaha and Ponka were constructed in the following
+manner: The roof was supported by two series of vertical posts, forked
+at the top for the reception of the transverse connecting pieces of each
+series. The number in each series varied according to the size of the
+lodge; for a small lodge only four posts were erected in the inner
+series, for an ordinary lodge eight were required, and ten generally
+constituted the maximum. When Mr. Say[1] visited the Kansa Indians, he
+occupied a lodge in which twelve of these posts placed in a circle
+formed the outer series, and eight longer ones constituted the inner
+series, also describing a circle. The wall was formed by setting upright
+slabs of wood back of the outer posts all around the circumference of
+the lodge. These slabs were not over 6 feet in height, and their tops
+met the cross timbers on which the willow posts rested. Stocks of hard
+willow about 2 inches in diameter rested with their butts on the tops of
+the upright slabs and extended on the cross timbers nearly to the
+summit. These poles were very numerous, touching one another and
+extending all around in a radiating manner, supporting the roof like
+rafters. The rafters were covered with grass about a foot thick; and
+over the whole lodge, including the sides or slabs, earth was piled from
+a foot to 2 feet in depth. Such a covering lasted generally about twenty
+years. A hole in the middle served as an exit for the smoke.
+
+[Footnote 1: James' account of Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains
+in 1819-'20.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 306.--Yellow Smoke's earth lodge.]
+
+In addition to the lodge proper there was a covered way about 10 feet
+long and 5 feet wide, the entrance to which had a covering of tanned or
+dried buffalo hides. This covering consisted of two hides hanging side
+by side, with the inner borders slightly overlapping. They were fastened
+to the passageway at the top and at the outer sides, but were loose at
+the bottom where they overlapped. This part was raised by a person
+entering the lodge. A similar covering was placed at the interior end of
+the passageway.
+
+Subsequently to 1855, the Omaha dwelt in three villages composed of
+earth lodges, as follows: (1) Biku[']de, a village near the agency; (2)
+Windja[']ge, Standing Hawk's village, near the Presbyterian mission
+house; and (3) Ja^{n}[|c]a[']te ("Wood Eaters,") named after an insect
+found under the bark of trees Sanssouci's village, near the town of
+Decatur, Nebraska.
+
+Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings, such as feasts,
+councils, or dances. Occasionally there was a depression in the center
+of the lodge which was used as a fireplace; but it was not over 6 inches
+deep. Each earth lodge had a ladder, made by cutting a series of deep
+notches along one side of a log. On a bluff near the Omaha agency I
+found the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances on the
+southern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100 feet in
+diameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow about 3 feet
+deep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the lodge.
+
+
+Lodges of Bark or Mats.
+
+The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy, as did the
+Iowa and Sak. [T]iu['][|c]ipu jin[']ga, or low lodges covered with
+mats, were used by the Omaha in former days. Such lodges are still
+common among the Winnebago, the Osage, and other tribes. The ground plan
+of such a lodge forms an ellipse. The height is hardly over 7 feet from
+the ground. The tent poles are arranged thus: Each pole has one end
+planted in the ground, the other end being bent down and fastened to the
+pole immediately opposite; a number of poles thus arranged in pairs
+formed both wall posts and rafters.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 307.--Ground plan of Osage lodge.]
+
+Generally there was one fireplace and one smokehole in such a lodge; but
+when I visited the Osage in 1883, I entered a low lodge with two
+fireplaces, each equidistant from its end of the lodge and the entrance,
+each fireplace having its smokehole.
+
+
+Skin Lodges or Tents.
+
+The tent was used when the people were migrating, and also when they
+were traveling in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite abode
+of a household during the winter season, as the earth lodge was
+generally erected in an exposed situation, selected on account of
+comfort in the summer. The tent could be pitched in the timber or brush,
+or down in wooded ravines, where the cold winds never had full sweep.
+Hence, many Indians abandoned their houses in winter and went into their
+tents, even when they were of canvas.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 308.--Omaha tent (from a photograph by
+W. H. Jackson).]
+
+The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned buffalo
+skins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10 to 12 feet
+high, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a foot and a
+half in diameter at the top, which served as a smokehole
+([t]ihu[k]a^{n}). Besides the interior tent poles ([t]ici--3,
+figure 309) and the tent skin ([t]iha--1), the tent had the
+[t]i[|c]uma^{n}ha^{n}, or the place where the skins were fastened
+together above the entrance (4). The [t]i[|c]uma^{n}ha^{n} was fastened
+with the [t]ihu[|c]ubaxa^{n}(5), which consisted of sticks or pieces of
+hide thrust crosswise through the holes in the tent skins. The bottom of
+the tent was secured to the ground by pins ([t]ihu[|c]ugada^{n}--6)
+driven through holes ([t]ihugaq[|c]uge) in the bottom of the skins, made
+when the latter were tanned and before they had become hard. The
+entrance ([t]ijebe) was generally opposite the quarter from which the
+wind was blowing. A door flap ([t]ijebeg[|c]a^{n}--7) hung over the
+entrance; it was made of skin with the hair outside, so as to turn
+water, and was held taut by a stick fastened to it transversely. The
+bottom of the door flap was loose, but the top was fastened to the tent.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 309--Exterior parts of an Omaha tent.]
