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diff --git a/19913-0.txt b/19913-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..811be5b --- /dev/null +++ b/19913-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1477 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and Implements, by +James Owen Dorsey, + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and Implements + Thirteenth Annual Report of the Beaurau of American + Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution + 1891-1892, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1896 + pages 263-288 + +Author: James Owen Dorsey, + +Release Date: November 24, 2006 [EBook #19913] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE *** + + + + +Produced by Carlo Traverso, Verity White and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at +http://gallica.bnf.fr) + + + + + + + +-------------------------------------------+ + | Transcriber's Note: | + | | + | [p] or [P] represents a turned p or P. | + | [T] represents a turned T. | + | | + +-------------------------------------------+ + + + + +OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS + +BY + +JAMES OWEN DORSEY + + + + +CONTENTS + + + Page + Introductory note 269 + Dwellings 269 + Earth lodges 269 + Lodges of bark or mats 271 + Skin lodges or tents 271 + Furniture and implements 275 + Fireplaces 275 + Beds and bedding 275 + Cradles 275 + Children's swings 276 + Brooms 276 + Pottery 276 + Mortars and pestles 276 + Spoons, ladles, and drinking vessels 277 + Water vessels 277 + Other vessels 278 + Hoes and axes 278 + Knives 278 + Implements connected with fire 279 + Smoking paraphernalia 279 + Equipage for horses 280 + Traveling gear 281 + Boats 281 + Musical instruments 281 + Weapons 283 + Clubs 283 + Tomahawks 284 + Spears 284 + Bows 285 + Arrows 286 + Quivers 287 + Shields and armor 287 + Firearms 288 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Page + Fig. 306. Yellow Smoke's earth lodge 270 + 307. Ground plan of Osage lodge 271 + 308. Omaha tent 272 + 309. Exterior parts of an Omaha tent 273 + 310. [P]ejequde's tent 274 + 311. Omaha cradle--plan 276 + 312. Omaha cradle--side view 276 + 313. Omaha mortar 277 + 314. Omaha pestle 277 + 315. Omaha calumet 279 + 316. Omaha pipe used on ordinary occasions 280 + 317. Skin drum 282 + 318. Box drum 282 + 319. Omaha large flute 283 + 320. Omaha club (jaⁿ-[p]aᴐna) 283 + 321. Omaha club (jaⁿ-[p]aᴐna) 284 + 322. Omaha club (weaq¢ade) 284 + 323. Omaha bow (zaⁿzi-mandĕ) 285 + 324. Omaha bow (ʇaʞaⁿ-mandĕ) 285 + 325. Omaha hunting arrow 286 + 326. Omaha war arrow 286 + 327. Omaha style of hidé-ʇáce 286 + + + + +OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS + +BY JAMES OWEN DORSEY + + + + +INTRODUCTORY NOTE. + + +The accompanying paper is one of the results of personal investigations +among the Omaha of Nebraska and cognate tribes of Indians, beginning in +1878 and continued from time to time during late years. + +While the paper treats of the Omaha tribe, much that is said is +applicable to the Ponka, as the two tribes have long had similar +environments and a common dialect, for, until 1877, their habitats were +almost contiguous, and since 1880 about one-third of the Ponka tribe has +been dwelling on its former reservation near the town of Niobrara, +Nebraska. + +Acknowledgments are due Dr. O. T. Mason for many valuable suggestions +early in the progress of the work. + + + + +DWELLINGS. + + +The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges of earth +or, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or tents. It may +be observed that there were no sacred rites connected with the earth +lodge-building or tent-making among the Omaha and Ponka. + + +Earth Lodges. + +When earth lodges were built, the people did not make them in a tribal +circle, each man erecting his lodge where he wished; yet kindred +commonly built near one another. + +The earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended principally +for summer use, when the people were not migrating or going on the hunt. +Those built by the Omaha and Ponka were constructed in the following +manner: The roof was supported by two series of vertical posts, forked +at the top for the reception of the transverse connecting pieces of each +series. The number in each series varied according to the size of the +lodge; for a small lodge only four posts were erected in the inner +series, for an ordinary lodge eight were required, and ten generally +constituted the maximum. When Mr. Say[1] visited the Kansa Indians, he +occupied a lodge in which twelve of these posts placed in a circle +formed the outer series, and eight longer ones constituted the inner +series, also describing a circle. The wall was formed by setting upright +slabs of wood back of the outer posts all around the circumference of +the lodge. These slabs were not over 6 feet in height, and their tops +met the cross timbers on which the willow posts rested. Stocks of hard +willow about 2 inches in diameter rested with their butts on the tops of +the upright slabs and extended on the cross timbers nearly to the +summit. These poles were very numerous, touching one another and +extending all around in a radiating manner, supporting the roof like +rafters. The rafters were covered with grass about a foot thick; and +over the whole lodge, including the sides or slabs, earth was piled from +a foot to 2 feet in depth. Such a covering lasted generally about twenty +years. A hole in the middle served as an exit for the smoke. + +[Footnote 1: James' account of Long's Expedition to the Rocky Mountains +in 1819-'20.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 306.