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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Transactions of the American Society of
+Civil Engineers, vol. LXVIII, Sept. 191, by F. Lavis
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. LXVIII, Sept. 1910
+       The Bergen Hill Tunnels. Paper No. 1154
+
+Author: F. Lavis
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2007 [EBook #21083]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Juliet Sutherland and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [Transcriber’s Note:
+
+  Two other papers from ASCE _Transactions_ LXVIII (September 1910) are
+  referenced in this paper:
+
+    No. 1150, “The New York Tunnel Extension...” by Charles W. Raymond,
+    available from Project Gutenberg as e-text #18229.
+
+    No. 1151, “The North River Division” by Charles M. Jacobs, e-text
+    #18548, generally cited as “the paper by Mr. Jacobs”.
+
+  The word “Figure” is used in two ways. It refers either to individual
+  numbered Figures (1-21), or to any of the four pictures that make up
+  each Plate, identified in the form “Fig. 2, Plate XXI”. Figures 1-4
+  are always discussed as a group.
+
+  Single letters in boldface are shown as =A=. Typographical errors are
+  listed at the end of the text.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  American Society of Civil Engineers
+  Instituted 1852
+  TRANSACTIONS
+
+  Paper No. 1154
+
+  THE NEW YORK TUNNEL EXTENSION OF THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.
+  THE BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.[1]
+
+  By F. LAVIS, M. Am. Soc. C. E.
+
+    [Footnote 1: Presented at the meeting of April 6th, 1910.]
+
+
+_Location._--That section of the Pennsylvania Railroad’s New York
+Tunnels lying west of the Hudson River is designated Section “K,” and
+the tunnels are generally spoken of as the Bergen Hill Tunnels. Bergen
+Hill is a trap dike (diabase) forming the lower extension of the Hudson
+River Palisades.
+
+There are two parallel single-track tunnels, cross-sections of which are
+shown on Plate VIII of the paper by Charles M. Jacobs, M. Am. Soc. C. E.
+The center line is a tangent, and nearly on the line of 32d Street, New
+York City, produced, its course being N. 50° 30' W. The elevation of the
+top of the rail at the Weehawken Shaft (a view of which is shown by
+Fig. 2, Plate XXII), on the west bank of the Hudson River, is about 64
+ft. below mean high water; and at the Western Portal, or Hackensack end,
+the rail is about 17 ft. above; the grade throughout is 1.3%, ascending
+from east to west. The length of each tunnel between the portals is
+5,920 ft.
+
+A general plan and profile of these tunnels is shown on Plate I of the
+paper by Charles W. Raymond, M. Am. Soc. C. E. At Central Avenue a shaft
+212 ft. deep was sunk. It is 3,620 ft. from the Weehawken Shaft.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXI.
+  Fig. 1: K 94. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. D. Section K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) from Hackensack Poral, North Cut and Cover Section, and
+  Portal looking East from Sta. 323. Dec. 8, 05.
+  Fig. 2: K 71. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Method of using Cross-Section Rod in getting Sections of
+  Tunnel. Aug. 30, 06.
+  Fig. 3: K 115. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel Conveyor used by King Rice
+  and Garney for handling and placing concrete. June 3, 07.
+  Fig. 4: K 116. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel. View of conveyor for placing
+  concrete, with bucket suspended over hopper above belt. Steel forms
+  in fore ground. June 4, 07.]
+
+
+_History._--The contract for this work was let on March 6th, 1905, to
+the John Shields Construction Company; it was abandoned by the Receiver
+for that company on January 20th, 1906, and on March 20th, of that year,
+was re-let to William Bradley, who completed the work by December 31st,
+1908.
+
+The progress of excavation and lining in the North Tunnel is shown
+graphically on the progress diagram, Fig. 9, that of the South Tunnel
+being practically the same.
+
+
+_Geology._--Starting west from the Weehawken Shaft, the tunnels pass
+through a wide fault for a distance of nearly 400 ft., this fault being
+a continuation of that which forms the valley between the detached mass
+of trap and sandstone known as King’s Bluff, which lies north of the
+tunnels, and the main trap ridge of Bergen Hill.
+
+The broken ground of the fault, which consists of decomposed sandstone,
+shale, feldspar, calcite, etc., interspersed with masses of harder
+sandstone and baked shale, gradually merges into a compact granular
+sandstone, which, at a distance of 460 ft. from the shaft, was
+self-supporting, and did not require timbering, which, of course, had
+been necessary up to this point.
+
+A full face of sandstone continued to Station 274 + 60, 940 ft. from the
+shaft, where the main overlying body of trap appeared in the heading.
+The full face of the tunnel was wholly in trap at about Station 275 +
+30, and continued in this through to the Western Portal, where the top
+of the trap was slightly below the roof of the tunnel, with hardpan
+above. The contact between the sandstone and the overlying trap was very
+clearly defined, the angle of dip being approximately 17° 40' toward the
+northwest.
+
+The sandstone and trap are of the Triassic Period, and the trap of this
+vicinity is more particularly classified as diabase.
+
+The character of the trap rock varied considerably. At the contact,
+at Station 275, and for a distance of approximately 200 ft. west,
+corresponding to a thickness of about 60 ft. measured at right angles to
+the line of the contact, a very hard, fine-grained trap, almost black in
+color, was found, having a specific gravity of 2.98, and weighing 186
+lb. per cu. ft. The hardness of this rock is attested by the fact that
+the average time required to drill a 10-ft. hole in the heading, with a
+No. 34 slugger drill, with air at 90 lb. pressure, was almost 10 hours.
+The specific gravity of this rock is not as high as that of some other
+specimens of trap tested, which were much more easily drilled. This rock
+was very blocky, causing the drills to bind and stick badly, and, when
+being shoveled back from the heading, as it fell it sounded very much as
+though it were broken glass.
+
+The remainder of the trap varied from this, through several changes of
+texture and color, due to different amounts of quartz and feldspar, to a
+very coarse-grained rock, closely resembling granite of a light color,
+though quite hard. The speed of drilling the normal trap in the heading
+was approximately 20 to 25 min. per ft., as compared with the 60 min.
+per ft. noted above, the larger amounts of quartz and feldspar
+accounting for the greater brittleness and consequently the easier
+drilling qualities of the rock. The normal trap in these tunnels has a
+specific gravity varying from 2.85 to 3.04, and weighs from 179 to 190
+lb. per cu. ft.
+
+The temperature of the tunnels, at points 1,000 ft. from the portals at
+both ends, remained nearly stationary, and approximately between 50° in
+winter and 60° in summer, up to the time the headings were holed
+through, being practically unaffected by daily changes in the
+temperature outside. At the western end, after the connection with the
+Central Shaft headings was made, there was almost always a current of
+air from the portal to the shaft, and ascending through the latter. This
+tended to make the temperature in this part of the tunnel correspond
+more nearly with the outside temperature; in fact, the variation was
+seldom more than 5° Fahr.
+
+
+_Timbering._--These tunnels have been excavated entirely by the center
+top heading method, almost invariably used in the United States.
+Timbering, where required, was of the usual segmental form with outside
+lagging, as shown in several of the photographs. In a few places it was
+necessary to hold the ground as the work progressed, and, in such cases,
+crown bars were used in the headings.
+
+There was some little trouble at the Western Portal, where the top of
+the rock was very near the roof of the tunnel, as shown by Fig. 1, Plate
+XXI. A side heading was driven at the level of the springing line until
+a point was reached where the roof was self-supporting, and the
+timbering was brought out to the face of the portal from that point.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXII.
+  Fig. 1: K 26. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. D. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels,) Weehawken Shaft. Scaffold car in South Tunnel at Sta.
+  267+60. Jan. 11, 06.
+  Fig. 2: K 31. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft. Headhouse at ? elevator frame work,
+  looking West. Oct. 17, 06.
+  Fig. 3.--Round Holes in Concrete Forms.
+  Fig. 4.--Round Holes in Concrete Forms Completed.]
+
+
+_Drilling._--Where no timbering was required, several different methods
+were used in drilling and excavating the solid rock, though in all cases
+a center top heading was driven. The four diagrams, Figs. 1, 2, 3,
+and 4, give typical examples of these methods and show, in the order of
+their numbers, the general tendency of the development from a small
+heading kept some distance ahead of the bench, to a large heading with
+the bench kept close to it. The notes on each diagram give the general
+details of the quantity of drilling and powder used, methods of
+blasting, etc., and on the progress profile, Fig. 6, is indicated those
+portions of the tunnels in which each method was used.
+
+All the drills used throughout the work by Mr. Bradley were Rand No. 34
+sluggers, with 3⅝-in. cylinders, and the steel was that known as the
+“Black Diamond Brand,” 1⅜-in., octagon. It was used in 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,
+and 12-ft. lengths; toward the end of the work it was proposed to use
+14-ft. lengths, but owing to some delay in delivery this length was
+never obtained. The starters, 18 to 24 in. long, were sharpened to 2¾ to
+3-in. gauge, which was generally held up to depths of 6 ft.; then the
+gauge gradually decreased until it was 1¾ to 2¼ in. at the bottom of a
+12-ft. hole. Frequently, as many as three or four starters were used in
+starting a hole, and generally two sharpenings were required for each
+2 ft. drilled, after the first 6 ft. It is estimated that about ¼ in. of
+steel was used for each sharpening, and that there was an average of one
+sharpening for every foot drilled.
+
+The total quantity of steel used up, lost, or scrapped on the whole work
+was almost exactly 1 ft. for each 10 cu. yd. excavated, equal to 1¼ in.
+of steel per yard, distributed approximately as follows:
+
+  Sharpening      ¾ to ⅞ in.
+  Other losses    ½ to ⅜  ”
+                 ---------------
+  Total         1¼ in. per cu. yd.
+
+An “Ajax” drill sharpener was used, and proved very satisfactory. Rubber
+and cotton hose, covered with woven marlin, was used for the bench
+(3 in. inside diameter, in 50-ft. lengths), for drills (1 in. in
+diameter, in 25-ft. lengths), and for steam shovels (2½ in. in diameter,
+in 50-ft. lengths). Hose coverings of wound marlin, and of woven marlin
+with spiral steel wire covering were tried, but were not satisfactory,
+owing to the unwinding of the marlin and the bending of the steel
+covering.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 1. {Drilling Method No. 1}
+  CROSS-SECTION, LONGITUDINAL SECTION, PLAN]
+
+  Drilling Method No. 1: Small heading, 60 to 80 ft. long. Two columns
+    used in heading, with two drills on each. Drills on sub-bench and
+    main bench mounted on tripods.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------+
+  |                    Per Round                     |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  |         |  Total  | No. of  |  Pounds  |         |
+  |         |  Depth  | Cubic   |    of    | Advance |
+  |         | Drilled | Yards   | Dynamite |         |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | Heading | 140-155 | 18-21.6 |  93-131  |   5-6   |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | Bench   | 110-120 | 53-60   |  76-97   |  3½-4   |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+
+  +---------+--------------------+-----------------------------+
+  |         |   Per Cubic Yard   |  Per linear Foot of Tunnel  |
+  |         +---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  |         | Linear  |  Pounds  | Cubic | No. of  |  Pounds   |
+  |         |  Feet   |    of    | Yards |  Feet   |   of      |
+  |         | Drilled | Dynamite |       | Drilled | Dynamite  |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  | Heading |   8-9   |    5-6   |  3.6  | 29.-32  |   18-22   |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  |  Bench  |     2   |  1.4-1.6 | 15.4  | 30.-31  | 21.5-24.6 |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  |                       Total  | 19    | 59.63   | 39.5-46.6 |
+  +------------------------------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  | Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section | 3 to 33 |  2.1-2.5  |
+  +--------------------------------------+---------+-----------+
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                                   |  Number    |
+  |           Blasting Notes:                         | of Sticks  |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  | Heading: First Round: 6 sticks, 60% in each cut   |            |
+  |            hole, cut generally blasted twice      |  36 to  72 |
+  |          Second Round: 3 side holes each side,    |            |
+  |            5 sticks, 40% ea.                      |     30     |
+  |          Third Round: Rest of side holes and dry  |            |
+  |            holes, 5 sticks, 40% each              |     40     |
+  |          Stub holes, say                          |   5 to  15 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Sticks    | 111 to 157 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Pounds    |  93 to 131 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  | Sub-bench: 4 widening holes; 2 to 3 sticks,       |            |
+  |              each, 40%                            |  10 to  12 |
+  |            6 down holes; 5 to 7 sticks, each, 40% |  30 to  42 |
+  | Bench: 6 holes; 6 to 8 sticks each, 40%           |  36 to  48 |
+  |        Taking up bottom, average, say             |     15     |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Sticks    |  91 to 117 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Pounds    |  76 to  97 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2.