+
+The smokehole was formed by the two [t]ihugab[|c]i^{n}[|c]a(9), or
+triangular ends of tent skins, immediately above the entrance and
+[t]icuma^{n}ha^{n}. When there was no wind both of the
+[t]ihugab[|c]i^{n}[|c]a were kept open by means of the
+[t]ihu[|c]ubaji^{n}(8) or exterior tent poles, which were thrust
+through the ujiha, or small sacks, in the corners of the
+[t]ihugab[|c]i^{n}[|c]a. When the wind blew one of the
+[t]ihu[|c]ubaji^{n} was raised to the windward and the other was
+lowered, pulling its skin close to the tent and leaving an opening for
+the escape of the smoke; but if the wind came directly against the
+entrance both the flaps were raised, closing the smokehole to prevent
+the wind from blowing down it. When the wind blew the people used
+nandi[|c]agaspe to keep the bottom of each tent skin in place. These
+consisted of twisted grass, sticks, stones, or other heavy objects.
+
+Figure 310 represents the tent of [P]ejequde, an Omaha. The banners or
+standards, which were carried by the leaders of a war party or a party
+going on a dancing tour, are depicted with their decorations of strips
+of red and blue Indian cloth. Sometimes these standards were ornamented
+with feathers instead of with cloth. Each standard could be used in four
+war expeditions.
+
+No totem posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent of the principal
+man of each gens was decorated on the outside with his gentile badge,
+which was painted on each side of the entrance as well as on the back of
+the tent.[1] The furniture of the sacred tents resembled that of the
+ordinary ones.
+
+Before the introduction of canvas tents by the whites no needles or
+thread were used by the Siouan tribes. The women used sinew of the deer
+or buffalo instead of thread, and for needles they had awls made of elk
+horn.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 310.--[P]ejequde's tent.]
+
+Since there were no outbuildings, public granaries, or other structures
+of this description, each household stored away its own grain and other
+provisions. There were no special tribal or communal dwellings; but
+sometimes two or more households occupied a single earth lodge. When a
+council was held, it took place in the earth lodge of one of the head
+chiefs, or else two or three common tents were united, making one large
+one.[2] There were no public baths, as the Missouri river was near, and
+they could resort to it whenever they desired. Dance houses were
+improvised either of earth lodges or skin tents.
+
+Sweat-lodges were in the form of low tents ([t]iu[|c]ipu).[3] Stones
+were not boiled for the sweat-lodge, but were put into the fire to be
+heated. They were removed from the fire by means of sticks called
+i^{n}[,][)e]basi[|c]a^{n}, and then water from the kettle was poured on
+them, creating steam. Cedar fronds were dropped on the stones, causing a
+perfume to arise.
+
+[Footnote 1: Third Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology for 1882-'83, p. 230; also
+"A Study of Siouan Cults," in Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology,
+1889-'90, p. 351.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Third Ann. Rep., op. cit., p. 294.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. vi, 1890,
+pp. 152, 169, and 234.]
+
+
+
+
+FURNITURE AND IMPLEMENTS.
+
+
+Fireplaces.
+
+Within the tent, in the center, was the fireplace (une[|c][)e]), formed
+by excavating a small hollow. Beside this was erected a forked post
+(isag[|c][)e]), on which was hung the apparatus for suspending a kettle
+over the fire. This apparatus was called [|c]exe u[|c]ugacke by the
+Ponka, literally, "that by means of which the kettle is hung." The Omaha
+have two names for it, uha^{n} u[|c]ugacke, and u[|c]ugackeg[|c]e, the
+last syllable of the latter name referring to the attitude of the post.
+Around the fireplace was a circular space for the feet of the people as
+they sat about the fire. The couches of the occupants of the tent were
+arranged outside of and all around this circular space.
+
+
+Beds and Bedding.
+
+A couch was formed by laying down two or three winter hides dried with
+the hair on. These hides were placed around the fireplace at a safe
+distance. In the earth lodges, according to Joseph La Fleche, the Omaha
+used sahi, or grass mats, for seats, as is the present custom of the
+Winnebago; but at night they reclined on dressed hides with thick hair
+on them, and covered themselves with similar hides.
+
+For pillows they used ibehi^{n} or i^{n}behi^{n}. When the vegetation
+was about 3 inches high in the spring, the Indians killed deer and
+pulled off the hair in order to remove the thin skin or tissue next to
+it. This latter, when thoroughly dried, is smooth and white, resembling
+parchment. It was used for pillows and moccasin-strings. When used for
+pillows the case was filled with goose feathers or the hair of the deer
+until it was about 2 feet long and 9 inches high. During the day, and
+whenever there was occasion, they were used as seats; but if none could
+be had, the people sat on winter robes or hides forming the couches.[1]
+Back of the couches and next to the interior tent-poles were placed the
+baggage, sacks of corn, and other household properties.
+
+The upright tent is one form of the Dakota "wake[']ya," the plural of
+which, "wake[']yapi," undoubtedly gave rise to the familiar "wick[']iup"
+of the plains, and also to "wae-ka[']-yo" of Morgan.[2]
+
+
+Cradles.
+
+A board of convenient size, usually about a yard long and a foot wide,
+was selected to form a cradle or u[|c]uhe. No pillow was needed. A
+soft skin ([p]aq[|c]uqaha [|c]a^{n}) covered with plenty of thick hair
+was laid on the board, and on it was placed the infant.
+
+[Footnote 1: Hammocks and bedsteads were unknown prior to their
+introduction by the traders and other white people.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. iv., 1881,
+p. 114.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 311.--Omaha cradle--plan.]