--Yellow Smoke's earth lodge.] + +In addition to the lodge proper there was a covered way about 10 feet +long and 5 feet wide, the entrance to which had a covering of tanned or +dried buffalo hides. This covering consisted of two hides hanging side +by side, with the inner borders slightly overlapping. They were fastened +to the passageway at the top and at the outer sides, but were loose at +the bottom where they overlapped. This part was raised by a person +entering the lodge. A similar covering was placed at the interior end of +the passageway. + +Subsequently to 1855, the Omaha dwelt in three villages composed of +earth lodges, as follows: (1) Biku′de, a village near the agency; (2) +Windja′ge, Standing Hawk's village, near the Presbyterian mission house; +and (3) Jaⁿ¢a′te ("Wood Eaters,") named after an insect found under the +bark of trees Sanssouci's village, near the town of Decatur, Nebraska. + +Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings, such as feasts, +councils, or dances. Occasionally there was a depression in the center +of the lodge which was used as a fireplace; but it was not over 6 inches +deep. Each earth lodge had a ladder, made by cutting a series of deep +notches along one side of a log. On a bluff near the Omaha agency I +found the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances on the +southern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100 feet in +diameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow about 3 feet +deep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the lodge. + + +Lodges of Bark or Mats. + +The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy, as did the +Iowa and Sak. [T]iu′¢ipu jiñ′ga, or low lodges covered with mats, were +used by the Omaha in former days. Such lodges are still common among the +Winnebago, the Osage, and other tribes. The ground plan of such a lodge +forms an ellipse. The height is hardly over 7 feet from the ground. The +tent poles are arranged thus: Each pole has one end planted in the +ground, the other end being bent down and fastened to the pole +immediately opposite; a number of poles thus arranged in pairs formed +both wall posts and rafters. + +[Illustration: Fig. 307.--Ground plan of Osage lodge.] + +Generally there was one fireplace and one smokehole in such a lodge; but +when I visited the Osage in 1883, I entered a low lodge with two +fireplaces, each equidistant from its end of the lodge and the entrance, +each fireplace having its smokehole. + + +Skin Lodges or Tents. + +The tent was used when the people were migrating, and also when they +were traveling in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite abode +of a household during the winter season, as the earth lodge was +generally erected in an exposed situation, selected on account of +comfort in the summer. The tent could be pitched in the timber or brush, +or down in wooded ravines, where the cold winds never had full sweep. +Hence, many Indians abandoned their houses in winter and went into their +tents, even when they were of canvas. + +[Illustration: Fig. 308.--Omaha tent (from a photograph by W. H. +Jackson).] + +The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned buffalo +skins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10 to 12 feet +high, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a foot and a +half in diameter at the top, which served as a smokehole (ʇihuʞaⁿ). +Besides the interior tent poles (ʇici--3, figure 309) and the tent skin +(ʇiha--1), the tent had the ʇi¢umaⁿhaⁿ, or the place where the skins +were fastened together above the entrance (4). The ʇi¢umaⁿhaⁿ was +fastened with the ʇihu¢ubaxaⁿ(5), which consisted of sticks or pieces of +hide thrust crosswise through the holes in the tent skins. The bottom of +the tent was secured to the ground by pins (ʇihu¢ugadaⁿ--6) driven +through holes (ʇihugaq¢uge) in the bottom of the skins, made when the +latter were tanned and before they had become hard. The entrance +(ʇijebe) was generally opposite the quarter from which the wind was +blowing. A door flap (ʇijebeg¢aⁿ--7) hung over the entrance; it was made +of skin with the hair outside, so as to turn water, and was held taut by +a stick fastened to it transversely. The bottom of the door flap was +loose, but the top was fastened to the tent. + +[Illustration: Fig. 309--Exterior parts of an Omaha tent.] + +The smokehole was formed by the two ʇihugab¢iⁿ¢a(9), or triangular ends +of tent skins, immediately above the entrance and ʇi¢umaⁿhaⁿ. When there +was no wind both of the ʇihugab¢iⁿ¢a were kept open by means of the +ʇihu¢ubajiⁿ(8) or exterior tent poles, which were thrust through the +ujiha, or small sacks, in the corners of the ʇihugab¢iⁿ¢a. When the wind +blew one of the ʇihu¢ubajiⁿ was raised to the windward and the other was +lowered, pulling its skin close to the tent and leaving an opening for +the escape of the smoke; but if the wind came directly against the +entrance both the flaps were raised, closing the smokehole to prevent +the wind from blowing down it. When the wind blew the people used +nandi¢agaspe to keep the bottom of each tent skin in place. These +consisted of twisted grass, sticks, stones, or other heavy objects. + +Figure 310 represents the tent of [P]ejequde, an Omaha. The banners or +standards, which were carried by the leaders of a war party or a party +going on a dancing tour, are depicted with their decorations of strips +of red and blue Indian cloth. Sometimes these standards were ornamented +with feathers instead of with cloth. Each standard could be used in four +war expeditions. + +No totem posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent of the principal +man of each gens was decorated on the outside with his gentile badge, +which was painted on each side of the entrance as well as on the back of +the tent.[1] The furniture of the sacred tents resembled that of the +ordinary ones. + +Before the introduction of canvas tents by the whites no needles or +thread were used by the Siouan tribes. The women used sinew of the deer +or buffalo instead of thread, and for needles they had awls made of elk +horn. + +[Illustration: Fig. 310.