+  CROSS-SECTION, LONGITUDINAL SECTION, PLAN]
+
+  Drilling Method, No. 2: Five drills in heading, mounted on three
+    columns; the holes marked with a cross (X) were drilled with the
+    drills on the center column.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------+
+  |                    Per Round                     |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  |         |  Total  | No. of  |  Pounds  |         |
+  |         |  Depth  | Cubic   |    of    | Advance |
+  |         | Drilled | Yards   | Dynamite |         |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | Heading | 190-220 | 35-42   | 134-196  | 6½-8    |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | Bench   | 110-130 |   55    |  79-106  |    4    |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+
+  +---------+--------------------+-----------------------------+
+  |         |   Per Cubic Yard   |  Per linear Foot of Tunnel  |
+  |         +---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  |         | Linear  |  Pounds  | Cubic | No. of  |  Pounds   |
+  |         |  Feet   |    of    | Yards |  Feet   |   of      |
+  |         | Drilled | Dynamite |       | Drilled | Dynamite  |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  | Heading | 5.4-6.0 |  3.9-5.0 |  5.3  |28 to 32.| 20.7-26.5 |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  | Bench   |  2.-2.4 |  1.4-2.0 | 13.7  | 27.-33. | 19.2-27.4 |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  |                       Total  |  19   | 55.-65. | 39.9-53.9 |
+  +------------------------------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  | Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section | 2.9-3.4 |  2.1-2.8  |
+  +--------------------------------------+---------+-----------+
+
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                                   |  Number    |
+  |           Blasting Notes:                         | of Sticks  |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  | Heading: First Round; 2 to 3 relieving holes      |            |
+  |            sprung with 4 to 5 sticks each         |   8 to  15 |
+  |          8 cut holes, 7 sticks each               |            |
+  |            (sometimes shot twice)                 |  56 to 112 |
+  |          First side round, 6 holes, 6 sticks      |            |
+  |            each                                   |       36   |
+  |          Widening and dry holes, 10 to 12,        |            |
+  |            6 sticks each                          |  60 to  72 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Sticks    | 160 to 235 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Pounds    | 134 to 196 |
+  |                                   ----------------+------------+
+  | Sub-bench: 8 holes, 4 to 6 sticks, each           |  32 to  48 |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | Bench: 8 holes, 6 to 8 sticks, each               |  46 to  64 |
+  |        Taking up bottom, average                  |     15     |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Sticks    |  95 to 127 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Pounds    |  79 to 109 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.
+  CROSS-SECTION, LONGITUDINAL SECTION, PLAN]
+
+  Drilling Method No. 3: Heading same as second method, but larger lift
+    taken off bench, and lift holes drilled in bottom bench in order to
+    get down to grade in floor. Bench kept closer to heading.
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                       Per Round                         |
+  +---------+------------+-----------+------------+---------+
+  |         |   Total    |  No. of   |   Pounds   |         |
+  |         |   Depth    |  Cubic    |     of     | Advance |
+  |         |  Drilled   |  Yards    |  Dynamite  |         |
+  +---------+------------+-----------+------------+---------+
+  | Heading | 190 to 220 | 35 to 42  | 134 to 196 | 6½ to 8 |
+  +---------+------------+-----------+------------+---------+
+  |         |            |           |            |         |
+  | Bench   | 145  ” 190 | 90 to 110 | 118  ” 167 | 6½  ” 8 |
+  +---------+------------+-----------+------------+---------+
+
+  +-----+-------------------------+----------------------------------+
+  |     |     Per Cubic Yard      |    Per linear Foot of Tunnel     |
+  |     +------------+------------+-------+-----------+--------------+
+  |     |  Linear    |   Pounds   | Cubic |  No. of   |   Pounds     |
+  |     |   Feet     |     of     | Yards |   Feet    |    of        |
+  |     |  Drilled   |  Dynamite  |       |  Drilled  |  Dynamite    |
+  +-----+------------+------------+-------+-----------+--------------+
+  | Hd. | 5.4 to 6.0 | 3.9 to 5.0 |  5.3  |  28 to 32 | 20.7 to 26.5 |
+  +-----+------------+------------+-------+-----------+--------------+
+  | B.  | 1.6  ” 1.9 | 1.3  ” 1.8 | 13.7  |  22  ” 36 | 17.8  ” 24.7 |
+  +-----+------------+------------+-------+-----------+--------------+
+  |                        Total  | 19    |  50  ” 58 | 38.5  ” 51.2 |
+  +-------------------------------+-------+-----------+--------------+
+  | Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section  | 2.6 ” 3.1 |  2.0  ”  2.6 |
+  +---------------------------------------+-----------+--------------+
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                                   |  Number    |
+  |           Blasting Notes:                         | of Sticks  |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  | Heading: First Round: 2 to 3 relieving holes      |            |
+  |            sprung, with 4 to 5 sticks each        |   8 to  15 |
+  |          8 cut holes, 7 sticks each               |            |
+  |            (sometimes shot twice)                 |  56 to 112 |
+  |          First side round, 6 holes, 6 sticks      |            |
+  |            each                                   |    36      |
+  |          Widening and dry holes, 10 to 12 holes,  |            |
+  |            6 sticks each                          |  60 to  72 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                   Total Sticks    | 160 to 235 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                   Total Pounds    | 134 to 196 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | Sub-bench: 4 widening holes, 4 to 5 sticks each,  |            |
+  |              2 rounds                             |  32 to  40 |
+  |            6 down holes, 5 to 7 sticks each,      |            |
+  |              2 rounds                             |  60 to  84 |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | Bench: 4 down holes, 5 to 7 sticks each           |  20 to  28 |
+  |        6 to 8 lift holes, 5 to 6 sticks each      |  30 to  48 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                   Total Sticks    | 142 to 200 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                   Total Pounds    | 118 to 167 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 4.
+  CROSS-SECTION, LONGITUDINAL SECTION, PLAN]
+
+  Drilling Method No. 4: 8 drills on 4 columns used in heading. Bench
+    taken off in one lift. Bottom taken up with lift holes.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------+
+  |                    Per Round                     |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  |         |  Total  | No. of  |  Pounds  |         |
+  |         |  Depth  | Cubic   |    of    | Advance |
+  |         | Drilled | Yards   | Dynamite |         |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | Heading | 310-320 |  63-71  | 215-257  |   8-9   |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | Bench   | 190-210 | 89-100  | 107-155  |   8-9   |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+
+  +---------+--------------------+------------------------------+
+  |         |   Per Cubic Yard   |  Per linear Foot of Tunnel   |
+  |         +---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+
+  |         | Linear  |  Pounds  | Cubic | No. of   |  Pounds   |
+  |         |  Feet   |    of    | Yards |  Feet    |   of      |
+  |         | Drilled | Dynamite |       | Drilled  | Dynamite  |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+
+  | Heading | 4.5-5.1 | 3.4-5.7  |  7.9  | 35.6-45. | 26.9-45.0 |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+
+  | Bench   | 1.9-2.2 | 1.2-1.7  | 11.1  | 21.1-24. | 13.3-18.9 |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+
+  |                       Total  | 19    | 56.7-69. | 40.2-63.9 |
+  +------------------------------+-------+----------+-----------+
+  | Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section |   3.-3.6 |  2.1-3.4  |
+  +--------------------------------------+----------+-----------+
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                                   |  Number    |
+  |           Blasting Notes:                         | of Sticks  |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | All holes of whole round are cleaned and loaded   |            |
+  |   before blasting is started                      |            |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | First Round: 5-6 lift holes, 7 to 9 sticks each   |  35 to  54 |
+  |     First row, sub-bench, 6 holes, 6 to 8         |            |
+  |         sticks each                               |  36 to  48 |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | Second Round: Second row, sub-bench and widening  |            |
+  |         holes, 8 to 10 holes, 6 to 8 sticks each  |  48 to  64 |
+  |     Stub holes                                    |  10 to  20 |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  |                            Bench: Total Sticks    | 129 to 186 |
+  |                                   Total Pounds    | 107 to 155 |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | Third Round: 8 cut holes, 7 sticks each, often    |            |
+  |         requires 3 to 4 charges                   | 112 to 224 |
+  | Fourth Round: 8 holes, First side round, 5 to 7   |            |
+  |         sticks each                               |  40 to  56 |
+  | Fifth Round: 8 holes, Second side round, 5 to 7   |            |
+  |         sticks each                               |  40 to  56 |
+  |     2 dry holes 5 to 7 sticks each                |  10 to  14 |
+  | Sixth Round: 4 to 6 widening holes and dry holes, |            |
+  |         6 sticks each                             |  36 to  48 |
+  |     Stub holes                                    |  20 to  30 |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  |                          Heading: Total Sticks    | 258 to 428 |
+  |                                   Total Pounds    | 215 to 357 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+
+
+The average quantity of powder used on the whole work was about 2.9 lb.
+per cu. yd. The tables on the diagrams, Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, show that
+the quantity actually used in making the advance at the main working
+faces was about 2.5 lb. The difference is accounted for by the larger
+percentage of powder used for trimming the sides, breaking out the
+cross-passages between the tunnels, and the excavation of the ditches,
+the latter operation not being done until the concrete lining was about
+to be put in.
+
+There was some time, too, during the earlier stages of the work, when it
+is believed that an excessive quantity of powder was used; for one or
+two months it ran up to 4 lb. per cu. yd.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 5.
+  MUCK CAR USED AT WEEHAWKEN SHAFT]
+
+The dynamite used was “Forcite.” At first, both 40% and 60% were used,
+the 60% generally only for blasting the cut in the headings; during the
+latter part of the work, however, the 60% was used exclusively.
+
+The rock as a rule broke very well, and only a comparatively small
+quantity could not be handled by the shovels without being broken up
+further by block-holing. In the sandstone the quantity of powder per
+cubic yard was much more than for any of the trap.
+
+In drilling the Central Shaft, a 6-hole cut was made approximately on
+the center line, east and west, the enlargement requiring about 18 more
+holes, which were generally about 6 ft. deep, the average advance being
+about 4 ft. per day of 24 hours.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 6.
+  PROGRESS PROFILES OF NORTH AND SOUTH TUNNELS SHOWING MONTHLY
+  EXCAVATION]
+
+The drills were run by steam until a depth of about 150 ft. had been
+reached, air from the plant at Hackensack being available after that
+time. Four drills were used most of the time, and six later when air was
+available. This work was done entirely by the John Shields Construction
+Company, and a depth of 205 ft. was sunk in 6 months (from July 15th,
+1905, to January 15th, 1906). A derrick was used for hoisting and
+lowering men and tools during the sinking, elevators being put in later.
+
+
+  [Illustration:
+  PLATE XXIII.]
+
+_Drilling Data._--During the progress of the work, both general and
+detailed observations were made of the drilling, the results of which
+are shown in the tables. Table 1 has been compiled from the records as
+platted daily on the chart from the inspectors’ reports, as shown by
+Plate XXIII, and described on page 113. Table 2 contains some data
+relating to the drilling in the headings.
+
+The general results of these observations show that the average time the
+drills were “actually working” was 5.2 hours per shift, and that they
+were actually “hitting the rock” about half of this time, or about 2.5
+hours per shift. The average depth drilled per hour, during the time the
+drills were “actually working,” was 2.66 ft.
+
+The “actual working time,” as noted above, covers the period from the
+time the drills were first set up in the heading after blasting until
+they were taken down for the next blast; it does not include the time
+occupied in setting up or taking down, which would probably average 30
+min. more per shift. It is believed that this figure will also apply
+very closely to drills working on the bench, though no actual
+observations were taken to determine this, on account of the
+irregularity with which they were worked.
+
+The actual working time of the drills in the 736 shifts (7,360 hours)
+covered by Table 1, was 3,826 hours, or 5.2 hours per shift. The average
+depth drilled per yard, as shown in the last column of Table 1, agrees
+fairly well with the figures on the diagrams, Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4.
+
+Table 2 has been compiled from detailed timed observations of individual
+drilling of down holes in the bench, for periods of 7 or 8 hours each,
+in January, 1907. The work at that time was in fairly normal condition
+at all points.
+
+The figures in the third column of Table 2 include the time required for
+moving from one hole to another, when this occurred during the
+observation, the time required for changing bits, oiling drills, etc.,
+and all delays of all kinds. A close record of the delays was kept, and
+it was considered that, of the 93 hours, 48 min., in Table 2, the
+unnecessary delays amounted to 5 hours, 7 min., or about 5½ per cent.
+
+  TABLE 1.
+
+  #S. Number of shifts covered by observations.
+  #Hrs Average number of hours worked per shift.
+  D/Hr Average depth drilled per hour per drill.
+  D/Yd Average depth drilled per yard.
+  Hack. Hackensack
+  Whk. Weehawken
+  CS Central Shaft
+
+  ----------------+-----------+----+-----------+------+------+------
+      Method.     |   Date.   | #S | Place.    | #Hrs | D/Hr | D/Yd
+  ----------------+-----------+----+-----------+------+------+------
+                 {| Aug.  ’06 | 44 | Hack., N. | 5.69 | 2.78 | 10.1
+                 {| Sept. ’06 | 38 |   ”    N. | 5.80 | 3.77 | 11.1
+  No. 1--        {| Aug.  ’06 | 43 |   ”    S. | 5.60 | 2.89 |  9.1
+      4-drill    {| Sept. ’06 | 36 |   ”    S. | 6.18 | 2.65 |  8.7
+                 {| Jan.  ’07 | 16 | CS E.  N. | 5.99 | 2.99 |  8.2
+                 {| Jan.  ’07 | 20 |   ”    S. | 6.05 | 2.9  |  7.1
+                 {| Apr.  ’07 | 48 | CS W.  N. | 4.92 | 3.3  |  6.7
+                 {| Apr.  ’07 | 48 |   ”    S. | 5.00 | 3.2  |  7.7
+                  |           |    |           |      |      |
+                 {| Dec.  ’06 | 54 | Whk.,  N. | 4.95 | 2.16 |  4.52
+  Nos. 2 and 3-- {| Dec.  ’06 | 54 |   ”    S. | 5.23 | 2.14 |  4.54
+      5-drill    {| Dec.  ’06 | 52 | Hack., N. | 5.03 | 2.2  |  5.77
+                 {| Dec.  ’06 | 54 |   ”    S. | 5.90 | 1.82 |  5.67
+                  |           |    |           |      |      |
+  No. 4--        {| June  ’07 | 56 | Whk.,  N. | 4.77 | 2.55 |  4.23
+      7-drill    {| June  ’07 | 58 |   ”    S. | 4.82 | 2.26 |  3.88
+                  |           |    |           |      |      |
+      8-drill    {| May   ’07 | 60 | Hack., N. | 4.67 | 2.44 |  5.00
+                 {| May   ’07 | 60 |   ”    S. | 4.54 | 2.57 |  4.80
+  ----------------+-----------+----+-----------+------+------+------
+
+
+  TABLE 2.