+
+In the annexed figures, <i>a</i> is the [)i]ndua[|c]isi^{n}ka^{n}he, the
+object painted on the board at the end where the infant's head is laid;
+<i>b</i> is the [)i]ndei[|c]id[)i]ndi^{n} ("that which is drawn taut over
+the face"), the two strings of beads and sinew or thread (sometimes made of
+red calico alone), which keep in place the fan, etc.; the fan
+([)i]ndeagani), which is suspended from a bow of wood, (<i>c</i>) is about
+6 inches square, and is now made of interwoven sinew on which beads have
+been strung. Occasionally thimbles and other bright objects dangle from
+the bottom of the fan. The i[|c]a[|c]istage (<i>d</i>) is the band by which
+the infant is fastened to the cradle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 312.--Omaha cradle--side view.]
+
+
+Children's Swings.
+
+For swings the ends of two withes of buffalo hide were secured to four
+trees or posts which formed the corners of a parallelogram. A blanket
+was thrown across the withes and folded over on them. The infant was
+laid on top of the fold and swung from side to side without falling.
+
+
+Brooms.
+
+Brooms were of two kinds. One form was made of sticks tied together, and
+was used for sweeping the ground outside of the tent or earth lodge, and
+the interior of the earth lodge, except the fireplace. The other kind
+was made of goose or turkey feathers, and was used for sweeping the
+fireplace of an earth lodge.
+
+
+Pottery.
+
+Pottery has not been made by the Omaha for more than fifty years. The
+art of making it has been forgotten by the tribe.
+
+
+Mortar and Pestles.
+
+A mortar was made by burning a large hole in a round knot or piece of
+wood about 7 inches in diameter. The lower end was sharpened to a
+point, which was thrust into the ground when needed for use. After
+putting corn in a mortar of this description, the woman grasped the
+wooden pestle in the middle, with the larger end upward; the smaller
+end, which was about an inch in diameter, was put into the mortar. The
+operation of pounding corn among the Omaha was called "he." The mortar
+(uhe) and pestle (wehe) were both made commonly of elm, although
+sometimes they were fashioned of white oak. Mortars were of various
+sizes, some of them measuring 2 feet in diameter. Pestles were always of
+hard and heavy wood, and fully 3 feet long, taperring from 4 inches to
+an inch in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 314.--Omaha pestle.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 313.--Omaha mortar.]
+
+
+Spoons, Ladles and Drinking Vessels.
+
+Spoons were made of horn, wood, or pottery. The black spoons made of
+buffalo horn ([t]ehe sab[)e]), are not used by such Omaha as belong to
+the Buffalo gentes (Inkesab[)e], [|C]atada, [T]esinde, etc.) which may
+not touch a buffalo head. Other horn spoons of light color are made of
+cow horn. These are of modern origin. Wooden spoons (ja^{n}[t]ehe) were
+made of knobs or knots of trees. Spoons made of buffalo horn are found
+among the Omaha and Ponka, but the Osage, Kansa, and Kwapa use clam
+shells ([t]ihaba, in [|C]egiha; tcuehaba, tcuehuba, in Kansa), so the
+Kansa call a small spoon, tcuehaba jinga. Spoons of buffalo horn had
+their handles variously ornamented by notches and other rude carving,
+often terminating in the head of a bird, the neck or handle of each
+being elevated at an angle of 50 deg. or 60 deg. with the bowl, which, was about
+3 inches in width by about 5 in length. As the handle of such a spoon
+usually terminates in a head or hook, it was impossible for it to slip
+into the bowl when the hook rested on the outside of the rim of the
+bowl.
+
+Food was served in bowls of a very wide and simple form and of various
+sizes, generally carved out of large knots of wood. These served as
+drinking cups (ni[']i[|c]ata^{n}), but now cups of tin or earthenware
+are used for that purpose.
+
+
+Water Vessels
+
+When pottery was made, they used bowls and kettles. Some used wooden
+bowls of different sizes, the largest being about 2 feet in diameter.
+When they went on the hunt, they used the inijeha (or sack made of the
+muscular coating of the buffalo paunch, by filling with, grass to make
+it stand out and keep its shape until dried). When the inijeha was
+filled with water the mouth was tied, and it was kept covered and in the
+shade that it might remain cool. After being used for a few days it
+became strong smelling, and was thrown away, another taking its place.
+Some preferred the "[t]en[)a]n[']de uq[|c]a[']ha [|c]a^{n}" or
+pericardium(?) of the buffalo, which is like sinew. This does not smell
+unpleasant, even when used for seven or ten days. But at the expiration
+of that time it is unfit for further service.
+
+Jugs have been introduced by the traders.
+
+
+Other Vessels.
+
+Provision sacks or parfleche cases were made of dried buffalo hide. When
+used for carrying the dried meat, they were called weabasta. After two
+or three years' use they became soft and were fit only for making
+moccasin soles. These sacks had the hair taken off, and were sometimes
+made in trunk fashion.
+
+Fruit baskets were of three kinds. The Ponka made them of the bark of a
+tree, called tawa[,]a^{n}he, which is found on the old Ponka reservation
+in Dakota. Northern Indians make boats of this bark. The Omaha do not
+find the tree on their land, so they make the fruit baskets of other
+kinds of bark. The three kinds of baskets are as follows: Na^{n}[']pa
+u[|c]is[)e], used for chokecherries; ag[|c]an[']kamange u[|c]is[)e],
+used for raspberries; and bact u[|c]is[)e], used for strawberries. When
+the Ponka wished to make the baskets, they stripped off the bark in
+horizontal sections, not pulling upward or downward.