--[P]ejequde's tent.] + +Since there were no outbuildings, public granaries, or other structures +of this description, each household stored away its own grain and other +provisions. There were no special tribal or communal dwellings; but +sometimes two or more households occupied a single earth lodge. When a +council was held, it took place in the earth lodge of one of the head +chiefs, or else two or three common tents were united, making one large +one.[2] There were no public baths, as the Missouri river was near, and +they could resort to it whenever they desired. Dance houses were +improvised either of earth lodges or skin tents. + +Sweat-lodges were in the form of low tents (ʇiu¢ipu).[3] Stones were not +boiled for the sweat-lodge, but were put into the fire to be heated. +They were removed from the fire by means of sticks called iⁿߵĕbasi¢aⁿ, +and then water from the kettle was poured on them, creating steam. Cedar +fronds were dropped on the stones, causing a perfume to arise. + +[Footnote 1: Third Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology for 1882-'83, p. 230; also +"A Study of Siouan Cults," in Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnology, +1889-'90, p. 351.] + +[Footnote 2: Third Ann. Rep., op. cit., p. 294.] + +[Footnote 3: Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. vi, 1890, +pp. 152, 169, and 234.] + + + + +FURNITURE AND IMPLEMENTS. + + +Fireplaces. + +Within the tent, in the center, was the fireplace (une¢ĕ), formed by +excavating a small hollow. Beside this was erected a forked post +(isag¢ĕ), on which was hung the apparatus for suspending a kettle over +the fire. This apparatus was called ¢exe u¢ugacke by the Ponka, +literally, "that by means of which the kettle is hung." The Omaha have +two names for it, uhaⁿ u¢ugacke, and u¢ugackeg¢e, the last syllable of +the latter name referring to the attitude of the post. Around the +fireplace was a circular space for the feet of the people as they sat +about the fire. The couches of the occupants of the tent were arranged +outside of and all around this circular space. + + +Beds and Bedding. + +A couch was formed by laying down two or three winter hides dried with +the hair on. These hides were placed around the fireplace at a safe +distance. In the earth lodges, according to Joseph La Flèche, the Omaha +used sahi, or grass mats, for seats, as is the present custom of the +Winnebago; but at night they reclined on dressed hides with thick hair +on them, and covered themselves with similar hides. + +For pillows they used ibehiⁿ or iⁿbehiⁿ. When the vegetation was about 3 +inches high in the spring, the Indians killed deer and pulled off the +hair in order to remove the thin skin or tissue next to it. This latter, +when thoroughly dried, is smooth and white, resembling parchment. It was +used for pillows and moccasin-strings. When used for pillows the case +was filled with goose feathers or the hair of the deer until it was +about 2 feet long and 9 inches high. During the day, and whenever there +was occasion, they were used as seats; but if none could be had, the +people sat on winter robes or hides forming the couches.[1] Back of the +couches and next to the interior tent-poles were placed the baggage, +sacks of corn, and other household properties. + +The upright tent is one form of the Dakota "wake′ya," the plural of +which, "wake′yapi," undoubtedly gave rise to the familiar "wick′iup" of +the plains, and also to "wä-ka′-yo" of Morgan.[2] + + +Cradles. + +A board of convenient size, usually about a yard long and a foot wide, +was selected to form a cradle or u¢uhe. No pillow was needed. A soft +skin ([p]aq¢uqaha ¢aⁿ) covered with plenty of thick hair was laid on the +board, and on it was placed the infant. + +[Footnote 1: Hammocks and bedsteads were unknown prior to their +introduction by the traders and other white people.] + +[Footnote 2: Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. iv., 1881, +p. 114.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 311.--Omaha cradle--plan.] + +In the annexed figures, <i>a</i> is the ĭndua¢isiⁿkaⁿhe, the object painted +on the board at the end where the infant's head is laid; <i>b</i> is the +ĭndei¢idĭndiⁿ ("that which is drawn taut over the face"), the two +strings of beads and sinew or thread (sometimes made of red calico +alone), which keep in place the fan, etc.; the fan (ĭndeagani), which is +suspended from a bow of wood, (<i>c</i>) is about 6 inches square, and is +now made of interwoven sinew on which beads have been strung. Occasionally +thimbles and other bright objects dangle from the bottom of the fan. The +i¢a¢istage (<i>d</i>) is the band by which the infant is fastened to the +cradle. + +[Illustration: Fig. 312.--Omaha cradle--side view.] + + +Children's Swings. + +For swings the ends of two withes of buffalo hide were secured to four +trees or posts which formed the corners of a parallelogram. A blanket +was thrown across the withes and folded over on them. The infant was +laid on top of the fold and swung from side to side without falling. + + +Brooms. + +Brooms were of two kinds. One form was made of sticks tied together, and +was used for sweeping the ground outside of the tent or earth lodge, and +the interior of the earth lodge, except the fireplace. The other kind +was made of goose or turkey feathers, and was used for sweeping the +fireplace of an earth lodge. + + +Pottery. + +Pottery has not been made by the Omaha for more than fifty years. The +art of making it has been forgotten by the tribe. + + +Mortar and Pestles. + +A mortar was made by burning a large hole in a round knot or piece of +wood about 7 inches in diameter. The lower end was sharpened to a +point, which was thrust into the ground when needed for use. After +putting corn in a mortar of this description, the woman grasped the +wooden pestle in the middle, with the larger end upward; the smaller +end, which was about an inch in diameter, was put into the mortar. The +operation of pounding corn among the Omaha was called "he." The mortar +(uhe) and pestle (wehe) were both made commonly of elm, although +sometimes they were fashioned of white oak. Mortars were of various +sizes, some of them measuring 2 feet in diameter. Pestles were always of +hard and heavy wood, and fully 3 feet long, taperring from 4 inches to +an inch in diameter. + +[Illustration: Fig. 314.