+
+  Hrs. _Hours._
+  Min. _Minutes._
+
+  ----------------+----------+---------------+----------------
+        Date.     |  Place.  |     Total     | Number of feet
+                  |          | working time. |    drilled.
+  ----------------+----------+---------------+----------------
+                  |          |  Hrs.   Min.  |
+  Jan. 14th, 1907 | Whk.  N. |   8      0    |      15
+   ”   15th, 1907 |   ”   N. |   7     32    |      12
+                  |   ”   N. |   7     22    |      14
+   ”   12th, 1907 |   ”   S. |   8      0    |      20
+                  |   ”   S. |   8      0    |      11
+                  |   ”   S. |   8      0    |      10
+   ”   11th, 1907 | Hack. N. |   8      0    |      13
+   ”   17th, 1907 |   ”   N. |   7     10    |      10
+                  |   ”   N. |   7      5    |      11
+                  |   ”   N. |   7     10    |      10
+   ”   16th, 1907 |   ”   S. |   4     20    |      10
+                  |   ”   S. |   6      9    |      10
+                  |   ”   S. |   7     ...   |       8
+  ----------------+----------+---------------+---------------
+       Totals.    |          |  93     48    |     154
+  ----------------+----------+---------------+---------------
+  Average: 36.6 min. per ft. drilled, or 1.64 ft. drilled per hour.
+
+As a check on the average figures obtained from various sources, the
+following estimate of the cost of drilling per cubic yard was made up
+from these average figures, for comparison with the actual average cost
+on the whole work. The cost records show this to be about $2.25 per yd.,
+exclusive of power for running the drills, almost exactly what the
+following estimates give for theoretical average conditions, although no
+effort was made to have this latter compare so closely.
+
+          _Estimated Cost per Drill per Day._
+
+  Drill Runner                            1 at $3.50 per day, $3.50
+  Helper                                  1  ”  2.00  ”   ”    2.00
+  Nipper                                1/5  ”  1.75  ”   ”    0.35
+  Heading foreman                      1/12  ”  5.00  ”   ”    0.42
+  Walking boss                         1/50  ”  7.50  ”   ”    0.15
+  Blacksmith                           1/12  ”  4.00  ”   ”    0.34
+  Blacksmith helper                    1/12  ”  2.00  ”   ”    0.16
+  Machinist                            1/12  ”  3.00  ”   ”    0.25
+  Machinist helper                     1/24  ”  1.75  ”   ”    0.07
+  Pipe fitter and helper               1/50  ”  5.00  ”   ”    0.10
+  Oil, waste, blacksmith coal, etc.                            0.24
+  Drill steel, 6 in. per shift                                 0.20
+                                                              -----
+                                                              $7.78
+
+  Average number of feet drilled per cubic yard            3 to 3.5
+  Number of feet drilled per drill, per shift            10.5 to 12
+  Number of yards per drill, per shift                         3.5±
+  Cost of drilling, per yard, $7.78/3.5                      $2.22±
+
+In all the foregoing tables and computations, the quantities used have
+been those paid for. The quantity taken out, however, has been 10% more
+than that paid for, and 28% more than the contractor was actually
+required to take out.
+
+The specifications required that the excavation should be taken entirely
+outside of the neat line, as shown on Plate VIII of the paper by Mr.
+Jacobs, but not necessarily beyond this line, but that the contractor
+would be paid for rock out to the standard section line, which is 1 ft.
+larger on the sides and top and 6 in. deeper in the bottom than the neat
+line.
+
+A great deal of the extra quantity was due to rock falling from the
+core-wall side whenever one working face was behind the other. Blasting
+at the face behind generally loosened more or less rock on the core-wall
+side of the tunnel which was ahead, in one or two instances breaking
+entirely through, as shown in Fig. 2, Plate XXVI, the hole in the
+core-wall in this case being utilized by building a storage chamber in
+it.
+
+Table 3 gives some of the statistics of drilling in the Simplon Tunnel,
+as compared with the drilling on this work, the figures for the Simplon
+being taken from papers read before the Institution of Civil Engineers
+of Great Britain.
+
+  TABLE 3.
+  -------------------------------------------+--------------+----------
+                                             |              |
+                                             | Bergen Hill. | Simplon.
+  -------------------------------------------+--------------+----------
+  Drills set up in heading, percentage of    |              |
+    total elapsed time                       |      50%     |   60%
+  Actually drilling the rock, percentage of  |              |
+    total elapsed time                       |      25%     |   50%
+  Average advance per round (attack)         |    8.5 ft.   | 3.8 ft.
+  Average time for each attack               |   36 hours.  | 5 hours.
+  Average advance per day of 24 hours        |     5 ft.    | 18 ft. †
+  Depth of holes                             |    10 ft.    | 4.6 ft.
+  Diameter of holes                          |    2¾ in.    | 2¾ in.
+  Linear feet drilled per hour, per drill    |     2.7      |   7.0
+  Linear feet drilled per cubic yard         |     5.0      |   6.0
+  Pounds of dynamite per cubic yard          |  3.4 to 5.7  |  8½
+  Average depth drilled with one sharpening  |    12 in.    | 6½ in.
+  Total number of men per day of 24 hours*   |     450      |  3,300
+  -------------------------------------------+--------------+----------
+
+    [* On Bergen Hill Tunnels, for two full working faces at the
+    Hackensack end, about 3,000 ft. in from portal (March, 1908). At
+    Simplon, two full faces and two headings, at a distance of about
+    5,000 ft. in from the portal (January, 1900). These both include
+    lining as well as excavation. The lining of the Bergen Hill Tunnels
+    progressed about twice as fast as the excavation; it is inferred
+    that on the Simplon it progressed at about the same rate as the
+    excavation.]
+
+    [† At the Italian end, in Antigoric gneiss, which is stated to be
+    very hard rock.]
+
+The figures in Table 3 are for “heading only” in both cases, except for
+the last item (number of men), the heading in the Simplon Tunnels being
+about 60 sq. ft., as compared with the heading of Method No 4 (which has
+been used for comparison), of 210 sq. ft.
+
+
+_Mucking and Disposal._--The conditions affecting the disposal of the
+muck, after blasting, were quite different at the two ends, the grade
+descending in the direction of the loads at Weehawken and ascending at
+the Hackensack end. At the Weehawken end the mouth of the tunnels was at
+the bottom of a shaft some 80 ft. deep, Fig. 2, Plate XXII, the muck in
+the tunnel cars being hoisted by elevators to a platform at the top from
+which it was dumped into standard-gauge cars supplied by the Erie
+Railroad, as shown by Fig. 7; or later hauled to the crusher or storage
+pile, some 500 ft. distant, on the north side of Baldwin Avenue. At the
+western end, the cars were hauled directly to the surface through the
+approach cut, and the material, except that required for concrete and
+rock packing, was deposited in the embankment across the Hackensack
+Meadows, a haul of from 1,000 to 3,000 ft. beyond the portal.
+
+All disposal tracks were of 3-ft. gauge, the main running tracks being
+generally laid with 60-lb. second-hand rails, although some of lighter
+weight were used.
+
+Except for about 1,000 ft. in each tunnel at the Weehawken end, where
+the muck was loaded by hand, four steam shovels, operated by compressed
+air, were used, one at each working face. One of these was a “Marion,
+Model No. 20,” weighing 38 tons, the others were “Vulcan Little Giant,”
+of about 30 tons each. All these shovels were on standard-gauge track,
+and were moved back from 300 to 500 ft. from the working face during
+blasting.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 7.
+  METHOD OF EMPTYING DUMP CARS AT WEEHAWKEN SHAFT:
+  FRONT VIEW, SIDE VIEW]
+
+At Weehawken, previous to the time the shovels were installed, the muck
+was shoveled by hand into the cars from the bottom of the bench, and the
+heading muck was dumped into them from the movable platform (Jumbo)
+shown by Fig. 1, Plate XXII. There were three loading tracks at the
+face. The cars used at that time were similar to that shown by Fig. 5,
+but were about two-thirds the size and had no end door; stop-planks were
+supposed to be placed in the ends but seldom were. The loads averaged
+about ½ cu. yd. (measured in place). After the shovel was installed the
+cars shown by Fig. 5 were used, and the loads averaged nearly 1 cu. yd.
+
+The empty cars were pushed up to the shovel by hand from the storage
+track. When loaded, they were given a start with the bucket of the
+shovel, and were then allowed to coast by gravity out to the storage
+track near the shaft, where they were stopped by placing rolls of cement
+bags or burlap on the rails. After the lining was started, the loaded
+cars were stopped on the inside of the lining and only sent out over the
+single track through this latter at stated intervals, when several cars
+followed in close succession, with a long interval which permitted the
+concrete to be brought in. The empty cars were hauled back to the
+storage track near the working face by mules, one mule usually hauling
+two cars at a time.
+
+Up to the time the trap rock was reached, about 1,100 ft. from the
+shaft, the excavated material was disposed of by loading it on flat
+cars. All the trap, however, was stored to be used later for concrete
+and ballast.
+
+When the tunnels were in full working order, sixty muck cars of the type
+shown by Fig. 5, were in use, about evenly divided between the two
+tunnels. For some time the work was greatly hampered by lack of cars,
+and even with the sixty finally obtained, there were many times when
+extra cars could have been used to advantage to keep the shovel working.
+
+When mucking by hand, the mucking gangs consisted of from 15 to 20 men.
+The maximum output was 50 cu. yd., and averaged about 35 cu. yd. per
+shift; there was a great deal of trouble in keeping the gangs full, as
+labor at that time was very scarce, and the tunnels were quite wet. The
+maximum output of either of the shovels was 159 cu. yd. in one shift,
+and the best average in any month--which was between July and December,
+1907, during which time only the enlargement and bench of the Central
+Shaft headings was being taken out from the western end--was 60 cu. yd.
+per shift. As the shovels were generally idle for one shift out of
+three, the quantity actually handled averaged 90 cu. yd. per shift
+during the shifts the shovel worked. All these quantities were “measured
+in place,” and, as previously noted, would be about equal to twice as
+much measured loose in the cars.
+
+The shovels at both ends were usually worked with three crews for the
+two tunnels; two day crews, one at each shovel, and a night crew which
+was used in either tunnel as occasion required. The day crews generally
+averaged from 45 to 60 hours overtime during the month, one of them
+working during the early part of the evenings in the opposite tunnel to
+the night crew. For a short time, when the ventilation at the western
+end was very bad, four crews were worked, day and night crews in each
+tunnel; but, as a general rule, the method of working three crews was
+preferred by the men, and was less expensive for the contractor.
+
+At the Hackensack end, 4-yd., Allison, one-way, dump cars were used,
+being handled by “dinky” locomotives, of which there were three in use
+up to October, 1907, and four after that. One 15-ton Porter engine, with
+10 by 16-in. cylinders, was used outside the tunnels for handling the
+trains (from 6 to 8 cars) on the dumps and to the crusher; the other
+three, 12-ton Vulcans, 9 by 14-in., were used in the tunnels. About 30
+dump cars were in use, and of these there were generally from 3 to 6
+under repair.
+
+Generally, 4 cars were hauled out together, although 5 and occasionally
+6 were handled. The work was generally arranged so that the heavy
+mucking shift alternated in the two tunnels, the two engines being
+worked there and a single engine in the other tunnel.
+
+The tunnel engines left the cars on a track just outside the portal,
+from which they were made up into trains of from 6 to 8 cars and taken
+to the dump or crusher by the large “dinky.”
+
+The muck from the Central Shaft headings was loaded by hand into cars
+similar to that shown by Fig. 5, but smaller and having no door at the
+forward end. A double elevator took the cars to a platform about 20 ft.
+above the surface, where they were dumped by revolving platforms,
+similar to those at Weehawken, into storage bins or directly into
+wagons. The muck was all hauled away in wagons; part of it was used to
+fill some vacant lots, and part was hauled to the crusher at the Western
+Portal.
+
+The method under which the best results were obtained was that in which
+a full round was blasted every 36 hours, securing an advance of
+practically 9 ft. of full section. During the first shift of the three,
+as soon as the blasting had been completed and lights strung, the shovel
+was moved forward, and cleaned up the floor to the main pile of muck,
+the material from the blast being scattered from 150 to 300 ft. back
+from the face; during this shift, also, the drillers mucked the heading
+and set up their drills, the muckers helping to carry in the columns and
+drills. During the second shift the main pile of muck was disposed of,
+leaving not more than 2 or 3 hours’ work for the shovel on the third
+shift. This left nearly the whole of the third shift for drilling the
+lift holes.