+
+In modern times the Omaha have learned to make sacks of thread of
+different colors drawn from black, red, blue, and white blankets.
+Different figures are woven. Each sack is about a foot deep, 16 inches
+from the mouth to the opposite side, and from 2 to 2-1/2 feet long. The
+opening is on one of the long sides, and when the articles are put in a
+gathering string is drawn and tied.
+
+
+Hoes and Axes.
+
+For hoes, the Omaha used the shoulder blades of the buffalo. Axes and
+hatchets are now made of iron, hence, the Omaha name, ma^{n}[']ze-pe,
+sharp iron. But the Kansa have the ancient name, ma^{n}[']hi-spe,
+answering to the Dakota, wa^{n}hi^{n}[']-kpe, sharp flint. The hatchet
+is distinguished from the ax by adding "jinga," small. Some of the stone
+axes and hatchets have been found on the Omaha reservation, but they
+could hardly have been used for cutting. It is not known what tools were
+used for felling trees.
+
+
+Knives.
+
+Knives were made of stone. A prominent butte, near the old Ponka agency,
+Nebraska, is known as "Mahi^{n}-[t]u," signifying blue knife, from the
+character of the stone with which its surface is covered. It is several
+miles from the mouth of Ponka creek and nearly opposite the month of
+Choteau creek, South Dakota.
+
+
+Implements Connected with Fire.
+
+In former ages, the [|C]egiha made fire by rubbing or turning a stick
+round and round between the hands. On the present Omaha reservation, and
+in that region, the Omaha use elm roots for that purpose. In the country
+called [P]izabahehe, near the source of Elkhorn river, there is a grass
+known as "duaduahi," which has about a hundred fine shoots from each
+root, which is half the size of the head. The stalk was used for hand
+drills and fire sticks. One stalk was cut almost flat, and the man puts
+his feet on the ends to steady them. Then, holding the other stick in
+his hands, with one end touching the stalk on the ground, he turned it
+round and round till the friction produced fire. Sometimes a small
+quantity of dry sand was placed on the flat stick. The same flat stick
+answered for several occasions. When the cavity made by turning the hand
+drill became too large, the point of contact was shifted to another part
+of the flat stick, and so on until the whole of that stick was used,
+when it was thrown away and another was obtained. Duaduahi, according to
+Mr. Francis La Flesche, may be found in Judiciary square, Washington,
+District of Columbia. After the coming of the white man, but before the
+introduction of friction matches, which are now used by the whole tribe,
+the Omaha used flints and tinder for making fire.
+
+Spits for roasting, etc., naqpe, or webasna^{n}, were made of any kind
+of wood.
+
+For tongs they used the [p]edi[|c]a[|c]isande ("fire-holder"), made by
+slitting one end of a stick. This implement was also called, ja^{n}
+jinga nini ibista ("the stick that presses the fire against the
+tobacco"), because it was used for lighting pipes.
+
+
+Smoking Paraphernalia.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 315.--Omaha calumet]
+
+The pipes in use among the Omaha are of three kinds: the sacred pipe
+(niniba waqube, mysterious pipe), including the war pipes and those used
+by the chiefs in making peace; the niniba weawa^{n} or calumet
+(illustrated in figure 315), used in the calumet dance or dance of
+adoption,[1] and the hatchet pipe or ma^{n}zepe niniba, introduced since
+the coming of the white man. One form of the pipe used on ordinary
+Tobacco pouches (niniujiha) were made of deer or antelope skin, and
+were ornamented with porcupine quills or a fringe of deerskin. Sometimes
+buffalo bladders were used for this purpose. The women used them as
+receptacles for their porcupine quills.
+
+[Footnote 1: See "Omaha Sociology," Third Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethnology,
+chap. vi.]
+
+occasions is shown in figure 316. This pipe has a bowl of catlinite, and
+the stem is decorated with horsehair.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 316.--Omaha pipe used on ordinary
+occasions.]
+
+
+Equipage for Horses.
+
+Saddles (canakag[|c]e) were in use before the coming of the whites. They
+were made of wood, around which was wrapped hide, while still
+"[t]aha-nu[k]a" (green or soft). According to Joseph La Fleche these
+saddles did not rub sores on the backs of the native horses (Indian
+ponies), but Dougherty[1] said, in 1819, "The Indians are generally
+cruel horse-masters, perhaps in a great measure through necessity; the
+backs of their horses are very often sore and ulcerated, from the
+friction of the rude saddle, which is fashioned after the Spanish
+manner, being elevated at the pummel and croup, and resting on skin
+saddle cloths without padding." They ride very well, and make frequent
+use of the whip and their heels, the latter being employed instead of
+spurs.
+
+For bridles and halters they used strips of hide, out of which material
+they made also lariats. The bridle used consisted of a withe, one end of
+which was wrapped two or three times around the animal's lower jaw,
+while the other was held in the hand, forming but a single rein. This
+did not hinder the rider from guiding his horse, as he was able to turn
+him to the left by pressing the single rein against the animal's neck,
+as well as by the use of the right heel against its side. When he wished
+to turn to the right, he pulled the rein and pressed his left heel
+against the horse's side.