--Omaha pestle.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 313.--Omaha mortar.] + + +Spoons, Ladles and Drinking Vessels. + +Spoons were made of horn, wood, or pottery. The black spoons made of +buffalo horn (ʇehe sabĕ), are not used by such Omaha as belong to the +Buffalo gentes (Iñkesabĕ, Ȼatada, [T]esinde, etc.) which may not touch a +buffalo head. Other horn spoons of light color are made of cow horn. +These are of modern origin. Wooden spoons (jaⁿʇehe) were made of knobs +or knots of trees. Spoons made of buffalo horn are found among the Omaha +and Ponka, but the Osage, Kansa, and Kwapa use clam shells (ʇihaba, in +Ȼegiha; tcühaba, tcühuba, in Kansa), so the Kansa call a small spoon, +tcühaba jiñga. Spoons of buffalo horn had their handles variously +ornamented by notches and other rude carving, often terminating in the +head of a bird, the neck or handle of each being elevated at an angle of +50° or 60° with the bowl, which, was about 3 inches in width by about 5 +in length. As the handle of such a spoon usually terminates in a head or +hook, it was impossible for it to slip into the bowl when the hook +rested on the outside of the rim of the bowl. + +Food was served in bowls of a very wide and simple form and of various +sizes, generally carved out of large knots of wood. These served as +drinking cups (ni′i¢átaⁿ), but now cups of tin or earthenware are used +for that purpose. + + +Water Vessels + +When pottery was made, they used bowls and kettles. Some used wooden +bowls of different sizes, the largest being about 2 feet in diameter. +When they went on the hunt, they used the ínijeha (or sack made of the +muscular coating of the buffalo paunch, by filling with, grass to make +it stand out and keep its shape until dried). When the ínijeha was +filled with water the mouth was tied, and it was kept covered and in the +shade that it might remain cool. After being used for a few days it +became strong smelling, and was thrown away, another taking its place. +Some preferred the "ʇenăn′de uq¢a′ha ¢aⁿ" or pericardium(?) of the +buffalo, which is like sinew. This does not smell unpleasant, even when +used for seven or ten days. But at the expiration of that time it is +unfit for further service. + +Jugs have been introduced by the traders. + + +Other Vessels. + +Provision sacks or parflèche cases were made of dried buffalo hide. When +used for carrying the dried meat, they were called weábastá. After two +or three years' use they became soft and were fit only for making +moccasin soles. These sacks had the hair taken off, and were sometimes +made in trunk fashion. + +Fruit baskets were of three kinds. The Ponka made them of the bark of a +tree, called tawáߵaⁿhe, which is found on the old Ponka reservation in +Dakota. Northern Indians make boats of this bark. The Omaha do not find +the tree on their land, so they make the fruit baskets of other kinds of +bark. The three kinds of baskets are as follows: Naⁿ′pa ú¢isĕ, used for +chokecherries; ag¢añ′kamañge ú¢isĕ, used for raspberries; and bact +ú¢isĕ, used for strawberries. When the Ponka wished to make the baskets, +they stripped off the bark in horizontal sections, not pulling upward or +downward. + +In modern times the Omaha have learned to make sacks of thread of +different colors drawn from black, red, blue, and white blankets. +Different figures are woven. Each sack is about a foot deep, 16 inches +from the mouth to the opposite side, and from 2 to 2-1/2 feet long. The +opening is on one of the long sides, and when the articles are put in a +gathering string is drawn and tied. + + +Hoes and Axes. + +For hoes, the Omaha used the shoulder blades of the buffalo. Axes and +hatchets are now made of iron, hence, the Omaha name, maⁿ′ze-pe, sharp +iron. But the Kansa have the ancient name, maⁿ′hi-spe, answering to the +Dakota, waⁿhiⁿ′-kpe, sharp flint. The hatchet is distinguished from the +ax by adding "jiñga," small. Some of the stone axes and hatchets have +been found on the Omaha reservation, but they could hardly have been +used for cutting. It is not known what tools were used for felling +trees. + + +Knives. + +Knives were made of stone. A prominent butte, near the old Ponka agency, +Nebraska, is known as "Máhiⁿ-ʇu," signifying blue knife, from the +character of the stone with which its surface is covered. It is several +miles from the mouth of Ponka creek and nearly opposite the month of +Choteau creek, South Dakota. + + +Implements Connected with Fire. + +In former ages, the Ȼegiha made fire by rubbing or turning a stick round +and round between the hands. On the present Omaha reservation, and in +that region, the Omaha use elm roots for that purpose. In the country +called [P]izábahéhe, near the source of Elkhorn river, there is a grass +known as "duáduáhi," which has about a hundred fine shoots from each +root, which is half the size of the head. The stalk was used for hand +drills and fire sticks. One stalk was cut almost flat, and the man puts +his feet on the ends to steady them. Then, holding the other stick in +his hands, with one end touching the stalk on the ground, he turned it +round and round till the friction produced fire. Sometimes a small +quantity