+
+
+_Ventilation._--At Weehawken considerable difficulty was caused by fog
+and smoke accumulating in the tunnels after blasting. This was generally
+worse on days when the barometric pressure was low outside, and worse in
+the North than in the South Tunnel. A 6-ft. fan, driven by an electric
+motor, was installed in the cross-passage at Station 274, 900 ft. from
+the shaft, the headings at that time being about 300 ft. in advance of
+this point, to force the air from the South into the North Tunnel,
+drawing it in at the mouth of the South Tunnel and discharging it at the
+mouth of the North Tunnel, thus insuring a circulation in both tunnels,
+as shown in plan by Fig. 8.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+This necessitated, of course, that the cross-passages between that in
+which the fan was placed and the mouths of the tunnels should be blocked
+tight. There was some difficulty in keeping this blocking tight, owing
+to the force of the blasting blowing out the bulkheads. The fan,
+however, did good service when it and the bulkheads were in good order.
+The compressed air discharged from the drills kept the headings fairly
+clear, as well as that part of the tunnel between the headings and the
+fan. The fan was moved ahead to the next cross-passage at Station 277
+when the work had progressed far enough, and was used there for some
+time; it was found, however, that by the time the excavation had reached
+Station 280, about 1,500 ft. from the shaft, there was practically no
+further difficulty from fog and smoke. No satisfactory explanation was
+found for this, as it would rather be expected that the ventilation and
+trouble with smoke and fumes from blasting would be worse as the
+distance increased between the mouth of the tunnel and the working face.
+One explanation was offered: That the blasting of the softer sandstone
+tended to create more and lighter dust than the heavier trap rock;
+whether or not this was so, it is a fact that there was far less trouble
+with fog and smoke after the sandstone was passed.
+
+At Hackensack, the principal cause of trouble was the smoke from the
+“dinky” locomotives. As the tunnels progressed, this gradually became
+worse, until a connection was made with the Central Shaft headings.
+A fan was installed in the cross-passage at Station 316 (700 ft. in from
+the portal), but was never worked properly. Apparently, the men, at
+least the walking bosses and foremen, had little faith in the fan as a
+means of ventilation; no real attempt was made to keep it in order or
+operate it properly, and a great deal of time and money was lost groping
+around in the smoke and fog, the density of which increased, not only
+with the state of the atmosphere, but also with the direction of the
+wind. On some days the tunnels easily cleared themselves, and on others
+the smoke was so thick that a candle held at arm’s length could not be
+seen. At this end, the South Tunnel was generally worse than the North.
+After the headings were holed through between the portal and the Central
+Shaft there was very little trouble, there being usually a strong
+up-draft through the shaft. This was so pronounced when the wind was
+blowing toward the portal, that the moisture-laden air, as it ascended
+from the mouth of the shaft, presented the appearance of a heavy
+rainstorm with the rain ascending instead of descending. When the wind
+was blowing away from the portal, that is, from the southeast, the
+effect of the shaft as a chimney was neutralized, and, consequently, the
+smoke accumulated in the tunnels. To overcome this, a large blower, with
+a fan 9 ft. in diameter, and with blades 4 ft. wide and 2 ft. 3 in.
+long, operated by a vertical 12-h.p. engine, was installed at the top of
+the shaft, and this kept the tunnels reasonably clear of smoke at all
+times. After the bench and enlargement had passed the bottom of the
+shaft, the use of the fan was abandoned, as it was found that the
+tunnels cleared themselves fairly well, probably owing to the larger
+cross-section reaching all the way to the Shaft. What little fog and
+smoke there might be did not cause enough trouble to warrant the cost of
+running the fan, which, owing to its location, required the whole time
+of a mechanic in attendance day and night.
+
+
+_Lighting._--During the earlier stages of the work, gasoline lamps and
+Kitson lights were used. The former, of the familiar banjo type, and a
+modification of this, with a section of wrought-iron pipe for the
+reservoir, were very unsatisfactory, and were out of repair and leaking
+a large proportion of the time. The Kitson lights were given only a
+short trial, but were found unsatisfactory, owing to the necessity of
+moving them frequently and having to set them up in insecure positions.
+Electric lights were installed by Mr. Bradley, on his assumption of the
+contract.
+
+The number of lamps maintained in each of the tunnels for the excavation
+was approximately as follows:
+
+  At the main working face                 From  8 to 10
+  On and around the shovel                   ”   9 to 12
+  Between the portal and the working face    ”  60 to 80
+
+The cost of lighting for the whole work averaged about 15 cents per
+cu. yd., which is quite large. This was mainly due to the fact that
+current was bought from outside sources during a large part of the time
+(one-third of the yardage). Part of this current cost 5 cents per
+kw-hr., and there were fairly heavy charges for connecting the tunnel
+wiring system with the source of supply. Current bought from the Public
+Service Corporation cost from 10 to 12 cents per kw-hr. delivered at the
+mouth of the tunnel.
+
+
+_Pumping._--The quantity of water encountered during the excavation of
+the tunnels, measured somewhat roughly, was approximately as follows:
+
+  At Weehawken        74 gal. per min.
+  At Central Shaft     1  ”    ”   ”
+  At Hackensack       18  ”    ”   ”
+
+The water at the Weehawken end had to be pumped from the bottom of the
+shaft, a lift of about 90 ft., while at the Hackensack end it had to be
+pumped back from the face up grade to the portal.
+
+The cost of pumping was about $100 to $125 per month for labor for the
+whole work, besides the cost of the plant (about $1,200) and the power
+for running it.
+
+
+PROGRESS.
+
+The total time elapsed from the time of starting work at the Weehawken
+end, in May, 1905, to the completion of the excavation, in May, 1908,
+was almost exactly three years. Of this time about 40 days were lost in
+February and March, 1906, when work was stopped by the Receiver of the
+Shields Company, the total number of days actually worked being about
+940, giving an average progress of 6.26 ft. per working day in each of
+the two tunnels, which, omitting the Central Shaft headings, gives an
+average rate of progress for each working face, of 3.13 ft. per day.
+
+These 940 days include practically all the time elapsed, except Sundays
+and such few holidays as were observed. For some of this time, work was
+being carried on at only one or two points; the time, therefore,
+represents practically the total possible working time during the period
+covered.
+
+
+_Progress at Weehawken._--At Weehawken the total number of days worked
+was 763, divided as follows:
+
+186 days in timbered section, about 426 ft., an average rate of 2.3 ft.
+    per day in each tunnel;
+
+176 days in hard sandstone, about 563 ft., an average rate of 3.2 ft.
+    per day in each tunnel;
+
+112 days in hard trap, about 267 ft., an average rate of 2.4 ft. per
+    day in each tunnel;
+
+289 days in ordinary trap, about 1,316 ft., an average rate of 4.55 ft.
+    per day in each tunnel.
+
+
+_Progress at Central Shaft._--At Central Shaft the average length driven
+per day in each of the four headings is shown by Table 4.
+
+TABLE 4.
+
+  -----------+----------------+-----------------+---------------------+
+   Location. | Number of days | Total length of |  Average length of  |
+             |     worked.    |   heading, in   |  heading driven per |
+             |                |     feet.       | day worked, in feet.|
+  -----------+----------------+-----------------+---------------------+
+             |                |                 |                     |
+     N.E.    |      227       |      446        |         1.96        |
+     S.E.    |      168       |      346        |         2.06        |
+     N.W.    |      272       |      768        |         2.82        |
+     S.W.    |      234       |      698        |         2.98        |
+  -----------+----------------+-----------------+---------------------+
+
+
+_Progress at Hackensack._--At Hackensack the total number of days worked
+on the tunnels proper, all in trap rock (omitting the cut and cover) was
+about 792, divided as shown in Table 5.
+
+  TABLE 5.
+
+  ------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
+                                |Number of |          | Average  |
+                Location.       |  days    | Advance. | advance  |
+                                | worked.  |          | per day. |
+  ------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
+  Station 323 to Central Shaft  |          |          |          |
+    headings                    |   492    |   1,450  |   4.5    |
+  Bench and enlargement of      |   159    | { 1,150* |   7.2*   |
+    Central Shaft headings      |          | {   906† |   5.7†   |
+  Central Shaft headings to     |          |          |          |
+    Weehawken headings          |   141    |     620  |   4.4    |
+  ------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+    [* Actual advance.]
+
+    [† Equivalent linear feet of full section tunnel.]
+
+The best month’s work in each location was as follows, the actual
+yardage excavated and paid for being reduced to equivalent linear feet
+of full section. The tunnels were generally taken out to full section,
+except for a small amount left in the bottom, which latter reduced the
+equivalent linear feet of full section to about 95% of the actual
+advance at the face.
+
+  _Weehawken._--
+                                                            Feet
+                                                    Linear  per
+                                                     feet.  day.
+  Full timbered section, North Tunnel   Nov., 1905,    87 = 3.0
+  Sandstone                ”     ”      May,  1906,   109 = 3.9
+  Trap (normal)          South   ”      July, 1907,   144 = 5.3
+
+
+  _Hackensack (All trap)._--
+                                                          Feet
+                                                  Linear  per
+                                                   feet.  day.
+
+  Portal to Central Shaft headings,
+    South Tunnel                        May,  1907, 139 = 5.0
+  * Enlargement of headings,
+       ”     ”                          Nov., 1907, 175 = 6.0
+  Central Shaft headings to Weehawken
+    headings, North Tunnel              Apr., 1908, 145 = 5.2
+
+    [* The actual advance of the bench this month was 202 lin. ft.]
+
+
+_Central Shaft Headings._--During April, 1907, 122 lin. ft. of heading,
+averaging 3.8 cu. yd. per lin. ft., were taken out in the South Tunnel,
+west of the shaft. This was equal to 5.0 ft. per day for the 24 days
+worked.
+
+
+_The Best Week’s Work._--The best week’s work at either of the main
+working faces, when the full section was being excavated in trap rock,
+was 803 cu. yd., equal to 41.8 lin. ft. of full-section tunnel, or an
+average of 6.0 lin. ft. of full section per day; this was from the South
+Tunnel at Hackensack for the week ending January 11th, 1908.
+
+
+_The Best Yardage._--The largest number of yards taken out in any one
+week from one working face was 1,087, equivalent to 56.6 lin. ft. of
+full section, or an average of 8.1 lin. ft. of full section per day.
+This was bench and enlargement only (Central Shaft headings) in the
+North Tunnel, Hackensack, for the week ending October 19th, 1907.
+
+The largest yardage for the whole work in any one week was 3,238 cu. yd.
+from four working faces--two at Weehawken in full section and two at the
+Hackensack bench and enlargement (Central Shaft headings). This was
+equivalent to 168.4 lin. ft. of full-section tunnel, or an average of
+6 ft. per day from each working face.
+
+
+_The Best Month’s Work._--The best month’s work with each of the four
+methods of drilling the headings, as shown in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4,
+where the work was straight forward and the full section was being taken
+out, was as follows:
+
+  Method No. 1      About  90 ft. in sandstone.
+    ”    No. 2        ”   100  ”  in trap.
+    ”    No. 3        ”   137  ”  in trap.
+    ”    No. 4        ”   145  ”  in trap.
+
+In regard to these figures it should be noted, as stated previously,
+that the organization of the men and plant was not properly completed
+until near the time Method No. 4 was put in operation.
+
+In Fig. 9 is shown graphically the relation of the progress to the time
+elapsed in the North Tunnel, the diagram for the South Tunnel being
+almost exactly the same.
+
+
+PLANT.
+
+The plant installed by the John Shields Construction Company, and taken
+over by Mr. Bradley, was composed very largely of second-hand material,
+and eventually most of it had to be replaced. Insufficient and
+inefficient plant and delay in installation were largely responsible for
+the small progress made by the Shields Company, and Mr. Bradley’s
+endeavor to utilize this plant not only caused much delay during the
+first 8 or 10 months after he started work, but also involved large
+expense.
+
+
+_Power Plant._--At Weehawken the plant installed by the Shields Company
+consisted of three old locomotive boilers, each having a nominal
+capacity of about 125 h.p., and one Rand and one Ingersoll-Sergeant
+compressor, each of a rated capacity of about 1,250 cu. ft. of free air
+per min. compressed to 100 lb.
+
+To this Mr. Bradley added two more second-hand locomotive boilers, and
+another Rand compressor of the same type and capacity as the first. The
+theoretical steam capacity of each of the five old locomotive boilers
+was about 4,250 lb. per hour, or a total capacity of 21,250 lb. per
+hour.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 9.
+  PROGRESS PROFILE--NORTH TUNNEL]
+
+Theoretically, the demand on this steam was:
+
+                                                     Pounds per hour.
+
+  Three compressors, about 5,600 lb. per hour each            16,800
+  One dynamo                                            About  1,000
+  One 500-gal. pump                                       ”    1,000
+  One hoisting engine for elevators                       ”    2,000
+                                                              ______
+        Total                                                 20,800
+
+Actually, there was considerable deficiency of steam when an endeavor
+was made to work the three compressors at their full capacity.
+A separate boiler was afterward installed to run the hoisting engine
+for the elevators and the pumps, thus leaving a requirement of only
+approximately 18,000 lb. of steam per hour, but even this was beyond the
+capacity of the boilers, especially as one was almost always out of
+commission.
+
+The two Rand compressors were 24 by 24 by 30-in., straight-line,
+one-stage, steam-driven, with a nominal capacity of 1,250 cu. ft. of
+free air per min. at 80 rev. per min. The Ingersoll-Sergeant was of
+similar type and capacity. Therefore, the theoretical quantity available
+was 3,750 cu. ft. of free air per min.