+
+Whips were of three kinds. The wahi wegasapi was attached to a bone
+handle. The handle of a ja^{u}[']uke[|c]i^{n} wegasapi was made of
+common wood. That of a za^{n}zi wegasapi was made of Osage orange wood,
+which is very hard. The whip was attached to the wrist by a broad band,
+which passed through a hole near the end of the handle. The handle was
+about 15 inches long and was very stout. A specimen that has been
+deposited in the National Museum (a gift to the author from an Omaha)
+has a lash 2 feet long, composed of 8 thongs one-fifth of an inch wide.
+These are plaited together in one rounded plait for 18 inches, the rest
+of the lash being in 2 plaits of 4 thongs each, knotted near the ends.
+
+The lasso was called ma^{n}[']tanah-i[|c]ize, i.e., "that by which (a)
+wild (horse) is taken." It was made by taking the hair from the head of
+a buffalo and plaiting it into a very strong rope as thick as one's
+thumb. This rope was called "[t]aha-[|c]isa^{n}," and was utilized by
+the Omaha and Ponka instead of the common lasso for catching wild horses
+in northwestern Nebraska. One end of the rope was formed into a noose
+large enough to slip over a horse's head, and the ends of this noose
+were secured to a long pole by small cords. The other end of the rope,
+arranged in a coil, was fastened to the belt or waist of the man. He
+rode with the pole held in one hand and tried to thrust the noose in
+front of a horse. When he succeeded in passing the noose over the head
+of an animal, he threw away the stick, which had become separated from
+the noose, and held the rope alone, which he pulled toward him. When the
+horse was caught, the man made an [)i]ndu[|c]ici^{n}. (bridle or face
+cover), being careful to place some buffalo hair over the nose and under
+the chin, to guard against paining the horse, whose eyes remained
+uncovered.
+
+[Footnote 1: Long, S. H.; Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 1, p. 291, Phila., 1822]
+
+Trappings for the saddle (s[)i]n[']de-ehe[|c][)e]) were used. Some years
+ago a specimen of Omaha trapping was presented by the writer to the
+Anthropological Society of Washington, and subsequently was deposited in
+the National Museum.
+
+
+Traveling Gear.
+
+Snow-shoes (se-hi^{n}be) were worn by the Omaha and Ponka when they
+traversed a region, north of their modern, habitat.
+
+For traveling on foot a staff (hi-mang[|c]e) was used when it was
+necessary to pass over mountains; also when, heavy loads had to be
+carried. This staff differed from the crutch (i-mang[|c]e).
+
+The women had maca[k]a^n, or straps, for aiding them in carrying loads
+of wood, etc.
+
+
+Boats.
+
+When they wished to cross streams they made hide boats, or mandeha.
+These were manufactured from dried buffalo hides, which were sewed
+together with sinew, and so tightly that no water could penetrate the
+seams. Ten branches of red willow were placed within, the ends being
+bent upward and fastened by withes to two other saplings, which extended
+the whole length of the boat at the inside of the gunwale. The ten
+pieces were the [t]ici-iki[p]ada^{n}. The rudder or steering oar
+(i[|c]isa^{n}['][|c][)e]) was fashioned like the oars (mandu[|c]ugahi),
+with the blade flat and of the breadth of two hands. The
+rowers (u[|c]ugahi aka) sat near the bow, and the steersman
+([|c]isa^{n}['][|c]a aka) took his seat at the stern.
+
+
+Musical Instruments.
+
+Battles were of five kinds, [P]exe were generally gourds; wata^{n}[']
+[p]exe, gourd rattles, were always round, and were partially filled with
+seed, fine shot, or gravel, [T]ahanu[k]a [p]exe, green-hide rattles,
+were of two sorts, one of which is "[|c]iguje," bent a little. Specimens
+of this form are in the National Museum.
+
+Two kinds of rattles were called [t]a-cage, i.e., "deers-claws," from
+the composition of one variety, though the other was made of molars of
+the elk.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 317--Skin drum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 318--Box drum.]
+
+The Omaha used three styles of drums. The [|c]exe-ga[k]u b[|c]aska, or
+flat drum, is illustrated by a specimen (no. 21675) in the National
+Museum. The [|c]exe-ga[k]u gadaje is made of buffalo hide, cowhide, or
+the skin of a horse. An example of this drum (no. 24682) is also in the
+National Museum, and is illustrated by the accompanying figure 317. The
+ja^{n}['] [|c]exe-ga[k]u, or [k]uge [|c]exe-ga[k]u, is a wooden or box
+drum, represented by the accompanying figure 318, also from a specimen
+(no. 58610) in the National Museum.
+
+Whistles were made of elder (ba[t]uci-hi, or popgun wood) by pushing out
+the pith. No holes were made in the sides of the tube.
+
+Nisude [t]an[']ga, or large flutes, were made of red cedar. A branch was
+cut off, rounded, split open with a knife, and hollowed out; then six
+holes were made in the side of one of them, and the halves were
+stuck together again. When one of these instruments is blown it
+produces quavering notes. The best specimens were made by
+[P]a[|c]i^{n}-[t]an[']ga, Big Pawnee.
+
+The large flute is illustrated in figure 319.[1] Wahi nisude, or bone
+flutes, were made of the long bones from the eagle wing. These small
+flutes have only one hole. Reed flutes, [|c]iq[|c]e nisude, were made of
+a kind of reed which grows south of the Omaha territory, probably in
+Kansas. The Omaha obtained the reeds from some of the southern tribes
+and made them into flutes having but one hole each.