of dry sand was placed on the flat stick. The same flat stick +answered for several occasions. When the cavity made by turning the hand +drill became too large, the point of contact was shifted to another part +of the flat stick, and so on until the whole of that stick was used, +when it was thrown away and another was obtained. Duáduáhi, according to +Mr. Francis La Flesche, may be found in Judiciary square, Washington, +District of Columbia. After the coming of the white man, but before the +introduction of friction matches, which are now used by the whole tribe, +the Omaha used flints and tinder for making fire. + +Spits for roasting, etc., náqpe, or wébasnaⁿ, were made of any kind of +wood. + +For tongs they used the [p]edi¢a¢isande ("fire-holder"), made by +slitting one end of a stick. This implement was also called, jaⁿ jiñga +nini ibista ("the stick that presses the fire against the tobacco"), +because it was used for lighting pipes. + + +Smoking Paraphernalia. + +[Illustration: Fig. 315.--Omaha calumet] + +The pipes in use among the Omaha are of three kinds: the sacred pipe +(niniba waqube, mysterious pipe), including the war pipes and those used +by the chiefs in making peace; the niniba weawaⁿ or calumet (illustrated +in figure 315), used in the calumet dance or dance of adoption,[1] and +the hatchet pipe or maⁿzepe niniba, introduced since the coming of the +white man. One form of the pipe used on ordinary Tobacco pouches +(niniújiha) were made of deer or antelope skin, and were ornamented with +porcupine quills or a fringe of deerskin. Sometimes buffalo bladders +were used for this purpose. The women used them as receptacles for their +porcupine quills. + +[Footnote 1: See "Omaha Sociology," Third Ann. Rept. Bur. Ethnology, +chap. vi.] + +occasions is shown in figure 316. This pipe has a bowl of catlinite, and +the stem is decorated with horsehair. + +[Illustration: Fig. 316.--Omaha pipe used on ordinary occasions.] + + +Equipage for Horses. + +Saddles (cánakág¢e) were in use before the coming of the whites. They +were made of wood, around which was wrapped hide, while still +"ʇaha-nuʞa" (green or soft). According to Joseph La Flèche these saddles +did not rub sores on the backs of the native horses (Indian ponies), but +Dougherty[1] said, in 1819, "The Indians are generally cruel +horse-masters, perhaps in a great measure through necessity; the backs +of their horses are very often sore and ulcerated, from the friction of +the rude saddle, which is fashioned after the Spanish manner, being +elevated at the pummel and croup, and resting on skin saddle cloths +without padding." They ride very well, and make frequent use of the whip +and their heels, the latter being employed instead of spurs. + +For bridles and halters they used strips of hide, out of which material +they made also lariats. The bridle used consisted of a withe, one end of +which was wrapped two or three times around the animal's lower jaw, +while the other was held in the hand, forming but a single rein. This +did not hinder the rider from guiding his horse, as he was able to turn +him to the left by pressing the single rein against the animal's neck, +as well as by the use of the right heel against its side. When he wished +to turn to the right, he pulled the rein and pressed his left heel +against the horse's side. + +Whips were of three kinds. The wahí wégasapi was attached to a bone +handle. The handle of a ja^{u}′uke¢iⁿ wégasapi was made of common wood. +That of a zaⁿzí wégasapi was made of Osage orange wood, which is very +hard. The whip was attached to the wrist by a broad band, which passed +through a hole near the end of the handle. The handle was about 15 +inches long and was very stout. A specimen that has been deposited in +the National Museum (a gift to the author from an Omaha) has a lash 2 +feet long, composed of 8 thongs one-fifth of an inch wide. These are +plaited together in one rounded plait for 18 inches, the rest of the +lash being in 2 plaits of 4 thongs each, knotted near the ends. + +The lasso was called maⁿ′tanah-í¢ize, i.e., "that by which (a) wild +(horse) is taken." It was made by taking the hair from the head of a +buffalo and plaiting it into a very strong rope as thick as one's thumb. +This rope was called "ʇaha-¢isaⁿ," and was utilized by the Omaha and +Ponka instead of the common lasso for catching wild horses in +northwestern Nebraska. One end of the rope was formed into a noose large +enough to slip over a horse's head, and the ends of this noose were +secured to a long pole by small cords. The other end of the rope, +arranged in a coil, was fastened to the belt or waist of the man. He +rode with the pole held in one hand and tried to thrust the noose in +front of a horse. When he succeeded in passing the noose over the head +of an animal, he threw away the stick, which had become separated from +the noose, and held the rope alone, which he pulled toward him. When the +horse was caught, the man made an ĭndú¢iciⁿ. (bridle or face cover), +being careful to place some buffalo hair over the nose and under the +chin, to guard against paining the horse, whose eyes remained uncovered. + +[Footnote 1: Long, S. H.; Exp. Rocky Mts., vol. 1, p. 291, Phila., 1822] + +Trappings for the saddle (sĭn′de-ehé¢ĕ) were used. Some years ago a +specimen of Omaha trapping was presented by the writer to the +Anthropological Society of Washington, and subsequently was deposited in +the National Museum. + + +Traveling Gear. + +Snow-shoes (sé-hiⁿbe) were worn by the Omaha and Ponka when they +traversed a region, north of their modern, habitat. + +For traveling on foot a staff (hí-mañg¢e) was used when it was necessary +to pass over mountains; also when, heavy loads had to be carried. This +staff differed from the crutch (í-mañg¢e). + +The women had mácaʞa^n, or straps, for aiding them in