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diff --git a/20763.txt b/20763.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..68d43a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/20763.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5763 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Carpentry for Boys, by J. S. Zerbe + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Carpentry for Boys + In a Simple Language, Including Chapters on Drawing, Laying + Out Work, Designing and Architecture With 250 Original + Illustrations + +Author: J. S. Zerbe + +Release Date: March 7, 2007 [EBook #20763] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CARPENTRY FOR BOYS *** + + + + +Produced by Ross Wilburn, Curtis Weyant and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS + +CARPENTRY FOR BOYS + +[Illustration: _Fig. 1. A Typical Work Bench._] + + + +THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS + +CARPENTRY FOR BOYS + +in simple language, including +chapters on drawing, laying out +work, designing and architecture + +WITH 250 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS + +BY J. S. ZERBE, M.E. + +AUTHOR OF + + +ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS +PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS + + +THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY + +NEW YORK + +COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY + +THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY + + ++----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +|Transcriber's Notes: Italics are marked by underscore(_), Bold text is| +|marked by $, Small caps have been uppercased. | ++----------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + +CONTENTS + + +INTRODUCTORY + +I. TOOLS AND THEIR USES Page 5 + +Knowledge of Tools. A Full Kit of Tools. The Hatchet. The Claw Hammer. +About Saws--Cross-cut, Rip Saw, Back Saw. Planes--Jack Plane, Smoothing +Plane, Pore Plane. Gages. Chisels--Firmer Chisel. Trusses. Saw Clamps. +The Grindstone. Oilstone. Miter Box. The Work Bench. + +II. HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS Page 16 + +Care of Tools---First Requisites. Saws--How to Set. Saw-set Errors. Saw +Setting Block. Filing. The Angle of Filing. Filing Pitch. Saw Clamps. +Filing Suggestions. The File. Using the File. The Grindstone. In the Use +of Grindstones. Correct Way of Holding Tool in Grinding. Care of Stone. +Incorrect Way to Hold Tool. Way to Revolve or Turn Grindstone. The +Plane. The Gage. Chisels. General Observations. + +III. HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS Page 29 + +On the Holding of Tools. The Saw. How to Start a Saw. Sawing on a Line. +The First Stroke. The Starting Cut for Cross-cutting. Forcing a Saw. The +Stroke. The Chinese Saw. Things to Avoid. The Plane. Angle for Holding +Planes. Errors to be Avoided. The Gage. Holding the Gage. The +Draw-knife. + +IV. HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES Page 39 + +Fundamentals of Designing. The Commercial Instinct. First Requirements +of Designing. Conventional Styles. The Mission Style. Cabinets. Harmony +of Parts. Harmony of Wood. + +V. HOW WORK IS LAID OUT Page 43 + +Concrete Examples of Work. Dimensions. Laying Out a Table. The Top. The +Mortises. The Facing Boards. The Tenons. Tools Used. Chamfered Tenons. +The Frame. The Drawer Support. The Table Frame. The Top. The Drawer. How +Any Structure is Built Up. Observations About Making a Box. Points. +Beveling and Mitering. Proper Terms. Picture Frames. Dovetail Points. +Box Points. First Steps in Dovetailing. Cutting Out the Spaces. Tools +Used in Laying Out Mortises and Tenons. + +VI. THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE Page 59 + +The Compass. Determining Angles. Definition of Degrees. Degrees Without +a Compass. How Degrees are Calculated by the Dividers. + +VII. HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIGNATED Page 65 + +Importance of Proper Designation. How to Explain Mechanical Forms. +Defining Segment and Sector. Arcade, Arch, Buttress, Flying Buttress, +Chamfer, Cotter, Crenelated, Crosses, Curb Roof, Cupola, Crown Post, +Corbels, Dormer, Dowel, Drip, Detent, Extrados, Engrailed, Facet, Fret, +Fretwork, Frontal, Frustrums, Fylfot, Gambrel Roof, Gargoyle, Gudgeon, +Guilloche. Half Timbered, Hammer Beam, Header, Hip Roof, Hood Molding, +Inclave, Interlacing Arch, Inverted, Inverted Arch, Key Stone, King +Post, Label, Louver, Lintel, Lug, M-Roof, Mansard Roof, Newel, +Parquetry, Peen, Pendant, Pendastyle, Pedestal, Plinth, Portico, Plate, +Queen Post, Quirk Molding, Re-entering Angle, Rafter, Scarfing, Scotia +Molding, Sill, Skewback, Spandrel, Strut, Stud, Stile, Tie Beam, Timber, +Trammel, Turret, Transom, Valley Roof. + +VIII. DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY Page 73 + +Fundamentals in Drawing. Representing Objects. Forming Lines and +Shadows. Analysis of Lines and Shadings. How to Show Plain Surfaces. +Concave Surfaces. Convex Surfaces. Shadows from a Beam. Flat Effects. +The Direction of Light. Raised Surfaces. Depressed Surfaces. Full +Shading. Illustrating Cube Shading. Shading Effect. Heavy Lines. +Perspectives. True Perspective of a Cube. Isometric Cube. Flattened +Perspective. Technical Designations. Sector and Segment. Terms of +Angles. Circles and Curves. Irregular Curves. Ellipses and Ovals. Focal +Points. Produced Line. Spirals, Perpendicular and Vertical. Signs to +Indicate Measurement. Definitions. Abscissa. Angle. Apothegm. Apsides or +Apsis. Chord. Cycloid. Conoid. Conic Section. Ellipsoid. Epicycloid. +Evolute. Flying Buttress. Focus. Gnomes. Hexagon. Hyperbola. +Hypothenuse. Incidental. Isosceles. Triangle. Parabola. Parallelogram. +Pelecoid. Polygons. Pyramid. Rhomb. Sector. Segment. Sinusoid. Tangent. +Tetrahedron. Vertex. + +IX. MOLDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBELLISHING WORK Page 93 + +Moldings. The Basis of Moldings. The Simplest Moldings. The Astragal. +The Cavetto. The Ovolo. The Torus. The Apothegm. The Cymatium. The Ogee. +Ogee Recta. Ogee Reversa. The Reedy. The Casement. The Roman-Doric +Column. Lesson from the Doric Column. Applying Molding. Base. +Embellishments. Straight-faced Molding. Plain Molding. Base. Diversified +Uses. Shadows Cast by Moldings. + +X. AN ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, RABBETING AND BEADING Page 104 + +Where Mortises Should be Used. Depth of Mortises. Rule for Mortises. +True Mortise Work. Steps in Cutting Mortises. Things to Avoid in +Mortising. Lap-and-Butt Joints. Scarfing. The Tongue and Groove. +Beading. Ornamental Bead Finish. The Bead and Rabbet. Shading with Beads +and Rabbets. + +XI. HOUSE BUILDING Page 113 + +House Building. The Home and Embellishments. Beauty Not Ornamentation. +Plain Structures. Colonial Type. The Roof the Keynote. Bungalow Types. +General House Building. Building Plans. The Plain Square-Floor Plan. The +Rectangular Plan. Room Measurements. Front and Side Lines. The Roof. +Roof Pitch. The Foundation. The Sills. The Flooring Joist. The Studding. +Setting Up. The Plate. Intermediate Studding. Wall Headers. Ceiling +Joist. Braces. The Rafters. The Gutter. Setting Door and Window Frames. +Plastering and Finish Work. + +XII. BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES Page 130 + +Bridges. Self-supporting Roofs. Common Trusses. The Vertical Upright +Truss. The Warren Girder. The Bowstring Girder. Fundamental Truss +Forms. + +XIII. THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGINNER Page 134 + +The Best Woods. Soft Woods. Hard Woods. The Most Difficult Woods. The +Hard-ribbed Grain in Wood. The Easiest Working Woods. Differences in the +Working of Woods. Forcing Saws in Wood. + +XIV. WOOD TURNING Page 138 + +Advantages of Wood Turning. Simple Turning Lathe. The Rails. The Legs. +Centering Blocks. The Tail-stock. The Tool Rest. Materials. The Mandrel. +Fly-wheel. The Tools Required. + +XV. ON THE USE OF STAINS Page 147 + +Soft Wood. Use of Stains. Stains as Imitations. Good Taste in Staining. +Great Contrasts Bad. Staining Contrasting Woods. Hard Wood Imitations. +Natural Effects. Natural Wood Stains. Polishing Stained Surfaces. + +XVI. THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT Page 152 + +XVII. USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE Page 155 + +Common Bench. Its Proportions. Square Top Stool. Folding Blacking Box. +Convenient Easel. Hanging Book-rack. Sad Iron Holder. Bookcase. +Wood-box. Parallel Bars for Boys' Use. Mission Writing Desk. Screen +Frame. Mission Chair. Grandfather's Clock. Knockdown and Adjustable +Bookcase. Coal Scuttle Frame or Case. Mission Arm Chair. Dog-house. +Settle, With Convenient Shelves. Towel Rack. Sofa Framework. + +XVIII. SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES Page 170 + +Bit and Level Adjuster. Miter Boxes. Swivel Arm Uprights. Movable Stops. +Angle Dividers. "Odd Job" Tool. Bit Braces. Ratchet Mechanism. +Interlocking Jaws. Steel Frame Breast Drills. Horizontal Boring. 3-Jaw +Chuck. Planes. Rabbeting, Beading and Matching. Cutter Adjustment. Depth +Gage. Slitting Gage. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane. Router Planes. +Bottom Surfacing. Door Trim Plane. + +XIX. ROOFING TRUSSES Page 185 + +Characteristics of Trusses. Tie Beams. Ornamentation. Objects of Beams, +Struts and Braces. Utilizing Space. Types of Structures. Gambrel Roof. +Purlin Roof. The Princess Truss. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam Truss. +The Mansard. Scissors Beam. Braced Collar Beam. Rib and Collar Truss. +Hammer-beam Truss. Flying Buttress. + +XX. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS Page 197 + +Definition and Uses. Different Types. Bridle Joint. Spur Tenon. Saddle +Joints. Joggle Joint. Heel Joints. Stub Tenon. Tusk Tenon. Double Tusk +Tenon. Cogged Joints. Anchor Joints. Deep Anchor Joints. + +XXI. SOME MISTAKES AND A LITTLE ADVICE IN CARPENTRY Page 205 + +Lessons From Mistakes. Planing the Edge of a Board Straight. Planing it +Square. Planing to Dimensions. Holding the Plane. How it Should be Run +on the Edge of the Board. Truing With the Weight of the Plane. A Steady +Grasp. In Smoothing Boards. Correct Sand-papering. Gluing. Removing +Surplus Glue. Work Edge and Work Side. The Scribing and Marking Line. +Finishing Surfaces. Sawing a Board Square. The Stroke of the Saw. Sawing +Out of True. + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + +FIG. + +1. A typical work bench Frontispiece + PAGE +2. Hatchet 6 +3. Hammer 7 +4. Common saw 7 +5. Plane 8 +6. Jack plane bit 9 +6a. Fore plane bit 10 +7. Firmer chisel 11 +7a. Mortising chisel 12 +8. Trestle 12 +9. Miter box 13 +10. Incorrect saw setting 17 +10a. Correct saw setting 17 +11. Saw setting device 17 +12. Filing angle 18 +13. Rip saw 19 +14. Cross cut 20 +15. Filing clamp 21 +16. Grindstone 23 +17. Correct manner of holding tool 24 +18. Incorrect way of holding tool 24 +19. Gage 26 +20. Starting a saw 31 +21. Wrong sawing angle 32 +22. Correct sawing angle 33 +23. Thrust cut 34 +24. Chinese saw 34 +25. Moving angle for plane 35 +26. Holding gage 36 +27. Laying out table leg 43 +28. The first marking line 44 +29. Scribing mortise line 44 +30. The corner mortises 44 +31. The side rail 46 +32. Scribing the tenons 46 +33. Cross scoring 47 +34. The tenon 47 +35. Finishing the tenon 47 +36. The tenon and mortise 48 +37. The drawer support 48 +38. Drawer cleats 49 +39. Assembled table frame 50 +40. The top 51 +41. The drawer 52 +42. Bevel joint 53 +43. Miter joint 53 +44. Picture frame joint 54 +45. Initial marks for dovetails 55 +46. End marks for dovetails 55 +47. Angles for dovetails 55 +48. Cutting out recesses for dovetails 56 +49. Tongues for dovetails 56 +50. Recess for dovetails 56 +51. Determining angles 61 +52. Marking degrees 63 +53. Angles from base lines 63 +54. Stepping off spaces 63 +55. Arcade 67 +56. Arch 67 +57. Buttress 67 +58. Chamfer 67 +59. Cooter 67 +60. Crenelated 67 +61. Crosses 67 +62. Curb roof 67 +63. Cupola 67 +64. Console 67 +65. Corbels 67 +66. Dormer 67 +67. Dowel 67 +68. Drips 67 +69. Detail 68 +70. Extrados 68 +71. Engrailed 68 +72. Facet 68 +73. Fret 68 +74. Frontal 68 +75. Frustrums 68 +76. Fylfat 68 +77. Gambrel 68 +78. Gargoyle 68 +79. Gudgeon 68 +80. Guilloche 68 +81. Half timbered 68 +82. Hammer beam 68 +83. Haunches 69 +84. Header 69 +85. Hip roof 69 +86. Hood molding 69 +87. Inclave 69 +88. Interlacing arch 69 +89. Invected 69 +90. Inverted arch 69 +91. Keystone 69 +92. King post 69 +93. Label 69 +94. Louver 69 +95. Lintel 70 +96. Lug 70 +97. M-roof 70 +98. Mansard roof 70 +99. Newel post 70 +100. Parquetry 70 +101. Peen, or pein 70 +102. Pendant 70 +103. Pentastyle 70 +104. Pedestal 70 +105. Pintle 70 +106. Portico 70 +107. Plate 70 +108. Queen post 71 +109. Quirk molding 71 +110. Re-entering 71 +111. Rafter 71 +112. Scarfing 71 +113. Scotia molding 71 +114. Sill 71 +115. Skew back 71 +116. Spandrel 71 +117. Strut 71 +118. Stud, studding 71 +119. Stile 72 +120. Trammel 72 +121. Turret 72 +122. Transom 72 +123. Valley roof 72 +125. Plain line 74 +126. Concave shading 74 +127. Convex shading 74 +128. Wave shading 75 +129. Light past concave surface 75 +130. Light past convex surface 75 +131. Plain surface 75 +132. Outlines 76 +133. Raised surface 77 +134. Depressed surface 77 +135. Shading raised surfaces 78 +136. Shading depressed surfaces 78 +137. Plain cubical outline 79 +138. Indicating cube 79 +139. Confused lines 79 +140. Heavy horizontal lines 80 +141. Heavy vertical lines 80 +142. Isometric cube 81 +143. Cube and circle 81 +144. Flattened perspective 82 +145. Angles in isometric cube 83 +146. Plain circle 84 +147. Sphere shading 84 +148. Drawing regular ellipse 86 +149. Drawing irregular ellipse 88 +150. Drawing spiral 89 +151. Abscissa 90 +152. Angle 91 +153. Apothegm 91 +154. Apsides, or apsis 91 +155. Chord 91 +156. Convolute 91 +157. Conic sections 91 +158. Conoid 91 +159. Cycloid 91 +160. Ellipsoid 91 +161. Epicycloid 91 +162. Evolute 91 +163. Focus 91 +164. Gnome 91 +165. Hyperbola 91 +167. Hypothenuse 91 +168. Incidence 92 +169. Isosceles triangle 92 +170. Parabola 92 +171. Parallelogram 92 +172. Pelecoid 92 +173. Polygons 92 +174. Pyramid 92 +175. Quadrant 92 +176. Quadrilateral 92 +177. Rhomb 92 +178. Sector 92 +179. Segment 92 +180. Sinusoid 92 +181. Tangent 92 +182. Tetrahedron 92 +183. Vertex 92 +184. Volute 92 +185. Band (molding) 94 +186. Astragal (molding) 94 +187. Cavetto (molding) 94 +188. Ovolo (molding) 94 +189. Torus (molding) 95 +190. Apophyges (molding) 95 +191. Cymatium (molding) 95 +192. Ogee-recta (molding) 95 +193. Ogee-reversa (molding) 96 +194. Bead (molding) 96 +195. Casement (molding) 97 +196. The Doric column 98 +197. Front of cabinet 100 +198. Facia board 100 +199. Molding on facia board 100 +200. Ogee-recta on facia 101 +201. Trim below facia 101 +202. Trim below ogee 101 +203. Trim above base 102 +204. Trim above base molding 102 +205. Shadows cast by plain moldings 103 +206. Mortise and tenon joint 105 +207. Incorrect mortising 105 +208. Steps in mortising 106 +209. The shoulders of tenons 108 +210. Lap-and-butt joint 108 +211. Panel joint 109 +212. Scarfing 109 +213. Tongue and groove 110 +214. Beading 110 +215. Outside beading finish 110 +216. Edge beading 111 +217. Corner beading 111 +218. Point beading 111 +219. Round edge beading 111 +220. Beading and molding 111 +221. First square house plan 117 +222. First rectangular house plan 118 +223. Square house to scale 119 +224. Rectangular house to scale 120 +225. Front elevation of square house 121 +226. Elevation of rectangular house 121 +227. Illustrating one-third pitch 122 +228. Illustrating half pitch 122 +229. The sills at the corner 123 +230. The joist and sills 123 +231. The plate splice 124 +232. The rafters 125 +233. The gutter 126 +234. The cornice 127 +234a. The finish without gutter 128 +235. Common truss 130 +236. Upright truss 131 +237. Vertical upright truss 131 +238. Warren girder 132 +239. Extended Warren girder 132 +240. Bowstring girder 132 +241. Frame details of wood turning lathe 139 +242. Tail stock details 140 +243. Tool rest details 142 +244. Section of mandrel 143 +245. View of turning lathe 145 +246. Turning tools 146 +247. Bench 155 +248. Stool 156 +249. Blacking box 156 +250. Easel 157 +251. Hanging book rack 158 +252. Book shelf 159 +253. Wood box 160 +254. Horizontal bars 161 +255. Mission desk 161 +256. Screen frame 162 +257. Mission chair 162 +258. Grandfather's clock 163 +259. Frame for bookcase 164 +260. Coal scuttle case 165 +261. Mission arm chair 165 +262. Dog house 168 +263. Settle 167 +264. Towel rack 168 +265. Mission sofa frame 168 +266. Bit and square level 170 +267. Metal miter box 171 +268. Parts of metal miter box 172 +269. Angle dividers 173 +270. An "odd job" tool 174 +271. Universal-jaw brace 176 +272. Taper-shank bit brace 176 +273. Alligator-jaw brace 176 +274. Steel frame breast drill 177 +275. Steel frame breast drill 177 +276. Steel frame breast drill 177 +277. Details of metal plane 179 +278. Rabbet, matching and dado plane 180 +279. Molding and beading plane 181 +280. Dovetail tongue and groove plane 182 +281. Router planes 183 +282. Router planes 183 +283. Door trim plane 184 +284. Gambrel roof 187 +285. Purlin roof 188 +286. Princess truss 189 +287. Arched, or cambered, tie beam 190 +288. The mansard 191 +289. Scissors beam 192 +290. Braced collar beam 193 +291. Rib and collar truss 194 +291-1/2. Hammer-beam truss 195 +292. Bridle joints 197 +293. Spur tenons 198 +294. Saddle joints 198 +295. Joggle joints 199 +296. Framing joints 199 +297. Heel joints 200 +298. Stub tenon 200 +299. Tusk tenon 201 +300. Double tusk tenon 202 +301. Cogged joints 203 +302. Anchor joint 203 +303. Deep anchor joint 204 + + + + +CARPENTRY + +A PRACTICAL COURSE, WHICH TELLS IN CONCISE AND SIMPLE FORM "HOW TO DO +IT" + + + + + +INTRODUCTORY + + +Carpentry is the oldest of the arts, and it has been said that the +knowledge necessary to make a good carpenter fits one for almost any +trade or occupation requiring the use of tools. The hatchet, the saw, +and the plane are the three primal implements of the carpenter. The +value is in knowing how to use them. + +The institution of Manual Training Schools everywhere is but a tardy +recognition of the value of systematic training in the use of tools. +There is no branch of industry which needs such diversification, in +order to become efficient. + +The skill of the blacksmith is centered in his ability to forge, to +weld, and to temper; that of the machinist depends upon the callipered +dimensions of his product; the painter in his taste for harmony; the +mason on his ability to cut the stone accurately; and the plasterer to +produce a uniform surface. But the carpenter must, in order to be an +expert, combine all these qualifications, in a greater or less degree, +and his vocation may justly be called the King of Trades. Rightly, +therefore, it should be cultivated in order to learn the essentials of +manual training work. + +But there is another feature of the utmost importance and value, which +is generally overlooked, and on which there is placed too little stress, +even in many of the manual training schools. The training of the mind +has been systematized so as to bring into operation the energies of all +the brain cells. Manual training to be efficient should, at the same +time, be directed into such channels as will most widely stimulate the +muscular development of the child, while at the same time cultivating +his mind. + +There is no trade which offers such a useful field as carpentry. It may +be said that the various manual operations bring into play every muscle +of the body. + +The saw, the plane, the hammer, the chisel, each requires its special +muscular energy. The carpenter, unlike the blacksmith, does not put all +his brawn into his shoulders, nor develop his torso at the expense of +his other muscles, like the mason. It may also be said that, unlike most +other occupations, the carpenter has both out-of-door and indoor +exercise, so that he is at all times able to follow his occupation, +summer or winter, rain or shine; and this also further illustrates the +value of this branch of endeavor as a healthful recreation. + +It is the aim of this book to teach boys the primary requirements--not +to generalize--but to show how to prepare and how to do the work; what +tools and materials to use; and in what manner the tools used may be +made most serviceable, and used most advantageously. + +It would be of no value to describe and illustrate how a bracket is +made; or how the framework of a structure is provided with mortises and +tenons in order to hold it together. The boy must have something as a +base which will enable him to design his own creations, and not be an +imitator; his mind must develop with his body. It is the principal aim +of this book to give the boy something to think about while he is +learning how to bring each individual part to perfection. + +If the boy understands that there is a principle underlying each +structural device; that there is a reason for making certain things a +definite way, he is imbued with an incentive which will sooner or later +develop into an initiative of his own. + +It is this phase in the artisan's life which determines whether he will +be merely a machine or an intelligent organism. + +This work puts together in a simple, concise form, not only the +fundamentals which every mechanic should learn to know, but it defines +every structural form used in this art, and illustrates all terms it is +necessary to use in the employment of carpentry. A full chapter is +devoted to drawings practically applied. All terms are diagrammed and +defined, so that the mind may readily grasp the ideas involved. + +Finally, it will be observed that every illustration has been specially +drawn for this book. We have not adopted the plan usually followed in +books of this class, of taking stock illustrations of manufacturers' +tools and devices, nor have we thought it advisable to take a picture of +a tool or a machine and then write a description around it. We have +illustrated the book to explain "_how to do the work_"; also, to teach +the boy what the trade requires, and to give him the means whereby he +may readily find the form of every device, tool, and structure used in +the art. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +TOOLS AND THEIR USES + + +KNOWLEDGE OF TOOLS.--A knowledge of tools and their uses is the first +and most important requirement. The saw, the plane, the hatchet and the +hammer are well known to all boys; but how to use them, and where to use +the different varieties of each kind of tool, must be learned, because +each tool grew out of some particular requirement in the art. These uses +will now be explained. + +A FULL KIT OF TOOLS.--A kit of tools necessary for doing any plain work +should embrace the following: + + +1. A Hatchet. +2. A Claw Hammer--two sizes preferred. +3. Cross-cut Saw, 20 inches long. +4. Rip Saw, 24 inches long. +5. Wooden Mallet. + 6. Jack Plane. +7. Smoothing Plane. +8. Compass Saw. +9. Brace. +10. Bits for Brace, ranging from 1/4 inch to 1 inch diameter. +11. Several small Gimlets. +12. Square. +13. Compass. +14. Draw-knife. +15. Rule. +16. Two Gages. +17. Set of Firmer Chisels. +18. Two Mortising Chisels. +19. Small Back Saw. +20. Saw Clamps. +21. Miter Box. +22. Bevel Square. +23. Small Hand Square. +24. Pliers. +25. Pair of Awls. +26. Hand Clamps. +27. Set Files. +28. Glue Pot. +29. Oil Stone. +30. Grindstone. +31. Trusses. +32. Work Bench. +33. Plumb Bob. +34. Spirit Level. + + +THE HATCHET.--The hatchet should be ground with a bevel on each side, +and not on one side only, as is customary with a plasterer's lathing +hatchet, because the blade of the hatchet is used for trimming off the +edges of boards. Unless ground off with a bevel on both sides it cannot +be controlled to cut accurately. A light hatchet is preferable to a +heavy one. It should never be used for nailing purposes, except in +emergencies. The pole of the hammer--that part which is generally used +to strike the nail with--is required in order to properly balance the +hatchet when used for trimming material. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 2._] + +THE CLAW HAMMER.--This is the proper tool for driving nails and for +drawing them out. Habits should be formed with the beginner, which will +be of great service as the education proceeds. + +One of these habits is to persist in using the tool for the purpose for +which it was made. The expert workman (and he becomes expert because of +it) makes the hammer do its proper work; and so with every other tool. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 3._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 4._] + +ABOUT SAWS.--There are four well-defined kinds. First, a long, flat saw, +for cross-cutting. Second, a slightly larger saw for ripping purposes. +Third, a back saw, with a rib on the rear edge to hold the blade rigid, +used for making tenons; and, fourth, a compass or keyhole saw. + +CROSS-CUTS.--The difference between a cross-cut and a rip saw is, that +in the latter the teeth have less pitch and are usually larger than in +the cross-cut saw. The illustrations (Figs. 13 and 14) will distinctly +show the difference in the teeth. When a cross-cut saw is used for +ripping along the grain of the wood, the teeth, if disposed at an angle, +will ride over the grain or fiber of the wood, and refuse to take hold +or bite into the wood. On the other hand, if the rip saw is used for +cross-cutting purposes, the saw kerf will be rough and jagged. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 5._] + +The back saw is used almost exclusively for making tenons, and has +uniformly fine teeth so as to give a smooth finish to the wood. + +PLANES.--The plane may be called the aesthetic tool in the carpenter's +kit. It is the most difficult tool to handle and the most satisfactory +when thoroughly mastered. How to care for and handle it will be +referred to in a subsequent chapter. We are now concerned with its uses +only. Each complete kit must have three distinct planes, namely, the +jack plane, which is for taking off the rough saw print surface of the +board. The short smoothing plane, which is designed to even up the +inequalities made by the jack plane; and the long finishing plane, or +fore plane, which is intended to straighten the edges of boards or of +finished surfaces. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 6. Jack plane bit._] + +THE JACK PLANE.--This plane has the cutting edge of its blade ground so +it is slightly curved (Fig. 6), because, as the bit must be driven out +so it will take a deep bite into the rough surface of the wood, the +curved cutting edge prevents the corner edges of the bit from digging +into the planed surface. + +On the other hand, the bits of the smoothing and finishing planes are +ground straight across their cutting edges. In the foregoing we have not +enumerated the different special planes, designed to make beads, +rabbets, tongues and grooves, but each type is fully illustrated, so +that an idea may be obtained of their characteristics. (Fig. 6_a_). + +GAGES.--One of the most valuable tools in the whole set is the gage, but +it is, in fact, the least known. This is simply a straight bar, with a +sharpened point projecting out on one side near its end, and having an +adjustable sliding head or cheekpiece. This tool is indispensable in +making mortises or tenons, because the sharpened steel point which +projects from the side of the bar, serves to outline and define the +edges of the mortises or tenons, so that the cutting line may readily be +followed. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 6a. Fore-plane bit._] + +This is the most difficult tool to hold when in use, but that will be +fully explained under its proper head. Each kit should have two, as in +making mortises and tenons one gage is required for each side of the +mortise or tenon. + +CHISELS.--Two kinds are found in every kit--one called the firmer (Fig. +7) and the mortising chisel. The firmer has a flat body or blade, and a +full set ranges in width from three-eighths of an inch to two inches. +The sizes most desirable and useful are the one-half inch, the inch and +the inch-and-a-half widths. These are used for trimming out cross grains +or rebates for setting door locks and hinges and for numerous other uses +where sharp-end tools are required. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 7._] + +THE MORTISING CHISEL.--The mortising chisel (Fig. 7_a_), on the other +hand, is very narrow and thick, with a long taper down to the cutting +edge. They are usually in such widths as to make them stock sizes for +mortises. Never, under any circumstances, use a hammer or hatchet for +driving chisels. The mallet should be used invariably. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 7a._] + +TRUSSES.--There should be at least two, each three feet in length and +twenty inches in height. + +SAW CLAMPS.--These are necessary adjuncts, and should be made of hard +wood, perfectly straight and just wide enough to take in the narrow +back saw. The illustration shows their shape and form. + +THE GRINDSTONES.--It is better to get a first-class stone, which may be +small and rigged up with a foot treadle. A soft, fine-grained stone is +most serviceable, and it should have a water tray, and never be used +excepting with plenty of water. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 8._] + +AN OIL STONE is as essential as a grindstone. For giving a good edge to +tools it is superior to a water stone. It should be provided with a top, +and covered when not in use, to keep out dust and grit. These are the +little things that contribute to success and should be carefully +observed. + +THE MITER BOX.--This should be 14 inches long and 3" by 3" inside, made +of hard wood 3/4" thick. The sides should be nailed to the bottom, as +shown. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 9._] + +THE WORK BENCH.--In its proper place we show in detail the most approved +form of work bench, fitted with a tool rack to hold all the tools, +conveniently arranged. In this chapter we are more particularly +concerned with the uses of tools than their construction; and we impress +on boys the necessity of having a place for everything, and that every +tool should be kept in its proper place. A carpenter's shop filled with +chips, shavings and other refuse is not a desirable place for the +indiscriminate placing of tools. If correct habits are formed at the +outset, by carefully putting each tool in its place after using, it will +save many an hour of useless hunting and annoyance. + +One of the most important things in laying off work, for instance, on +trusses, is the disposition of the saw and square. Our illustration +shows each truss with side cleats, which will permit the user +temporarily to deposit the saw or the square so that it will be handy, +and at the same time be out of the way of the work and prevent either of +the tools from being thrown to the floor. + +In the same way, and for the same purpose, the work bench has temporary +holding cleats at the end and a shelf in front, which are particularly +desirable, because either a saw or a square is an encumbrance on a work +bench while the work is being assembled, and tools of this kind should +not be laid flat on a working surface, nor should they be stood in a +leaning position against a truss or work bench. + +_Strictly observe these fundamentals_--Never place a tool with the +cutting edge toward you. Always have the racks or receptacles so made +that the handle may be seized. Don't put a tool with an exposed cutting +edge above or below another tool in such a manner that the hand or the +tool you are handling can come into contact with the edge. Never keep +the nail or screw boxes above the work bench. They should always be kept +to one side, to prevent, as much as possible, the bench from becoming a +depository for nails. Keep the top of the bench free from tools. Always +keep the planes on a narrow sub-shelf at the rear of the bench. + +If order was Heaven's first law, it is a good principle to apply it in a +workman's shop, and its observance will form a habit that will soon +become a pleasure to follow. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS + + +CARE OF TOOLS.--Dull tools indicate the character of the workman. In an +experience of over forty years, I have never known a good workman to +keep poorly sharpened tools. While it is true that the capacity to +sharpen tools can be acquired only by practice, correct habits at the +start will materially assist. In doing this part of the artisan's work, +it should be understood that there is a right as well as a wrong way. + +There is a principle involved in the sharpening of every tool, which +should be observed. A skilled artisan knows that there is a particular +way to grind the bits of each plane; that the manner of setting a saw +not only contributes to its usefulness, but will materially add to the +life of the saw; that a chisel cannot be made to do good work unless its +cutting edge is square and at the right working angle. + +FIRST REQUISITE.--A beginner should never attempt a piece of work until +he learns how the different tools should be sharpened, or at least learn +the principle involved. Practice will make perfect. + +SAWS.--As the saw is such an important part of the kit, I shall devote +some space to the subject. _First_, as to setting the saw. The object of +this is to make the teeth cut a wider kerf than the thickness of the +blade, and thereby cause the saw to travel freely. A great many +so-called "saw sets" are found in the market, many of them built on +wrong principles, as will be shown, and these are incapable of setting +accurately. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 10._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 10a._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 11._] + +HOW TO SET.--To set a saw accurately, that is, to drive out each tooth +the same distance, is the first requirement, and the second is to bend +out the whole tooth, and not the point only. + +In the illustration (Fig. 10), the point is merely bent out. This is +wrong. The right way is shown in Fig. 10_a_. The whole tooth is bent, +showing the correct way of setting. The reasons for avoiding one way and +following the other are: First, that if the point projects to one side, +each point or tooth will dig into the wood, and produce tooth prints in +the wood, which make a roughened surface. Second, that if there are +inequalities in setting the teeth (as is sure to be the case when only +the points are bent out), the most exposed points will first wear out, +and thereby cause saw deterioration. Third, a saw with the points +sticking out causes a heavy, dragging cut, and means additional labor. +Where the whole body of the tooth is bent, the saw will run smoothly and +easily through the kerf and produce a smooth-cut surface. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 12._] + +Our illustration (Fig. 11) shows a very simple setting block, the +principal merit of which is that any boy can make it, and in the use of +which he cannot go wrong in setting a tooth. + +SIMPLE SAW SETTER.--Take a block of wood, a 4 by 4 inch studding, four +inches long. Get a piece of metal one-half inch thick and two inches +square. Have a blacksmith or machinist bore a quarter-inch hole through +it in the center and countersink the upper side so it may be securely +fastened in a mortise in the block, with its upper side flush with the +upper surface of the block. Now, with a file, finish off one edge, going +back for a quarter of an inch, the angle at A to be about 12 degrees. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 13. Rip-Saw._] + +FILING ANGLES.--In its proper place will be shown how you may easily +calculate and measure degrees in work of this kind. Fig. 12 shows an +approximation to the right angle. B, B (Fig. 11) should be a pair of +wooden pegs, driven into the wooden block on each side of the metal +piece. The teeth of the saw rest against the pegs so that they serve as +a guide or a gage, and the teeth of the saw, therefore, project over the +inclined part (B) of the metal block. Now, with an ordinary punch and a +hammer, each alternate tooth may be driven down until it rests flat on +the inclined face (A), so that it is impossible to set the teeth +wrongly. When you glance down the end of a properly set saw, you will +see a V-shaped channel, and if you will place a needle in the groove and +hold the saw at an angle, the needle will travel down without falling +out. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 14. cross-cut._] + +FILING.--The next step is the filing. Two things must be observed: the +pitch and the angle. By pitch is meant the inclination of the teeth. +Note the illustration (Fig. 13), which shows the teeth of a rip saw. You +will see at A that the pitch of the tooth is at right angles to the edge +of the saw. In Fig. 14, which shows the teeth of a cross-cut saw, the +pitch (B) is about 10 degrees off. The teeth of the rip saw are also +larger than those of the cross-cut. + +THE ANGLE OF FILING.--By angle is meant the cutting position of the +file. In Fig. 12, the lines B represent the file disposed at an angle +of 12 degrees, not more, for a rip saw. For a cross-cut the angle of the +file may be less. + +SAW CLAMPS.--You may easily make a pair of saw clamps as follows: + +Take two pieces of hard wood, each three inches wide, seven-eighths of +an inch thick, and equal in length to the longest saw. Bevel one edge of +each as shown in A (Fig. 15), so as to leave an edge (B) about +one-eighth of an inch thick. At one end cut away the corner on the side +opposite the bevel, as shown at C, so the clamps will fit on the saw +around the saw handle. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 15._] + +When the saw is placed between these clamps and held together by the +jaws of the vise, you are ready for the filing operation. Observe the +following _filing suggestions_: Always hold the file horizontal or +level. In filing, use the whole length of the file. Do the work by a +slow, firm sweep. + +Do not file all of the teeth along the saw at one operation, but only +the alternate teeth, so as to keep the file at the same angle, and thus +insure accuracy; then turn the saw and keep the file constantly at one +angle for the alternate set of teeth. + +Give the same number of strokes, and exert the same pressure on the file +for each tooth, to insure uniformity. Learn also to make a free, easy +and straight movement back and forth with the file. + +THE FILE.--In order to experiment with the filing motion, take two +blocks of wood, and try surfacing them off with a file. When you place +the two filed surfaces together after the first trial both will be +convex, because the hands, in filing, unless you exert the utmost +vigilance, will assume a crank-like movement. The filing test is so to +file the two blocks that they will fit tightly together without rolling +on each other. Before shaping and planing machines were invented, +machinists were compelled to plane down and accurately finish off +surfaces with a file. + +In using the files on saws, however small the file may be, one hand +should hold the handle and the other hand the tip of the file. + +A file brush should always be kept on hand, as it pays to preserve files +by cleaning them. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 16._] + +THE GRINDSTONE.--As most of the tools require a grindstone for +sharpening purposes, an illustration is given as a guide, with a diagram +to show the proper grinding angle. In Fig. 16 the upright (A) of the +frame serves as a line for the eye, so that if the point of the tool is +brought to the sight line, and the tool (C) held level, you will always +be able to maintain the correct angle. There is no objection to +providing a rest, for instance, like the cross bars (D, D), but the +artisan disdains such contrivances, and he usually avoids them for two +reasons: First, because habit enables him to hold the tool horizontally; +and, second, by holding the tool firmly in the hand he has better +control of it. There is only one thing which can be said in favor of a +rest, and that is, the stone may be kept truer circumferentially, as +all stones have soft spots or sides. + +IN THE USE OF GRINDSTONES.--There are certain things to avoid and to +observe in the use of stones. Never use one spot on the stone, however +narrow the tool may be. Always move the tool from side to side. Never +grind a set of narrow tools successively. If you have chisels to grind +intersperse their grinding with plane bits, hatchet or other broad +cutting tools, so as to prevent the stone from having grooves therein. +Never use a tool on a stone unless you have water in the tray. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 17. Correct manner of holding tool._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 18. Incorrect way of holding tool._] + +CORRECT WAY TO HOLD TOOL FOR GRINDING.--There is a correct way to hold +each tool; see illustration (Fig. 17). The left hand should grasp the +tool firmly, near the sharp edge, as shown, and the right hand should +loosely hold the tool behind the left hand. There is a reason for this +which will be apparent after you grind a few tools. The firm grasp of +the left hand gives you absolute control of the blade, so it cannot +turn, and when inequalities appear in the grindstone, the rigid hold +will prevent the blade from turning, and thus enable you to correct the +inequalities of the stone. Bear in mind, the stone should be taken care +of just as much as the tools. An experienced workman is known by the +condition of his tools, and the grindstone is the best friend he has +among his tools. + +INCORRECT WAY TO HOLD TOOL FOR GRINDING.--The incorrect way of holding a +tool is shown in Fig. 18. This, I presume, is the universal way in which +the novice takes the tool. It is wrong for the reason that the thumbs of +both hands are on top of the blade, and they serve as pivots on which +the tool may turn. The result is that the corners of the tool will dig +into the stone to a greater or less degree, particularly if it has a +narrow blade, like a chisel. + +Try the experiment of grinding a quarter-inch chisel by holding it the +incorrect way; and then grasp it firmly with the left hand, and you will +at once see the difference. + +The left hand serves both as a vise and as a fulcrum, whereas the right +hand controls the angle of the tool. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 19._] + +These remarks apply to all chisels, plane bits and tools of that +character, but it is obvious that a drawknife, which is always held by +the handles in grinding, and hatchets, axes and the like, cannot be held +in the same manner. + +A too common error is to press the tool too hard on the stone. This is +wrong. Do not try to force the grinding. + +Then, again, it is the practice of some to turn the stone away from the +tool. The stone should always move toward the tool, so as to prevent +forming a feather edge. + +THE PLANE.--Indiscriminate use of planes should be avoided. Never use +the fore or smoothing planes on rough surfaces. The jack plane is the +proper tool for this work. On the other hand, the fore plane should +invariably be used for straightening the edges of boards, or for fine +surfacing purposes. As the jack plane has its bit ground with a curved +edge, it is admirably adapted for taking off the rough saw print +surface. + +THE GAGE.--The illustration (Fig. 19) shows one of the most useful tools +in the kit. It is used to scribe the thickness of the material which is +to be dressed down, or for imprinting the edges of tenons and mortises. +Two should be provided in every kit, for convenience. + +The scribing point should be sharpened with a file, the point being +filed to form a blade, which is at right angles to the bar, or parallel +with the movable cheekpiece. + +CHISELS.--I have already pointed out, in general, how to hold tools for +grinding purposes, this description applying particularly to chisels, +but several additional things may be added. + +Always be careful to grind the chisel so its cutting edge is square with +the side edge. This will be difficult at first, but you will see the +value of this as you use the tool. For instance, in making rebates for +hinges, or recesses and mortises for locks, the tool will invariably run +crooked, unless it is ground square. + +The chisel should never be struck with a hammer or metal instrument, as +the metal pole or peon of the hammer will sliver the handle. The wooden +mallet should invariably be used. + +GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.--If the workman will carefully observe the +foregoing requirements he will have taken the most important steps in +the knowledge of the art. If he permits himself to commence work without +having his tools in first-class condition, he is trying to do work under +circumstances where even a skilled workman is liable to fail. + +Avoid making for yourself a lot of unnecessary work. The best artisans +are those who try to find out and know which is the best tool, or how to +make a tool for each requirement, but that tool, to be serviceable, must +be properly made, and that means it must be rightly sharpened. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS + + +Observation may form part of each boy's lesson, but when it comes to the +handling of tools, practice becomes the only available means of making a +workman. Fifty years of observation would never make an observer an +archer or a marksman, nor would it enable him to shoe a horse or to +build a table. + +It sometimes happens that an apprentice will, with little observation, +seize a saw in the proper way, or hold a plane in the correct manner, +and, in time, the watchful boy will acquire fairly correct habits. But +why put in useless time and labor in order to gain that which a few +well-directed hints and examples will convey? + +Tools are made and are used as short cuts toward a desired end. Before +the saw was invented the knife was used laboriously to sever and shape +the materials. Before planes were invented a broad, flat sharpened blade +was used to smooth off surfaces. Holes were dug out by means of small +chisels requiring infinite patience and time. Each succeeding tool +proclaimed a shorter and an easier way to do a certain thing. The man +or boy who can make a new labor-saving tool is worthy of as much praise +as the man who makes two blades of grass grow where one grew before. + +Let us now thoroughly understand how to hold and use each tool. That is +half the value of the tool itself. + +THE SAW.--With such a commonplace article as the saw, it might be +assumed that the ordinary apprentice would look upon instruction with a +smile of derision. + +HOW TO START A SAW.--If the untried apprentice has such an opinion set +him to work at the task of cutting off a board accurately on a line. He +will generally make a failure of the attempt to start the saw true to +the line, to say nothing of following the line so the kerf is true and +square with the board. + +HOW TO START ON A LINE.--The first mistake he makes is to saw _on the +line_. This should never be done. The work should be so laid out that +the saw kerf is on the discarded side of the material. The saw should +cut alongside the line, and _the line should not_ be obliterated in the +cutting. Material must be left for trimming and finishing. + +THE FIRST STROKE.--Now, to hold the saw in starting is the difficult +task to the beginner. Once mastered it is simple and easy. The only time +in which the saw should be firmly held by the hand is during the +initial cut or two; afterwards always hold the handle loosely. There is +nothing so tiring as a tightly grasped saw. The saw has but one handle, +hence it is designed to be used with one hand. Sometimes, with long and +tiresome jobs, in ripping, two hands may be used, but one hand can +always control a saw better than two hands. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 20._] + +THE STARTING CUT.--In order to make our understanding of the starting +cut more explicit, we refer to Fig. 20, in which the thumb of the left +hand is shown in the position of a guide--the end of the thumb being +held up a sufficient distance to clear the teeth. In this position you +need not fear that the teeth of the saw (A) will ride up over the thumb +if you have a firm grasp of the saw handle. + +The first stroke should be upwardly, not downwardly. While in the act of +drawing up the saw you can judge whether the saw blade is held by the +thumb gage in the proper position to cut along the mark, and when the +saw moves downwardly for the first cut, you may be assured that the cut +is accurate, or at the right place, and the thumb should be kept in its +position until two or three cuts are made, and the work is then fairly +started. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 21. Wrong sawing angle._] + +FOR CROSS-CUTTING.--For ordinary cross-cutting the angle of the saw +should be at 45 degrees. For ripping, the best results are found at less +than 45 degrees, but you should avoid flattening down the angle. An +incorrect as well as a correct angle are shown in Figs. 21 and 22. + +FORCING A SAW.--Forcing a saw through the wood means a crooked kerf. The +more nearly the saw is held at right angles to a board, the greater is +the force which must be applied to it by the hand to cause it to bite +into the wood; and, on the other hand, if the saw is laid down too far, +as shown in the incorrect way, it is a very difficult matter to follow +the working line. Furthermore, it is a hard matter to control the saw so +that it will cut squarely along the board, particularly when ripping. +The eye must be the only guide in the disposition of the saw. Some boys +make the saw run in one direction, and others cause it to lean the +opposite way. After you have had some experience and know which way you +lean, correct your habits by disposing the saw in the opposite +direction. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 22. Right sawing angle._] + +THE STROKE.--Make a long stroke, using the full blade of the saw. Don't +acquire the "jerky" style of sawing. If the handle is held loosely, and +the saw is at the proper angle, the weight of the saw, together with the +placement of the handle on the saw blade, will be found sufficient to +make the requisite cut at each stroke. + +You will notice that the handle of every saw is mounted nearest the back +edge. (See Fig. 23.) The reason for so mounting it is, that as the +cutting stroke is downward, the line of thrust is above the tooth line, +and as this line is at an angle to the line of thrust, the tendency is +to cause the saw teeth to dig into the wood. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 23._] + +[Illustration: CHINESE SAW. _Fig. 24._] + +THE CHINESE SAW.--This saw is designed to saw with an upward cut, and +the illustration (Fig. 24) shows the handle jutting out below the tooth +line, in order to cause the teeth to dig into the material as the handle +is drawn upwardly. Reference is made to these features to impress upon +beginners the value of observation, and to demonstrate the reason for +making each tool a particular way. + +THINGS TO AVOID.--Do not oscillate the saw as you draw it back and +forth. This is unnecessary work, and shows impatience in the use of the +tool. There is such an infinite variety of use for the different tools +that there is no necessity for rendering the work of any particular +tool, or tools, burdensome. Each in its proper place, handled +intelligently, will become a pleasure, as well as a source of profit. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 25._] + +THE PLANE.--The jack plane and the fore plane are handled with both +hands, and the smoothing plane with one hand, but only when used for +dressing the ends of boards. For other uses both hands are required. + +ANGLES FOR HOLDING PLANES.--Before commencing to plane a board, always +observe the direction in which the grain of the wood runs. This +precaution will save many a piece of material, because if the jack plane +is set deep it will run into the wood and cause a rough surface, which +can be cured only by an extra amount of labor in planing down. + +Never move the jack plane or the smoothing plane over the work so that +the body of the tool is in a direct line with the movement of the plane. +It should be held at an angle of about 12 or 15 degrees (see Fig. 25). +The fore plane should always be held straight with the movement of the +plane, because the length of the fore plane body is used as a +straightener for the surface to be finished. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 26._] + +ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED.--Never draw back the plane with the bit resting on +the board. This simply wears out the tool, and if there should be any +grit on the board it will be sure to ruin the bit. This applies +particularly to the jack plane, but is bad practice with the others as +well. + +A work bench is a receptacle for all kinds of dirt. Provide a special +ledge or shelf for the planes, and be sure to put each plane there +immediately after using. + +THE GAGE.--A man, who professed to be a carpenter, once told me that he +never used a gage because he could not make it run straight. A few +moments' practice convinced him that he never knew how to hold it. The +illustration shows how properly to hold it, and the reason why it should +so be held follows. + +You will observe (Fig. 26) that the hand grasps the stem of the gage +behind the cheekpiece, so that the thumb is free to press against the +side of the stem to the front of the cheekpiece. + +HOLDING THE GAGE.--The hand serves to keep the cheekpiece against the +board, while the thumb pushes the gage forward. The hand must not, under +any circumstances, be used to move the gage along. In fact, it is not +necessary for the fingers to be clasped around the gage stem, if the +forefinger presses tightly against the cheekpiece, since the thumb +performs all the operation of moving it along. Naturally, the hand +grasps the tool in order to hold it down against the material, and to +bring it back for a new cut. + +THE DRAW-KNIFE.--It is difficult for the apprentice to become accustomed +to handle this useful tool. It is much more serviceable than a hatchet +for trimming and paring work. In applying it to the wood always have the +tool at an angle with the board, so as to make a slicing cut. This is +specially desirable in working close to a line, otherwise there is a +liability of cutting over it. + +This knife requires a firm grasp--firmness of hold is more important +than strength in using. The flat side is used wholly for straight edges, +and the beveled side for concave surfaces. It is the intermediate tool +between the hatchet and the plane, as it has the characteristics of both +those tools. It is an ugly, dangerous tool, more to be feared when lying +around than when in use. Put it religiously on a rack which protects the +entire cutting edge. _Keep it off the bench._ + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES + + +FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGNING.--A great deal of the pleasure in making +articles consists in creative work. This means, not that you shall +design some entirely new article, but that its general form, or +arrangement of parts, shall have some new or striking feature. + +A new design in any art does not require a change in all its parts. It +is sufficient that there shall be an improvement, either in some +particular point, as a matter of utility, or some change in an artistic +direction. A manufacturer in putting out a new chair, or a plow, or an +automobile, adds some striking characteristic. This becomes his talking +point in selling the article. + +THE COMMERCIAL INSTINCT.--It is not enough that the boy should learn to +make things correctly, and as a matter of pastime and pleasure. The +commercial instinct is, after all, the great incentive, and should be +given due consideration. + +It would be impossible, in a book of this kind, to do more than to give +the fundamental principles necessary in designing, and to direct the +mind solely to essentials, leaving the individual to build up for +himself. + +FIRST REQUIREMENTS FOR DESIGNING.--First, then, let us see what is +necessary to do when you intend to set about making an article. Suppose +we fix our minds upon a table as the article selected. Three things are +necessary to know: First, the use to which it is to be put; second, the +dimensions; and, third, the material required. + +Assuming it to be the ordinary table, and the dimensions fixed, we may +conclude to use soft pine, birch or poplar, because of ease in working. +There are no regulation dimensions for tables, except as to height, +which is generally uniform, and usually 30 inches. As to the length and +width, you will be governed by the place where it is to be used. + +If the table top is to have dimensions, say, of 36" x 48", you may lay +out the framework six inches less each way, thus giving you a top +overhang of three inches, which is the usual practice. + +CONVENTIONAL STYLES.--Now, if you wish to depart from the conventional +style of making a table you may make variations in the design. For +instance, the Chippendale style means slender legs and thin top. It +involves some fanciful designs in the curved outlines of the top, and in +the crook of the legs. Or if, on the other hand, the Mission type is +preferred, the overhang of the top is very narrow; the legs are straight +and heavy, and of even size from top to bottom; and the table top is +thick and nearly as broad as it is long. Such furniture has the +appearance of massiveness; it is easily made and most serviceable. + +MISSION STYLE.--The Mission style of architecture also lends itself to +the making of chairs and other articles of furniture. A chair is, +probably, the most difficult piece of household furniture to make, +because strength is required. In this type soft wood may be used, as the +large legs and back pieces are easily provided with mortises and tenons, +affording great rigidity when completed. In designing, therefore, you +may see how the material itself becomes an important factor. + +CABINETS.