+
+The theoretical air requirements (as taken from manufacturers’
+catalogues) were:
+
+                                            Cubic feet of free
+                                              air per minute.
+
+  20 Rand slugger drills (12 by 174)             2,088
+   2 Little Giant shovels
+       (taking air two-thirds of the time)       1,100
+                                                 -----
+  Total                                          3,188
+
+This estimate, based on the assumption (given in the catalogues) that
+the drills would be working about three-fifths of the time, and the
+shovels about two-thirds of the time, left apparently an ample margin
+between the full capacity of the compressors and the requirements for
+the drills; as a matter of fact, however, it was seldom that more than
+80 lb. of air was available, and the pressure often dropped to 60 or 50
+lb. at the compressors. During the time this plant was in use the
+greatest distance to the drills was about 1,500 ft.
+
+As this plant proved to be entirely inadequate to the demands, an
+arrangement was made with the O’Rourke Construction Company on August
+17th, 1906, whereby they agreed to supplement the air supply by 1,000
+cu. ft. of free air per min. at 100 lb. pressure. This arrangement was
+not altogether satisfactory, and finally (on December 5th, 1906) an
+arrangement was made with the same company to supply air up to 4,000 cu.
+ft. of free air per min. at 100 lb., and the old plant was shut down.
+
+The new plant had been in use previously in the construction of the
+River Tunnels. The air from it was compressed to 40 lb. by low-pressure
+machines, one being used all the time and two when necessary. These
+machines were built by the Ingersoll-Sergeant Company, the engines being
+of the Corliss duplex type, cross-compound steam, with simple duplex air
+cylinders, each compressor having a capacity of nearly 4,000 cu. ft.
+of free air per min. This air, at 40 lb., was delivered to an
+Ingersoll-Sergeant high-pressure machine, having Corliss cross-compound
+engines, 14 by 26 by 36-in., with air cylinders of the piston inlet
+type, 13¼ by 36-in., which compressed it to 100 lb. The capacity of this
+latter machine, taking air at normal pressure, is 920 cu. ft. of free
+air per min. working at 85 rev. per min.; by taking the air at 40 lb.,
+and working at a somewhat higher speed, this machine alone supplied all
+the air used at the Weehawken end (approximately 4,000 ft.) from
+December, 1906, to November, 1907, and, with very few exceptions, the
+pressure was steadily maintained at from 90 to 100 lb., there being no
+break-down of any kind.
+
+At Hackensack the plant taken over by Mr. Bradley consisted of six old
+locomotive boilers and four Rand compressors, all of the same type as
+those at Weehawken. To this he added two second-hand marine boilers,
+each of a stated capacity of about 350 h.p., and two more Rand
+compressors of the same type and capacity as the others, making the
+total theoretical steam power available approximately 1,450 h.p., with a
+compressor capacity of approximately 7,500 cu. ft. of free air per min.,
+equal to about 1,500 h.p., allowing for 15% of loss.
+
+Nowhere near the theoretical steam power was ever developed from the
+boilers. The tubes of the old locomotive boilers were filled with mud in
+many cases, and were always leaking. The marine boilers were not
+properly installed to give the best results, and it was seldom possible
+to work more than four compressors at once, or to keep the air pressure
+at the power-house much greater than from 70 to 80 lb. at any time.
+
+This plant had been built by the Shields Company on the meadows
+alongside the Erie and New York, Susquehanna and Western Railroads, and
+the foundations were not made sufficiently strong to resist the effect
+of the vibration caused by the passing trains. It was impossible to keep
+the steam connections tight, and there was not only the loss of steam
+due to leaky joints, but positive danger of one of the main steam lines
+breaking entirely. After attempting to operate this plant for nearly 5
+months, Mr. Bradley determined to abandon the site and the boilers, and
+build a new plant, farther back from the railroad, on solid ground, in
+such a position that a spur track could be built to a coal trestle in
+front of the boilers.
+
+Two pairs of Stirling boilers, with a total capacity of 2,000 h.p., were
+installed. As a rule, at times of maximum demand, three of the boilers
+were in use; after the Central Shaft was stopped, two were generally
+sufficient, until, toward the latter part of the excavation, the losses
+in the transmission of the air made it necessary to keep three going.
+
+Eight compressors (the six old ones with two brought from Weehawken),
+were installed in the new power-house. All were of the same type,
+namely, Rand, straight-line, steam-driven, 24 by 24 by 30-in., each with
+a nominal capacity of 1,250 cu. ft. of free air per min. Seven of these
+were generally worked to their full capacity in order to keep up the
+necessary supply of air.
+
+The maximum requirements of air at this end were primarily estimated as
+follows:
+
+  Central Shaft, four headings              24 drills.
+  Hackensack, two working faces             20 drills.
+                                            ----------
+        Total                               44 drills.
+
+                                            Cubic feet of free
+                                            air per minute.
+
+  44 Slugger drills (25 by 174) require       4,350
+   2 Steam shovels                            1,600
+     Pumps and machine-shop, say              1,000
+   4 Hoisting engines, placing concrete       2,000
+   4 Derricks                                 2,000
+                                             ------
+           Total                             10,950
+
+The theoretical capacity of the whole eight compressors was:
+
+  1250 × 8 = 10,000 cu. ft. of free air per min.
+
+It was considered that not more than two-thirds of the above equipment
+would be working at the same time; the actual requirement, therefore,
+was taken at about 8,000 cu. ft. of free air per min., thus leaving a
+margin of one spare compressor.
+
+As actually worked out, there were probably never more than eight drills
+working at any one time at the Central Shaft, and this work was entirely
+suspended in June, 1907, before there was any demand for power in
+connection with the tunnel lining. The heaviest actual requirement,
+therefore, was approximately as follows:
+
+  (_A_) _Previous to June 25th, 1907:_
+
+                                   Cubic feet of free
+                                   air per minute.
+
+  40 Drills (22 by 174)              3,828
+   2 Shovels                         1,600
+     Pumps and machine-shop, say     1,000
+   2 Derricks                        1,000
+                                     -----
+          Total                      7,428
+
+  (_B_) _After November, 1907_ (_after completion of enlargement of
+  Central Shaft headings_):
+                                     Cubic feet of free
+                                     air per minute.
+
+  32 Drills (17 by 174)                2,958
+   2 Shovels                           1,600
+     Pumps, etc                        1,000
+   3 Hoisting engines on concrete,
+       each working one-third time       500
+   2 Derricks                          1,000
+                                       -----
+          Total                        7,058
+
+The average number of drillers per shift was about 25 at the two main
+working faces. There were also from 5 to 10 drills trimming and cleaning
+up for concrete, say an average of 7, making 32 in all.
+
+After November 1st, it actually required three boilers under steam all
+the time, and not less than seven compressors running at full capacity,
+to keep the air at proper pressure, the theoretical capacity of the
+compressors being 8,750 cu. ft. of free air per min., as against 7,000
+to 7,400 cu. ft., the theoretical maximum requirement.
+
+Some of this deficiency was due to losses in transmission, part also was
+due to the fact that the actual was probably considerably below the
+theoretical capacity of the compressors.
+
+
+ACCIDENTS.
+
+Two accidents occurred to the powder magazines, the causes of which were
+never absolutely determined. The first occurred on January 10th, 1907,
+when the dynamite burned up without exploding. The second accident was
+on March 3d, 1907, when an explosion occurred which damaged property
+over a very large area, but did not involve any serious injury to
+persons, only one man being slightly hurt.
+
+The only serious blasting accident in the tunnels occurred on January
+26th, 1908, and was due to a premature blast, the cause for which could
+not be ascertained.
+
+
+_Contractor’s Organization._--The work was in general charge of a
+superintendent, and, during the time it was being carried on at both
+ends, an assistant superintendent had charge at night. At each end there
+was a day and a night walking boss, who had general supervision of the
+men in the tunnels, the day walking boss being the superior, and
+responsible for the general conduct of the work at his end, both day and
+night. Two 10-hour shifts were worked, thirteen shifts every two weeks,
+no work being done on alternate Sundays and Sunday nights. With the
+exception of the walking bosses and the master mechanic, all the men
+changed from the day to the night shift every two weeks.
+
+The organization was approximately as follows, for each shift:
+
+  _General_--_Both Tunnels._
+
+  1 Master mechanic (days only),
+  1 Machinist,
+  1 Engine runner,
+  2 Firemen,
+  2 Oilers,
+  1 Electrician and helper,
+  1 Drill machinist and helper,
+  3 Blacksmiths and helpers,
+  1 Powderman,
+  1 Walking boss,
+  4 Locomotive engine runners,
+  4 Brakemen,
+  1 Switchman,
+  1 Foreman on dump,
+  6 Men on dump,
+  1 Foreman on track,
+  6 Men on track.
+
+  _In Each Tunnel._
+
+  _Drilling and Blasting._
+   1 Foreman,
+  12 Drillers,
+  12 Helpers,
+   1 Nipper,
+   1 Pipe-fitter.
+  _Mucking._
+   1 Shovel engineer,
+   1 Cranesman,
+   1 Muck boss,
+  12 Muckers.
+
+
+RECORDS.
+
+The records of the work have been based largely on the reports of the
+day and night inspectors, which were made out on regular forms.
+
+A daily report card was made out each morning and forwarded to the
+office of the chief engineer. It covered the work done for the previous
+24 hours, up to 6 o’clock each morning.
+
+A telephone report was made to the resident engineer by the inspectors
+each day at 8.30 A.M., giving the conditions, number of men, etc., at
+the opening of the day’s work.
+
+A daily progress profile, on 10 by 10 to the inch cross-section paper,
+covering the whole length of the tunnels, was kept in the office of the
+resident engineer. This was mounted in sections, on a piece of
+composition board, and hung on the wall for convenient reference. The
+information, showing the progress up to 6 o’clock each morning, was
+shown on the report of the night inspector, and was plotted on this
+profile at 7 o’clock each morning. The plotting was left in pencil, and
+each month’s work was colored in. A progress profile was taken by the
+men of the alignment corps each Saturday morning and plotted by them,
+alternate weeks being in red and blue ink on the same profile.
+
+A chart showing the number of drills working, time worked, blasting
+periods, etc. (Plate XXIII), was plotted each morning and was extremely
+useful, not only in keeping in touch with the work, but in compiling
+many of the statistics used in the preparation of this paper. These
+cross-section sheets were ruled 12 by 12 to the inch, thus giving one
+space per hour horizontally. In the top vertical space are shown the
+heading drills, their time of stopping and starting, and their number,
+each heavy line representing one drill. In the next space below are
+shown the drills on the bench, lift holes, etc.
+
+The blasting time is shown by the portion hatched (shown in red on the
+original), which covers the whole vertical space when a complete round
+of both heading and bench is blasted, and only part, top or bottom, as
+the case might be, if only one or the other. The number of drillers and
+muckers at the main working face is shown, and below that (in red ink on
+the original) the number of cubic yards handled each shift. The time the
+shovel is working is shown by the heavy line filling a whole space; and
+the air pressure, platted from the recording gauge charts, is shown in
+the space below.
+
+A combination daily and weekly report, showing the total number of men
+working on each section, and the number of cubic yards excavated, was
+entered every day and kept on a filing board in the office of the
+resident engineer, and a copy was sent to the main office at the end of
+the week, with such notes on the back as might be necessary, or of
+interest.
+
+A report was made out weekly and sent to the contractor’s
+superintendent, showing any deviations from grade, any tight places, and
+the station of bench and headings.
+
+A monthly report was made to the chief engineer, giving detailed
+statistics of the amount of work done, etc., plant installed, and short
+notes of any matter of interest affecting the work in any way.
+
+
+TUNNEL LINING.
+
+_Preliminary Considerations._--For the placing of the concrete lining, a
+sub-contract was given to Messrs. King, Rice and Ganey, by Mr. Bradley,
+which provided substantially that all materials should be supplied by
+him, and delivered to the sub-contractors at track level, at or near the
+point in the tunnel at which they were to be placed, and that he would
+supply light and power; the sub-contractors were to supply the plant,
+forms, and labor necessary for placing the concrete and water-proofing,
+building the conduit lines, manholes, etc., etc., to complete the
+lining, the general form of which is shown on Plate VIII of the paper by
+Mr. Jacobs, and in Fig. 10. The latter also shows the different sections
+into which the lining was divided for purposes of construction, and the
+nomenclature adopted for each. It may be noted, incidentally, that the
+cubic contents of the lining per linear foot of tunnel is almost exactly
+half the quantity excavated, out to the standard section lines, and as
+there was some excavation outside of these lines, all of which had to be
+replaced, the actual quantity of material which had to be brought back
+into the tunnel was quite a little more than half the quantity taken
+out. It will be evident, therefore, that the question of transportation
+was an important one.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 10.
+  SKETCH SHOWING DIVISION OF LINING FOR PURPOSES OF CONSTRUCTION,
+  AND NAMES OF SECTIONS]
+
+An essential part of the agreement with the sub-contractors provided
+that the operations incident to the placing of the lining should be
+carried on so as to provide at all times space for a single track of
+3-ft. gauge, running through the work, and the necessary clearance for
+the locomotives and cars used in hauling out the muck. A clearance
+diagram of one of the “dinkys” used in the tunnels, and its relation to
+the forms used, is shown by Fig. 12 and also by Fig. 16, the 4-yd.