carrying loads of +wood, etc. + + +Boats. + +When they wished to cross streams they made hide boats, or mandéha. +These were manufactured from dried buffalo hides, which were sewed +together with sinew, and so tightly that no water could penetrate the +seams. Ten branches of red willow were placed within, the ends being +bent upward and fastened by withes to two other saplings, which extended +the whole length of the boat at the inside of the gunwale. The ten +pieces were the ʇíci-íki[p]ádaⁿ. The rudder or steering oar (í¢isaⁿ′¢ĕ) +was fashioned like the oars (mandú¢ugáhi), with the blade flat and of +the breadth of two hands. The rowers (u¢úgahi aká) sat near the bow, and +the steersman (¢isaⁿ′¢a aká) took his seat at the stern. + + +Musical Instruments. + +Battles were of five kinds, [P]exe were generally gourds; wataⁿ′ [p]exe, +gourd rattles, were always round, and were partially filled with seed, +fine shot, or gravel, [T]ahánuʞa [p]éxe, green-hide rattles, were of two +sorts, one of which is "¢igúje," bent a little. Specimens of this form +are in the National Museum. + +Two kinds of rattles were called ʇa-cáge, i.e., "deers-claws," from the +composition of one variety, though the other was made of molars of the +elk. + +[Illustration: Fig. 317--Skin drum.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 318--Box drum.] + +The Omaha used three styles of drums. The ¢éxe-gaʞú b¢áska, or flat +drum, is illustrated by a specimen (no. 21675) in the National Museum. +The ¢éxe-gaʞú gadáje is made of buffalo hide, cowhide, or the skin of a +horse. An example of this drum (no. 24682) is also in the National +Museum, and is illustrated by the accompanying figure 317. The jaⁿ′ +¢éxe-gaʞú, or ʞúge ¢éxe-gaʞú, is a wooden or box drum, represented by +the accompanying figure 318, also from a specimen (no. 58610) in the +National Museum. + +Whistles were made of elder (baʇúci-hi, or popgun wood) by pushing out +the pith. No holes were made in the sides of the tube. + +Nisúde ʇañ′ga, or large flutes, were made of red cedar. A branch was cut +off, rounded, split open with a knife, and hollowed out; then six holes +were made in the side of one of them, and the halves were stuck together +again. When one of these instruments is blown it produces quavering +notes. The best specimens were made by [P]á¢iⁿ-ʇañ′ga, Big Pawnee. + +The large flute is illustrated in figure 319.[1] Wahí nisúde, or bone +flutes, were made of the long bones from the eagle wing. These small +flutes have only one hole. Reed flutes, ¢íq¢e nisúde, were made of a +kind of reed which grows south of the Omaha territory, probably in +Kansas. The Omaha obtained the reeds from some of the southern tribes +and made them into flutes having but one hole each. + +[Footnote 1: Compare Ree fife, "AMM 129-8429, Gray and Matthews," in the +National Museum.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 319.--Omaha large flute.] + + + + +WEAPONS. + + +Clubs. + +[Illustration: Fig. 320.--Omaha club (jaⁿ-[p]áᴐna).] + +The jaⁿ-wétiⁿ, "striking-wood," is a four-sided club. It is made of ash, +and is as long as from the elbow to the tips of the fingers. The +ja^n-dáona, "wood with a smooth head," is a club made of ironwood, which +is very hard. According to the late Joseph La Flèche, the Omaha form of +this weapon had a steel point projecting from the ball. + +[Illustration: Fig. 321.--Omaha club (jaⁿ-dáᴐna).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 322.--Omaha club (weaq¢ade).] + +Figures 320 and 321 are forms of the jaⁿ-[p]áᴐna which may be seen in +the National Museum (nos. 2649 and 22419). The weaq¢ade, another kind of +war club, is made of some kind of hard wood. There are two varieties, +one of which is shown in figure 322 (National Museum no. 23729). The +other has a ball carved at the end of a straight handle, with a wooden +point (of one piece with the ball and handle) projecting from the ball, +making an angle of about 130° with one side of the handle. There is a +steel point inserted in the ball, forming an angle of about 110° with +the other side of the handle. The iⁿ′-wate-jiñ′ga is something like a +slung shot. A round stone is wrapped in a piece of hide which is +fastened to a wooden handle about 2 feet long. + + +Tomahawks. + +The heads of tomahawks as well as of battle-axes were at first made of +stone; but within the last century and a half they have been fashioned +of iron. + + +Spears. + +Lances, darts, or spears are designated by the general term man′dĕhi. +The jaⁿ′-man'dĕhi are made of ash, and are from 6 to 8 feet long. There +are two kinds, of one of which the handle is round, and about an inch in +diameter, and the point is flat and about the width of three fingers at +its juncture with the handle. + +Besides these there are the lances, called waq¢exe-¢áze, of which there +are two varieties. One consists of a straight pole, which has been +thrust through a piece of buffalo hide that has its long end sewed +together, forming a sort of covering. To this hide are fastened feathers +of the crow and miⁿ′xa-saⁿ, or swan, in alternate rows or bunches. +Between the feathers are fastened square pieces of blanket. About the +middle of the pole a space of nearly 6 inches is left without feathers, +and this is the place where the spear is grasped. When the pole was not +set into a metal point the lower end was cut very sharp.[1] The other +variety, or mandĕhi ¢iguje, "bent spear," is the weapon which the Dakota +call "wahukeza." It is ornamented with eagle feathers placed at +intevals, one being at the end of the curved part; and it generally +terminates at the bottom in an iron point. It is possible for one of +these waq¢exe¢aze to reach a man about 6 feet distant; and even mounted +men have been killed by them. Spears are used also in some of the +dances. Around the shaft is wrapped the skin of a swan or brant. The end +feather at the top is white; the other feathers are white or spotted. +The bent spear is no longer employed by the Omaha, though the Osage, +Pawnee, and other tribes still use it to a greater or lesser extent. + + +Bows. + +[Illustration: Fig. 323.