--In the making of cabinets, sideboards, dressers and like +articles, the ingenious boy will find a wonderful field for designing +ability, because in these articles fancy alone dictates the sizes and +the dimensions of the parts. Not so with chairs and tables. The +imagination plays an important part even in the making of drawers, to +say nothing of placing them with an eye to convenience and artistic +effect. + +HARMONY OF PARTS.--But one thing should be observed in the making of +furniture, namely, harmony between the parts. For instance, a table +with thin legs and a thick top gives the appearance of a top-heavy +structure; or the wrong use of two different styles is bad from an +artistic standpoint; moreover, it is the height of refined education if, +in the use of contrasting woods, they are properly blended to form a +harmonious whole. + +HARMONIZING WOOD.--Imagine a chiffonier with the base of dark wood, like +walnut, and the top of pine or maple, or a like light-colored wood. On +the other hand, both walnut and maple, for instance, may be used in the +same article, if they are interspersed throughout the entire article. +The body may be made of dark wood and trimmed throughout with a light +wood to produce a fine effect. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +HOW WORK IS LAID OUT + + +CONCRETE EXAMPLES OF WORK.--A concrete example of doing any work is more +valuable than an abstract statement. For this purpose I shall direct the +building of a common table with a drawer in it and show how the work is +done in detail. + +For convenience let us adopt the Mission style, with a top 36" x 42" and +the height 30". The legs should be 2" x 2" and the top 1", dressed. The +material should be of hard wood with natural finish, or, what is better +still, a soft wood, like birch, which may be stained a dark brown, as +the Mission style is more effective in dark than in light woods. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 27._] + +FRAMEWORK.--As we now know the sizes, the first thing is to build the +framework. The legs should be dressed square and smoothed down with the +fore plane to make them perfectly straight. Now, lay out two mortises at +the upper end of each leg. Follow the illustrations to see how this is +done. + +LAYING OUT THE LEGS.--Fig. 27 shows a leg with square cross marks (A) at +each end. These marks indicate the finished length of the leg. You will +also see crosses on two sides. These indicate what is called the "work +sides." The work sides are selected because they are the finest surfaces +on the leg. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 28._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 29._] + +THE LENGTH OF THE MORTISES.--Then take a small try square (Fig. 28) and +add two cross lines (B, C) on each of the inner surfaces, the second +line (B) one-half inch from the finish line (A), and the other line (C) +seven inches down from the line (A). The side facing boards, hereafter +described, are seven inches wide. + +When this has been done for all the legs, prepare your gage (Fig. 29) to +make the mortise scribe, and, for convenience in illustrating, the leg +is reversed. If the facing boards are 1" thick, and the tenons are +intended to be 1/2" thick, the first scribe line (E) should be 1/2" from +the work side, because the shoulder on the facing board projects out +1/4", and the outer surface of the facing board should not be flush with +the outer surface of the leg. The second gage line (F) should be 1" from +the work side. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 30._] + +THE MORTISES.--When the mortises have been made they will appear as +shown in the enlarged cross section of the leg (Fig. 30), the total +depth of each mortise being 1-1/2". The depth of this mortise determines +for us the length of the tenons on the facing boards. + +THE FACING BOARDS.--These boards are each 1 inch thick and 7 inches +wide. As the top of the table is 42 inches long, and we must provide an +overhang, say of 2 inches, we will first take off 4 inches for the +overhang and 4 inches for the legs, so that the length of two of the +facing boards, from shoulder to shoulder, must be 34 inches; and the +other two facing boards 28 inches. Then, as we must add 1-1/2 inches for +each tenon, two of the boards will be 37 inches long and two of them 31 +inches long. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 31._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 32._] + +The illustration (Fig. 31) shows a board marked with the cross lines (B) +at each end for the end of the tenons, or the extreme ends of the +boards. + +THE TENONS.--Do not neglect first to select the work side and the +working edge of the board. The outer surface and the upper edges are the +sides to work from. The cheekpiece (A) of the gage must always rest +against the working side. + +The cross marks (B, C) should be made with the point of a sharp knife, +and before the small back saw is used on the cross-cuts the lines (B), +which indicate the shoulders, should be scored with a sharp knife, as +shown in Fig. 33. This furnishes a guide for the saw, and makes a neat +finish for the shoulder. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 33._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 34._] + +[Illusstration _Fig. 35._] + +TOOLS USED.--The back saw is used for cutting the tenon, and the end of +the board appears as shown in the enlarged Fig. 34. Two things are now +necessary to complete the tenons. On the upper or work edge of each +board use the gage to mark off a half-inch slice, and then cut away the +flat side of the tenon at the end, on its inner surface, so it will +appear as shown in Fig. 35. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 36._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 37._] + +CHAMFERED TENONS.--The object of these chamfered or beveled tenons is to +permit the ends to approach each other closely within the mortise, as +shown in the assembled parts (Fig. 36). + +THE FRAME ASSEMBLED.--The frame is now ready to assemble, but before +doing so a drawer opening and supports should be made. The ends of the +supports may be mortised into the side pieces or secured by means of +gains. + +Mortises and tenons are better. + +THE DRAWER SUPPORTS.--Take one of the side-facing boards (Fig. 37) and +cut a rectangular opening in it. This opening should be 4 inches wide +and 18 inches long, so placed that there is 1 inch of stock at the upper +margin and 2 inches of stock at the lower margin of the board. At each +lower corner make a mortise (A), so that one side of the mortise is on a +line with the margin of the opening, and so that it extends a half inch +past the vertical margin of the opening. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 38._] + +You can easily cut a gain (B) in a strip, or, as in Fig. 38, you may use +two strips, one (C) an inch wide and a half inch thick, and on this nail +a strip (D) along one margin. This forms the guide and rest for the +drawer. + +At the upper margin of the opening is a rebate or gain (E) at each +corner, extending down to the top line of the drawer opening, into which +are fitted the ends of the upper cross guides. + +THE TABLE FRAME.--When the entire table frame is assembled it will have +the appearance shown in Fig. 39, and it is now ready for the top. + +THE TOP.--The top should be made of three boards, either tongued and +grooved, or doweled and glued together. In order to give a massive +appearance, and also to prevent the end grain of the boards from being +exposed, beveled strips may be used to encase the edges. These marginal +cleats are 3/4 inch thick and 2 inches wide, and joined by beveled ends +at the corners, as shown in Fig. 40. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 39._] + +THE DRAWER.--The drawer (Fig. 41) shown in cross section, has its front +(A) provided with an overlapping flange (B). + +It is not our object in this chapter to show how each particular article +is made, but simply to point out the underlying principles, and to +illustrate how the fastening elements, the tenons and mortises, are +formed, so that the boy will know the proper steps in their natural +order. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 40._] + +HOW ANY STRUCTURE IS BUILT UP.--It should be observed that each +structure, however small, is usually built from the base up. Just the +same as the more pretentious buildings are erected: First, the sill, +then the floor supports, then the posts and top plates, with their +connecting girders, and, finally, the roof. + +The chapter on House Building will give more detailed illustrations of +large structures, and how they are framed and braced. At this point we +are more concerned in knowing how to proceed in order to lay out the +simple structural details, and if one subject of this kind is fully +mastered the complicated character of the article will not be difficult +to master. + +OBSERVATIONS ABOUT A BOX.--As simple a little article as a box +frequently becomes a burden to a beginner. Try it. Simply keep in mind +one thing; each box has six sides. Now, suppose you want a box with six +equal sides--that is, a cubical form--it is necessary to make only three +pairs of sides; two for the ends, two for the sides and two for the top +and bottom. Each set has dimensions different from the other sets. Both +pieces of the set, representing the ends, are square; the side pieces +are of the same width as the end pieces, and slightly longer; and the +top and bottom are longer and wider than the end pieces. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 41._] + +A box equal in all its dimensions may be made out of six boards, +properly cut. Make an attempt in order to see if you can get the right +dimensions. + +JOINTS.--For joining together boards at right angles to each other, such +as box corners, drawers and like articles, tenons and mortises should +never be resorted to. In order to make fine work the joints should be +made by means of dovetails, rabbets or rebates, or by beveling or +mitering the ends. + +BEVELING AND MITERING.--There is a difference in the terms "beveling" +and "mitering," as used in the art. In Fig. 42 the joint A is _beveled_, +and in Fig. 43 the joint B is _mitered_, the difference being that a +bevel is applied to an angle joint like a box corner, while a miter has +reference to a joint such as is illustrated in Fig. 43, such as the +corner of a picture frame. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 42._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 43._] + +PROPER TERMS.--It is the application of the correct terms to things that +lays the foundation for accurate thinking and proper expressions in +describing work. A wise man once said that the basis of true science +consists in correct definitions. + +PICTURE FRAMES.--In picture frames the mitered corners may have a saw +kerf (C) cut across the corners, as shown in Fig. 44, and a thin blade +of hard wood driven in, the whole being glued together. + +DOVETAIL JOINTS.--It is in the laying out of the more complicated +dovetail joints that the highest skill is required, because exactness is +of more importance in this work than in any other article in joinery. In +order to do this work accurately follow out the examples given, and you +will soon be able to make a beautiful dovetail corner, and do it +quickly. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 44._] + +PREPARING A BOX JOINT.--In order to match a box joint for the inner end +of a table drawer, the first step is to select two work sides. One work +side will be the edge of the board, and the other the side surface of +the board, and on those surfaces we will put crosses, as heretofore +suggested. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 45._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 46._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 47._] + +FIRST STEPS.--Now lap together the inner surfaces of these boards (Y, +Z), so the ends are toward you, as shown in Fig. 45. Then, after +measuring the thickness of the boards to be joined (the thinnest, if +they are of different thicknesses), set your compasses, or dividers, for +1/4 inch, providing the boards are 1/2 inch thick, and, commencing at +the work edge of the board, step off and point, as at A, the whole width +of the board, and with a square make the two cross marks (B), using the +two first compass points (A), then skipping one, using the next two, and +so on. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 48._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 49._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 50._] + +When this is done, turn up the board Z (Fig. 46), so that it is at right +angles to the board Y, and so the outer surface of the board Z is flush +with the end of the board X, and with a sharp knife point extend the +lines B along with the grain of the wood on board Z, up to the cross mark +C. This cross mark should have been previously made and is located as +far from the end of the board Z as the thickness of the board Y. + +We now have the marks for the outer surface of the board Z, and the end +marks of board Y. For the purpose of getting the angles of the end of +the board Z and the outer side of board Y, a cross line (D, Fig. 47) is +drawn across the board X near the end, this line being as far from the +end as the thickness of the board Z, and a vertical line (E) is drawn +midway between the two first cross marks (A). + +Now, with your compass, which, in the meantime, has not been changed, +make a mark (F), and draw down the line (G), which will give you the +working angle at which you may set the bevel gage. Then draw down an +angle from each alternate cross line (A), and turn the bevel and draw +down the lines (H). These lines should all be produced on the opposite +side of the board, so as to assure accuracy, and to this end the edges +of the board also should be scribed. + +CUTTING OUT THE SPACES.--In cutting out the intervening spaces, which +should be done with a sharp chisel, care should be observed not to cut +over the shoulder lines. To prevent mistakes you should put some +distinctive mark on each part to be cut away. In this instance E, H show +the parts to be removed, and in Fig. 48 two of the cutaway portions are +indicated. + +When the end of the board Z is turned up (Fig. 49), it has merely the +longitudinal parallel lines B. The bevel square may now be used in the +same manner as on the side of the board Y, and the fitting angles will +then be accurately true. + +This is shown in Fig. 50, in which, also, two of the cutaway parts are +removed. + +TOOLS USED IN LAYING OUT TENONS AND MORTISES.--A sharp-pointed knife +must always be used for making all marks. Never employ an awl for this +work, as the fiber of the wood will be torn up by it. A small try square +should always be used (not the large iron square), and this with a +sharp-pointed compass and bevel square will enable you to turn out a +satisfactory piece of work. + +The foregoing examples, carefully studied, will enable you to gather the +principles involved in laying off any work. If you can once make a +presentable box joint, so that all the dovetails will accurately fit +together, you will have accomplished one of the most difficult phases of +the work, and it is an exercise which will amply repay you, because you +will learn to appreciate what accuracy means. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE + + +THE SQUARE.--The square is, probably, the oldest of all tools, and that, +together with the compass, or dividers, with which the square is always +associated, has constituted the craftsman's emblem from the earliest +historical times. So far as we now know, the plain flat form, which has +at least one right angle and two or more straight edges, was the only +form of square used by the workman. But modern uses, and the development +of joinery and cabinet making, as well as the more advanced forms of +machinery practice, necessitated new structural forms in the square, so +that the bevel square, in which there is an adjustable blade set in a +handle, was found necessary. + +THE TRY SQUARE.--In the use of the ordinary large metal square it is +necessary to lay the short limb of the square on the face of the work, +and the long limb must, therefore, rest against the work side or edge of +the timber, so that the scribing edge of the short limb does not rest +flat against the work. As such a tool is defective in work requiring +accuracy, it brought into existence what is called the try square, +which has a rectangular handle, usually of wood, into which is fitted at +one end a metal blade, which is at right angles to the edge of the +handle. The handle, therefore, always serves as a guide for the blade in +scribing work, because it lies flat down on the work. + +THE T-SQUARE is another modification of the try square, its principal +use being for draughting purposes. + +THE COMPASS.--The compass is one of the original carpenter's tools. The +difference between _compass_ and _dividers_ is that compasses have +adjustable pen or pencil points, whereas dividers are without adjustable +points. Modern work has brought refinements in the character of the +compass and dividers, so that we now have the bow-compass, which is, +usually, a small tool, one leg of which carries a pen or pencil point, +the two legs being secured together, usually, by a spring bow, or by a +hinged joint with a spring attachment. + +PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS.--A useful tool is called the proportional +dividers, the legs of which are hinged together intermediate the ends, +so that the pivotal joint is adjustable. By means of this tool the scale +of work may be changed, although its widest field of usefulness is work +laid off on a scale which you intend to reduce or enlarge +proportionally. + +DETERMINING ANGLES.--Now, in order to lay out work the boy should know +quickly and accurately how to determine various angles used or required +in his work. The quickest way in which to learn this is to become +familiar with the degree in its various relations. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 51._] + +DEFINITION OF DEGREE.--A degree is not a measure, as we would designate +a foot or a pound to determine distance or quantity. It is used to +denote a division, space, interval or position. To illustrate, look at +the circle, Fig. 51. The four cardinal points are formed by the cross +lines (A, B), and in each one of the quadrants thus formed the circle is +divided into 90 degrees. Look at the radial lines (C, D), and you will +find that the distance between these lines is different along the +curved line (E) than along the curved line (F). The degree is, +therefore, to indicate only the space, division or interval in the +circle. + +THE MOST IMPORTANT ANGLE.--Most important for one to know at a glance is +that of 45 degrees, because the one can the more readily calculate the +other degrees, approximately, by having 45 degrees once fixed in the +mind, and impressed on the visual image. With a square and a compass it +is a comparatively easy matter accurately to step off 45 degrees, as it +is the line C, midway between A and B, and the other degrees may be +calculated from the line C and the cardinal lines A or B. + +DEGREES WITHOUT A COMPASS.--But in the absence of a compass and when you +do not wish to step off a circle, you will in such case lay down the +square, and mark off at the outer margin of the limbs two equal +dimensions. Suppose we take 2 inches on each limb of the square. The +angle thus formed by the angle square blade is 45 degrees. To find 30 +degrees allow the blade of the angle square to run from 2 inches on one +limb to 3-1/2 inches on the other limb, and it will be found that for 15 +degrees the blade runs from 2 inches on one limb to 7-1/2 inches on the +other limb. It would be well to fix firmly these three points, at least, +in your mind, as they will be of the utmost value to you. It is a +comparatively easy matter now to find 10 degrees or 25 degrees, or any +intermediate line. + +WHAT DEGREES ARE CALCULATED FROM.--The question that now arises is what +line one may use from which to calculate degrees, or at what point in +the circle zero is placed. Degrees may be calculated either from the +horizontal or from the vertical line. Examine Fig. 53. The working +margin indicated by the cross mark is your base line, and in specifying +an angle you calculate it from the work edge. Thus, the line A indicates +an angle of 30 degrees. The dotted line is 45 degrees. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 52._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 53._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 54._] + +THE DIVIDERS.--The dividers are used not only for scribing circles, but +also for stepping and dividing spaces equally. There is a knack in the +use of the dividers, where accuracy is wanted, and where the surface is +of wood. Unless the utmost care is observed, the spaces will be unequal, +for the reason that the point of the dividers will sink more deeply into +the wood at some places than at others, due to the uneven texture of the +wood grain. It will be better to make a line lengthwise, and a cross +line (A) for starting (see Fig. 54). You may then insert one point of +the dividers at the initial mark (B), and describe a small arc (C). Then +move the dividers over to the intersection of the arc (C) on the line, +and make the next mark, and so on. + +Some useful hints along this same line will be found under the chapter +on Drawing, which should be carefully studied. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIGNATED + + +THE RIGHT NAME FOR EVERYTHING.--Always make it a point to apply the +right term to each article or portion of a structure. Your explanation, +to those who do know the proper technical terms, will render much easier +a thorough understanding; and to those who do not know, your language +will be in the nature of an education. + +PROPER DESIGNATIONS.--Every part in mechanism, every point, curve and +angle has its peculiar designation. A knowledge of terms is an +indication of thoroughness in education, and, as heretofore stated, +becomes really the basis of art, as well as of the sciences. When you +wish to impart information to another you must do it in terms understood +by both. + +Furthermore, and for this very reason, you should study to find out how +to explain or to define the terms. You may have a mental picture of the +structure in your mind, but when asked to explain it you are lost. + +LEARNING MECHANICAL FORMS.--Suppose, for example, we take the words +_segment_ and _sector_. Without a thorough understanding in your own +mind you are likely to confuse these terms by taking one for the other. +But let us assume you are to be called upon to explain a sector to some +one who has no idea of terms and their definitions. How would you +describe it? While it is true it is wedge-shaped, you will see by +examining the drawing that it is not like a wedge. The sector has two +sides running from a point like a wedge, but the large end of the sector +is curved. + +If you were called upon to define a segment you might say it had one +straight line and one curve, but this would not define it very lucidly. +Therefore, in going over the designations given, not only fix in your +mind the particular form, but try to remember some particular manner in +which you can clearly express the form, the shape or the relation of the +parts. + +For your guidance, therefore, I have given, as far as possible, simple +figures to aid you in becoming acquainted with structures and their +designations, without repeating the more simple forms which I have used +in the preceding chapters. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 55.-Fig. 65._] + +55. _Arcade._--A series of arches with the columns or piers which +support them, the spandrels above, and other parts. + +56. _Arch._--A curved member made up, usually, of separate wedge-shaped +solids, A. K, Keystone; S, Springers; C, Chord, or span. + +57. _Buttress._--A projecting mass of masonry. A, used for resisting the +thrust of an arch, or for ornamentation; B, a flying buttress. + +58. _Chamfer._--The surface A formed by cutting away the arris or angle +formed by two faces, B, C, of material. + +59. _Cotter or Cotter Pin._--A pin, A, either flat, square or round, +driven through a projecting tongue to hold it in position. + +60. _Crenelated._--A form of molding indented or notched, either +regularly or irregularly. + +61. _Crosses._--1. Latin cross, in the Church of Rome carried before +Bishops. 2. Double cross, carried before Cardinals and Bishops. 3. +Triple or Papal cross. 4. St. Andrew's and St. Peter's cross. 5. Maltese +cross. 6. St. Anthony or Egyptian cross. 7. Cross of Jerusalem. 8. A +cross patte or ferme (head or first). 9. A cross patonce (that is, +growing larger at the ends). 10. Greek cross. + +62. _Curb Roof._--A roof having a double slope, or composed on each side +of two parts which have unequal inclinations; a gambrel roof. + +63. _Cupola._--So called on account of its resemblance to a cup. A roof +having a rounded form. When on a large scale it is called a dome. + +_Crown Post._--See _King Post_. + +64. _Console._--A bracket with a projection not more than half its +height. + +65. _Corbels._--A mass of brackets to support a shelf or structure. +Largely employed in Gothic architecture. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 66.-Fig. 79._] + +66. _Dormer._--A window pierced in a roof and so set as to be vertical, +while the roof slopes away from it. Also called a _Gablet_. + +67. _Dowel._--A pin or stud in one block, or body, designed to engage +with holes in another body to hold them together in alignment. + +68. _Drip._--That part of a cornice or sill course A, or other +horizontal member which projects beyond the rest, so as to divert water. + +69. _Detents._--Recesses to lock or to serve as a stop or holding place. + +70. _Extrados._--The exterior curve of an arch, especially the upper +curved face A. B is the _Intrados_ or _Soffit_. + +71. _Engrailed._--Indented with small concave curves, as the edge of a +bordure, bend, or the like. + +72. _Facet._--The narrow plain surface, as A, between the fluting of a +column. + +73. _Fret, Fretwork._--Ornamental work consisting of small fillets, or +slats, intersecting each other or bent at right angles. Openwork in +relief, when elaborated and minute in all its parts. Hence any minute +play of light and shade. A, Japanese fretwork. B, Green fret. + +74. _Frontal_, also called _Pediment_.--The triangular space, A, above a +door or window. + +75. _Frustums._--That part of a solid next the base, formed by cutting +off the top; or the part of any solid, as of a cone, pyramid, etc., +between two planes, which may either be parallel or inclined to each +other. + +76. _Fylfat._--A rebated cross used as a secret emblem and worn as an +ornament. It is also called _Gammadium_, and more commonly known as +_Swastika_. + +77. _Gambrel Roof._--A curb roof having the same section in all its +parts, with a lower, steeper and longer part. See _Curb Roof_ and +distinguish difference. + +78. _Gargoyle._--A spout projecting from the roof gutter of a building, +often carved grotesquely. + +79. _Gudgeon._--A wooden shaft, A, with a socket, B, into which is +fitted a casting, C. The casting has a _gudgeon_, D. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 80.-Fig. 93._] + +80. _Guilloche._--An ornament in the form of two or more bands or +strings twisted together or over or through each other. + +81. _Half Timbered._--Constructed of a timber frame, having the spaces +filled in with masonry. + +82. _Hammer Beam._--A member of one description of roof truss, called +hammer-beam truss, which is so framed as not to have a tie beam at the +top of the wall. A is the _hammer beam_, and C the pendant post. + +83. _Haunches._--The parts A, A, on each side of the crown of an arch. +Each haunch is from one-half to two-thirds of the half arch. + +84. _Header._--A piece of timber, A, fitted between two trimmers, B, B, +to hold the ends of the tail beams, C, C. + +85. _Hip Roof._--The external angle formed by the meeting of two sloping +sides or skirts of a roof which have their wall plates running in +different directions. + +86. _Hood Molding._--A projecting molding over the head of an arch, as +at A, forming the outer-most member of the archivolt. + +87. _Inclave._--The border, or borders, having a series of dovetails. +One variation of molding or ornamentation. + +88. _Interlacing Arch._--Arches, usually circular, so constructed that +their archivolts, A, intersect and seem to be interlaced. + +89. _Invected._--Having a border or outline composed of semicircles or +arches, with the convexity outward. The opposite of engrailed. + +90. _Inverted Arch._--An arch placed with the crown downward; used in +foundation work. + +91. _Keystone._--The central or topmost stone, A, of an arch, sometimes +decorated with a carving. + +92. _King Post._--A member, A, of a common form of truss for roofs. It +is strictly a tie intended to prevent the sagging of the tie beam, B, in +the middle. If there are struts, C, supporting the rafters, D, they +extend down to the foot of the _King Post_. + +93. _Label._--The name given to the projecting molding, A, around the +top of the door opening. A form of mediaeval architecture. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 94.-Fig. 104._] + +94. _Louver._--The sloping boards, A, set to shed rain water outward in +an opening of a frame, as in belfry windows. + +95. _Lintel._--A horizontal member. A spanning or opening of a frame, +and designed to carry the wall above it. + +96. _Lug._--A. projecting piece, as A, to which anything is attached, or +against which another part, like B, is held. + +97. _M-Roof._--A kind of roof formed by the junction of two common roofs +with a valley between them, so the section resembles the letter M. + +98. _Mansard Roof._--A hipped curb roof, that is, a roof having on all +sides two slopes, the lower one, A, being steeper than the upper portion +or deck. + +99. _Newel Post._--The upright post at the foot of a stairway, to which +the railing is attached. + +100. _Parquetry._--A species of joinery or cabinet work, consisting of +an inlay of geometric or other patterns, generally of different colored +woods, used particularly for floors. + +101. _Peen._ also _Pein._--The round, _round_-edged or hemispherical +end, as at A, of a hammer. + +102. _Pendant._--A hanging ornament on roofs, ceilings, etc., and much +used in the later styles of Gothic architecture where it is of stone. +Imitated largely in wood and plaster work. + +103. _Pentastyle._--A pillar. A portico having five pillars, A, is +called the _Pentastyle_ in temples of classical construction. + +104. _Pedestal._--An upright architectural member, A, right-angled in +plan, constructionally a pier, but resembling a column, having a +capital, shaft and base to agree with the columns in the structure. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 105.-Fig. 117._] + +105. _Pintle._--An upright pivot pin, or the pin of a hinge; A +represents the _pintle_ of a rudder. + +106. _Portico._--A colonnade or covered structure, especially in +classical style, of architecture, and usually at the entrance of a +building. + +107. _Plate._--A horizontal timber, A, used as a top or header for +supporting timbers, roofs and the like. + +108. _Queen Post._--One of two suspending posts in a roof truss, or +other framed truss of simple form. Compare with _King Post._ A, B, tie +beam; C, C, queen posts; D, straining piece; E, principal rafter; F, +rafter. + +109. _Quirk Molding._--A small channel, deeply recessed, in proportion +to its width, used to insulate and give relief to a convex rounded +molding. An excellent corner post for furniture. + +110. _Re-entering._--The figure shows an irregular polygon (that is, +many-sided figure) and is a re-entering polygon. The recess A is a +re-entering angle. + +111. _Rafter._--Originally any rough and heavy piece of timber, but in +modern carpentry used to designate the main roof support, as at A. See +_Queen Post_. + +112. _Scarfing._--Cutting timber at an angle along its length, as the +line A. Scarfing joints are variously made. The overlapping joints may +be straight or recessed and provided with a key block B. When fitted +together they are securely held by plates and bolts. + +113. _Scotia Molding._--A sunken molding in the base of a pillar, so +called from the dark shadow which it casts. + +114. _Sill._--In carpentry the base piece, or pieces, A, on which the +posts of a structure are set. + +115. _Skew-Back._--The course of masonry, such as a stone, A, with an +inclined face, which forms the abutment for the voussoirs, B, or +wedge-shaped stones comprising the arch. + +116. _Spandrel._--The irregular, triangular space, A, between the curve +of an arch and the enclosing right angle. + +117. _Strut._--In general, any piece of a frame, such as a timber A, or +a brace B, which resists pressure or thrust in the direction of its +length. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 118.-Fig. 123._] + +118. _Stud, Studding._--The vertical timber or scantling, A, which is +one of the small uprights of a building to which the boarding or +plastering lath are nailed. + +119. _Stile._--The main uprights of a door, as A, A; B, B, B, rails; C, +C, mullions; D, D, panels. + +_Tie Beam._--See _Queen Post_. + +120. _Trammel._--A very useful tool for drawing ellipses. It comprises a +cross, A, with grooves and a bar, B, with pins, C, attached to sliding +blocks in the grooves, and a pen or stylus, D, at the projecting end of +the bar to scribe the ellipse. + +121. _Turret._--A little tower, frequently only an ornamental structure +at one of the angles of a larger structure. + +122. _Transom._--A horizontal cross-bar, A, above a door or window or +between a door and a window above it. Transom is the horizontal member, +and if there is a vertical, like the dotted line B, it is called a +_Mullion_. See _Stile_. + +123. _Valley Roof._--A place of meeting of two slopes of a roof which +have their sides running in different directions and formed on the plan +of a re-entrant angle. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY + + +A knowledge of drawing, at least so far as the fundamentals are +concerned, is of great service to the beginner. All work, after being +conceived in the brain, should be transferred to paper. A habit of this +kind becomes a pleasure, and, if carried out persistently, will prove a +source of profit. The boy with a bow pen can easily draw circles, and +with a drawing or ruling pen he can make straight lines. + +REPRESENTING OBJECTS.--But let him try to represent some object, and the +pens become useless. There is a vast difference in the use of drawing +tools and free-hand drawing. While the boy who is able to execute +free-hand sketches may become the better artist, still that art would +not be of much service to him as a carpenter. First, because the use of +tools gives precision, and this is necessary to the builder; and, +second, because the artist deals wholly with perspectives, whereas the +builder must execute from plane surfaces or elevations. + +FORMING LINES AND SHADOWS.--It is not my intention to furnish a complete +treatise on this subject, but to do two things, one of which will be to +show, among other features, how simple lines form objects; how shading +becomes an effective aid; how proportions are formed; and, second, how +to make irregular forms, and how they may readily be executed so that +the boy may be able to grasp the ideas for all shapes and structural +devices. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 125._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 126._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 127._] + +ANALYSIS OF LINE SHADING.--In the demonstration of this work I shall +give an analysis of the simple lines formed, showing the terms used to +designate the lines, curves, and formations, so that when any work is +laid out the beginner will be able, with this glossary before him, to +describe architecturally, as well as mathematically, the angles and +curves with which he is working. + +HOW TO CHARACTERIZE SURFACE.--Suppose we commence simply with straight +lines. How shall we determine the character of the surface of the +material between the two straight lines shown in Fig. 125? Is it flat, +rounded, or concaved? Let us see how we may treat the surface by simple +lines so as to indicate the configuration. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 128._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 129._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 130._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 131._] + +CONCAVE SURFACES.--In Fig. 126 the shading lines commence at the upper +margin, and are heaviest there, the lines gradually growing thinner and +farther apart. + +CONVEX SURFACES.--In Fig. 127 the shading is very light along the upper +margin, and heavy at the lower margin. The first shaded figure, +therefore, represents a concaved surface, and the second figure a +convex surface. But why? Simply for the reason that in drawings, as well +as in nature, light is projected downwardly, hence when a beam of light +moves past the margin of an object, the contrast at the upper part, +where the light is most intense, is strongest. + +The shading of the S-shaped surface (Fig. 128) is a compound of Figs. +126 and 127. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 132._] + +SHADOWS FROM A SOLID BODY.--We can understand this better by examining +Fig. 129, which shows a vertical board, and a beam of light (A) passing +downwardly beyond the upper margin of the board. Under these conditions +the upper margin of the board appears darker to the vision, by contrast, +than the lower part. It should also be understood that, in general, the +nearer the object the lighter it is, so that as the upper edge of the +board is farthest from the eye the heavy shading there will at least +give the appearance of distance to that edge. + +But suppose that instead of having the surface of the board flat, it +should be concaved, as in Fig. 130, it is obvious that the hollow, or +the concaved, portion of the board must intensify the shadows or the +darkness at the upper edge. This explains why the heavy shading in Fig. +126 is at that upper margin. + +FLAT EFFECTS.--If the board is flat it may be shaded, as shown in Fig. +131, in which the lines are all of the same thickness, and are spaced +farther and farther apart at regularly increasing intervals. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 133._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 134._] + +THE DIRECTION OF LIGHT.--Now, in drawing, we must observe another thing. +Not only does the light always come from above, but it comes also from +the left side. I show in Fig. 132 two squares, one within the other. All +the lines are of the same thickness. Can you determine by means of such +a drawing what the inner square represents? Is it a block, or raised +surface, or is it a depression? + +RAISED SURFACES.--Fig. 133 shows it in the form of a block, simply by +thickening the lower and the right-hand lines. + +DEPRESSED SURFACES.--If, by chance, you should make the upper and the +left-hand lines heavy, as in Fig. 134, it would, undoubtedly, appear +depressed, and would need no further explanation. + +FULL SHADING,--But, in order to furnish an additional example of the +effect of shading, suppose we shade the surface of the large square, as +shown in Fig. 135, and you will at once see that not only is the effect +emphasized, but it all the more clearly expresses what you want to show. +In like manner, in Fig. 136, we shade only the space within the inner +square, and it is only too obvious how shadows give us surface +conformation. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 135._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 136._] + +ILLUSTRATING CUBE SHADING.--In Fig. 137 I show merely nine lines joined +together, all lines being of equal thickness. + +As thus drawn it may represent, for instance, a cube, or it may show +simply a square base (A) with two sides (B, B) of equal dimensions. + +SHADING EFFECTS.--Now, to examine it properly so as to observe what the +draughtsman wishes to express, look at Fig. 138, in which the three +diverging lines (A, B, C) are increased in thickness, and the cube +appears plainly. On the other hand, in Fig. 139, the thickening of the +lines (D, E, F) shows an entirely different structure. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 137._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 138._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 139._] + +It must be remembered, therefore, that to show raised surfaces the +general direction is to shade heavily the lower horizontal and the right +vertical lines. (See Fig. 133.) + +HEAVY LINES.--But there is an exception to this rule. See two examples +(Fig. 140). Here two parallel lines appear close together to form the +edge nearest the eye. In such cases the second, or upper, line is +heaviest. On vertical lines, as in Fig. 141, the second line from the +right is heaviest. These examples show plain geometrical lines, and +those from Figs. 138 to 141, inclusive, are in perspective. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 140._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 141._] + +PERSPECTIVE.--A perspective is a most deceptive figure, and a cube, for +instance, may be drawn so that the various lines will differ in length, +and also be equidistant from each other. Or all the lines may be of the +same length and have the distances between them vary. Supposing we have +two cubes, one located above the other, separated, say, two feet or more +from each other. It is obvious that the lines of the two cubes will not +be the same to a camera, because, if they were photographed, they would +appear exactly as they are, so far as their positions are concerned, and +not as they appear. But the cubes do appear to the eye as having six +equal sides. The camera shows that they do not have six equal sides so +far as measurement is concerned. You will see, therefore, that the +position of the eye, relative to the cube, is what determines the angle, +or $the relative$ angles of all the lines. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 142._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 143._] + +A TRUE PERSPECTIVE OF A CUBE.--Fig. 142 shows a true perspective--that +is, it is true from the measurement standpoint. It is what is called an +_isometrical_ view, or a figure in which all the lines not only are of +equal length, but the parallel lines are all spaced apart the same +distances from each other. + +ISOMETRIC CUBE.--I enclose this cube within a circle, as in Fig. 143. To +form this cube the circle (A) is drawn and bisected with a vertical line +(B). This forms the starting point for stepping off the six points (C) +in the circle, using the dividers without resetting, after you have made +the circle. Then connect each of the points (C) by straight lines (D). +These lines are called chords. From the center draw two lines (E) at an +angle and one line (F) vertically. These are the radial lines. You will +see from the foregoing that the chords (D) form the outline of the +cube--or the lines farthest from the eye, and the radial lines (E, F) +are the nearest to the eye. In this position we are looking at the block +at a true diagonal--that is, from a corner at one side to the extreme +corner on the opposite side. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 144._] + +Let us contrast this, and particularly Fig. 142, with the cube which is +placed higher up, viewed from the same standpoint. + +FLATTENED PERSPECTIVE.--Fig. 144 shows the new perspective, in which the +three vertical lines (A, A, A) are of equal length, and the six +angularly disposed lines (B, C) are of equal length, but shorter than +the lines A. The only change which has been made is to shorten the +distance across the corner from D to D, but the vertical lines (A) are +the same in length as the corresponding lines in Fig. 143. +Notwithstanding this change the cubes in both figures appear to be of +the same size, as, in fact, they really are. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 145._] + +In forming a perspective, therefore, it would be a good idea for the boy +to have a cube of wood always at hand, which, if laid down on a +horizontal support, alongside, or within range of the object to be +drawn, will serve as a guide to the perspective. + +TECHNICAL DESIGNATIONS.--As all geometrical lines have designations, I +have incorporated such figures as will be most serviceable to the boy, +each figure being accompanied by its proper definition. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 146._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 147._] + +Before passing to that subject I can better show some of the simple +forms by means of suitable diagrams. + +Referring to Fig. 145, let us direct our attention to the body (G), +formed by the line (D) across the circle. This body is called a segment. +A chord (D) and a curve comprise a segment. + +SECTOR AND SEGMENT.--Now examine the shape of the body formed by two of +the radial lines (E, E) and that part of the circle which extends from +one radial line to the other. The body thus formed is a sector, and it +is made by two radiating lines and a curved line. Learn to distinguish +readily, in your mind, the difference between the two figures. + +TERMS OF ANGLES.--The relation of the lines to each other, the manner in +which they are joined together, and their comparative angles, all have +special terms and meanings. Thus, referring to the isometric cube, in +Fig. 145, the angle formed at the center by the lines (B, E) is +different from the angle formed at the margin by the lines (E, F). The +angle formed by B, E is called an exterior angle; and that formed by E, +F is an interior angle. If you will draw a line (G) from the center to +the circle line, so it intersects it at C, the lines B, D, G form an +equilateral or isosceles triangle; if you draw a chord (A) from C to C, +the lines H, E, F will form an obtuse triangle, and B, F, H a +right-angled triangle. + +CIRCLES AND CURVES.--Circles, and, in fact, all forms of curved work, +are the most difficult for beginners. The simplest figure is the circle, +which, if it represents a raised surface, is provided with a heavy line +on the lower right-hand side, as in Fig. 146; but the proper artistic +expression is shown in Fig. 147, in which the lower right-hand side is +shaded in rings running only a part of the way around, gradually +diminishing in length, and spaced farther and farther apart as you +approach the center, thus giving the appearance of a sphere. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 148._] + +IRREGULAR CURVES.--But the irregular curves require the most care to +form properly. Let us try first the elliptical curve (Fig. 148). The +proper thing is, first, to draw a line (A), which is called the "major +axis." On this axis we mark for our guidance two points (B, B). With the +dividers find a point (C) exactly midway, and draw a cross line (D). +This is called the "minor axis." If we choose to do so we may indicate +two points (E, E) on the minor axis, which, in this case, for +convenience, are so spaced that the distance along the major axis, +between B, B, is twice the length across the minor axis (D), along E, E. +Now find one-quarter of the distance from B to C, as at F, and with a +compass pencil make a half circle (G). If, now, you will set the compass +point on the center mark (C), and the pencil point of the compass on B, +and measure along the minor axis (D) on both sides of the major axis, +you will make two points, as at H. These points are your centers for +scribing the long sides of the ellipse. Before proceeding to strike the +curved lines (J), draw a diagonal line (K) from H to each marking point +(F). Do this on both sides of the major axis, and produce these lines so +they cross the curved lines (G). When you ink in your ellipse do not +allow the circle pen to cross the lines (K), and you will have a +mechanical ellipse. + +ELLIPSES AND OVALS.--It is not necessary to measure the centering points +(F) at certain specified distances from the intersection of the +horizontal and vertical lines. We may take any point along the major +axis, as shown, for instance, in Fig. 149. Let B be this point, taken at +random. Then describe the half circle (C). We may, also, arbitrarily, +take any point, as, for instance, D on the minor axis E, and by drawing +the diagonal lines (F) we find marks on the circle (C), which are the +meeting lines for the large curve (H), with the small curve (C). In this +case we have formed an ovate or an oval form. Experience will soon make +perfect in following out these directions. + +FOCAL POINTS.--The focal point of a circle is its center, and is called +the _focus_. But an ellipse has two focal points, called _foci_, +represented by F, F in Fig. 148, and by B, B in Fig. 149. + +A _produced line_ is one which extends out beyond the marking point. +Thus in Fig. 148 that part of the line K between F and G represents the +produced portion of line K. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 149._] + +SPIRALS.--There is no more difficult figure to make with a bow or a +circle pen than a spiral. In Fig. 150 a horizontal and a vertical line +(A, B), respectively, are drawn, and at their intersection a small +circle (C) is formed. This now provides for four centering points for +the circle pen, on the two lines (A, B). Intermediate these points +indicate a second set of marks halfway between the marks on the lines. +If you will now set the point of the compass at, say, the mark 3, and +the pencil point of the compass at D, and make a curved mark one-eighth +of the way around, say, to the radial line (E), then put the point of +the compass to 4, and extend the pencil point of the compass so it +coincides with the curved line just drawn, and then again make another +curve, one-eighth of a complete circle, and so on around the entire +circle of marking points, successively, you will produce a spiral, +which, although not absolutely accurate, is the nearest approach with a +circle pen. To make this neatly requires care and patience. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 150._] + +PERPENDICULAR AND VERTICAL.--A few words now as to terms. The boy is +often confused in determining the difference between _perpendicular_ and +_vertical_. There is a pronounced difference. Vertical means up and +down. It is on a line in the direction a ball takes when it falls +straight toward the center of the earth. The word _perpendicular_, as +usually employed in astronomy, means the same thing, but in geometry, or +in drafting, or in its use in the arts it means that a perpendicular +line is at right angles to some other line. Suppose you put a square +upon a roof so that one leg of the square extends up and down on the +roof, and the other leg projects outwardly from the roof. In this case +the projecting leg is _perpendicular_ to the roof. Never use the word +_vertical_ in this connection. + +SIGNS TO INDICATE MEASUREMENTS.--The small circle ( deg.) is always used to +designate _degree_. Thus 10 deg. means ten degrees. + +Feet are indicated by the single mark '; and two closely allied marks " +are for inches. Thus five feet ten inches should be written 5' 10". A +large cross (x) indicates the word "by," and in expressing the term six +feet by three feet two inches, it should be written 6' x 3'2". + +The foregoing figures give some of the fundamentals necessary to be +acquired, and it may be said that if the boy will learn the principles +involved in the drawings he will have no difficulty in producing +intelligible work; but as this is not a treatise on drawing we cannot go +into the more refined phases of the subject. + +DEFINITIONS.--The following figures show the various geometrical forms +and their definitions: + +[Illustration: _Fig. 151.-Fig. 165._] + +151. _Abscissa._--The point in a curve, A, which is referred to by +certain lines, such as B, which extend out from an axis, X, or the +ordinate line Z. + +152. _Angle._--The inclosed space near the point where two lines meet. + +153. _Apothegm._--The perpendicular line A from the center to one side +of a regular polygon. It represents the radial line of a polygon the +same as the radius represents half the diameter of a circle. + +154. _Apsides_ or _Apsis_.--One of two points, A, A, of an orbit, oval +or ellipse farthest from the axis, or the two small dots. + +155. _Chord._--A right line, as A, uniting the extremities of the arc of +a circle or a curve. + +156. _Convolute_ (see also _Involute_).--Usually employed to designate a +wave or folds in opposite directions. A double involute. + +157. _Conic Section._--Having the form of or resembling a cone. Formed +by cutting off a cone at any angle. See line A. + +158. _Conoid._--Anything that has a form resembling that of a cone. + +159. _Cycloid._--A curve, A, generated by a point, B, in the plane of a +circle or wheel, C, when the wheel is rolled along a straight line. + +160. _Ellipsoid._--A solid, all plane sections of which are ellipses or +circles. + +161. _Epicycloid._--A curve, A, traced by a point, B, in the +circumference of a wheel, C, which rolls on the convex side of a fixed +circle, D. + +162. _Evolute._--A curve, A, from which another curve, like B, on each +of the inner ends of the lines C is made. D is a spool, and the lines C +represent a thread at different positions. The thread has a marker, E, +so that when the thread is wound on the spool the marker E makes the +evolute line A. + +163. _Focus._--The center, A, of a circle; also one of the two centering +points, B, of an ellipse or an oval. + +164. _Gnome._--The space included between the boundary lines of two +similar parallelograms, the one within the other, with an angle in +common. + +165. _Hyperbola._--A curve, A, formed by the section of a cone. If the +cone is cut off vertically on the dotted line, A, the curve is a +hyperbola. See _Parabola_. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 167.-Fig. 184._] + +167. _Hypothenuse._--The side, A, of a right-angled triangle which is +opposite to the right angle B, C. A, regular triangle; C, irregular +triangle. + +168. _Incidence._--The angle, A, which is the same angle as, for +instance, a ray of light, B, which falls on a mirror, C. The line D is +the perpendicular. + +169. _Isosceles Triangle._--Having two sides or legs, A, A, that are +equal. + +170. _Parabola._--One of the conic sections formed by cutting of a cone +so that the cut line, A, is not vertical. See _Hyperbola_ where the cut +line is vertical. + +171. _Parallelogram._--A right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose +opposite sides, A, A, or B, B, are parallel and consequently equal. + +172. _Pelecoid._--A figure, somewhat hatchet-shaped, bounded by a +semicircle, A, and two inverted quadrants, and equal to a square, C. + +173. _Polygons._--Many-sided and many with angles. + +174. _Pyramid._--A solid structure generally with a square base and +having its sides meeting in an apex or peak. The peak is the vertex. + +175. _Quadrant._--The quarter of a circle or of the circumference of a +circle. A horizontal line, A, and a vertical line, B, make the four +quadrants, like C. + +176. _Quadrilateral._--A plane figure having four sides, and +consequently four angles. Any figure formed by four lines. + +177. _Rhomb._--An equilateral parallelogram or a quadrilateral figure +whose sides are equal and the opposite sides, B, B, parallel. + +178. _Sector._--A part, A, of a circle formed by two radial lines, B, B, +and bounded at the end by a curve. + +179. _Segment._--A part, A, cut from a circle by a straight line, B. The +straight line, B, is the chord or the _segmental line_. + +180. _Sinusoid._--A wave-like form. It may be regular or irregular. + +181. _Tangent._--A line, A, running out from the curve at right angles +from a radial line. + +182. _Tetrahedron._--A solid figure enclosed or bounded by four +triangles, like A or B. A plain pyramid is bounded by five triangles. + +183. _Vertex._--The meeting point, A, of two or more lines. + +184. _Volute._--A spiral scroll, used largely in architecture, which +forms one of the chief features of the Ionic capital. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +MOLDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBELLISHING WORK + + +MOLDINGS.--The use of moldings was early resorted to by the nations of +antiquity, and we marvel to-day at many of the beautiful designs which +the Ph[oe]necians, the Greeks and the Romans produced. If you analyze +the lines used you will be surprised to learn how few are the designs +which go to make up the wonderful columns, spires, minarets and domes +which are represented in the various types of architecture. + +THE BASIS OF MOLDINGS.--Suppose we take the base type of moldings, and +see how simple they are and then, by using these forms, try to build up +or ornament some article of furniture, as an example of their utility. + +THE SIMPLEST MOLDING.--In Fig. 185 we show a molding of the most +elementary character known, being simply in the form of a band (A) +placed below the cap. Such a molding gives to the article on which it is +placed three distinct lines, C, D and E. If you stop to consider you +will note that the molding, while it may add to the strength of the +article, is primarily of service because the lines and surfaces produce +shadows, and therefore become valuable in an artistic sense. + +THE ASTRAGAL.--Fig. 186 shows the ankle-bone molding, technically called +the _Astragal_. This form is round, and properly placed produces a good +effect, as it throws the darkest shadow of any form of molding. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 185. Band._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 186. Astragal or Ankle Bone._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 187. Cavetto. Concave._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 188. Ovolo. Quarter round._] + +THE CAVETTO.--Fig. 187 is the cavetto, or round type. Its proper use +gives a delicate outline, but it is principally applied with some other +form of molding. + +THE OVOLO.--Fig. 188, called the ovolo, is a quarter round molding with +the lobe (A) projecting downwardly. It is distinguished from the +astragal because it casts less of a shadow above and below. + +THE TORUS.