+Allison cars, used for handling the muck, taking practically the same
+width, although they were not quite as high. This requirement and the
+limited space available must be kept in mind in considering the design
+finally adopted for the forms and plant required in placing the lining.
+It should also be kept in mind that, with the rolling stock used, there
+was only room for a single track through that part of the tunnel where
+any concrete had been built. As the concrete progressed, therefore, the
+length of single track was necessarily lengthened, and the problem of
+transportation was made increasingly difficult.
+
+In working out a design for the bench-wall forms, another highly
+important and controlling factor, which had to be considered, was the
+arrangement of the conduit lines, as shown in the general
+cross-section.[2]
+
+    [Footnote 2: Plate VIII of the paper by Mr. Jacobs.]
+
+The quantities of the various materials in the lining, per linear foot
+of tunnel, were as follows:
+
+  Concrete                                         7.64 cu. yd.
+  Rock packing: Paid for           1.48 cu. yd.
+  Outside standard section line    1.74  ”   ”
+                                   ------------    3.22  ”   ”
+  Iron and steel                                  44.2  lb.
+  Vitrified conduits                              84.0  duct ft.
+  Water-proofing                                  13.0  sq. ft.
+  Flags                                            3.3   ”   ”
+
+
+_General Methods._--The lining was started at both ends of the tunnels
+before the headings were finally holed through, so that there was
+practically a separate organization at each end, each in charge of one
+of the members of the firm. The work at the Weehawken end was started
+first, and the plant and scheme of working adopted there was thoroughly
+tried out before the plant for the western end was built, consequently,
+the latter was somewhat more efficient, being designed in the light of
+the experience gained at the Weehawken end.
+
+The general sequence of the plan first adopted in placing the concrete
+is shown by Fig. 10. The concrete was first placed in the foundations up
+to the elevation of the bottom of the conduit bines, this work, of
+course, being kept well in advance; next followed, in the order named,
+the sand-walls, water-proofing, conduits, bench-walls, and finally the
+arch. The foundation was built in any convenient lengths, multiples of
+16 ft., the length of one section of form, the sand-walls in lengths of
+from 25 to 35 ft., the bench-walls in 25-ft. lengths, and the arch in
+10-ft. lengths. Concrete was placed during the day shift only, the forms
+being moved partly at night, and partly on the alternate days when
+concrete was not being placed in them.
+
+Five gangs were organized at each end, the first placed concrete in the
+foundations in both tunnels, as the excavation was ready. In each tunnel
+there was a gang which built sand-wall one day and bench-wall the next,
+the two tunnels alternating so that only one bench-wall was built each
+day, and finally a gang in each tunnel building arches, a 10-ft. section
+being completed each day. During the night shift, the arch forms and
+travelers were moved, and all other forms, etc., were made ready for the
+concrete to be placed the following day. Some of the conduit laying was
+done by the night shift, but part of it was necessarily done during the
+day, as the concrete was built up. A small gang was kept busy in both
+tunnels, during the day shift, laying conduits and water-proofing. The
+latter two operations were generally performed by the same gang.
+
+This organization, of course, required considerable regularity in the
+work, and this was finally attained, but at the beginning many sections
+were often not finished on time, thus creating considerable confusion.
+The progress possible with this organization (finally maintained with
+great regularity) was 75 ft. of bench-wall and 60 ft. of arch per week
+at each of the two working faces in each tunnel. This allowed the
+bench-wall to gain considerably on the arch, and therefore at a suitable
+point, as shown on the progress diagram, Fig. 9, a third pair of arches
+was started, one in each tunnel, increasing the progress on the arches
+to 180 ft. per week in each tunnel.
+
+
+_Mixing and Transportation._--All the concrete used on this section was
+mixed in Hains mixers, one being at each end. At the Weehawken shaft the
+mixer was installed in the framework supporting the head-house and
+elevators; and storage bins were arranged above, as shown by Fig. 11,
+_A_, the whole structure being somewhat strengthened to allow this to be
+done. At the western end the mixer was placed immediately under the bins
+of the stone crusher, as shown by Fig. 11, _B_, the track below being
+connected directly with the tunnels. The stone bin under the screen of
+the crusher plant at the Hackensack end was divided into three parts,
+the center being filled with sand by a derrick having a clam-shell
+bucket, the other two with stone directly from the screen above.
+
+This type of mixer proved very efficient on this work. The largest
+number of full batches (0.8 cu. yd.) mixed in one plant per hour was
+about 35; the largest number per day of 10 hours was about 240; but the
+apparatus was never worked to its full capacity, the quantity of
+concrete which it was possible to use being limited by other
+considerations.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 11.
+  _A_ CROSS-SECTION OF HAINS MIXER INSTALLATION, AT WEEHAWKEN SHAFT
+  _B_ CROSS-SECTION OF HAINS MIXER INSTALLATION,
+    STONE AND SAND BINS ABOVE AND SCREEN OF CRUSHER, AT HACKENSACK
+    PORTAL]
+
+The concrete for the foundations was hauled in steel, =V=-shaped,
+dumping cars holding about 1 cu. yd., and the concrete for the
+bench-walls and arches in Stuebner, 1-yd., bottom-dumping buckets placed
+on small flat cars, as shown by Fig. 1, Plate XXIV. Rock packing was
+handled in Allison 4-yd. cars and also in the cars shown by Fig. 5,
+as well as in the Stuebner buckets, the latter, however, being most
+generally used. Mules were used for a short time at the Weehawken end to
+haul the concrete in, but proved entirely inadequate to haul the loaded
+cars up the 1.3% grade, and locomotives were substituted after the
+headings were holed through. At the western end the cars were allowed to
+coast in, and, up to the time the headings were holed through, were
+hauled back by mules; after that they were pushed out by a locomotive
+which had gone in ahead of them. As a rule, from 8 to 10 cars of
+concrete and rock packing were sent in, one after the other, in proper
+order, a boy riding on each car and stopping it at the proper place; all
+these cars were pushed out together when empty.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXIV.
+  Fig. 1: K 131. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel. Rear view of conveyor for
+  concrete, showing method of hoisting bucket from car on track in
+  hopper over belt. June 7, 07.
+  Fig. 2: K 130. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, South Tunnel. View showing waterproofing
+  (extreme left) portion of completed sand wall, sand wall forms,
+  traveller and end of conveyor overhead. July 22, 07.
+  Fig. 3: K 148. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken. View showing method of placing concrete in
+  forms. Hoisting apparatus and bucket in background. Sept. 24, 07.
+  Fig. 4: K 154. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel. Method of placing concrete
+  in bench walls. Top of waterproofing suspended from top of sandwall.
+  Oct. 21, 07.]
+
+During the time the excavation was being carried on simultaneously with
+the lining at the Weehawken end, the rock packing was loaded at the
+working face and sent out to the point where it was to be used; after
+that the rock packing was sent in from outside from the reserve pile on
+the north side of Baldwin Avenue.
+
+At the western end the larger part of the rock packing was sent in from
+outside, but occasionally, during the time the excavation was going on,
+the cars from the heading were stopped at convenient points, generally
+under the gantries, where the lining was being placed, and whatever
+stone could be utilized was sorted from the top and passed up to the
+platforms above.
+
+After the headings were holed through, there was considerable difficulty
+at times in getting a sufficient supply of concrete and rock packing
+into the tunnel at the time it was required, and while undoubtedly the
+transportation facilities may have had some influence in this, the
+principal trouble lay in the difficulty of securing a sufficient supply
+of proper stone for rock packing, and for the crusher.
+
+While the excavation was progressing, the cars of muck, as they came
+from the headings, were taken directly to the crusher and dumped into
+it, the proportion of fine material being fairly constant and the supply
+regular. At this time, also, a portion of the rock not required at the
+crusher was dumped along the edge of the bank on the south side of the
+approach, the larger stones rolling to the bottom where they were easily
+available to be loaded into cars for rock packing, being entirely free
+from the fine material; as this stone at the bottom of the bank was used
+up, the supply was renewed, the rock suitable for rock packing being
+automatically separated from the fine material as it rolled to the foot
+of the slope.
+
+After the excavation was completed, however, it was necessary to go into
+the bulk of the storage piles to get material for the crusher and for
+rock packing, and then the difficulties were materially increased by the
+large quantity of fine material encountered, the proportion remaining
+after the rock packing had been sorted out being too large to send
+through the crusher. It was not only the handling over of this fine
+material which caused delay, but the difficulty of disposing of it. On
+rainy days the trouble was increased by the difficulty of getting men to
+work in the open.
+
+The delays due to transportation were usually caused by derailments,
+which were more numerous than they should have been, and were due to the
+condition of the rolling stock rather than to that of the track. These
+delays, especially when they occurred in the early part of the day,
+greatly increased the cost, by necessitating over-time work; a delay of
+1 hour in the forenoon generally meant 2 hours’ work after 6 o’clock to
+finish the day’s work.
+
+The average number of cars handled (round trips of 1 car) during a day
+(two 10-hour shifts) at the Hackensack end during January, 1908, when
+the excavation and lining were in full swing, was about 125 cars of muck
+and 200 cars of lining material, the former being hauled by locomotives
+and the latter by mules.
+
+
+_Methods of Handling Concrete in the Tunnels._--The concrete for the
+floor, ditches, and foundations, was brought into the tunnel in
+=V=-shaped steel, dumping cars, and dumped as near as possible to the
+place it was to occupy.
+
+The concrete for the arches and bench-walls was loaded at the mixers
+into 1-yd., Stuebner, bottom-dumping buckets which just held a 4-bag
+batch. These buckets were placed on small flat cars, hauled into the
+tunnel, placed beneath the traveling gantry, as shown by Fig. 1, Plate
+XXIV, and hoisted to the platform above.
+
+These traveling gantries, the details of which are shown by Fig. 12,
+consisted essentially of platforms at each end of which an =A=-frame was
+erected; the latter supported at their apexes two =I=-beams, from the
+lower flanges of which was suspended a traveling block, shown at _A_,
+Fig. 12, and through which the hoisting rope was rigged. The buckets
+were hoisted through an opening in the platform and then moved along to
+where they could be dumped. The platforms were supported on wheels
+traveling on rails laid on the concrete of the foundation (for the
+bench-wall gantries) or on top of the bench-wall (for the arch
+gantries).
+
+Each of the first two of these traveling gantries used was equipped with
+a belt conveyor working on a cantilever arm, as shown by Figs. 3 and 4,
+Plate XXI, and Figs. 1 and 2, Plate XXIV. In using these belt conveyors,
+the concrete was dumped from the Stuebner bucket into a hopper, Fig. 1,
+Plate XXIV, with an adjustable slot in the bottom, under which the belt
+ran.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 12. [Full Page]
+  DETAILS OF TRAVELING GANTRY USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE TUNNEL
+  LINING:
+    SECTIONAL ELEVATION
+    CROSS-SECTION
+    A. DETAIL OF TRAVELING BLOCK
+    B. DETAIL OF TOP SHEAVE
+    C. DETAIL OF LOWER SHEAVE.]
+
+It was the original intention, in designing the conveyor, that the end
+of the cantilever arm should be swung from one side of the tunnel to the
+other, and that the traveler should be moved backward or forward, as
+might be required, and thus deliver the concrete from the end of the
+belt directly over the place in which it was to be deposited in the
+bench-walls. As a matter of fact, it was found impractical in operation
+to move the gantry readily, owing to its great weight, which was
+supported on only four ordinary car wheels and their bearings, and it
+was found more convenient to leave the arm in one position near the
+center, letting the concrete drop on the platform above the bench- or
+sand-wall forms, whence it could be shoveled into place, than to attempt
+to move it as had been intended. Both of these difficulties might
+possibly have been overcome by modifications in the design of the gantry
+and conveyor, had this method of handling the concrete seemed otherwise
+desirable.
+
+The principal difficulty with its use, however, was the inability to
+take care of more than one batch of concrete at a time. When one batch
+had been dumped into the hopper, a second could not be disposed of until
+the first had nearly all run through on the belt, and this took from 7
+to 20 min., varying with the consistency of the concrete, etc. In a few
+instances, where there happened to be some fairly dry batches, the
+concrete could not be started through the slot at all, and had to be
+shoveled out of the hopper. On the other hand, it is stated that some
+batches, under favorable conditions, passed through in about 2 min., but
+this was quite exceptional, and the operation was irregular and
+uncertain.
+
+Before the final method of handling the concrete was adopted, a trial
+was made of two forms of cars and buckets, to be used on the top
+platform, as shown by Figs. 3 and 4, and Plate XXIV. In the method shown
+by Fig. 3, Plate XXIV, the concrete was hoisted in the regular Stuebner
+buckets, one of which can be seen suspended in the background of this
+photograph, and dumped into the car shown, which was mounted so that it
+could be revolved in a horizontal plane. It was intended to move this
+car on the tracks to the point at which the concrete was required, and
+dump it directly through a chute into the bench-walls. This car was
+abandoned, as there was a great deal of difficulty in turning it when it
+was loaded, and in several instances it had to be dumped straight ahead
+in the middle of the platform and the concrete shoveled into the forms.
+This method was also objectionable when the bucket was dumped, inasmuch
+as the force of the impact of a whole batch of concrete dumped from such
+a height into the forms, not only tended to throw the conduits out of
+line, and to break them, but also caused considerable strain on the
+forms.