--Omaha bow (zaⁿzi-mandĕ).] + +[Illustration: Fig. 324.--Omaha bow (ʇaʞaⁿ-mandĕ)] + +Bows (man-dĕ) are of two kinds. One is the man-dĕ or zaⁿzi-mandĕ +(bow-wood bow), having an unbroken curve past the grip to within an inch +or two of each nock.[2] The other kind is the ʇaʞaⁿ-mandĕ, so called +because it has deer sinew glued on its back.[3] Bows were made of +hickory, ash, ironwood, or zaⁿzi, the last being greatly preferred. It +is a wood resembling that of the Osage orange, with which some persons +confound it; but it is black and much harder than the former, the Osage +orange wood being yellow, soft, and easily cut. The zaⁿzi is probably +that which Dougherty[4] called "bow-wood (<i>Maclura aurantiaca</i> of +Nuttall)." + +[Footnote 1: See First Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology, 1879-'80; +1881, Pl. X, "Tolkotin cremation."] + +[Footnote 2: This may be the "self-bow" mentioned in the American +Naturalist for July, 1886, p. 675.] + +[Footnote 3: This is the sinew-backed bow above mentioned.] + +[Footnote 4: Long's Expedition, op. cit., vol. I, p. 290.] + +Bowstrings were made of the twisted sinew of the elk and buffalo, as +among other tribes. + + +Arrows. + +[Illustration: Fig. 325.--Omaha hunting arrow.] + +The arrows (maⁿ) used in former days were of several kinds. The hunting +arrow, used for killing the buffalo, was generally about 2 feet long, of +the usual cylindric form, and armed with an elongate triangular point, +made at first of flint, afterward of sheet iron. The shoulders of the +arrow were rounded instead of angular, as in the ordinary barbed form. +The point, or head, was firmly secured to the shaft by deer sinew +wrapped around the neck of the point, and over that was spread some +cement, made in a manner to be afterward explained. The flight of the +arrow was equalized by three half-webs of feathers, neatly fastened near +its base in the usual manner. + +Another kind of hunting arrow was the hidé nazí¢ĕ, which was altogether +of wood. About 6 inches from the point the shaft was triangular or +quadrangular; and the point was made by holding the shaft close to a +fire and turning it round and round till the heat had reduced it to the +proper shape and had hardened it. This was used for killing fish, deer, +and small game. + +[Illustration: Fig. 326.--Omaha war arrow.] + +The war arrow (<i>b</i>) differed from that used in hunting in having a +barbed point, which was very slightly attached to the shaft, so that if +it penetrated the body of an enemy it could not be withdrawn without +leaving the point in the wound. + +[Illustration: Fig. 327.--Omaha style of hidé-ʇáce] + +Children used the hidé-ʇáce, or target arrow, when they began to learn +the use of the bow. With this a boy could kill small birds and animals. + +The Ponka used to make arrowshafts (maⁿsa) of jaⁿ-′qude-hí, "gray wood," +juneberry wood, which grew in their country, but is not found among the +Omaha. Most of the Omaha made their shafts of the ma^n'saqtihí, or "real +arrow-wood," (<i>Viburnum</i>) as that was the wood best suited for the +purpose. Sometimes they were made of chokecherry wood; and Joseph +LaFlèche informs me that he has made them of ash and hickory. + +Arrowshafts were held lengthwise directly in a line with the eyes of the +workman, who sighted along them to see if they were straight. If one was +bent, he held one end of it between his teeth, while he pressed against +the rest of it with his hands. They were polished by means of the +polishers, or maⁿ′-¢iq¢áde, two pieces of sandstone, each of which had +a groove in the middle of one side. These grooves were brought together, +and the arrow was drawn between them. + +War arrows had crooked lines drawn along the shafts from the points to +the other ends, down which, so I was informed by the Indians, it was +intended that the blood of a wounded foe should trickle. + +Arrowheads (máhiⁿ-sí), when made of flint, as at the first, were called +"iⁿ′ߵĕ mahiⁿsí," stone arrowheads. In more recent times, they were +manufactured of pieces of sheet iron; as, for example, hoops of pails +and barrels. + +Arrow cement (hiⁿ′pa), for attaching the heads to the shafts, was +usually made from the skin taken off a buffalo or elk head. This was +boiled a long time, till ready to fall to pieces. When the gelatinous +matter forming the cement rose to the top of the water, a stick (called +hiⁿpá-jaⁿjiñ′ga) was thrust in and turned round and round, causing the +material to be wrapped around it. When cooled it was smoothed with the +hand. Then the act was repeated till a large quantity was collected on +the stick. When needed for use, it was warmed by placing either in the +mouth or in hot water. The skin of the big turtle was also used for +making cement. + +A set of arrows were called, collectively, "maⁿwiⁿ′daⁿ." A set generally +consisted of ten arrows, but the number varied; sometimes there were +two, four, or even twenty. When a man had arrows left in his quiver, he +compared them with that which was in the slain animal. When he had none +left, he appealed to some one who knew his style of arrow. + +There were no clan or gentile marks on arrows. One set was distinguished +from another by the order of the paint stripes on them, by the kind of +feathers used, by the mode in which the arrowheads were made, etc. The +Oto made bad arrows; those of the Pawnee were better, but they were +inferior to those made by the Dakota, Ponka, and Omaha. + +The feathers, half-webs generally, put on arrows were those of the +eagle, buzzard, wild turkey, great owl, and goose. Sometimes hawk or +crow