--Fig. 189, known as the torus, is a modified form of the +ovolo, but the lobe (A) projects out horizontally instead of downwardly. + +THE APOPHYGES (Pronounced apof-i-ges).--Fig. 190 is also called the +_scape_, and is a concaved type of molding, being a hollowed curvature +used on columns where its form causes a merging of the shaft with the +fillet. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 189. Torus._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 190. Apophyge._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 191. Cymatium._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 192. Ogee-Recta._] + +THE CYMATIUM.--Fig. 191 is the cymatium (derived from the word cyme), +meaning wave-like. This form must be in two curves, one inwardly and one +outwardly. + +THE OGEE.--Fig. 192, called the ogee, is the most useful of all +moldings, for two reasons: First, it may have the concaved surface +uppermost, in which form it is called ogee recta--that is, right side +up; or it may be inverted, as in Fig. 193, with the concaved surface +below, and is then called ogee reversa. Contrast these two views and you +will note what a difference the mere inversion of the strip makes in the +appearance. Second, because the ogee has in it, in a combined form, the +outlines of nearly all the other types. The only advantage there is in +using the other types is because you may thereby build up and space your +work better than by using only one simple form. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 193. Ogee-Reversa._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 194. Bead or Reedy._] + +You will notice that the ogee is somewhat like the cymatium, the +difference being that the concaved part is not so pronounced as in the +ogee, and the convexed portion bulges much further than in the ogee. It +is capable of use with other moldings, and may be reversed with just as +good effect as the ogee. + +THE REEDY.--Fig. 194 represents the reedy, or the bead--that is, it is +made up of reeds. It is a type of molding which should not be used with +any other pronounced type of molding. + +THE CASEMENT (Fig. 195).--In this we have a form of molding used almost +exclusively at the base of structures, such as columns, porticoes and +like work. + +[Illustration:_ Fig. 195. Casement._] + +Now, before proceeding to use these moldings, let us examine a +Roman-Doric column, one of the most famous types of architecture +produced. We shall see how the ancients combined moldings to produce +grace, lights and shadows and artistic effects. + +THE ROMAN-DORIC COLUMN.--In Fig. 196 is shown a Roman-Doric column, in +which the cymatium, the ovolo, cavetto, astragal and the ogee are used, +together with the fillets, bases and caps, and it is interesting to +study this because of its beautiful proportions. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 196._] + +The pedestal and base are equal in vertical dimensions to the +entablature and capital. The entablature is but slightly narrower than +the pedestal; and the length of the column is, approximately, four times +the height of the pedestal. The base of the shaft, while larger +diametrically than the capital, is really shorter measured vertically. +There is a reason for this. The eye must travel a greater distance to +reach the upper end of the shaft, and is also at a greater angle to that +part of the shaft, hence it appears shorter, while it is in reality +longer. For this reason a capital must be longer or taller than the base +of a shaft, and it is also smaller in diameter. + +It will be well to study the column not only on account of the wonderful +blending of the various forms of moldings, but because it will impress +you with a sense of proportions, and give you an idea of how simple +lines may be employed to great advantage in all your work. + +LESSONS FROM THE DORIC COLUMN.--As an example, suppose we take a plain +cabinet, and endeavor to embellish it with the types of molding +described, and you will see to what elaboration the operation may be +carried. + +APPLYING MOLDING.--Let Fig. 197 represent the front, top and bottom of +our cabinet; and the first thing we shall do is to add a base (A) and a +cap (B). Now, commencing at the top, suppose we utilize the simplest +form of molding, the band. + +This we may make of any desired width, as shown in Fig. 198. On this +band we can apply the ogee type (Fig. 199) right side up. + +But for variation we may decide to use the ogee reversed, as in Fig. +200. This will afford us something else to think about and will call +upon our powers of initiative in order to finish off the lower margin or +edge of the ogee reversa. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 197._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 198._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 199._] + +If we take the ogee recta, as shown in Fig. 201, we may use the cavetto, +or the ovolo (Fig. 202); but if we use the ogee reversa we must use a +convex molding like the cavetto at one base, and a convex molding, like +the torus or the ovolo, at the other base. + +In the latter (Fig. 202) four different moldings are used with the ogee +as the principal structure. + +BASE EMBELLISHMENTS.--In like manner (Fig. 204) the base may have the +casement type first attached in the corner, and then the ovolo, or the +astragal added, as in Fig. 203. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 200._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 201._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 202._] + +STRAIGHT-FACED MOLDINGS.--Now let us carry the principle still further, +and, instead of using various type of moldings, we will employ nothing +but straight strips of wood. This treatment will soon indicate to you +that the true mechanic or artisan is he who can take advantage of +whatever he finds at hand. + +Let us take the same cabinet front (Fig. 205), and below the cap (A) +place a narrow strip (B), the lower corner of which has been chamfered +off, as at C. Below the strip B is a thinner strip (D), vertically +disposed, and about two-thirds its width. The lower corner of this is +also chamfered, as at F. To finish, apply a small strip (G) in the +corner, and you have an embellished top that has the appearance, from a +short distance, of being made up of molding. + +PLAIN MOLDED BASE.--The base may be treated in the same manner. The main +strip (4) has its upper corner chamfered off, as at I, and on this is +nailed a thin, narrow finishing strip (J). The upper part or molded top, +in this case, has eleven distinct lines, and the base has six lines. By +experimenting you may soon put together the most available kinds of +molding strips. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 203._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 204._] + +DIVERSIFIED USES.--For a great overhang you may use the cavetto, or the +apophyges, and below that the astragal or the torus; and for the base +the casement is the most serviceable molding, and it may be finished off +with the ovolo or the cymatium. + +Pages of examples might be cited to show the variety and the +diversification available with different types. + +SHADOWS CAST BY MOLDINGS.--Always bear in mind that a curved surface +makes a blended shadow. A straight, flat or plain surface does not, and +it is for that reason the concaved and the convexed surfaces, brought +out by moldings, become so important. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 205._] + +A little study and experimenting will soon teach you how a convex, a +concave or a flat surface, and a corner or corners should be arranged +relatively to each other; how much one should project beyond the other; +and what the proportional widths of the different molding bands should +be. An entire volume would scarcely exhaust this subject. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +AN ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, RABBETING AND BEADING + + +In the chapter on How Work is Laid Out, an example was given of the +particular manner pursued in laying out mortises and tenons, and also +dovetailed work. I deem it advisable to add some details to the subject, +as well as to direct attention to some features which do not properly +belong to the laying out of work. + +WHERE MORTISES SHOULD BE USED.--Most important of all is a general idea +of places and conditions under which mortises should be resorted to. +There are four ways in which different members may be secured to each +other. First, by mortises and tenons; second, by a lap-and-butt; third, +by scarfing; and, fourth, by tonguing and grooving. + +DEPTH OF MORTISES.--When a certain article is to be made, the first +consideration is, how the joint or joints shall be made. The general +rule for using the tenon and mortise is where two parts are joined +wherein the grains of the two members run at right angles to each +other, as in the following figure. + +RULE FOR MORTISES.--Fig. 206 shows such an example. You will notice this +in doors particularly, as an example of work. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 206._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 207._] + +The next consideration is, shall the mortises be cut entirely through +the piece? This is answered by the query as to whether or not the end of +the tenon will be exposed; and usually, if a smooth finish is required, +the mortise should not go through the member. In a door, however, the +tenons are exposed at the edges of the door, and are, therefore, seen, +so that we must apply some other rule. The one universally adopted is, +that where, as in a door stile, it is broad and comparatively thin, or +where the member having the mortise in its edge is much thinner than +its width, the mortise should go through from edge to edge. + +The reason for this lies in the inability to sink the mortises through +the stile (A, Fig. 207) perfectly true, and usually the job is turned +out something like the illustration shows. The side of the rail (B) must +be straight with the side of the stile. If the work is done by machinery +it results in accuracy unattainable in hand work. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 208._] + +TRUE MORTISE WORK.--The essense of good joining work is the ability to +sink the chisel true with the side of the member. More uneven work is +produced by haste than by inability. The tendency of all beginners is +to strike the chisel too hard, in order the more quickly to get down to +the bottom of the mortise. Hence, bad work follows. + +STEPS IN CUTTING MORTISES.--Examine Fig. 208, which, for convenience, +gives six successive steps in making the mortise. The marks _a_, _b_ +designate the limits, or the length, of the mortise. The chisel (C) is +not started at the marking line (A), but at least an eighth of an inch +from it. The first cut, as at B, gives a starting point for the next cut +or placement of the chisel. When the second cut (B) has thus been made, +the chisel should be turned around, as in dotted line _d_, position C, +thereby making a finish cut down to the bottom of the mortise, line _e_, +so that when the fourth cut has been made along line _f_, we are ready +for the fifth cut, position C; then the sixth cut, position D, which +leaves the mortise as shown at E. Then turn the chisel to the position +shown at F, and cut down the last end of the mortise square, as shown in +G, and clean out the mortise well before making the finishing cuts on +the marking lines (_a_, _b_). The particular reason for cleaning out the +mortise before making the finish cuts is, that the corners of the +mortise are used as fulcrums for the chisels, and the eighth of an inch +stock still remaining protects the corners. + +THINGS TO AVOID IN MORTISING.--You must be careful to refrain from +undercutting as your chisel goes down at the lines _a_, _b_, because if +you commit this error you will make a bad joint. + +As much care should be exercised in producing the tenon, although the +most common error is apt to occur in making the shoulder. This should be +a trifle undercut. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 209._] + +See the lines (A, Fig. 209), which illustrate this. + +LAP-AND-BUTT JOINT.--The lap-and-butt is the form of uniting members +which is most generally used to splice together timbers, where they join +each other end to end. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 210._] + +Bolts are used to secure the laps. + +But the lap-and-butt form is also used in doors and in other cabinet +work. It is of great service in paneling. + +A rabbet is formed to receive the edge of the panel, and a molding is +then secured to the other side on the panel, to hold the latter in +place. + +SCARFING.--This method of securing members together is the most rigid, +and when properly performed makes the joint the strongest part of the +timber. Each member (A, Fig. 212) has a step diagonally cut (B), the two +steps being on different planes, so they form a hook joint, as at C, and +as each point or terminal has a blunt end, the members are so +constructed as to withstand a longitudinal strain in either direction. +The overlapping plates (D) and the bolts (E) hold the joint rigidly. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 211._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 212._] + +THE TONGUE AND GROOVE.--This form of uniting members has only a limited +application. It is serviceable for floors, table tops, paneling, etc. +In Fig. 213, a door panel is shown, and the door mullions (B) are also +so secured to the rail (C). The tongue-and-groove method is never used +by itself. It must always have some support or reinforcing means. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 213._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 214._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 215._] + +BEADING.--This part of the work pertains to surface finishings, and may +or may not be used in connection with rabbeting. + +Figs. 214 and 215 show the simplest and most generally adopted forms in +which it is made and used in connection with rabbeting, or with the +tongue and groove. The bead is placed on one or both sides of that +margin of the board (Fig. 214) which has the tongue, and the adjoining +board has the usual flooring groove to butt against and receive the +tongue. It is frequently the case that a blind bead, as in Fig. 215, +runs through the middle of the board, so as to give the appearance of +narrow strips when used for wainscoting, or for ceilings. The beads also +serve to hide the joints of the boards. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 216._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 217._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 218._] + +ORNAMENTAL BEAD FINISH.--These figures show how the bead may be used for +finishing corners, edges and projections. Fig. 216 has a bead at each +corner of a stile (A), and a finishing strip of half-round material (B) +is nailed to the flat edge. Fig. 217 has simply the corners themselves +beaded, and it makes a most serviceable finish for the edges of +projecting members. + +Fig. 218, used for wider members, has the corners beaded and a fancy +molding (C); or the reduced edge of the stile itself is rounded off. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 219._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 220._] + +THE BEAD AND RABBET.--A more amplified form of work is available where +the rabbet plane is used with the beader. These two planes together +will, if properly used, offer a strong substitute for molding and +molding effects. + +Fig. 219 has both sides first rabbeted, as at A, and the corners then +beaded, as at B, with the reduced part of the member rounded off, as at +C. Or, as in Fig. 220, the reduced edge of the member may have the +corners beaded, as at D, and the rabbeted corners filled in with a round +or concaved moulding (E). + +SHADING WITH BEADS AND RABBETS.--You will see from the foregoing, that +these embellishments are serviceable because they provide the article +with a large number of angles and surfaces to cast lights and shadows; +and for this reason the boy should strive to produce the effects which +this class of work requires. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +HOUSE BUILDING + + +House building is the carpenter's craft; cabinet-making the joiner's +trade, yet both are so intimately associated, that it is difficult to +draw a line. The same tools, the same methods and the same materials are +employed. + +There is no trade more ennobling than home building. It is a vocation +which touches every man and woman, and to make it really an art is, or +should be, the true aspiration of every craftsman. + +THE HOUSE AND EMBELLISHMENTS.--The refined arts, such as sculpture and +painting, merely embellish the home or the castle, so that when we build +the structure it should be made with an eye not only to comfort and +convenience, but fitting in an artistic and aesthetic sense. It is just +as easy to build a beautiful home as an ugly, ungainly, illy +proportioned structure. + +BEAUTY NOT ORNAMENTATION.--The boy, in his early training, should learn +this fundamental truth, that beauty, architecturally, does not depend +upon ornamentation. Some of the most beautiful structures in the world +are very plain. Beauty consists in proportions, in proper correlation +of parts, and in adaptation for the uses to which the structure is to be +put. + +PLAIN STRUCTURES.--A house with a plain facade, having a roof properly +pitched and with a simple cornice, if joined to a wing which is not +ungainly or out of proper proportions, is infinitely more beautiful than +a rambling structure, in which one part suggests one order of +architecture and the other part some other type or no type at all, and +in which the embellishments are out of keeping with the size or +pretensions of the house. + +COLONIAL TYPE.--For real beauty, on a larger scale, there is nothing +to-day which equals the old Colonial type with the Corinthian columns +and entablature. The Lee mansion, now the National Cemetery, at +Washington, is a fine example. Such houses are usually square or +rectangular in plan, severely plain, with the whole ornamentation +consisting of the columns and the portico. This type presents an +appearance of massiveness and grandeur and is an excellent illustration +of a form wherein the main characteristic of the structure is +concentrated or massed at one point. + +The Church of the Madelaine, Paris, is another striking example of this +period of architecture. + +Of course, it would be out of place with cottages and small houses, but +it is well to study and to know what forms are most available and +desirable to adopt, and particularly to know something of the art in +which you are interested. + +THE ROOF THE KEYNOTE.--Now, there is one thing which should, and does, +distinguish the residence from other types of buildings, excepting +churches. It is the roof. A house is dominated by its covering. I refer +to the modern home. It is not true with the Colonial or the Grecian +types. In those the facade or the columns and cornices predominate over +everything else. + +BUNGALOW TYPES.--If you will take up any book on bungalow work and note +the outlines of the views you will see that the roof forms the main +element or theme. In fact, in most buildings of this kind everything is +submerged but the roof and roof details. They are made exceedingly flat, +with different pitches with dormers and gables intermingled and +indiscriminately placed, with cornices illy assorted and of different +kinds, so that the multiplicity of diversified details gives an +appearance of great elaboration. Many of those designs are monstrosities +and should, if possible, be legally prohibited. + +I cannot attempt to give even so much as an outline of what constitutes +art in its relation to building, but my object is to call attention to +this phase of the question, and as you proceed in your studies and your +work you will realize the value and truthfulness of the foregoing +observations. + +GENERAL HOUSE BUILDING.--We are to treat, generally, on the subject of +house building, how the work is laid out, and how built, and in doing so +I shall take a concrete example of the work. This can be made more +effectual for the purpose if it is on simple lines. + +BUILDING PLANS.--We must first have a plan; and the real carpenter must +have the ability to plan as well as to do the work. We want a five-room +house, comprising a parlor, dining room, two bedrooms, a kitchen and a +bathroom. Just a modest little home, to which we can devote our spare +hours, and which will be neat and comfortable when finished. It must be +a one-story house, and that fact at once settles the roof question. We +can make the house perfectly square in plan, or rectangular, and divide +up the space into the proper divisions. + +THE PLAIN SQUARE FLOOR PLAN will first be taken up, as it is such an +easy roof to build. Of course, it is severely plain. + +Fig. 221 shows our proposed plan, drawn in the rough, without any +attempts to measure the different apartments, and with the floor plan +exactly square. Supposing we run a hall (A) through the middle. On one +side of this let us plan for a dining room and a kitchen, a portion of +the kitchen space to be given over to a closet and a bathroom. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 221._] + +The chimney (B) must be made accessible from both rooms. On the other +side of the hallway the space is divided into a parlor and two +bedrooms. + +THE RECTANGULAR PLAN.--In the rectangular floor plan (Fig. 222) a +portion of the floor space is cut out for a porch (A), so that we may +use the end or the side for the entrance. Supposing we use the end of +the house for this purpose. The entrance room (B) may be a bedroom, or a +reception and living room, and to the rear of this room is the dining +room, connected with the reception room by a hall (C). This hall also +leads to the kitchen and to the bathroom, as well as to the other +bedroom. The parlor is connected with the entrance room (B), and also +with the bedroom. All of this is optional, of course. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 222._] + +There are also two chimneys, one chimney (D) having two flues and the +other chimney (E) having three flues, so that every room is +accommodated. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 223._] + +ROOM MEASUREMENTS.--We must now determine the dimensions of each room, +and then how we shall build the roof. + +In Figs. 223 and 224, we have now drawn out in detail the sizes, the +locations of the door and windows, the chimneys and the closets, as well +as the bathroom. All this work may be changed or modified to suit +conditions and the taste of the designer. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 224._] + +FRONT AND SIDE LINES.--From the floor diagram, and the door and window +spaces, as marked out, we may now proceed to lay out rough front and +side outlines of the building. The ceilings are to be 9 feet, and if we +put a rather low-pitched roof on the square structure (Fig. 223) the +front may look something like Fig. 225, and a greater pitch given to the +rectangular plan (Fig. 224) will present a view as shown in Fig. 226. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 225._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 226._] + +THE ROOF.--The pitch of the roof (Fig. 225) is what is called "third +pitch," and the roof (Fig. 226) has a half pitch. A "third" pitch is +determined as follows: + +ROOF PITCH.--In Fig. 227 draw a vertical line (A) and join it by a +horizontal line (B). Then strike a circle (C) and step it off into three +parts. The line (D), which intersects the first mark (E) and the angle +of the lines (A, B), is the pitch. + +In Fig. 228 the line A is struck at 15 degrees, which is halfway between +lines B and C, and it is, therefore, termed "half-pitch." + +[Illustration: _Fig. 227._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 228._] + +Thus, we have made the ground plans, the elevations and the roofs as +simple as possible. Let us proceed next with the details of the +building. + +THE FOUNDATION.--This may be of brick, stone or concrete, and its +dimensions should be at least 1-1/2 inches further out than the sill. + +THE SILLS.--We are going to build what is called a "balloon frame"; and, +first, we put down the sills, which will be a course of 2" x 6", or 2" x +8" joists, as in Fig. 229. + +THE FLOORING JOIST.--The flooring joists (A) are then put down (Fig. +230). These should extend clear across the house from side to side, if +possible, or, if the plan is too wide, they should be lapped at the +middle wall and spiked together. The ends should extend out flush with +the outer margins of the sills, as shown, but in putting down the first +and last sill, space must be left along the sides of the joist of +sufficient width to place the studding. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 229._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 230._] + +THE STUDDING.--The next step is to put the studding into position. 4" x +4" must be used for corners and at the sides of door and window +openings. 4" x 6" may be used at corners, if preferred. Consult your +plan and see where the openings are for doors and windows. Measure the +widths of the door and window frames, and make a measuring stick for +this purpose. You must leave at least one-half inch clearance for the +window or door frame, so as to give sufficient room to plumb and set the +frame. + +SETTING UP.--First set up the corner posts, plumbing and bracing them. +Cut a top plate for each side you are working on. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 231._] + +THE PLATE.--As it will be necessary in our job to use two or more +lengths of 2" x 4" scantling for the plate, it will be necessary to join +them together. Do this with a lap-and-butt joint (Fig. 231). + +Then set up the 4" x 4" posts for the sides of the doors and windows, +and for the partition walls. + +The plate should be laid down on the sill, and marked with a pencil for +every scantling to correspond with the sill markings. The plate is then +put on and spiked to the 4" x 4" posts. + +INTERMEDIATE STUDDING.--It will then be an easy matter to put in the +intermediate 2" x 4" studding, placing them as nearly as possible 16 +inches apart to accommodate the 48-inch plastering lath. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 232._] + +WALL HEADERS.--When all the studding are in you will need headers above +and rails below the windows and headers above all the doors, so that you +will have timbers to nail the siding to, as well as for the lathing. + +CEILING JOISTS.--We are now ready for the ceiling joists, which are, +usually, 2" x 6", unless there is an upper floor. These are laid 16 +inches apart from center to center, preferably parallel with the floor +joist. + +It should be borne in mind that the ceiling joist must always be put on +with reference to the roof. + +Thus, in Fig. 232, the ceiling joists (A) have their ends resting on the +plate (B), so that the rafters are in line with the joists. + +BRACES.--It would also be well, in putting up the studding, to use +plenty of braces, although for a one-story building this is not so +essential as in two-story structures, because the weather boarding +serves as a system of bracing. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 233._] + +THE RAFTERS.--These may be made to provide for the gutter or not, as may +be desired. They should be of 2" x 4" scantling. + +THE GUTTER.--In Fig. 233 I show a most serviceable way to provide for +the gutter. A V-shaped notch is cut out of the upper side of the rafter, +in which is placed the floor and a side. This floor piece is raised at +one end to provide an incline for the water. + +A face-board is then applied and nailed to the ends of the rafters. This +face-board is surmounted by a cap, which has an overhang, beneath which +is a molding of any convenient pattern. The face-board projects down at +least two inches below the angled cut of the rafter, so that when the +base-board is applied, the lower margin of the face-board will project +one inch below the base. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 234._] + +This base-board is horizontal, as you will see. The facia-board may be +of any desired width, and a corner molding should be added. It is +optional to use the brackets, but if added they should be spaced apart a +distance not greater than twice the height of the bracket. + +A much simpler form of gutter is shown in Fig. 234, in which a V-shaped +notch is also cut in the rafter, and the channel is made by the pieces. +The end of the rafter is cut at right angles, so the face-board is at an +angle. This is also surmounted by an overhanging cap and a molding. The +base is nailed to the lower edges of the rafters, and the facia is then +applied. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 234a._] + +In Fig. 234_a_ the roof has no gutter, so that the end of the rafter is +cut off at an angle and a molding applied on the face-board. The base is +nailed to the rafters. This is the cheapest and simplest form of +structure for the roof. + +SETTING DOOR AND WINDOW FRAMES.