+
+[Footnote 1: Compare Ree fife, "AMM 129-8429, Gray and Matthews," in the
+National Museum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 319.--Omaha large flute.]
+
+
+
+
+WEAPONS.
+
+
+Clubs.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 320.--Omaha club (ja^{n}-[p]a[c]na).]
+
+The ja^{n}-weti^{n}, "striking-wood," is a four-sided club. It is made
+of ash, and is as long as from the elbow to the tips of the fingers. The
+ja^n-daona, "wood with a smooth head," is a club made of ironwood, which
+is very hard. According to the late Joseph La Fleche, the Omaha form of
+this weapon had a steel point projecting from the ball.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 321.--Omaha club (ja^{n}-da[c]na).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 322.--Omaha club (weaq[|c]ade).]
+
+Figures 320 and 321 are forms of the ja^{n}-[p]a[c]na which may be seen
+in the National Museum (nos. 2649 and 22419). The weaq[|c]ade, another
+kind of war club, is made of some kind of hard wood. There are two
+varieties, one of which is shown in figure 322 (National Museum no.
+23729). The other has a ball carved at the end of a straight handle,
+with a wooden point (of one piece with the ball and handle) projecting
+from the ball, making an angle of about 130 deg. with one side of the
+handle. There is a steel point inserted in the ball, forming an angle of
+about 110 deg. with the other side of the handle. The i^{n}[']-wate-jin[']ga
+is something like a slung shot. A round stone is wrapped in a piece of
+hide which is fastened to a wooden handle about 2 feet long.
+
+
+Tomahawks.
+
+The heads of tomahawks as well as of battle-axes were at first made of
+stone; but within the last century and a half they have been fashioned
+of iron.
+
+
+Spears.
+
+Lances, darts, or spears are designated by the general term
+man[']d[)e]hi. The ja^{n}[']-man'd[)e]hi are made of ash, and are from 6
+to 8 feet long. There are two kinds, of one of which the handle is
+round, and about an inch in diameter, and the point is flat and about
+the width of three fingers at its juncture with the handle.
+
+Besides these there are the lances, called waq[|c]exe-[|c]aze, of which
+there are two varieties. One consists of a straight pole, which has been
+thrust through a piece of buffalo hide that has its long end sewed
+together, forming a sort of covering. To this hide are fastened feathers
+of the crow and mi^{n}[']xa-sa^{n}, or swan, in alternate rows or
+bunches. Between the feathers are fastened square pieces of blanket.
+About the middle of the pole a space of nearly 6 inches is left without
+feathers, and this is the place where the spear is grasped. When the
+pole was not set into a metal point the lower end was cut very sharp.[1]
+The other variety, or mand[)e]hi [|c]iguje, "bent spear," is the weapon
+which the Dakota call "wahukeza." It is ornamented with eagle feathers
+placed at intevals, one being at the end of the curved part; and it
+generally terminates at the bottom in an iron point. It is possible for
+one of these waq[|c]exe[|c]aze to reach a man about 6 feet distant; and
+even mounted men have been killed by them. Spears are used also in some
+of the dances. Around the shaft is wrapped the skin of a swan or brant.
+The end feather at the top is white; the other feathers are white or
+spotted. The bent spear is no longer employed by the Omaha, though the
+Osage, Pawnee, and other tribes still use it to a greater or lesser
+extent.
+
+
+Bows.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 323.--Omaha bow (za^{n}zi-mand[)e]).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 324.--Omaha bow ([t]a[k]a^{n}-mand[)e])]
+
+Bows (man-d[)e]) are of two kinds. One is the man-d[)e] or
+za^{n}zi-mand[)e] (bow-wood bow), having an unbroken curve past the grip
+to within an inch or two of each nock.[2] The other kind is the
+[t]a[k]a^{n}-mand[)e], so called because it has deer sinew glued on its
+back.[3] Bows were made of hickory, ash, ironwood, or za^{n}zi, the last
+being greatly preferred. It is a wood resembling that of the Osage
+orange, with which some persons confound it; but it is black and much
+harder than the former, the Osage orange wood being yellow, soft, and
+easily cut. The za^{n}zi is probably that which Dougherty[4] called
+"bow-wood (<i>Maclura aurantiaca</i> of Nuttall)."
+
+[Footnote 1: See First Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, 1879-'80;
+1881, Pl. X, "Tolkotin cremation."]
+
+[Footnote 2: This may be the "self-bow" mentioned in the American
+Naturalist for July, 1886, p. 675.]
+
+[Footnote 3: This is the sinew-backed bow above mentioned.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Long's Expedition, op. cit., vol. I, p. 290.]
+
+Bowstrings were made of the twisted sinew of the elk and buffalo, as
+among other tribes.
+
+
+Arrows.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 325.--Omaha hunting arrow.]
+
+The arrows (ma^{n}) used in former days were of several kinds. The
+hunting arrow, used for killing the buffalo, was generally about 2 feet
+long, of the usual cylindric form, and armed with an elongate triangular
+point, made at first of flint, afterward of sheet iron. The shoulders of
+the arrow were rounded instead of angular, as in the ordinary barbed
+form. The point, or head, was firmly secured to the shaft by deer sinew
+wrapped around the neck of the point, and over that was spread some
+cement, made in a manner to be afterward explained. The flight of the
+arrow was equalized by three half-webs of feathers, neatly fastened near
+its base in the usual manner.