+
+The bucket shown by Fig. 4, Plate XXIV, was next tried. It had a
+slanting bottom and a door opening at the side. It was filled at the
+mixer, came into the tunnel on a small flat car, and was hoisted and
+placed on a similar car on top, as shown. This bucket was not
+successful, as its great weight made it difficult to handle, and it
+generally required a man to shovel the concrete out, which latter, of
+course, had been pretty well compacted in the bottom of the bucket by
+its trip from the mixer. All these cars were hauled backward and forward
+on the top platform by a rope running to the winch on the hoisting
+engine on the traveling gantry.
+
+Aside from the fact that neither type was a success, neither of these
+schemes was much improvement over the belt, inasmuch as only one batch
+could be handled at a time, owing to the necessity of using the engine
+to haul the cars back and forth on the platform. The final solution was
+found in the use of the traveling gantry, shown by Fig. 12 and Fig. 1,
+Plate XXVI, the latter being one of the arch gantries. The gantry used
+for the bench- and sand-walls was supported on framed bents on wheels
+running on rails laid on the foundation; that for the arch was the same,
+except that the high-framed bent was dispensed with, the side-sills
+resting directly on the journals of wheels traveling on rails on top of
+the finished bench-wall.
+
+These gantries were used only as a means of hoisting the buckets and
+moving them along to where they could be dumped directly on the
+platform, whence the concrete was shoveled into wheel-barrows, which
+could be dumped directly into the bench-walls; or, in the case of the
+arches, shoveled from the platform of the gantry to the intermediate
+platform on the arch ribs, and thence directly into the arch. This use
+of wheel-barrows, though apparently a somewhat crude method and a
+retrogression from the use of the belt conveyor, proved very successful,
+and really involved no more labor than did the conveyors, although this
+might not have been the case had these latter worked as they were
+originally designed to.
+
+The method finally adopted allowed as many as four buckets to be dumped
+on the platform on one end of the arch gantry at one time, and eight on
+one end of that used for the bench-walls, the workmen handling about
+three of these latter into the forms by the time the last of the eight
+was dumped. It required about 1½ min. to place a car under the gantry,
+hoist the bucket, dump, close it, and return it to the car below.
+
+Rock packing was stored at the other end of the platform, for use as
+required, when it was not handled directly from the end nearest the
+work. This method allowed the concrete and other materials to be brought
+in in trains at infrequent intervals, and provided a sufficient supply
+of material on hand so that the men handling it on top could be kept
+steadily at work.
+
+Each hoisting engine on these gantries had 7 by 10-in. cylinders, and a
+double drum; some of them were Lamberts and some Mundys, operated by
+compressed air.
+
+
+_Ditches, Floor and Foundations._--The first method of building the
+foundation was that shown by Fig. 13, _A_; no attempt was then made to
+build the ditch, or floor, the intention being to leave these until the
+completion of the remainder of the lining. In building the bench-wall on
+this foundation, however, it was found difficult to secure the bottom of
+the forms properly (Fig. 2, Plate XXV), so as to prevent any give, as
+the material under the track was not solid enough to brace against. It
+was decided, therefore, to build the whole of the ditch (see Fig. 13,
+_B_) so that the bottom of the forms could be braced against the solid
+concrete. At the beginning of the work, the face of the bench-wall was
+built up to the level of the bottom of the conduits with the foundation;
+if, therefore, in placing the concrete above this level, extreme care
+were not taken to get a tight fit between the bench-wall form and the
+lower face, and then to hold it rigidly in place, the result was a
+rather unsightly horizontal joint high enough to be plainly visible. The
+position of this joint may be seen in Fig. 2, Plate XXV, which shows the
+first section of bench-wall built. Several subsequent sections showed an
+overhang above this joint, amounting in one or two cases to as much as ½
+in., due to the fact that the bench-wall form moved or did not fit
+tightly. This defect was obviated by building the foundations with an
+offset on the face, shown by Fig. 13, _B_, so that the joint came at the
+level of the top of the flagging over the ditches, and therefore was
+almost entirely concealed; at the same time this allowed a sufficient
+surface, on the plane of the face of the bench-wall, against which the
+bench-wall forms could be braced and lined up.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 13.
+  PLAN SHOWING VARIOUS METHODS OF BUILDING FLOOR AND FOUNDATION,
+  AND DETAILS OF FORMS]
+
+The ditch forms were set very carefully to line and grade by the
+alignment corps, as this formed the starting point of all the rest of
+the work, the only other thing which was necessary was to give a level
+at the front end of the bench-wall form, after it was set, for the
+elevation of the top of the bench, and to check up the stations of the
+ends of the sections occasionally to see that they were at the even
+25-ft. points (that is +08, +33, +58, and +83).
+
+After a short length had been built with the ditches only, it was
+thought desirable to try and put in the floor as well, so that the whole
+of the concrete would be put in place as the lining advanced, and leave
+less cleaning up to be done over the end of a single track, in the
+restricted spaces between the bench-walls. Fig. 13, _C_, shows the
+method finally adopted. In this may be seen the three stages in which it
+was put in, the details of the ditch forms being shown by Fig. 13, _D_.
+
+In that part of the tunnel where sand-walls were built, a hollow tile
+drain was built into the foundation, as shown in Fig. 13, _A_ and _B_,
+along the foot of the water-proofing and connected at intervals with the
+drains by 4-in. cast-iron pipes. When the sand-walls and water-proofing
+were not built, however, the concrete of the foundations was sloped from
+the neat line back to the rock, as shown by Fig. 13, _C_3, so that in
+case any water found its way down through the rock packing, its tendency
+would be to flow back against the rock, or to follow the low part of
+this concrete to 4-in. cast-iron pipes leading to the side ditches,
+rather than to find its way through the joint between the foundation and
+the bench-wall and so into the lower duct lines.
+
+
+_Sand-Walls._--The sand-wall forms first used are shown in Fig. 2, Plate
+XXIV, with a section of the finished sand-wall. As this work was only
+intended to give a comparatively smooth surface against which to place
+the water-proofing, no particular care was taken with the surface,
+except to avoid sharp projections which might cut through the felt and
+pitch used for this purpose. A rather porous concrete (with all the rock
+which could be safely embedded in it and have the wall stand) was used,
+so that it would not act as a dam, but rather tend to allow the water to
+find its way to the bottom of the tunnel, and so into the drains.
+
+The traveling gantry for placing the concrete in the sand-walls, as
+first designed, with the belt conveyor, could of course only deliver the
+concrete at one end. Before setting the forms for a new section, it was
+necessary, therefore, to move the gantry ahead, before the cross-bracing
+between the tops of the forms, which also held the top platform, could
+be placed in position. Fig. 2, Plate XXIV, shows the end of the conveyor
+over the top of the cross-braces. In order to hold the bottom of these
+forms, small wooden blocks were embedded in the foundation concrete,
+against which they could be wedged, as shown by Fig. 13, _A_; these
+blocks were cut out after the sand-wall had been built.
+
+After the forms had been filled, the conveyor could not be moved back to
+the bench-wall until the concrete had set sufficiently so that these
+cross-braces could be removed, and, on account of the overhang at the
+top, the set had to be fairly good in order to prevent this overhang
+from breaking off. This arrangement, therefore, for placing the concrete
+was found to be impractical, if the proposed schedule of a section of
+bench-wall and a section of sand-wall to be built on alternate days, was
+to be carried out. In a few instances, where the sand-wall was finished
+fairly early in the afternoon, the forms were released next morning, and
+the conveyor was moved back, but, even then, 2 or 3 hours at least were
+lost at the beginning of the shift. The conveyor, however, was
+abandoned, for the reasons previously given, and the traveling gantry
+was rearranged to allow concrete to be delivered at either end; it was
+then only necessary to move it backward and forward between the bench-
+and sand-wall forms instead of through these forms. This permitted the
+construction of the much more substantial type of forms shown by Fig.
+14.
+
+After being moved ahead on the track on top of the foundation, the form
+was first blocked up to grade, and then adjusted to line by the screws
+and slotted cleats shown at _B_, Fig. 14, after which it was secured by
+the braces from the ditches, as shown. The face lagging was placed in
+separate pieces and held against the uprights by lightly nailing every
+third or fourth piece; the whole was removed each time the form was
+moved, and built up again as the concrete was placed.
+
+Considerable care was taken to slope the top of the sand-wall back
+toward the rock, as shown by Fig. 14, and to allow free drainage along
+the top (which ran parallel to the grade of the tunnel) to the 4-in.
+cast-iron drain pipes which carried the water from the rock packing
+above the arch to the drains beneath the track.
+
+Sand-walls were built for a length of about 1,100 ft. in each tunnel at
+the Weehawken end, and about 700 ft. in each tunnel at the western end,
+the remainder of the work, with the exception of a few short stretches,
+not being considered wet enough to require water-proofing.
+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 14.
+  TRAVELING FORM FOR BUILDING SAND-WALL;
+  DETAIL SHOWING METHOD OF HANGING WATER-PROOFING FROM TOP OF SAND-WALL]
+
+_Conduits._--The arrangement of the conduit lines is shown in the
+general cross-section.[3] On the core-wall side there are 48 lines for
+telegraph and telephone cables, built of 4-way multiple conduit, each
+piece of which is 3 ft. long and about 10 in. square outside. On the
+other side there are the high- and low-tension lines, built of single
+conduit 18 in. long and a little more than 5 in. square outside.
+Manholes or splicing chambers are built every 400 ft., and are about
+8 ft. long and 4 ft. wide. General views of the conduits as built are
+shown in Fig. 4, Plate XXV, which shows all the lines in one tunnel, and
+in Fig. 1, Plate XXV, which shows the telegraph and telephone lines,
+with the expanding mandrels used in laying them.
+
+    [Footnote 3: Plate VIII in the paper by Mr. Jacobs.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXV.
+  Fig. 1: K 173. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) Hackensack Portal and Approach. Telephone and Telegraph
+  ducts and mandrels. Nov. 20, 08.
+  Fig. 2: K 125. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel. View showing general
+  construction of tunnel lining forms, and clearance to allow disposal
+  of excavated material. June 17, 07.
+  Fig. 3: K 156. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, South Tunnel. North side looking East,
+  showing method of placing waterproofing. Oct. 22, 07.
+  Fig. 4: K 147. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken. General view showing center and first section of
+  arch and completed lining, North Tunnel. Sept. 24, 07.]
+
+In attempting to plan the work of placing the lining, two methods of
+building the bench-wall were considered. One was to build the wall in
+longitudinal sections, each section separated by a line of ducts; and
+the other was to attempt to build the wall in the manner called for by
+the specifications, which required the concrete to be carried up in
+layers as the conduits were laid. In this latter method, it was proposed
+to bond the concrete together with the forked bonds, the details of
+which are shown by Fig. 15, _A_, but, as it might have been impractical
+to use these if the wall had been built in sections, provision was made
+in the contract to place expanded metal, as shown by Fig. 15, _B_, if
+this was thought advisable. The method of construction necessary, if the
+wall had been built in sections, is shown graphically by the five
+sketches, Fig. 15, _B_, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
+
+The form and details of the expanding mandrel which was finally designed
+to meet the conditions, and proved so satisfactory in every way, are
+shown by Fig. 15, _C_. The mandrel consisted of two triangular pieces of
+hard pine, separated by wedges attached to one piece which fitted into
+slots in the other; these, when expanded, practically filled the whole
+of the inside of the ducts. One of these mandrels was placed in each
+line of single ducts and two in each 4-way duct, placed diagonally, as
+shown in Fig. 1, Plate XXV. This required 60 mandrels at each working
+point, or 240 for the whole work. The mandrels were 35 ft. long, so that
+they easily covered the whole of a 25-ft. section, projected
+sufficiently far back into the previously finished work to assure the
+continuity of the alignment, and allowed the ends to be racked out at
+the forward end to secure proper breaks between the joints.
+
+In laying the single conduits, as a rule, the (collapsed) mandrels were
+pulled ahead from the previous section as each line was laid, and the
+conduits were strung on it until the whole length was completed; the
+conduits were then pushed up tight together, so as to close the joints
+as tightly as possible, and then the mandrel was expanded. The conduits
+were thus held firmly in position, and the forward end of the line was
+lifted slightly so that the wraps could be placed around the joints. The
+4-way conduits were generally laid in the ordinary way, except that no
+laying mandrel was necessary. One dowel was used between each of the
+pieces of conduit, at the center, and the joints were wrapped. When a
+line was finished, two mandrels were placed diagonally in each line and
+expanded simultaneously, so that any inequalities in the ducts
+themselves were divided as far as possible. In connection with the use
+of these mandrels, one of the points which was most carefully watched
+was that they projected back into the last completed section, thus
+insuring the continuity of the alignment.
+
+It was originally intended to wrap the joints of the 4-way ducts only,
+but it was found to be impractical to keep the grout from the wet
+concrete entirely out of the single ducts, and, after a short trial, it
+was decided to wrap these also. The expanding mandrel kept out a great
+deal of the cement, and, in the sections laid without wraps, the only
+difficulty from this cause seemed to be that a slight film of grout,
+from 1/16 to ⅛ in. thick, was deposited on the bottom of the inside of
+the ducts at some places, and although this was not considered a serious
+defect, it was thought that the slight extra cost of placing the wraps
+would undoubtedly be justified by the practically perfect results
+obtained by using them.