feathers were employed. + + +Quivers. + +Quivers (maⁿ′jiha) for men were made of buffalo hide; but boys' quivers +were made either of otter skins or of the skins of cougars, with the +tail of the animal hanging down from the upper extremity. A skin case +was attached to the quiver for carrying the bow when not in use. The +wrist was defended from the percussion of the bowstring by the leather +wristguard or áqande-[p]a. + + +Shields and Armor. + +Shields (ʇaháwag¢e) were made of the hides of buffalo bulls. They were +round and very thick, reaching to the waist of the bearer. Arrows did +not penetrate them. Joseph La Flèche never heard of the use of defensive +armor, such as helmet and mail, among the Omaha and Ponka. + +He had heard of a Pawnee who made a coat from four elk skins, two +forming the front and two the back. Between each pair of skins was +placed sand. A helmet was made in like manner. It covered the back of +the head and extended over the forehead, coming down as far as the eyes. +When the Pawnee noticed an arrow coming toward him, he bowed his head +forward. + + +Firearms. + +Firearms were introduced among the Omaha prior to 1819, when Dougherty +says that they preferred those called "Mackinaw guns." + + + + +INDEX. + + + Armor, Absence of, among the Omaha 287 + of the Pawnee 288 + Arrows of the Omaha 286 + Axes of the Omaha 278 + + Bark, Omaha lodges of 269, 271 + Basketry of the Omaha 278 + Baths, public, Absence of, among the Omaha 274 + Beds and bedding of the Omaha 275 + Big Pawnee, Flutes made by 282 + Bikúde, an Omaha village 270 + Bladders used as receptacles 280 + Boats of hide of the Omaha 281 + Bone hoes of the Omaha 278 + Bridles of the Omaha 280 + Brooms of the Omaha 276 + Buffalo, gents of the Omaha 277 + + Ȼegiha fire-making 279 + Cement used by the Omaha 287 + Children, Omaha, Target arrows of the 286 + Clubs, War, of the Omaha 283 + Couches of the Omaha 275 + Cradles of the Omaha 275 + + Dakota, Arrows of the 287 + Dance houses of the Omaha 274 + Decoration of Omaha tents 274 + Dorsey J. O., on Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements 263-288 + Dougherty, --, on Omaha bow-wood 285 + firearms 288 + horse equipage 280 + Drilling, with grass-stalks 279 + Drinking vessels of the Omaha 277 + Drums of the Omaha 282 + Dwellings, furniture and implements of the Omaha 263-288 + + Equipage for horses 280 + + Firearms among the Omaha 288 + Fire implements of the Omaha 279 + Fireplace in Omaha lodge 271 + of the Omaha and Ponka 275 + Flute of the Omaha 282 + Furniture, dwellings, and implements of the Omaha 263-288 + + Gentile marks, Absence of, on Omaha arrows 287 + Grain, Storage of, among the Omaha 274 + + Halters of the Omaha 280 + Hammocks introduced among the Omaha 275 + Hoes, Bone, of the Omaha 278 + Horn spoons of the Omaha 277 + + Implements of the Omaha 263-278 + Iowa indians, Bark lodges of 271 + + Jaⁿ′¢ate, an Omaha village 270 + + Kansa, Lodges of the 270 + Knives of the Omaha 268 + + Ladles of the Omaha 277 + La Flèche, Joseph, on Omaha armor 287 + arrowshafts 286 + mats 275 + saddles 280 + war-clubs 283 + La Flesche, Francis, on grass-stalk drills 279 + Lances of the Omaha 285 + Lariats of the Omaha 280 + Lodges of earth, Use of 271 + , Omaha, how constructed 269 + Long, S. H., on Kansa lodge 269 + Omaha bow-wood 285 + indian horsemanship 280 + + Mason, O. T., Acknowledgements to 269 + Mats, cane, the Omaha and Winnebago 275 + , Omaha lodges of, 269, 271 + Mortars of the Omaha 276 + Musical instruments of the Omaha 281 + + Omaha dwellings, furniture and implements 263-288 + Osage indians, Bent spear used by 285 + , Lodges of, described 271 + Oto, Arrows of the 287 + + Pawnee, Armor of the 288 + , Arrows of the 287 + , Bent spear used by the 285 + [P]ejqude, Tent of 273, 274 + Pestles of the Omaha 176 + Pillows of the Omaha 275 + Pipes of the Omaha 279 + Ponka, Armor not used by the 287 + , Arrows of the 287 + dwellings, furniture and implements 269 + , Ropes of the 281 + Pottery, formerly made by the Omaha 276, 277 + Provision sacks of the Omaha 278 + + Quivers of the Omaha 287 + + Rattles of the Omaha 281 + Riding, Omaha method of 280 + + Sacks of the Omaha 278 + Saddles of the Omaha 280 + Sanssouci, Village of 271 + Sauk, Bark lodges of the 271 + Say, T., on Kansa lodge 269 + Sewing among the Siouan tribes 274 + Shields of the Omaha 287 + Skin lodge of the Omaha 269, 271 + Smoke holes of Omaha lodge 273 + Smoking paraphernalia, Omaha 279 + Snow-shoes, Omaha and Ponka 281 + Spears of the Omaha 284 + Spoons of the Omaha 277 + Standards, War, of the Omaha 273 + Standing Hawk Village of 270 + Stone arrowheads of the Omaha 287 + axes of the Omaha 278 + knives of the Omaha 278 + Sweat-houses of the Omaha 274 + Swings of Omaha children 276 + + Tobacco pouches of the Omaha 284 + Tomahawks of the Omaha 284 + Tongs of the Omaha 279 + Totem posts, Absence of, among the Omaha 274 + Traveling gear, Omaha and Ponka 281 + + Utensils of the Omaha 277 + + Water vessels of the Omaha 277 + Weapons of the Omaha 283 + Whips of the Omaha 280 + Whistles of the Omaha 282 + Wickiup, Origin of term 275 + Winjage, an Omaha village 270 + Winnebago grass mats 275 + lodges described 271 + Women, Omaha lodges made by 269 + Wood, Spoons of, of the Omaha 277 + Wristguards used by the Omaha 287 + + Yellow Smoke, Earth lodge of 270 + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Omaha Dwellings, Furniture and +Implements, by James Owen Dorsey, + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE *** + +***** This file should be named 19913-0.txt or 19913-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/9/9/1/19913/ + +Produced by Carlo Traverso, Verity White and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at +http://gallica.bnf.fr) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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