+
+Another kind of hunting arrow was the hide nazi[|c][)e], which was
+altogether of wood. About 6 inches from the point the shaft was
+triangular or quadrangular; and the point was made by holding the shaft
+close to a fire and turning it round and round till the heat had reduced
+it to the proper shape and had hardened it. This was used for killing
+fish, deer, and small game.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 326.--Omaha war arrow.]
+
+The war arrow (<i>b</i>) differed from that used in hunting in having a
+barbed point, which was very slightly attached to the shaft, so that if
+it penetrated the body of an enemy it could not be withdrawn without
+leaving the point in the wound.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 327.--Omaha style of hide-[t]ace]
+
+Children used the hide-[t]ace, or target arrow, when they began to learn
+the use of the bow. With this a boy could kill small birds and animals.
+
+The Ponka used to make arrowshafts (ma^{n}sa) of ja^{n}-[']qude-hi,
+"gray wood," juneberry wood, which grew in their country, but is not
+found among the Omaha. Most of the Omaha made their shafts of the
+ma^n'saqtihi, or "real arrow-wood," (<i>Viburnum</i>) as that was the wood
+best suited for the purpose. Sometimes they were made of chokecherry
+wood; and Joseph LaFleche informs me that he has made them of ash and
+hickory.
+
+Arrowshafts were held lengthwise directly in a line with the eyes of the
+workman, who sighted along them to see if they were straight. If one was
+bent, he held one end of it between his teeth, while he pressed against
+the rest of it with his hands. They were polished by means of the
+polishers, or ma^{n}[']-[|c]iq[|c]ade, two pieces of sandstone, each of
+which had a groove in the middle of one side. These grooves were
+brought together, and the arrow was drawn between them.
+
+War arrows had crooked lines drawn along the shafts from the points to
+the other ends, down which, so I was informed by the Indians, it was
+intended that the blood of a wounded foe should trickle.
+
+Arrowheads (mahi^{n}-si), when made of flint, as at the first, were
+called "i^{n}['][,][(e] mahi^{n}si," stone arrowheads. In more recent
+times, they were manufactured of pieces of sheet iron; as, for example,
+hoops of pails and barrels.
+
+Arrow cement (hi^{n}[']pa), for attaching the heads to the shafts, was
+usually made from the skin taken off a buffalo or elk head. This was
+boiled a long time, till ready to fall to pieces. When the gelatinous
+matter forming the cement rose to the top of the water, a stick (called
+hi^{n}pa-ja^{n}jin[']ga) was thrust in and turned round and round,
+causing the material to be wrapped around it. When cooled it was
+smoothed with the hand. Then the act was repeated till a large quantity
+was collected on the stick. When needed for use, it was warmed by
+placing either in the mouth or in hot water. The skin of the big turtle
+was also used for making cement.
+
+A set of arrows were called, collectively, "ma^{n}wi^{n}[']da^{n}." A
+set generally consisted of ten arrows, but the number varied; sometimes
+there were two, four, or even twenty. When a man had arrows left in his
+quiver, he compared them with that which was in the slain animal. When
+he had none left, he appealed to some one who knew his style of arrow.
+
+There were no clan or gentile marks on arrows. One set was distinguished
+from another by the order of the paint stripes on them, by the kind of
+feathers used, by the mode in which the arrowheads were made, etc. The
+Oto made bad arrows; those of the Pawnee were better, but they were
+inferior to those made by the Dakota, Ponka, and Omaha.
+
+The feathers, half-webs generally, put on arrows were those of the
+eagle, buzzard, wild turkey, great owl, and goose. Sometimes hawk or
+crow feathers were employed.
+
+
+Quivers.
+
+Quivers (ma^{n}[']jiha) for men were made of buffalo hide; but boys'
+quivers were made either of otter skins or of the skins of cougars, with
+the tail of the animal hanging down from the upper extremity. A skin
+case was attached to the quiver for carrying the bow when not in use.
+The wrist was defended from the percussion of the bowstring by the
+leather wristguard or aqande-[p]a.
+
+
+Shields and Armor.
+
+Shields ([t]ahawag[|c]e) were made of the hides of buffalo bulls. They
+were round and very thick, reaching to the waist of the bearer. Arrows
+did not penetrate them. Joseph La Fleche never heard of the use of
+defensive armor, such as helmet and mail, among the Omaha and Ponka.
+
+He had heard of a Pawnee who made a coat from four elk skins, two
+forming the front and two the back. Between each pair of skins was
+placed sand. A helmet was made in like manner. It covered the back of
+the head and extended over the forehead, coming down as far as the eyes.
+When the Pawnee noticed an arrow coming toward him, he bowed his head
+forward.
+
+
+Firearms.
+
+Firearms were introduced among the Omaha prior to 1819, when Dougherty
+says that they preferred those called "Mackinaw guns."