--The next step in order is to set the +door and window frames preparatory to applying the weather boarding. It +is then ready for the roof, which should be put on before the floor is +laid. + +PLASTERING AND INSIDE FINISH.--Next in order is the plastering, then the +base-boards and the casing; and, finally, the door and windows should +be fitted into position. + +Enough has been said here merely to give a general outline, with some +details, how to proceed with the work. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES + + +BRIDGES.--Bridge building is not, strictly, a part of the carpenter's +education at the present day, because most structures of this kind are +now built of steel; but there are certain principles involved in bridge +construction which the carpenter should master. + +SELF-SUPPORTING ROOFS.--In putting up, for instance, self-supporting +roofs, or ceilings with wide spans, and steeples or towers, the bridge +principle of trussed members should be understood. + +The most simple bridge or trussed form is the well-known A-shaped arch. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 235._] + +COMMON TRUSSES.--One form is shown in Fig. 235, with a vertical king +post. In Fig. 236 there are two vertical supporting members, called +queen posts, used in longer structures. Both of these forms are equally +well adapted for small bridges or for roof supports. + +THE VERTICAL UPRIGHT TRUSS.--This form of truss naturally develops into +a type of wooden bridge known all over the country, as its framing is +simple, and calculations as to its capacity to sustain loads may readily +be made. Figs. 237, 238 and 239 illustrate these forms. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 236._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 237._] + +THE WARREN GIRDER.--Out of this simple truss grew the Warren girder, a +type of bridge particularly adapted for iron and steel construction. + +This is the simplest form for metal bridge truss, or girder. It is now +also largely used in steel buildings and for other work requiring +strength with small weight. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 238._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 239._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 240._] + +THE BOWSTRING GIRDER.--Only one other form of bridge truss need be +mentioned here, and that is the _bowstring_ shown in Fig. 240. + +In this type the bow receives the entire compression thrust, and the +chords act merely as suspending members. + +FUNDAMENTAL TRUSS FORM.--In every form of truss, whether for building or +for bridge work, the principles of the famous A-truss must be employed +in some form or other; and the boy who is experimentally inclined will +readily evolve means to determine what degree of strength the upper and +the lower members must have for a given length of truss to sustain a +specified weight. + +There are rules for all these problems, some of them very intricate, but +all of them intensely interesting. It will be a valuable addition to +your knowledge to give this subject earnest study. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGINNER + + +In this place consideration will be given to some of the features +relating to the materials to be employed, particularly with reference to +the manner in which they can be worked to the best advantage, rather +than to their uses. + +THE BEST WOODS.--The prime wood, and the one with which most boys are +familiar, is white pine. It has an even texture throughout, is generally +straight grained, and is soft and easily worked. White pine is a wood +requiring a very sharp tool. It is, therefore, the best material for the +beginner, as it will at the outset teach him the important lesson of +keeping the tools in a good, sharp condition. + +SOFT WOODS.--It is also well for the novice to do his initial work with +a soft wood, because in joining the parts together inaccuracies may be +easily corrected. If, for instance, in mortising and tenoning, the edge +of the mortised member is not true, or, rather, is not "square," the +shoulder of the tenon on one side will abut before the other side does, +and thus leave a crack, if the wood is hard. If the wood is soft there +is always enough yield to enable the workman to spring it together. +Therefore, until you have learned how to make a true joint, use soft +wood. + +Poplar is another good wood for the beginner, as well as redwood, a +western product. + +HARD WOODS.--Of the hard woods, cherry is the most desirable for the +carpenter's tool. For working purposes it has all the advantages of a +soft wood, and none of its disadvantages. It is not apt to warp, like +poplar or birch, and its shrinking unit is less than that of any other +wood, excepting redwood. There is practically no shrinkage in redwood. + +THE MOST DIFFICULT WOODS.--Ash is by far the most difficult wood to +work. While not as hard as oak, it has the disadvantage that the entire +board is seamed with growth ribs which are extremely hard, while the +intervening layers between these ribs are soft, and have open pores, so +that, for instance, in making a mortise, the chisel is liable to follow +the hard ribs, if the grain runs at an angle to the course of the +mortise. + +THE HARD-RIBBED GRAIN IN WOOD.--This peculiarity of the grain in ash +makes it a beautiful wood when finished. Of the light-colored woods, oak +only excels it, because in this latter wood each year's growth shows a +wider band, and the interstices between the ribs have stronger +contrasting colors than ash; so that in filling the surface, before +finishing it, the grain of the wood is brought out with most effective +clearness and with a beautifully blended contrast. + +THE EASIEST WORKING WOODS.--The same thing may be said, relatively, +concerning cherry and walnut. While cherry has a beautiful finishing +surface, the blending contrasts of colors are not so effective as in +walnut. + +Oregon pine is extremely hard to work, owing to the same difficulties +experienced in handling ash; but the finished Oregon pine surface makes +it a most desirable material for certain articles of furniture. + +Do not attempt to employ this nor ash until you have mastered the trade. +Confine yourself to pine, poplar, cherry and walnut. These woods are all +easily obtainable everywhere, and from them you can make a most +creditable variety of useful articles. + +Sugar and maple are two hard woods which may be added to the list. +Sugar, particularly, is a good-working wood, but maple is more +difficult. Spruce, on the other hand, is the strongest and toughest +wood, considering its weight, which is but a little more than that of +pine. + +DIFFERENCES IN THE WORKING OF WOODS.--Different woods are not worked +with equal facility by all the tools. Oak is an easy wood to handle +with a saw, but is, probably, aside from ash, the most difficult wood +known to plane. + +Ash is hard for the saw or the plane. On the other hand, there is no +wood so easy to manipulate with the saw or plane as cherry. Pine is +easily worked with a plane, but difficult to saw; not on account of +hardness, but because it is so soft that the saw is liable to tear it. + +FORCING SAWS IN WOOD.--One of the reasons why the forcing of saws is +such a bad practice will be observed in cutting white or yellow pine. +For cross-cutting, the saw should have fine teeth, not heavily set, and +evenly filed. To do a good job of cross-cutting, the saw must be held at +a greater angle, or should lay down flatter than in ripping, as by so +doing the lower side of the board will not break away as much as if the +saw should be held more nearly vertical. + +These general observations are made in the hope that they will serve as +a guide to enable you to select your lumber with some degree of +intelligence before you commence work. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +WOOD TURNING + + +ADVANTAGES OF WOOD TURNING.--This is not, strictly, in the carpenter's +domain; but a knowledge of its use will be of great service in the +trade, and particularly in cabinet making. I urge the ingenious youth to +rig up a wood-turning lathe, for the reason that it is a tool easily +made and one which may be readily turned by foot, if other power is not +available. + +SIMPLE TURNING LATHE.--A very simple turning lathe may be made by +following these instructions: + +THE RAILS.--Procure two straight 2" x 4" scantling (A), four feet long, +and planed on all sides. Bore four 3/8-inch holes at each end, as shown, +and 10 inches from one end four more holes. A plan of these holes is +shown in B, where the exact spacing is indicated. Then prepare two +pieces 2" x 4" scantling (C), planed, 42 inches long, one end of each +being chamfered off, as at 2, and provided with four bolt holes. Ten +inches down, and on the same side, with the chamfer (2) is a cross gain +(3), the same angle as the chamfer. Midway between the cross gain (3) +and the lower end of the leg is a gain (4) in the edge, at right angles +to the cross gain (3). + +THE LEGS.--Now prepare two legs (D) for the tail end of the frame, each +32 inches long, with a chamfer (5) at one end, and provided with four +bolt holes. At the lower end bore a bolt hole for the cross base piece. +This piece (E) is 4" x 4", 21 inches long, and has a bolt hole at each +end and one near the middle. The next piece (F) is 2" x 4", 14-1/2 +inches long, provided with a rebate (6) at each end, to fit the cross +gains (4) of the legs (C). Near the middle is a journal block (7). + +[Illustration: _Fig. 241. Frame details._] + +CENTERING BLOCKS.--Next provide a 4" x 4" piece (G), 40 inches long, +through which bore a 3/4-inch hole (8), 2 inches from the upper end, +and four bolt holes at right angles to the shaft hole (8). Then, with a +saw split down this bearing, as shown at 9, to a point 4 inches from the +end. Ten inches below the upper end prepare two cross gains (10), each +an inch deep and four inches wide. In these gains are placed the top +rails (A), so the bolt holes in the gains (10) will coincide with the +bolt holes (11) in the piece A. Below the gains (10) this post has a +journal block (12), intended to be in line with the journal block (7) of +the piece F. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 242. Tail Stock._] + +Then make a block (H) 2" x 4", and 6 inches long. This also must have a +shaft hole (B), and a saw kerf (14), similar to the arrangement on the +upper end of the post (G); also bore four bolt holes, as shown. This +block rests between the upper ends of the lugs (C). + +Another block (I), 2" x 4", and 6 feet long, with four bolt holes, will +be required for the tail end of the frame, to keep the rails (A) two +inches apart at that end. + +THE TAIL STOCK.--This part of the structure is made of the following +described material: + +Procure a scantling (J), planed, 4" x 4", 24 inches long, the upper end +of which is to be provided with four bolt holes, and a centering hole +(15). At the lower end of the piece is a slot (16) 8 inches long and +1-1/2 inches wide, and there are also two bolt holes bored transversely +through the piece to receive bolts for reinforcing the end. + +A pair of cheekpieces (K), 2" x 4", and each 12 inches long, are mitered +at the ends, and each has four bolt holes by means of which the ends may +be bolted to the upright (J). + +Then a step wedge (L) is made of 1-3/8" x 2" material, 10 inches long. +This has at least four steps (17), each step being 2 inches long. A +wedge 1-3/8 inches thick, 10 inches long, and tapering from 2 inches to +1-3/8 inches, completes the tail-stock. + +THE TOOL REST.--This is the most difficult part of the whole lathe, as +it must be rigid, and so constructed that it has a revolvable motion as +well as being capable of a movement to and from the material in the +lathe. + +Select a good 4" x 4" scantling (M), 14 inches long, as shown in Fig. +243. Two inches from one end cut a cross gain (I), 1-1/2 inches deep and +1 inch wide, and round off the upper edge, as at 2. + +Then prepare a piece (N), 1 inch thick, 8 inches wide, and 10 inches +long. Round off the upper edge to form a nose, and midway between its +ends cut a cross gain 4 inches wide and 1-1/2 inches deep. The lower +margin may be cut away, at an angle on each side of the gain. All that +is necessary now is to make a block (O), 8 inches long, rounded on one +edge, and a wedge (P). + +[Illustration: _Fig 243. Tool Rest._] + +A leather belt or strap (Q), 1-1/2 inches wide, formed into a loop, as +shown in the perspective view (R), serves as a means for holding the +rest rigidly when the wedge is driven in. + +MATERIALS.--Then procure the following bolts: + + 4-3/8" bolts, 10" long. + 8-3/8" '' 6" '' + 20-3/8" '' 5" '' + 5-3/8" '' 9" '' + +THE MANDREL.--A piece of steel tubing (S), No. 10 gage, 3/4 inch in +diameter, 11-1/2 inches long, will be required for the mandrel. Get a +blacksmith, if a machine shop is not convenient, to put a fixed center +(1) in one end, and a removable centering member (2) in the other end. + +On this mandrel place a collar (3), held by a set screw, and alongside +of it a pair of pulleys, each 1-1/2 inches wide, one of them, being, +say, 2 inches in diameter, and the other 3 inches. This mandrel is held +in position by means of the posts of the frame which carry the split +journal bearings. This form of bearing will make a durable lathe, free +from chattering, as the bolts can be used for tightening the mandrel +whenever they wear. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 244. Mandrel._] + +The center point (1) is designed to rest against a metal plate (4) +bolted to the wooden post, as shown in the large drawing. + +FLY-WHEEL.--It now remains only to provide a fly-wheel and treadle with +the communicating belt. The fly-wheel may be of any convenient size, or +it may be some discarded pulley or wheel. Suppose it is two feet in +diameter; then, as your small pulley is 2 inches in diameter, each +revolution of the large wheel makes twelve revolutions in the mandrel, +and you can readily turn the wheel eighty times a minute. In that case +your mandrel will revolve 960 revolutions per minute, which is ample +speed for your purposes. + +The wheel should be mounted on a piece of 3/4-inch steel tubing, one end +having a crank 3 inches long. This crank is connected up by a pitman +rod, with the triangularly shaped treadle frame. + +Such a lathe is easily made, as it requires but little metal or machine +work, and it is here described because it will be a pleasure for a boy +to make such a useful tool. What he needs is the proper plan and the +right dimensions to carry out the work, and his own ingenuity will make +the modifications suitable to his purpose. + +The illustration (Fig. 245) shows such a lathe assembled ready for work. + +THE TOOLS REQUIRED.--A few simple tools will complete an outfit capable +of doing a great variety of work. The illustration (Fig. 246) shows five +chisels, of which all other chisels are modifications. + +A and B are both oblique firmer chisels, A being ground with a bevel on +one side only, and B with a bevel on each side. + +C is a broad gage, with a hollow blade, and a curved cutting edge, +ground with a taper on the rounded side only. + +D is a narrow gage similarly ground, and E is a V-shaped gage. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 245._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 246._] + +It may be observed that in wood-turning sharp tools are absolutely +necessary, hence a good oil stone, or several small, round and V-shaped +stones should be used. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +ON THE USE OF STAINS + + +As this subject properly belongs to the painter and decorator, it is not +necessary to go into details concerning the methods used to finish off +your work. As you may not be able to afford the luxury of having your +productions painted or stained, enough information will be given to +enable you, if the character of the wood justifies it, to do the work +yourself to a limited extent. + +SOFT WOOD.--As, presumably, most of your first work will be done with +pine, poplar, or other light-colored material, and, as many people +prefer the furniture to be dark in color, you should be prepared to +accommodate them. + +USE OF STAINS.--Our subject has nothing to do with the technique of +staining, but has reference, solely, to the use of stains. I recommend, +therefore, that, since all kinds of stains are now kept in stock, and +for sale everywhere, you would better rely upon the manufactured goods +rather than to endeavor to mix up the paints yourself. + +STAINS AS IMITATIONS.--It will be well to remember one thing as to +stains. Never attempt to stain anything unless that stain is intended +to produce an imitation of some real wood. There are stains made up +which, when applied, do not imitate any known wood. This is bad taste +and should be avoided. Again you should know that the same stain tint +will not produce like effects on the different light-colored woods. Try +the cherry stain on pieces of pine, poplar, and birch, and you will +readily see that while pine gives a brilliant red, comparatively +speaking, pine or birch will be much darker, and the effect on poplar +will be that of a muddy color. In fact, poplar does not stain cherry to +good advantage; and for birch the ordinary stain should have a small +addition of vermilion. + +By making trials of your stains before applying them to the furniture, +you will readily see the value of this suggestion. + +GOOD TASTE IN STAINING.--Oak, mahogany, cherry, black walnut, and like +imitations are always good in an artistic sense, but imitations of +unfamiliar woods mean nothing to the average person. The too common +mistake is to try to imitate oak by staining pine or poplar or birch. It +may, with good effect, be stained to imitate cherry. + +Oregon pine, or some light-colored wood, with a strong contrasting grain +may be used for staining in imitation of oak. + +GREAT CONTRASTS BAD.--Violent contrasts in furniture staining have the +effect of cheapness, unless the contrasting outlines are artistically +distributed throughout the article, from base to top finish. + +STAINING CONTRASTING WOODS.--Then, again, do not stain a piece of +furniture so that one part represents a cheap, soft wood, and the other +part a dark or costly wood. Imagine, for instance, a cabinet with the +stiles, rails and mullions of mahogany, and the panels of pine or +poplar, or the reverse, and you can understand how incongruous would be +the result produced. + +On the other hand, it would not be a very artistic job to make the +panels of cherry and the mullions and stiles of mahogany, because the +two woods do not harmonize, although frequently wrongly combined. + +HARD WOOD IMITATIONS.--It would be better to use, for instance, ash or +oak for one portion of the work, and a dark wood, like cherry or walnut, +for the other part; but usually a cherry cabinet should be made of +cherry throughout; while a curly maple chiffonier could not be improved +by having the legs of some other material. + +These considerations should determine for you whether or not you can +safely use stains to represent different woods in the same article. + +NATURAL EFFECTS.--If effects are wanted, the skilled workman will +properly rely upon the natural grain of the wood; hence, in staining, +you should try to imitate nature, because in staining you will depend +for contrast on the natural grain of the wood to help you out in +producing pleasing effects. + +NATURAL WOOD STAINS.--It should be said, in general, however, that a +stain is, at best, a poor makeshift. There is nothing so pleasing as the +natural wood. It always has an appearance of cleanliness and openness. +To stain the wood shows an attempt to cover up cheapness by a cheap +contrivance. The exception to this rule is mahogany, which is generally +enriched by the application of a ruby tint which serves principally to +emphasize the beautiful markings of the wood. + +POLISHING STAINED SURFACES.--If, on the other hand, you wish to go to +the labor of polishing the furniture to a high degree, staining becomes +an art, and will add to the beauty and durability of any soft or cheap +wood, excepting poplar. + +When the article is highly polished, so a good, smooth surface is +provided, staining does not cheapen, but, on the other hand, serves to +embellish the article. + +As a rule, therefore, it is well to inculcate this lesson: Do not stain +unless you polish; otherwise, it is far better to preserve the natural +color of the wood. One of the most beautiful sideboards I ever saw was +made of Oregon pine, and the natural wood, well filled and highly +polished. That finish gave it an effect which enhanced its value to a +price which equaled any cherry or mahogany product. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT + + +A carpenter has a trade; the architect a profession. It is not to be +assumed that one vocation is more honorable than the other. A +_profession_ is defined as a calling, or occupation, "if not mechanical, +agricultural, or the like," to which one devotes himself and his +energies. A _trade_ is defined as an occupation "which a person has +learned and engages in, especially mechanical employment, as +distinguished from the liberal arts," or the learned professions. + +_Opportunity_ is the great boon in life. To the ambitious young man the +carpenter's trade offers a field for venturing into the learned +professions by a route which cannot be equaled in any other pursuit. In +his work he daily enters into contact with problems which require +mathematics of the highest order, geometry, the methods of calculating +strains and stresses, as well as laying out angles and curves. + +This is a trade wherein he must keep in mind many calculations as to +materials, number, size, and methods of joining; he must remember all +the small details which go to make up the entire structure. This +exercise necessitates a mental picture of the finished product. His +imagination is thus directed to concrete objects. As the mind develops, +it becomes creative in its character, and the foundation is laid for a +higher sphere of usefulness in what is called the professional field. + +A good carpenter naturally develops into an architect, and the best +architect is he who knows the trade. It is a profession which requires +not only the artistic taste, but a technical knowledge of details, of +how practically to carry out the work, how to superintend construction, +and what the different methods are for doing things. + +The architect must have a scientific education, which gives him a +knowledge of the strength of materials, and of structural forms; of the +durability of materials; of the price, quality, and use of everything +which goes into a structure; of labor conditions; and of the laws +pertaining to buildings. + +Many of these questions will naturally present themselves to the +carpenter. They are in the sphere of his employment, but it depends upon +himself to make the proper use of the material thus daily brought to +him. + +It is with a view to instil that desire and ambition in every young man, +to make the brain do what the hand has heretofore done, that I suggest +this course. The learned profession is yours if you deserve it, and you +can deserve it only through study, application, and perseverance. + +Do well that which you attempt to do. _Don't_ do it in that manner +because some one has done it in that way before you. If, in the trade, +the experience of ages has taught the craftsman that some particular way +of doing things is correct, there is no law to prevent you from +combating that method. Your way may be better. But you must remember +that in every plan for doing a thing there is some particular reason, or +reasons, why it is carried out in that way. Study and learn to apply +those reasons. + +So in your leisure or in your active moments, if you wish to advance, +you must be alert. _Know for yourself the reasons for things_, and you +will thereby form the stepping stones that will lead you upward and +contribute to your success. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE + + +As stated in the Introductory, the purpose of this book is to show _how +to do the things_, and not to draw a picture in order to write a +description of it. Merely in the line of suggestion, we give in this +chapter views and brief descriptions of useful household articles, all +of which may be made by the boy who has carefully studied the preceding +pages. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 247._] + +This figure shows a common bench wholly made of material 1 inch thick, +the top being 12 inches wide and 4 feet long. The legs are 14 inches +high and 13 inches wide; and the side supporting rails are 3 inches +wide. These proportions may, of course, be varied. You will note that +the sides of the top or seat have an overhang of 1/2 inch on each +margin. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 248._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 249._] + +This is a common, square-top stool, the seat being 12" x 12", and the +legs 14 inches high. Two of the pieces forming the legs are 10 inches +wide and the other two 8 inches wide, so that when the wide pieces are +nailed to the edges of the narrow pieces the leg body will be 10" x 10" +and thus give the seat an overhang of 1 inch around the margins. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 250._] + +A most useful article is shown in Fig. 249. It is a blacking-box with a +lid, a folding shoe rest and three compartments. The detached figure +shows a vertical cross-section of the body of the box, and illustrates +how the shoe rest is hinged to the sides of the box. The box itself is +14" x 16" in dimensions; the sides are 6 inches wide and the legs 5 +inches in height. In order to give strength to the legs, the bottom has +its corners cut out, to permit the upper ends of the legs to rest in +the recesses thus formed. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 251._] + +This is a convenient form of easel, made of four uprights. The main +front uprights are of strips 5/8" x 1-1/4", and the rear uprights are of +1/2" x 1" material. A thin broomstick will serve as the pivot bar for +the upper end. The rest is made of two strips, each 1/2" x 1", nailed +together to form an L, and nails or wooden pins will serve to hold the +rest in any desired position. The front uprights should be at least 5 +feet long. + +A simple hanging book-rack is illustrated in Fig. 251. The two vertical +strips are each 4 inches wide, 1 inch thick and 4 feet long. Four +shelves are provided, each 3/4 inch thick, 9 inches wide and 4 feet +long. Each shelf is secured to the uprights by hinges on the upper side, +so as to permit it to be swung upwardly, or folded; and below each hinge +is a triangular block or bracket, fixed to the shelf, to support it in a +horizontal position. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 252._] + +A sad-iron holder, or bookcase, shown in Fig. 252, is another simple +form of structure. It may be sufficiently large to serve as a standing +case by having the uprights at the ends serve as legs, or the uprights +may have holes at their upper ends, by means of which it can be +suspended on a wall. As shown, it is 30 inches long from bottom to top, +and 20 inches wide. The shelves are 8 inches wide. All the material is, +preferably, 3/4-inch stock. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 253._] + +Fig. 253 shows a wood-box, or it may readily be adapted for coal. For +wood it should be 2 feet long, 1 foot 8 inches wide and 1 foot 10 inches +high. It will, of course, be made of such dimensions as to suit the wood +to be stored in it, and both the flat-top as well as the sloping portion +of the top should be hinged, so that the entire top can be opened for +filling purposes. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 254._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 255._] + +A pair of parallel bars is shown in Fig. 254. The dimensions of this +will vary, and be dependent on the size of the boy intending to use it; +but a size best adapted is to make the posts 3 feet high, and the +distance between the bars 16 inches. This gives ample room for the +exercises required. The length between the posts along the bars should +be at least 5 feet. The entire structure can be made of soft wood, +except the bars, which should be of hard, rigid wood. The posts can be +made of 2" x 2" material, and the braces 2" x 1". The base pieces, both +longitudinal and transverse, should also be of 2" x 2" material. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 256._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 257._] + +Fig. 255 represents a mission type of writing desk for a boy's use. All +the posts, braces and horizontal bars are of 2" x 2" material, secured +to each other by mortises and tenons. The legs are 27 inches high up to +the table top, and the narrow shelf is 12 inches above the top. The most +convenient size for the top is 26" x 48". The top boards may be 1 inch +thick and the shelf the same thickness, or even 3/4 inch. It is well +braced and light, and its beauty will depend largely on the material of +which it is made. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 258._] + +The screen (Fig. 256) represents simply the framework, showing how +simple the structure is. The bars are all of 1-1/2" x 1-1/2" material, +secured together by mortises and tenons. + +Fig. 257 represents a mission chair to match the desk (Fig. 255), and +should be made of the same material. The posts are all of 2" x 2" +material. The seat of the chair should be 16 inches, and the rear posts +should extend up above the seat at least 18 inches. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 259._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 260._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 261._] + +Fig. 258 is a good example of a grandfather's clock in mission style. +The framework only is shown. The frame is 12" x 12", and 5 feet high, +and made up of 2" x 2" material. When neatly framed together, it is a +most attractive article of furniture. The top may be covered in any +suitable way, showing a roof effect. The opening for the dial face of +the clock should be at one of the gable ends. + +A more pretentious bookcase is shown in Fig. 259, in which the frame is +made up wholly of 2" x 2" material. The cross-end bars serve as ledges +to support the shelves. This may be lined interiorly and backed with +suitable casing material, such as Lincrusta Walton, or fiber-board, and +the front provided with doors. Our only object is to show the framework +for your guidance, and merely to make suggestions as to structural +forms. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 262._] + +Another most serviceable article is a case for a coal scuttle (Fig. +260). This should be made of 1-inch boards, and the size of the door, +which carries the scuttle shelf, should be 12" x 16" in size. From this +you can readily measure the dimensions of the case itself, the exterior +dimensions of which are 15" x 20", so that when the 1-inch top is placed +on, it will be 21 inches high. The case from front to rear is 12 inches, +and the shelf above the top is 11 inches wide, and elevated 10 inches +above the top of the case. This is a most useful box for culinary +articles, if not needed for coal, because the ledge, used for the coal +scuttle, can be used to place utensils on, and when the door is opened +all the utensils are exposed to view, and are, therefore, much more +accessible than if stored away in the case itself. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 263._] + +A mission armchair. Fig. 261 is more elaborate than the chair shown in +Fig. 257, but it is the same in general character, and is also made of +2" x 2" stock. The seat is elevated 16 inches from the floor, and the +rear posts are 28 inches high. The arms are 8 inches above the seat. A +chair of this character should have ample seat space, so the seat is 18" +x 18". + +The dog house (Fig. 262), made in imitation of a dwelling, is 24 inches +square, and 18 inches high to the eaves of the roof. The opening in +front is 8" x 10", exclusive of the shaped portion of the opening. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 264._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 265._] + +Fig. 263 shows a simple and easily constructed settee with an under +shelf. The seat is 16 inches from the floor and 24 inches wide. The back +extends up 24 inches from the seat. The lower shelf is midway between +the floor and seat, and is 19 inches wide. This may or may not be +upholstered, dependent on the character of the material of which it is +made. If upholstered, the boards may be of second-class material, +preferably of pine or other light, soft wood. + +A towel rack (Fig. 264) is always a needed article in the kitchen. The +roller may be an old curtain roller cut down to 18 inches in length. The +top piece is 2-1/2 inches wide and 21 inches long. The vertical bars are +each 1-1/2 inches wide and 9 inches long. The brackets are 1-1/2 inches +wide and made of 3/4-inch material. + +Fig. 265 represents the framework of a sofa, the seat of which is 16 +inches high, the front posts up to the arm-rests 24 inches, and the rear +posts 38 inches. From front to rear the seat is 18 inches. The posts are +of 3" x 3" material. This makes a very rigid article of furniture, if +mortised and tenoned and properly glued. The seat is 6 feet long, but it +may be lengthened or shortened to suit the position in which it is to be +placed. It is a companion piece to the chair (Fig. 261). + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES + + +In the foregoing chapters we have referred the reader to the simple +tools, but it is thought desirable to add to the information thus given, +an outline of numerous special tools which have been devised and are now +on the market. + +BIT AND LEVEL ADJUSTER.--It is frequently necessary to bore holes at +certain angles. This can be done by using a bevel square, and holding it +so one limb will show the boring angle. But this is difficult to do in +many cases. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 266. Bit and Square level._] + +This tool has three pairs of V slots on its back edges. The shank of the +bit will lie in these slots, as shown in Fig. 266, either vertically, or +at an angle of 45 degrees, and boring can be done with the utmost +accuracy. It may be attached to a Carpenter's square, thus making it an +accurate plumb or level. + +MITER BOXES.--The advantages of metal miter boxes is apparent, when +accurate work is required. + +The illustration, Fig. 267, shows a metal tool of this kind, in which +the entire frame is in one solid casting. The saw guide uprights are +clamped in tapered sockets in the swivel arm and can be adjusted to hold +the saw without play, and this will also counteract a saw that runs out +of true, due to improper setting or filing. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 267. Metal Miter Box._] + +A second socket in the swivel arm permits the use of a short saw or +allows a much longer stroke with a standard or regular saw. + +The swivel arm is provided with a tapering index pin which engages in +holes placed on the under side of the base. The edge of the base is +graduated in degrees, as plainly shown, and the swivel arm can be set +and automatically fastened at any degree desired. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 268. Parts of Metal Miter Box._] + +The uprights, front and back are graduated in sixteenths of inches, and +movable stops can be set, by means of thumb-screw to the depth of the +cut desired. + +Figure 268 shows the parts of the miter box, in which the numbers +designate the various parts: 101 is the frame; 102 the frame board; 104 +frame leg; 106 guide stock; 107 stock guide clamp; 109 stock guide +plate; 110 swivel arm; 111 swivel arm bushing; 112 swivel bushing screw; +113 index clamping lever; 115 index clamping lever catch; 116 index +clamping lever spring; 122 swivel complete; 123 T-base; 124-1/2 +uprights; 126 saw guide cap; 127 saw guide cap plate; 132 saw guide tie +bar; 133 left saw guide stop and screw; 134 right side guide stop and +screw; 135 saw guide stop spring; 136 saw guide cylinder; 137 saw guide +cylinder plate; 138 trip lever (back); 139 trip lever (front); 141 +leveling screw; 142 trip clamp and screw; 146 T-base clamp screw. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 269. Angle Dividers._] + +ANGLE DIVIDERS.--This is another tool, which does not cost much and is +of great service to the carpenter in fitting moldings where they are +applied at odd angles. + +To lay out the cut with an ordinary bevel necessitates the use of +dividers and a second handling of the bevel, making three operations. + +THE "ODD JOB" TOOL.--A most useful special tool, which combines in its +make-up a level, plumb try-square, miter-square, bevel, scratch awl, +depth gage, marking gage, miter gage, beam compass, and a one-foot rule. +To the boy who wishes to economize in the purchase of tools this is an +article which should be obtained. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 270. "Odd Job" Tool._] + +Figure 270 shows the simplicity of the tool, and how it is applied in +use. + +BIT BRACES.--These tools are now made with so many improved features +that there is really no excuse for getting poor tools. + +The illustrations show merely the heads and the lower operating parts of +the tools. Fig. 271 shows a metal-clad ball-bearing head, so called, as +its under side is completely encased in metal securely screwed to the +wood and revolving against the ball thrust bearing. + +D represents a concealed ratchet in which the cam ring governs the +ratchet, and, being in line with the bit, makes it more convenient in +handling than when it is at right angles. The ratchet parts are entirely +enclosed, thus keeping out moisture and dirt, retaining lubrication and +protecting the users' hands. + +The ratchet mechanism is interchangeable, and may be taken apart by +removing one screw. The two-piece clutch, which is drop forged, is +backed by a very strong spring, insuring a secure lock. When locked, ten +teeth are in engagement, while five are employed while working at a +ratchet. It has universal jaws (G) for both wood and metal workers. + +In Fig. 272, B represents a regular ball bearing head, with the wood +screw on the large spindle and three small screws to prevent its working +loose. This also has a ball thrust. E is the ratchet box, and this shows +the gear teeth cut on the extra heavy spindle, and encased, so that the +user's hands are protected from the teeth. + +The interlocking jaws (H), which are best for taper shanks, hold up to +No. 2 Clark's expansion, and are therefore particularly adapted for +carpenter's use. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 271. Fig. 272. Fig. 273. Types of Bit Braces._] + +In Fig. 273 the plain bearing head (C) has no ball thrust. The head is +screwed on the spindle and held from turning off by two small screws. +The open ratchet (F) shows the gear pinned to the spindle and exposed. +This has alligator jaws (J), and will hold all ordinary size taper shank +bits, also small and medium round shank bits or drills. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 274. Fig. 275. Fig. 276. Steel Frame Breast Drills._] + +STEEL FRAME BREAST DRILL.--These drills are made with both single and +double speed, each speed having three varieties of jaws. The single +speed is very high, the ratio being 4-1/2 to 1, which makes it +desirable to use for small drills, or for use in wood. + +A level is firmly set in the frames of these tools to assist the user to +maintain a horizontal position in boring. Each of the forms shown has a +ball thrust bearing between the pinion and frame. The breast plate may +be adjusted to suit and is locked by a set screw. The spindle is kept +from turning while changing drills, by means of the latch mounted on the +frame, and readily engaging with the pinion. The crank is pierced in +three places so that the handle can be set for three different sweeps, +depending on the character of the work. + +Figure 274 has a three jaw chuck, and has only single speed. Figure 275 +has an interlocking jaw, and is provided with double speed gearing. +Figure 276 has a universal jaw, and double speed. + +PLANES.--The most serviceable planes are made in iron, and it might be +well to show a few of the most important, to bring out the manner +employed to make the adjustments of the bits. + +In order to familiarize the boy with the different terms used in a +plane, examine Figure 277. The parts are designated as follows: 1A is +the double plane iron; 1 single plane iron; 2 plane iron cap; 3 cap +screw; 4 lever cap; 5 lever cap screw; 6 frog complete; 7 Y adjusting +lever; 8 adjusting nut; 9 lateral adjusting lever; 11 plane handle; 12 +plane knob; 13 handle bolt and nut; 14 knob bolt and nut; 15 plane +handle screw; 16 plane bottom; 44 frog pin; 45 frog clamping screw; 46 +frog adjusting screw. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 277. Details of Metal Plane._] + +RABBETING, MATCHING AND DADO PLANES.--Figure 278 shows a useful form of +plane for the reason that it is designed to receive a variety of irons, +adapted to cut rabbets. + +The detached sections of Fig. 278 show the various parts, as well as the +bits which belong to it. 1, 1 represent the single plane irons; 4 the +lever cap; 16 the plane bottom, 50 the fence; 51 the fence thumb screw; +61 the short arm; 70 the adjustable depth gage; 71 the depth gage which +goes through the screw; and 85 the spurs with screws. + +MOLDING AND BEADING PLANE.--A plane of the character shown in Fig. 279 +will do an immense variety of work in molding, beading and dado work, +and is equally well adapted for rabbeting, for filletsters and for match +planing. The regular equipment with this tool comprises fifty-two +cutters. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 278. Rabbet, Matching and Dado Plane._] + +As shown in Fig. 279, the plane has a main stock (A), which carries the +cutter adjustment, a handle, a depth gage, a slitting gage, and a steel +bottom forming a bearing for the other end of the cutter, and slides on +arms secured to the main stock. + +This bottom can be raised or lowered, so that, in addition to allowing +the use of cutters of different widths, cutters can be used having one +edge higher or lower than the edge supported in the main stock. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 279. Molding and Beading Plane._] + +The auxiliary center bottom (C), which can be adjusted for width or +depth, fulfils the requirement of preventing the plane from tilting and +gouging the work. The fence D has a lateral adjustment by means of a +screw, for extra fine work. The four small cuts in the corners show how +the bottoms should be set for different forms of cutters, and the great +importance of having the fences adjusted so that the cutters will not +run. + +The samples of work illustrated show some of the moldings which can be +turned out with the plane. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 280. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane._] + +DOVETAIL TONGUE AND GROOVE PLANE.--This is a very novel tool, and has +many features to recommend it. Figure 280 shows its form, and how it is +used. It is designed to make the dovetailed tongue as well as the +groove. + +It will cut any size groove and tongues to fit with sides of twenty +degrees flare, where the width of the neck is more than one-quarter of +an inch thick, and the depth of the groove not more than three-quarters +of an inch. The tongue and groove are cut separately, and can be made +with parallel or tapering sides. The operation of the plane is very +simple. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 281. Fig. 282. Router Planes._] + +ROUTER PLANES.--This is a type of plane used for surfacing the bottom of +grooves or other depressions parallel with the general surface of the +work. + +The planes are made in two types, one, like Fig. 281, which has a closed +throat, and the other, Fig. 282, with an open throat. Both are +serviceable, but the latter is preferable. These planes will level off +bottoms of depression, very accurately, and the tool is not an expensive +one. + +DOOR TRIM PLANE.--This is a tool for making mortises for butts, face +plates, strike plates, escutcheons, and the like, up to a depth of 5/16, +and a width of 3 inches. The principal feature in the plane is the +method of mounting the cutter, which can be instantly set to work from +either end of the plane or across it. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 283. Door Trim Plane._] + +The cutter, as shown in Fig. 283, is cushioned by a spring which +prevents taking a heavier chip than can be easily carried. A fence +regulates the position of the cut and insures the sides of the cut being +parallel. The depth of the cut is governed by a positive stop. By +removing the fence and locking the cutter post with the thumb screw, +instead of using the spring, a very superior router plane is obtained. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +ROOFING TRUSSES + + +The chapter on Bridge Building gives some suggestions as to form of +trusses, the particular types there shown being principally for wide +spans. Such trusses were made for one purpose only, namely, to take +great weight, and they were, as a consequence, so constructed as to +provide strength. + +But a roofing truss, while designed to hold the accumulated materials, +such as snow and ice, likely to be deposited there, is of such a design, +principally, so as to afford means of ornamentation. This remark has +reference to such types as dispense with the cross, or tie beam, which +is the distinguishing feature in bridge building. + +The tie beam is also an important element in many types of trusses, +where ornamentation is not required, or in such structures as have the +roofed portion of the buildings enclosed by ceiling walls, or where the +space between the roofs is used for storage purposes. + +In England, and on the Continent of Europe, are thousands of trusses +structured to support the roofs, which are marvels of beauty. Some of +them are bewildering in their formation. The moldings, beaded surfaces, +and the carved outlines of the soffits, of the arches, and of the +purlins, are wonderful in detail. + +The wooden roof of Westminster Hall, while very simple in structure, as +compared with many others, looks like an intricate maze of beams, struts +and braces, but it is, nevertheless, so harmonized that the effect is +most pleasing to the eye, and its very appearance gives the impression +of grandeur and strength. + +Nearly all of the forms shown herein have come down to us from mediaeval +times, when more stress was laid on wooden structures than at the +present time, but most of the stone and metal buildings grew out of the +wooden prototypes. + +Now the prime object of nearly all the double-roofed trusses was to +utilize the space between the rafters so as to give height and majesty +to the interior. + +A large dome is grand, owing to its great simplicity, but the same plain +outlines, or lack of ornamentation, in the ceiling of a square or +rectangular building would be painful to view, hence, the braces, beams, +plates, and various supports of the roofed truss served as ornamental +parts, and it is in this particular that the art of the designer finds +his inspiration. + +Before proceeding to apply the matter of ornamentation, it might be well +to develop these roof forms, starting with the old type Barn Roof, where +the space between the rafters must be utilized for the storage of hay. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 284. Gambrel Roof._] + +_The Gambrel Roof_, Fig. 284, requires a tie beam, (A), as shown, but +the space above the beam is free of all obstructions, and gives a large +storage space. The roof has two sets of rafters (B, C), and of different +pitch, the lower rafters (B) having a pitch of about 30 degrees, and the +upper ones (C), about 45 degrees. + +A tie bar (D) joins the middle portion of each of the rafters (B, C) and +another tie bar (E) joins the middle part of the rafter (B), and the +supporting post (F). The cross tie beam (G) completes the span, and a +little study will show the complete interdependence of one piece upon +the other. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 285. Purlin Roof._] + +_The Purlin Roof_ is a type of structure used very largely throughout +the United States, for wide barns. (A) is the cross beam; (B, B) the +purlin posts; (C, C) the purlin plates; (D, D) the rafters; and (E, E) +the supporting braces. + +The rafters (D) are in two sections, the distance from the eaves to the +comb being too great for single length rafters, and the purlin plates +are not designed to make what is called a "self-supporting" roof, but +merely to serve as supports for the regular rafters. + +_The Princess Truss_, on the other hand, is designed to act as a support +for the different lengths of rafters (A, B, C), and as a means for +holding the roof. It is adapted for low pitch and wide spans. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 286. Princess Truss._] + +The main truss is made up of the cross beam (D), rafters (E, E) and +thrust beam (F). Purlin posts (G, G) are placed at an angle intermediate +the ends of the rafters, and the purlin plates (H, H) support the roof +rafters (A, B, C); I, I are the vertical tie rods. + +This type is probably the oldest form of truss for building purposes, +and it has been modified in many ways, the most usual modification being +the substitution of posts for the tie rods (I, I). + +Following out the foregoing forms, we may call attention to one more +type which permitted ornamentation to a considerable degree, although it +still required the tie beam. In fact the tie beam itself was the feature +on which the architect depended to make the greatest effect by +elaborating it. + +This is shown in Fig. 287, and is called the _Arched_, or _Cambered, Tie +Beam Truss_. It is a very old type, samples of which have been found +which take it back to a very remote age. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 287. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam._] + +The tie beam A, in wide spans, was made in two sections, properly tied +together, and sometimes the outer ends were very wide, and to add to the +effect of the arch, it might also be raised in the middle, something in +the form shown by the dotted line (B). + +_The Mansard_ is what may be called a double-mounted roof, and it will +be seen how it was evolved from the preceding types. It will be noted +that the simple truss formed by the members (A, B, C) is merely +superposed on the leaning posts, the tie beam also being necessary in +this construction. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 288. The Mansard._] + +But the most elaborate formations are those which were intended to +provide trusses for buildings wherein the tie beams were dispensed with. + +The simplest form known is called the _Scissors Beam_, illustrated in +Fig. 289. This has been utilized for small spaces, and steep pitches. +Each rafter (A) has an angled beam or brace (B), springing from its +base, to the opposite rafter (A), to which it is joined, midway between +its ends, as at C. + +Where the two braces (B) cross each other they are secured together, as +at D. As a result, three trusses are formed, namely, 1, 2, 3, and it +possesses remarkable strength. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 289. Scissors Beam._] + +BRACED COLLAR BEAM.--This is a modification of the last type, but is +adapted for thick walls only. The tie rod braces (A, A) have to be +brought down low to give a good bracing action, and this arrangement is +capable of considerable ornamentation. + +The steeper the pitch the higher up would be the inner and lower brace +posts (B, B) which were supported by the top of the wall. This form is +not available for wide spans, and is shown to illustrate how the +development was made into the succeeding types. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 290. Braced Collar Beam._] + +THE RIB AND COLLAR TRUSS, Fig. 291, is the first important structural +arrangement which permitted the architect to give full sway to +embellishment. The inwardly-projecting members (A, A) are called _Hammer +Beams_. They were devised as a substitute for the thick walls used in +the Braced Collar Beam Truss, and small brackets (B, B) were placed +beneath as supports. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 291. Rib and Collar Truss._] + +The short tie beam (C), near the apex, serves as the member to receive +the thrust and stress of the curved ribs (D, D). It forms a most +graceful type of roof, and is capable of the most exquisite +ornamentation, but it is used for the high pitched roofs only. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 290-1/2. Hammer Beam Truss._] + +The acme of all constructions, in which strength, beauty, and capacity +for ornamentation are blended, is the _Hammer Beam Truss_. Here the +hammer beam projects inwardly farther than in the preceding figure, and +has a deeper bracket (B), and this also extends down the pendant post +(C) a greater distance. + +The curved supporting arch (D), on each side, is not ribbed, as in the +Rib and Collar Truss, but instead, is provided with openwork (not shown +herein), together with beadings and moldings, and other ornamental +characteristics, and some of the most beautiful architectural forms in +existence are in this type of roof. + +What are called Flying Buttresses (E) are sometimes used in connection +with the Hammer Beam Truss, which, with heavy roofs and wide spans, is +found to be absolutely necessary. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS + + +In uniting two or more elements, some particular type of joint is +necessary. In framing timbers, in making braces, in roof construction +and supports, in floor beams, and in numerous other places, where +strength is required, the workman should have at his command a knowledge +of the most serviceable methods. + +Illustrations can most forcibly convey the different types; but the +sizes must be determined by the character of the material you are +working with. Our aim is to give the idea involved, and the name by +which each is known. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 292. Bridle Joints._] + +Reference has been made in Chapter X, to certain forms of scarfing and +lapping pieces. This chapter has to do with a variety of other +structural forms, but principally with such as are used in heavy +building work, and in cases where neither fish plates nor scarfing will +answer the purpose. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 293. Spur Tenon._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 294. Saddle Joints._] + +BRIDLE JOINTS.--This is a form of joint where permanency is not desired, +and where it is necessary to readily seat or unseat the vertical timber. +It is also obvious that the socket for the upright is of such a +character that it will not weaken it to any great extent. + +SPUR TENON.--This tenon can be used in many places where the regular one +is not available. This, like the preceding, is used where the parts are +desired to be detachable, and the second form is one which is used in +many structures. + +SADDLE JOINT.--This is still another manner in which a quickly +detachable joint can be constructed. The saddle may be mounted on the +main base, or cut into the base piece. An infinite variety of forms of +saddles are made, most of them being used in dock work, and for framing +of that character where large timbers are used, as in the building of +coal chutes, and the like. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 295. Joggle Joints._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 296. Framing Joints._] + +JOGGLE JOINT.--This joint is used almost exclusively for brace work +where great weight must be supported. The brace has a tenon, and the +end must also be so arranged that it will have a direct bearing against +the upright, which it braces and supports, or it may have two faces, as +in the second figure, which is an exceedingly strong construction. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 297. Heel Joints._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 298. Stub Tenon._] + +FRAMING JOINTS.--These are the simplest form in which two members are +secured together. They are used almost wholly in rafter work, and have +very few modifications. The depth of the cut, for the toe of the rafter, +depends on the load to be carried, and also on the distance the end of +the rafter is from the end of the horizontal member on which the rafter +rests. + +HEEL JOINTS.--This is by far the most secure of the framing type of +joints. This, if properly made, is much better than the construction +shown in the previous illustration, but the difficulty is to make the +rafter fit into the recesses properly. This is no excuse for failure to +use, but it is on account of inability to make close fits that is +accountable for lack of use. It will be seen that in case one of the +heels rests against the recess, and the others do not, and the pressure +is great, there is a liability to tear out the entire joint. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 299. Tusk Tenon._] + +STUB TENON.--This is another form of tenon which is made and designed to +be used where it is in close proximity to another tenon, or where the +mortises, if made full size, will weaken the member. The long tusk can +be shortened, to suit the place where it projects, and the stub tenon on +each side of the tusk may be made very short, and one side longer than +the other if necessary. + +TUSK TENON.--Two forms of tusk construction are given. Any number of +forms have been devised, all for special purposes, and designed for +different kinds of woods. These shown are particularly adapted for soft +woods, and the principal feature that is valuable lies in the fact that +they have a number of shoulders within the mortise, each of which, +necessarily adds to the strength. It should be observed that in the +construction of the tusk tenon, the greatest care must be taken to have +it fit the mortise tightly, and this has reference to the bottom and +shoulder ends as well. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 300. Double Tusk Tenon._] + +DOUBLE TUSK TENONS.--The distinguishing difference between this and the +preceding is in the tusk, which in this form of construction goes +through the upright member, and is held by a cross key. The double tusk +is intended for hard woods, and it is regarded as the finest, as well +as the strongest, joint known. + +COGGED JOINTS.--This differs from the regular tenoning and mortising +methods, principally because the groove or recess is in the form of an +open gain. It is used where the member is to be inserted after the main +structure is put together. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 301. Cogged Joints._] + +[Illustration: _Fig. 302. Anchor Joint._] + +ANCHOR JOINT.--This form of connection is designed for very large +timbers, and where great care must be taken in making the parts fit +together nicely, as everything depends on this. This style is never +used where the angles are less than 45 degrees, and the depth of the +gain in the timber receiving the brace is dependent on the thrust of the +brace. + +[Illustration: _Fig. 303. Deep Anchor Joint._] + +The Deep Anchor Joint is an extension of the tongue of the Anchor tenon, +so that it affords a greater support for the end thrust. To clearly +distinguish between this and the preceding form, it might be said that +the Anchor Joint is one designed to protect the member containing the +gains, while the Deep Anchor Joint favors the brace, by giving it a +greater power. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +SOME MISTAKES, AND A LITTLE ADVICE IN CARPENTRY + + +In the mechanical arts, workers are as likely to learn from the mistakes +committed as through correct information imparted. Advice, therefore, +might be considered superfluous. But there are certain things which are +easily remembered and may be borne in mind while engaged in turning out +any work. + +This chapter is not given for the purpose of calling attention to all +the errors which are so common, but merely to point out a few which the +boy will commit as he tries to carry out his work for the first time. + +One of the difficult things for any one to learn, in working with wood, +is to plane the edge of a board straight and square at the same time. +This is made doubly difficult if it is desired to plane it strictly to +dimensions. + +Usually before the edge is straight it is down to the proper width +desired, and it is then too late to correct any error, because further +work will make it too narrow. + +The whole difficulty is in the holding of the plane. It matters not how +rigidly it is held, and how carefully it is guarded to veer it toward +one side or the other, it will be found a most difficult task. + +If the fore, or finishing, plane is used, and which is the proper tool +for the purpose, the impression seems to be, that to square up the edge +and make it cut off a thicker shaving on one side than on the other, +requires that the plane should be pressed down with force, so as to make +it dig in and cut a thicker shaving. + +When this is resorted to the board is liable to get out of true from end +to end. A much better plan is to put the plane on the edge of the board +true and straight. If it is too high on the edge nearest you, bring the +plane over so the inside edge is flush with the inside edge of the +board. + +Then use the fingers of the left hand as a gage to keep the plane from +running over. + +Now, the weight of the plane in such a condition is sufficient to take +off a thicker shaving at the high edge, and this will be done without +any effort, and will enable you to concentrate your thoughts on keeping +the plane straight with the board. + +The weight of the plane will make a thicker shaving on one side than on +the other, and correct inequalities, provided you do not attempt to +force the plane. + +It requires an exceedingly steady hand to hold a plane firmly for +squaring up a half-inch board. Singular as it may seem, it is almost as +difficult a job with a two-inch plank. In the case of the thin board the +plane will move laterally, unless the utmost care is exercised; in the +truing up the thick plank the constant tendency is to move the plane +along the surface at a slight diagonal, and this is sure to cause +trouble. + +It only emphasizes the fact most clearly, that to do a good job the +plane must be firmly held, that it must move along the board with the +utmost precision, and that it should not be forced into the wood. + +In smoothing down a board with the short smoothing plane, preparatory to +sandpapering it, the better plan is to move the plane slightly across +the grain. This will enable the bit to take hold better, and when the +sandpaper is applied the course of the movement should be across the +grain opposite the direction taken by the smoothing plane. + +It is never satisfactory to draw the sandpaper directly along in the +course of the grain. Such a habit will cause the sandpaper to fill up +very rapidly, particularly with certain woods. + +When gluing together joints or tenons, always wipe off the surplus glue +with warm water taken from the glue pot. If you do not follow this +advice the glue will gum up the tools and the sandpaper used to finish +the work. + +Never try to work from opposite sides of a piece of material. Have a +_work side_ and a work _edge_, and make all measurements therefrom. Mark +each piece as you go along. Take a note mentally just how each piece is +to be placed, and what must be done with it. + +The carpenter, above all others, must be able to carry a mental picture +of his product. + +Never saw out the scribing or marking line, either in cutting or in +ripping. The lines should be obliterated by the plane, when it is being +finished, and not before. + +Make it a habit to finish off the surfaces and edges true and smooth +before the ends are cut, or the mortises or tenons are made. This is one +of the most frequent mistakes. No job can be a perfect one unless your +material has been worked down to proper dimensions. + +Learn to saw across a board squarely. This may be a hard thing for the +novice to do. A long, easy stroke of the saw will prevent it from +running, unless too badly set or filed, and will also enable you to hold +it more nearly square with the board. + +If you find that you invariably saw "out of true," then take some sawing +lessons for your own benefit, until you can judge whether the saw is +held true or not. + +It is better to saw up a half dozen boards in making the test than +commit the error while working on a job. + + + + +GLOSSARY OF WORDS USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME + + +$Acute.$ Sharp, to the point. + +$Adjuster.$ A tool which measures distances and relative spaces. + +$AEsthetic.$ The theory of taste; science of the beautiful in nature and +art. + +$Abstract.$ That which exists in the mind only; separate from matter; to +think of separately as a quality. + +$Alligator jaws.$ A term used to designate a pair of serrated bars which +are held together in a headpiece, and capable of clamping bits between +them. + +$Analyzed.$ Separated into its primitive or original parts. + +$Anchor.$ Any device for holding an object in a fixed position. + +$Angle dividers.$ A sort of double bevel tool so arranged that an angle +can be made at the same time on both side of a base line. + +$Angularly disposed.$ Forming an angle with reference to some part or +position. + +$Archivolt.$ The architectural member surrounding the curved opening of +an arch. More commonly the molding or other ornaments with which the +wall face of an arch is changed. + +$Artisan.$ One trained in some mechanic's art or trade. + +$Beaded.$ A piece of wood or iron having rounded creases on its +surface. + +$Beam compass.$ A drawing compass in which the points are arranged to +slide on a rod, instead of being fixed on dividers. + +$Belfry.$ A bell-tower, usually attached to a church. + +$Bevel square.$ A handle to which is pivotally attached a blade, which +may be swung and held at any desired angle. + +$Bisected.$ To divide, mark, or cut into two portions. + +$Bit.$ A small tool, either for drilling, or for cutting, as a plane +iron. + +$Braced collar.$ A form of roofing truss, in which the upper cross +member is supported by a pair of angled braces. + +$Breast drill.$ A tool for holding boring tools, and designed to have +the head held against the breast for forcing in the boring tool. + +$Bridle joint.$ A form for securing elements together which provides a +shallow depression in one member, and a chamfered member at its end to +fit therein. + +$Bungalow.$ A Bengalese term; originally a thatched or tiled house or +cottage, single story, usually surrounded by a veranda. + +$Bushing.$ A substance of any kind interposed, as, for instance, a +wearing surface between a mandrel and its bearing. + +$Butts.$ A term applied to certain hinges, usually of the large type. + +$Callipered.$ A measured portion which has its side or thickness fixed +by a finely graduated instrument. + +$Cambered.$ Slightly rising in the middle portion. An upward bend, or +projection. + +$Capital.$ A small head or top of a column; the head or uppermost member +of a pilaster. + +$Cardinal.$ Pre-eminent, chief, main line; _Cardinal_ line is the +principal line to make calculations or measurements from. + +$Centering point.$ A place for the reception of the point of an +instrument, like a compass or a dividers, or for the dead center of the +tail-stock of a lathe. + +$Cheekpiece.$ A piece or pieces at right angles to another piece, either +fixed or movable, which serves as a rest or a guide. + +$Chiffonier.$ A movable and ornamental closet or piece of furniture with +shelves and drawers. + +$Chute.$ A channel in any material, or made of any substance, for +conveying liquids or solids. + +$Circumference.$ The distance around an object. + +$Circumferentially.$ Surrounding or encircling. + +$Classical.$ Relating to the first class or rank, especially in +literature or art. + +$Cogged.$ Having teeth, either at regular or at irregular intervals. + +$Concrete.$ Expressing the thing itself specifically; also the quality; +a specific example. + +$Configuration.$ Form, as depending on the relative disposition of the +parts of a thing; a shape or a figure. + +$Coincide.$ To occupy the same place in space; to correspond exactly; to +agree; to concur. + +$Correlation.$ A reference, as from one thing to another; the putting +together of various parts. + +$Conventional.$ Something which grows out of or depends upon custom, or +is sanctioned by general usage. + +$Craftsman.$ One skilled in a craft or trade. + +$Curvature.$ The act of curving or being bent. + +$Concentrated.$ To bring to a common center; to bring together in one +mass. + +$Dado.$ A plain flat surface between a base and a surbase molding. +Sometimes a painted or encrusted skirting on interior walls. + +$Depth gage.$ A tool by means of which the depths of grooves and +recesses are measured. + +$Degree.$ Measure of advancement; quality; extent; a division or space. + +$Discarded.$ Cast off; to reject or put away. + +$Deterioration.$ To grow worse; impairing in quality. + +$Depressed.$ A sunken surface or part. + +$Diagrammatical.$ A drawing made to illustrate the working or the +scheme, without showing all the parts or giving their relative positions +or measurements. + +$Diametrically.$ A direction toward the center or across the middle of a +figure or thing. + +$Diagonal.$ A direction which is not parallel with or perpendicular to a +line. + +$Dominate.$ To govern; controlling. + +$Door trim.$ The hardware which is attached to a door. + +$Double-roofed.$ All form of roof structure where there is an inner +frame to support the rafters. + +$Drop forged.$ Metal forms which are struck up by means of heavy +hammers, in which are the molds or patterns of the article to be formed. + +$Elaboration.$ Wrought with labor; finished with great care. + +$Elevation.$ The act of raising from a lower to a higher degree; a +projection of a building or other object on a plane perpendicular to the +horizon. + +$Elliptical.$ Having the form of an ellipse. + +$Embellishment.$ The act of adorning; that which adds beauty or +elegance. + +$Entablature.$ The structure which lies horizontally upon the columns. + +$Equidistant.$ Being at an equal distance from a point. + +$Escutcheon.$ An ornamental plate like that part about a keyhole. + +$Evolve.$ To unfold or unroll; to open and expand. + +$Facade.$ The front of a building; the principal front having some +architectural pretensions. + +$Facing-boards.$ The finishing of the face of a wall of different +material than the main part of the wall; the wide board below the +cornice or beneath the windows. + +$Factor.$ One of the elements, circumstances or influences which +contribute to produce a result. + +$Fence.$ A term used to designate a metal barrier or guard on a part of +a tool. + +$Fish plate.$ A pair of plates, usually placed on opposite sides of the +pieces to be secured together, and held by cross bolts. + +$Flare.$ A pitch; an angle; an inclination. + +$Flush.$ Unbroken, or even in surface; on a level with the adjacent +surface. + +$Frog clamping screw.$ A screw which is designed to hold or adjust two +angled pieces. + +$Fulcrum.$ That by which a lever is sustained, or on which a lever rests +in turning or moving a body. + +$Fluting.$ The channel or channels in a body; as the grooves in a +column. + +$Gain.$ A square or beveled notch or groove cut out of a girder, beam, +post or other material, at a corner. + +$Gambrel.$ A roof having two different pitches, the upper much greater +than the lower. + +$Geometry.$ Pertaining to that branch of mathematics which investigates +the relations, properties and measurements of solids, surfaces, lines +and angles. + +$Girder.$ A main beam; a straight horizontal beam to span an opening or +carry a weight, such as the ends of floor beams. + +$Glossary.$ A collection or explanation of words and passages of the +works of an author; a partial dictionary. + +$Graduated.$ Cut up into steps; divided into equal parts. + +$Guide stock.$ A member which is the main portion of the tool, and from +which all measurements are taken. + +$Hammer beam.$ A member in a truss roof structure, at the base of the +roof proper, which consists of an inwardly projecting part, on which the +roof rests, and from which it is braced. + +$Hammer-pole.$ The peon, or round end of a hammer which is used for +driving nails. + +$Hemispherical.$ Pertaining to a half globe or sphere. + +$Horizontal.$ On the level; at right angles to a line which points to +the center of the earth. + +$Incorporated.$ United in one body. + +$Index pin.$ A small movable member which is designed to limit the +movement of the operative part of a machine. + +$Initial.$ To make a beginning with; the first of a series of acts or +things. + +$Insulate.$ To place in a detached position; to separate from. + +$Interchangeable.$ One for the other. + +$Interval.$ A space between things; a void space; between two objects. + +$Interest.$ To engage the attention of; to awaken or attract attention. + +$Interlocking jaw.$ Two or more parts of a piece of mechanism in which +the said parts pass each other in their motions. + +$Intersection.$ The point or line in which one line or surface cuts +another. + +$Intervening.$ The portion between. + +$Inverted.$ Turned over; to put upside down. + +$Joggle-joint.$ A form of connection which has struts attached to a +pendant post. + +$Joinery.$ The art or trade of joining wood. + +$Kerf.$ A notch, channel or slit made in any material by cutting or +sawing. + +$Kit.$ A working outfit; a collection of tools or implements. + +$Level.$ A tool designed to indicate horizontal or vertical surfaces. + +$Liberal.$ Not narrow or contracted. + +$Lobe.$ Any projection, especially of a rounded form; the projecting +part of a cam-wheel. + +$Longitudinal.$ In the direction of the length; running lengthwise. + +$Lubrication.$ The system of affording oiling means to a machine or to +any article. + +$Mandrel.$ The live spindle of a lathe; the revolving arbor of a +circular saw. + +$Mansard.$ A type of roof structure with two pitches, one, the lower, +being very steep, and the other very flat pitch. + +$Manual.$ Of or pertaining to the hand; done or made by hand. + +$Marginal.$ The border or edge of an object. + +$Marking gage.$ A bar on which is placed a series of points, usually +equidistant from each other. + +$Matching.$ Placing tongue in one member and a corresponding groove in +another member, so that they will join each other perfectly. + +$Mediaeval.$ Of or relating to the Middle Ages. + +$Miter-box.$ A tool for the purpose of holding a saw true at any desired +adjustable angle. + +$Miter-square.$ A tool which provides adjustment at any desired angle. + +$Mullion.$ A slender bar or pier which forms the vertical division +between the lights of windows, screens, etc.; also, indoors, the main +uprights are _stiles_, and the intermediate uprights are _mullions_. + +$Obliterated.$ Erased or blotted out. + +$Obtuse.$ Not pointed; bent. + +$Orbit.$ The path made by a heavenly body in its travel around another +body. + +$Ordinate.$ The distance of any point in a curve or a straight line, +measured on a line called the _axis of ordinates,_ or on a line parallel +to it from another line, at right angles thereto, called the _axis of +abscissas_. + +$Ornamentation.$ To embellish; to improve in appearance. + +$Oscillate.$ To swing like a pendulum. + +$Overhang.$ In a general sense that which projects out. + +$Paneling.$ A sunken compartment or portion with raised margins, molded +or otherwise, as indoors, ceilings wainscoting, etc. + +$Parallelogram.$ A right-lined quadrilateral figure, whose opposite +sides are parallel and, consequently, equal. + +$Parallel.$ Extended in the same direction, and in all parts equally +distant. + +$Perspective.$ A view; a vista; the effect of distance upon the +appearance of objects, by means of which the eye recognizes them as +being at a more or less measurable distance. + +$Pivot.$ A fixed pin, or short axis, on the end of which a wheel or +other body turns. + +$Pitch.$ Slope; descent; declivity, like the slope of a roof. + +$Placement.$ The act of placing; in the state of being placed. + +$Predominate.$ To be superior in number, strength, influence or +authority; controlling. + +$Produced.$ To lengthen out; to extend. + +$Prototype.$ The original; that from which later forms sprang. + +$Purlin.$ A longitudinal piece of timber, under a roof, midway between +the eaves and comb, to hold the rafters. + +$Rabbeting.$ The manner of cutting grooves or recesses. + +$Ratchet.$ A wheel, bar, or other form of member, having teeth or +recesses. + +Rebate. A rectangular, longitudinal recess or groove, cut in the corner +or edge of a body. + +$Rail.$ A horizontal piece in a frame or paneling. + +$Rectangular.$ Right-angled; having one or more angles of ninety +degrees; a four-sided figure having only right angles. + +$Rib and collar.$ A form of roof truss in which the collar between +rafters is used as the thrust bearing for the ribs which project up from +the hammer beam. + +$Router.$ A tool for cutting grooves or recesses. + +$Saddle joint.$ A form of connection in which one part has a portion cut +away, resembling a saddle, and in which the part to be attached has its +end cut so as to fit the saddle thus formed. + +$Scarfing.$ The cutting away of the ends of timbers to be joined, so the +two parts on lapping will unite evenly. + +$Scissors beam.$ A form of truss, in which there is a pair of interior +braces formed like shears, and secured to the main rafters themselves. + +$Score, Scored.$ Shear; cut; divide; also notching or marking. + +$Scratch awl.$ A sharp-pointed tool, with a handle. + +$Scribe.$ To cut, indent or mark with a tool, such as a knife, awl or +compass, so as to form a cutting line for the workman. + +$Self-supporting.$ Held by itself; not depending upon outside aid. + +$Shank.$ Usually the handle, or portion to which the handle is attached. + +$Slitting gage.$ A tool which is designed to cut along a certain line +guided by an adjustable fence. + +$Soffit.$ The under side of an arch. + +$Solid.$ Not hollow; full of matter; having a fixed form; hard; opposed +to liquid or fluid. + +$Spindle.$ A small mandrel; an arbor; a turning shaft. + +$Springer.$ The post or point at which an arch rests upon its support, +and from which it seems to spring. + +$Sphere.$ A body or space continued under a single surface which, in +every part, is equally distant from a point within called its center. + +$Spur.$ A small part jutting from another. + +$Strike plate.$ A plate serving as a keeper for a beveled latch bolt and +against which the latter strikes in closing. + +$Steel Tubing.$ Pipes made from steel; tubing is measured across from +outside to outside; piping is measured on the inside. + +$Step-wedge.$ A wedge having one straight edge, and the other edge +provided with a succession of steps, by means of which the piece +gradually grows wider. + +$Strain, Stresses.$ To act upon in any way so as to cause change of form +or volume; as forces on a beam to bend it. + +$Strut.$ Any piece of timber which runs from one timber to another, and +is used to support a part. + +$Stub.$ A projecting part, usually of some defined form, and usually +designed to enter or engage with a corresponding recess in another +member. + +$Submerged.$ To be buried or covered, as with a fluid; to put under. + +$Swivel.$ A pivoted member, used in many forms of tools, in which one +part turns on the other. + +$Tail-stock.$ The sliding support or block in a lathe, which carries the +dead spindle, or adjustable center. + +$Technical.$ Of or pertaining to the useful in mechanical arts, or to +any science, business, or the like. + +$Texture.$ The disposition of the several parts of any body in +connection with each other; or the manner in which the parts are united. + +$Tool rest.$ That part of a lathe, or other mechanism, which supports a +tool, or holds the tool support. + +$Torso.$ The human body as distinguished from the head and limbs. + +$Transverse.$ In a crosswise direction; lying across; at right angles to +the longitudinal. + +$Trimmer.$ A beam, into which are framed the ends of headers in floor +framing, as when a hole is left for stairs, chimneys, and the like. + +$Truss.$ An assemblage of members of wood or iron, supported at two +points, and arranged to transmit pressure vertically to those points +with the least possible strain, across the length of any member. + +$Tusk.$ In mechanism, a long projecting part, longer than a tenon, and +usually applied to the long or projecting part of a tenon. + +$Universal joint.$ A joint wherein one member is made to turn with +another, although the two turning members are not in a line with each +other. + +$Vocation.$ Employment; trade; profession; business. + +$Voissoir.$ One of the wedgelike stones of which an arch is composed. + + + + +THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS + + +CARPENTRY FOR BOYS + +A book which treats, in a most practical and fascinating manner, all +subjects pertaining to the "King of Trades"; showing the care and use of +tools; drawing; designing, and the laying out of work; the principles +involved in the building of various kinds of structures, and the +rudiments of architecture. It contains over two hundred and fifty +illustrations made especially for this work, and includes also a +complete glossary of the technical terms used in the art. The most +comprehensive volume on this subject ever published for boys. + + * * * * * + +ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS + +The author has adopted the unique plan of setting forth the fundamental +principles in each phase of the science, and practically applying the +work in the successive stages. It shows how the knowledge has been +developed, and the reasons for the various phenomena, without using +technical words so as to bring it within the compass of every boy. It +has a complete glossary of terms, and is illustrated with two hundred +original drawings. + + * * * * * + +PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS + +This book takes the beginner through a comprehensive series of practical +shop work, in which the uses of tools, and the structure and handling of +shop machinery are set forth; how they are utilized to perform the work, +and the manner in which all dimensional work is carried out. Every +subject is illustrated, and model building explained. It contains a +glossary which comprises a new system of cross references, a feature +that will prove a welcome departure in explaining subjects. Fully +illustrated. + + * * * * * + +_Price 60 cents per volume_ + + * * * * * + + +THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY 147 FOURTH AVENUE NEW YORK + + +THE WONDER ISLAND BOYS + +BY ROGER T. FINLAY + +Thrilling adventures by sea and land of two boys and an aged Professor +who are cast away on an island with absolutely nothing but their +clothing. 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Elmer +Chenoweth, a lad from the northwest woods, astonishes everyone by his +familiarity with camp life. A clean, wholesome story every boy should +read. + +II. Woodcraft; or, How a Patrol Leader Made Good + +This tale presents many stirring situations in which some of the boys +are called upon to exercise all their ingenuity and unselfishness. A +story filled with healthful excitement. + +III. Pathfinder; or, The Missing Tenderfoot + +Some mysteries are cleared up in a most unexpected way, greatly to the +credit of our young friends. A variety of incidents follow fast, one +after the other. + +IV. Fast Nine; or, a Challenge From Fairfield + +They show the same team-work here as when in camp. The description of +the final game with the team of a rival town, and the outcome thereof, +form a stirring narrative. One of the best baseball stories of recent +years. + +V. 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One of the best stories Captain +Douglas has written. + + * * * * * + +$Boy Scout Nature Lore to be Found in The Hickory Ridge Boy Scout +Series$ + +Wild Animals of the United States--Tracking--in Number I. +Trees and Wild Flowers of the United States in Number II. +Reptiles of the United States in Number III. +Fishes of the United States in Number IV. +Insects of the United States in Number V. +Birds of the United States in Number VI. + + * * * * * + +_Cloth Binding Cover Illustrations in Four Colors 40c. Per Volume_ + +THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY +147 FOURTH AVENUE (near 14th St.) NEW YORK + + ___________________________________ +| | +| THE | +| | +| Campfire and Trail Series | +|__________________________________| + + +1. In Camp on the Big Sunflower. +2. The Rivals of the Trail. +3. The Strange Cabin on Catamount Island. +4. Lost in the Great Dismal Swamp. +5. With Trapper Jim in the North Woods. +6. Caught in a Forest Fire. + +BY LAWRENCE J. LESLIE + +A series of wholesome stories for boys told in an interesting way and +appealing to their love of the open. + +_Each, 12mo. Cloth. 40 cents per volume_ + +THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY +147 FOURTH AVENUE +NEW YORK + +Christy Mathewson's Book + +[Illustration: WON IN THE NINTH CHRISTY MATHEWSON] + +_A Ripping Good Baseball Story by One Who Knows the Game_ + +This book has attained a larger sale than any baseball story ever +published. + +The narrative deals with the students of a large university and their +baseball team, the members of which have names which enable the reader +to recognize them as some of the foremost baseball stars of the day +before their entrance into the major leagues. + +One gains a very clear idea of "inside baseball" stripped of wearisome +technicalities. The book is profusely illustrated throughout and +contains also a number of plates showing the manner in which Mathewson +throws his deceptive curves, together with brief description of each. + +_Cloth bound 5-1/2 x 7-5/8 Price 60c. per volume_ + +THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY +147 FOURTH AVENUE NEW YORK + + + + + +ECONOMICAL COOKING +_Primrose Edition_ + +_Planned for Two or More Persons_ + +By +MISS WINIFRED S. GIBBS + +Dietitian and Teacher of Cooking of the New York Association for +Improving the Condition of the Poor + +_Printed on Fine Quality Book Paper. Cover Design in Colors_ + +Many Cook Books have been published, from time to time, to meet various +requirements, or to elucidate certain theories, but very few have been +written to meet the needs of the large proportion of our population who +are acutely affected by the constantly increasing cost of food products. +Notwithstanding that by its valuable suggestions this book helps to +reduce the expense of supplying the table, the recipes are so planned +that the economies effected thereby are not offset by any lessening in +the attractiveness, variety or palatability of the dishes. + +Of equal importance are the sections of this work which deal with food +values, the treatment of infants and invalids and the proper service of +various dishes. + +The recipes are planned for two persons, but may readily be adapted for +a larger number. 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