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Armor, Absence of, among the Omaha                               287
+         of the Pawnee                                             288
+  Arrows of the Omaha                                              286
+  Axes of the Omaha                                                278
+
+  Bark, Omaha lodges of                                       269, 271
+  Basketry of the Omaha                                            278
+  Baths, public, Absence of, among the Omaha                       274
+  Beds and bedding of the Omaha                                    275
+  Big Pawnee, Flutes made by                                       282
+  Bikude, an Omaha village                                         270
+  Bladders used as receptacles                                     280
+  Boats of hide of the Omaha                                       281
+  Bone hoes of the Omaha                                           278
+  Bridles of the Omaha                                             280
+  Brooms of the Omaha                                              276
+  Buffalo, gents of the Omaha                                      277
+
+  [|C]egiha fire-making                                            279
+  Cement used by the Omaha                                         287
+  Children, Omaha, Target arrows of the                            286
+  Clubs, War, of the Omaha                                         283
+  Couches of the Omaha                                             275
+  Cradles of the Omaha                                             275
+
+  Dakota, Arrows of the                                            287
+  Dance houses of the Omaha                                        274
+  Decoration of Omaha tents                                        274
+  Dorsey J. O., on Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements  263-288
+  Dougherty, --, on Omaha bow-wood                                 285
+                          firearms                                 288
+                          horse equipage                           280
+  Drilling, with grass-stalks                                      279
+  Drinking vessels of the Omaha                                    277
+  Drums of the Omaha                                               282
+  Dwellings, furniture and implements of the Omaha             263-288
+
+  Equipage for horses                                              280
+
+  Firearms among the Omaha                                         288
+  Fire implements of the Omaha                                     279
+  Fireplace in Omaha lodge                                         271
+            of the Omaha and Ponka                                 275
+  Flute of the Omaha                                               282
+  Furniture, dwellings, and implements of the Omaha            263-288
+
+  Gentile marks, Absence of, on Omaha arrows                       287
+  Grain, Storage of, among the Omaha                               274
+
+  Halters of the Omaha                                             280
+  Hammocks introduced among the Omaha                              275
+  Hoes, Bone, of the Omaha                                         278
+  Horn spoons of the Omaha                                         277
+
+  Implements of the Omaha                                      263-278
+  Iowa indians, Bark lodges of                                     271
+
+  Ja^{n}[|c]a[']te, an Omaha village                               270
+
+  Kansa, Lodges of the                                             270
+  Knives of the Omaha                                              268
+
+  Ladles of the Omaha                                              277
+  La Fleche, Joseph, on Omaha armor                                287
+                              arrowshafts                          286
+                              mats                                 275
+                              saddles                              280
+                              war-clubs                            283
+  La Flesche, Francis, on grass-stalk drills                       279
+  Lances of the Omaha                                              285
+  Lariats of the Omaha                                             280
+  Lodges of earth, Use of                                          271
+                 , Omaha, how constructed                          269
+  Long, S. H., on Kansa lodge                                      269
+                  Omaha bow-wood                                   285
+                  indian horsemanship                              280
+
+  Mason, O. T., Acknowledgements to                                269
+  Mats, cane, the Omaha and Winnebago                              275
+            , Omaha lodges of,                                269, 271
+  Mortars of the Omaha                                             276
+  Musical instruments of the Omaha                                 281
+
+  Omaha dwellings, furniture and implements                    263-288
+  Osage indians, Bent spear used by                                285
+               , Lodges of, described                              271
+  Oto, Arrows of the                                               287
+
+  Pawnee, Armor of the                                             288
+        , Arrows of the                                            287
+        , Bent spear used by the                                   285
+  [P]ejqude, Tent of                                          273, 274
+  Pestles of the Omaha                                             176
+  Pillows of the Omaha                                             275
+  Pipes of the Omaha                                               279
+  Ponka, Armor not used by the                                     287
+       , Arrows of the                                             287
+         dwellings, furniture and implements                       269
+       , Ropes of the                                              281
+  Pottery, formerly made by the Omaha                         276, 277
+  Provision sacks of the Omaha                                     278
+
+  Quivers of the Omaha                                             287
+
+  Rattles of the Omaha                                             281
+  Riding, Omaha method of                                          280
+
+  Sacks of the Omaha                                               278
+  Saddles of the Omaha                                             280
+  Sanssouci, Village of                                            271
+  Sauk, Bark lodges of the                                         271
+  Say, T., on Kansa lodge                                          269
+  Sewing among the Siouan tribes                                   274
+  Shields of the Omaha                                             287
+  Skin lodge of the Omaha                                     269, 271
+  Smoke holes of Omaha lodge                                       273
+  Smoking paraphernalia, Omaha                                     279
+  Snow-shoes, Omaha and Ponka                                      281
+  Spears of the Omaha                                              284
+  Spoons of the Omaha                                              277
+  Standards, War, of the Omaha                                     273
+  Standing Hawk Village of                                         270
+  Stone arrowheads of the Omaha                                    287
+        axes of the Omaha                                          278
+        knives of the Omaha                                        278
+  Sweat-houses of the Omaha                                        274
+  Swings of Omaha children                                         276
+
+  Tobacco pouches of the Omaha                                     284
+  Tomahawks of the Omaha                                           284
+  Tongs of the Omaha                                               279
+  Totem posts, Absence of, among the Omaha                         274
+  Traveling gear, Omaha and Ponka                                  281
+
+  Utensils of the Omaha                                            277
+
+  Water vessels of the Omaha                                       277
+  Weapons of the Omaha                                             283
+  Whips of the Omaha                                               280
+  Whistles of the Omaha                                            282
+  Wickiup, Origin of term                                          275
+  Winjage, an Omaha village                                        270
+  Winnebago grass mats                                             275
+            lodges described                                       271
+  Women, Omaha lodges made by                                      269
+  Wood, Spoons of, of the Omaha                                    277
+  Wristguards used by the Omaha                                    287
+
+  Yellow Smoke, Earth lodge of                                     270
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and
+Implements, by James Owen Dorsey,
+
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