+
+Considerable attention was given to breaking the joints of the ducts
+properly, so as to maintain throughout the conduit lines the greatest
+break possible. The joints in each superimposed line were broken at half
+the length of the individual pieces of conduit, the joints in lines in
+the same horizontal plane being broken at one-quarter the length, thus
+preventing any joints from touching one another either at the sides or
+corners, which tended to prevent a burn-out on one line from being
+communicated to another. There was some little difficulty at first in
+maintaining the breaks, owing to slight variations in the lengths of the
+conduit, but after a very short time both the workmen and the inspectors
+became very expert at this and in the proper use of short lengths to
+maintain the spacing; after the first few weeks there was little if any
+difficulty in attaining at all times almost perfect results. The method
+of making the breaks is shown in the photographs and by the isometric
+sketch at _F_, Fig. 15.
+
+All the conduits used on this work were furnished by the Great Eastern
+Clay Company, and were made at its factory at South River, N.J., where
+they were inspected before shipment.
+
+The mandrel used in the final rodding was made as shown at _G_, Fig. 15,
+the larger size being used for all lines. The rods for pushing it
+through the conduit lines were made of 6½-ft. lengths of ordinary 1-in.
+wrought-iron pipe with extra long (3-in.) couplings. The lines were
+rodded in both directions from alternate manholes, thus avoiding
+uncoupling the rods and allowing every pull to be effective in pushing
+the mandrel through the ducts.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 15. [Full Page]
+  ELECTRICAL CONDUITS: METHODS OF LAYING, RODDING, ETC.
+    A. FORK ENDED STEEL BONDS FOR CONDUITS.
+    B. SEQUENCE OF METHODS OF BUILDING BENCH-WALL PROPOSED WHEN USING
+        EXPANDED METAL BONDS.
+    C. ISOMETRIC DRAWING OF EXPANDING MANDREL.
+    D. DETAILS OF “WEASEL” Used for gripping disconnected pipe rods in
+        conduit
+    E. CUTTER FOR REMOVING OBSTRUCTIONS IN CONDUITS.
+    F. ISOMETRIC SKETCH SHOWING METHOD OF BREAKING JOINTS AND POSITION
+        FORKED BONDS.
+    G. PLAN AND SECTIONS OF EXPANDING MANDREL.
+
+   INDEX
+  +-----+------------+-------------+
+  |     | Multi-Duct | Single-Duct |
+  |     | Mandrel    | Mandrel     |
+  +-----+------------+-------------+
+  | _A_ |   3¼”      |   3⅜”       |
+  | _B_ |    ¾”      |    ⅞”       |
+  | _C_ |   2½”      |   2⅝”       |
+  +-----+------------+-------------+
+
+  Note
+
+  End pipe connections may be changed to suit connections of rodding
+  outfit, care being taken to use a connection which will not split and
+  expand the mandrel if it should be driven back into it, in attempting
+  to ram the mandrel back when stuck in a duct.
+
+  Connection at Head End may be dispensed with, if the mandrel is
+  threaded through ducts by rods attached to the trailing end.]
+
+Wooden rods were used at first, but proved entirely too light, as the
+mandrels used were a close fit, and it required considerable effort to
+push them through 400 ft. of conduit. Iron pipe with ordinary couplings
+was next tried, but the couplings broke quite often, as the threads
+became worn in uncoupling the sections to move the rods from one line to
+another, and the break was generally inside a duct line. The long
+couplings were finally adopted, and a set of rods was put in each line,
+that is, six sets in all, so that when coupled up they remained in the
+line until it was finished. The expense of the extra quantity of pipe
+thus required was more than offset by the decreased labor cost.
+
+It was thought necessary at first to run a cutter, Fig. 15, _E_, through
+the conduits ahead of the final rodding mandrel, but this was soon found
+to be unnecessary except in a very few instances, and, after a short
+experience, the cutter was only used at places where an obstruction was
+encountered by the mandrel.
+
+At such times as the pipe became uncoupled inside the duct line, the
+part remaining inside was recovered by the use of the tool shown at _D_,
+Fig. 15, called a “weasel.” In two instances, the mandrel became stuck
+in such a manner that the duct line had to be cut into in order to take
+it out.
+
+The best day’s work of the rodding gang (1 foreman and 4 men) was 20,400
+duct ft. of the 4-way conduit in the telegraph and telephone line, and
+19,200 duct ft. of single conduit on the low-tension line, an average
+day’s work under ordinary conditions being about 10,000 duct ft. The
+cost, including labor, material, and all tools, for rodding for the
+whole work was slightly less than 0.2 cent per duct ft. The average cost
+of the single conduit was about 0.25 cents per ft., and of the 4-way,
+0.15 cents per ft. About 10% of the conduit lines were rodded twice,
+owing to partial sections having been rodded once before completion. The
+best continuous work on rodding was done between October 22d and 29th,
+1908, when in 7 working days, 105,600 duct ft. were rodded, an average
+of a little more than 15,000 ft. per day.
+
+
+_Bench-walls._--The original design for the tunnels provided for the
+construction of a brick arch above a point 22° above the springing line,
+that is, the part above the side-walls (Fig. 10). It was thought
+desirable, therefore, in designing the bench-wall forms, to provide for
+placing the concrete in the side-walls and bench-walls at one operation.
+These forms, as first designed, are shown by Fig. 2, Plate XXV, and the
+details in Fig. 16, _A_ and _A’_; they were built of steel, the facing
+plates being 5/16 in. thick, in pieces 4 ft. 6 in. wide, and in length
+about 6 in. more than the height of the bench-wall.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 16. [Full Page]
+  DETAILS OF TRAVELING FORMS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BENCH WALLS
+    A’. CROSS-SECTION OF STEEL FORM
+    A. LONGITUDINAL SECTION AND ELEVATION OF STEEL FORM USED AT
+        WEEHAWKEN END
+    B. DETAILS OF SCREW-JACKS FOR ADJUSTING FORM TO LINE
+    C. SECTION _C_-_D_ SHOWING CONNECTION OF FACE PLATES TO I-BEAM
+        UPRIGHTS
+    D. DETAILS OF WOODEN FORMS USED AT WESTERN END: CROSS-SECTION,
+        PART LONGITUDINAL SECTION
+    No chutes were used with these forms, the wheel-barrows being dumped
+      from the runways on the sides.]
+
+The design was controlled very largely by the necessity of providing the
+requisite clearance for the locomotives and muck cars, and the principal
+feature was the support of the forms on two trusses, one at either side,
+the front ends of which were supported from the foundation on a long
+leg, as shown in Fig. 3, Plate XXV, and the rear ends directly on the
+journal-boxes of wheels traveling on a rail on the top of the finished
+bench, as shown in Fig. 2, Plate XXV.
+
+Although it had been decided to substitute concrete for brick in the
+arch before any of the lining was actually placed, two sets of forms for
+the Weehawken end had already been ordered and delivered, so it was
+decided to use them as designed, and place the side-wall with the bench.
+
+The forms were designed so that 30-ft. lengths could be built, and this
+was done at the start, but owing to the occurrence of the refuge niches,
+ladders, etc., at 25-ft. intervals, it was soon seen that it would be
+advisable to build the bench-wall in sections of that length (25 ft.),
+or multiples of it, and as the clearance conditions seemed to preclude
+the possibility of making the forms 50 ft. long, 25 ft. was adopted.
+This permitted the removal of one of the panels, 4 ft. 6 in. wide, and
+at the same time it was decided to remove the side-wall forms. This
+decreased the load on the trusses considerably, but being still a trifle
+weak, they were strengthened by the substitution of 1¼-in. truss rods
+instead of the ¾-in. rods used originally. The top platform and the
+cross-bracing were also stiffened a little and tightened up to prevent
+racking.
+
+The construction of the side-walls in conjunction with the bench-wall
+was abandoned for three reasons: First, it was found that there would be
+a much more even distribution of the work by including the side-wall
+with the arch rather than with the bench; second, there was difficulty
+in getting a good finish for the top of the bench-wall, as of course a
+top form for the latter had to be placed to prevent the concrete from
+squeezing up when the side-wall was built above it, which prevented
+troweling; the third reason was the weakness of the whole form as
+designed, and the increasing difficulty of adjusting it to line as the
+work progressed, the principal difficulty being with the curved
+side-wall forms.
+
+The bench-wall forms were set in position, after they had been moved
+ahead, by first blocking the bottom against the face of the foundation,
+as shown by Fig. 13. As previously noted, this foundation face had been
+built very carefully to line. The back end of the form, of course, was
+blocked tightly against the end of the previously finished section, and
+the top was made plumb by the adjusting screwjacks shown in Fig. 16,
+_B_. At first these screws were ¾-in., but they were afterward changed
+to 1¼-in. The only points which it was necessary for the alignment corps
+to give in setting these forms was a grade at each of the front ends for
+the top of the finished bench.
+
+The steel face forms in both tunnels gave excellent results, as far as
+smoothness of finish was concerned, but, owing to the imperviousness of
+the steel, small air holes were formed in the surface, though not in
+sufficient numbers or size to cause trouble or disfigure the work in any
+way.
+
+The design of the bench-wall forms used at the western end, where this
+differs from the steel form, is shown by Fig. 16, _D_. The principal
+features in which they differed from those used at the Weehawken end was
+in the substitution of 2½-in. tongued and grooved hard pine for the
+face. This timber was of the very best quality obtainable, each piece
+being especially selected and as nearly clear and free from knots or
+other defects as it was possible to get it. The edges of each piece were
+planed at the back so as to insure a tight joint on the face, and all
+joints were shellacked. These forms were used, without renewal of the
+face timber and with only two planings, for a length of 2,500 ft., or
+100 separate sections, and gave good satisfaction.
+
+In order to obtain a surface to which the face lagging could be
+fastened, wooden uprights were used and were reinforced on either side
+by light channels bolted together through the timber, in place of the
+=I=-beams used on the steel forms. The lagging was nailed to these
+uprights by 6-in. wire nails driven through the top edges of each piece
+as it was placed in position, thus leaving the surface entirely clear
+and free from any marks or nail holes, and in condition for planing when
+this became necessary. Runways for wheeling the concrete were built one
+either side over the bench-walls instead of having a center platform
+with chutes, as was used at Weehawken.
+
+When the original lagging had become too much worn for further use, it
+was resurfaced with strips of ⅞ by 2½-in., clear, tongued and grooved,
+hard pine, placed vertically, which did fairly well and lasted to the
+end (about 1,000 ft.), although it was not altogether satisfactory, and
+the last eight or ten sections built had to be rubbed down with a wooden
+float in order to obtain a suitable finish.
+
+In designing the forms for all exposed surfaces in the tunnels, it was
+the desire of the contractors to obtain directly from them a surface
+which would be satisfactory to the engineers without further finishing
+than the patching of minor defects. In this they were generally quite
+successful, and excellent results were obtained, as shown in the view of
+the finished tunnel, Fig. 2, Plate XXVII. The surface of the bench-walls
+was obtained solely by spading the face with a flat spade as the work
+progressed. No after treatment was resorted to, except for the few
+sections where the forms became worn. The top of the bench-wall was
+finished with a float about 2 or 3 hours after the concrete was placed.
+
+When the work was well organized, a bench-wall was built at each end
+each day, one day in the North Tunnel, and the following day in the
+South. During the time sand-walls were being built, a sand-wall and
+bench-wall were built on alternate days in each tunnel, care being taken
+that when a bench-wall was being built in one tunnel, the sand-wall was
+being built in the other, this being necessary in order to equalize the
+work of the night gang and the conduit layers as well as the
+transportation.
+
+The conduit layers on the day shift, two or three men and a foreman,
+required about 2 hours in the forenoon and 1 hour in the afternoon to
+lay their portion of the conduits, and usually finished this work by 3
+P.M. At other times during the shift they were utilized at those points
+where rock packing was heaviest, and when the packing was brought in in
+the large cars, as shown in Fig. 1, Plate XXVI, these men helped unload
+it so that the track could be cleared as soon as possible. When
+water-proofing was to be done, the number of men in this gang was
+increased, so as to enable them to do that work also.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXVI.
+  Fig. 1: K 167. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) View of form for circuit breaker chamber at Sta. 286, and
+  travelling gantry for placing concrete in arches, looking Easterly
+  from near Sta. 280+85, South Tunnel. Oct. 3, 08.
+  Fig. 2: K 166. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) View of forms for storage chamber at Sta. 294+24, looking
+  Southward. Sept. 17, 08.
+  Fig. 3: K 163. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) Tunnel lining. Rock packing over arches, South tunnel Sta.
+  ???+?? end of completed section. May 19, 08.
+  Fig. 4: K 168. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) Showing method of waterproofing in timbered tunnel section
+  at Weehawken end. Oct. 21, 08.]
+
+A gang of four rough carpenters and a foreman was employed on the day
+shift; they moved and set the bench-wall forms or sand-wall forms, as
+the case might be, and moved the traveling gantry into position. This
+was done in the afternoon, and required about 3 hours. They also took
+out, cleaned, repaired, and set all ditch forms, all passenger forms,
+circuit-breaker forms, and did all other repair work. The ladder forms,
+the refuge-niche forms, and overhead conductor pocket forms were
+attended to by one man, who set, removed, cleaned, and repaired them.
+The carpenters on the night shift set the arch centers and gantries,
+also the manhole forms when needed. The conduit layers on the night
+shift laid up half the 4-way conduits (3-high) and one-third of the
+single ducts (4-high). This one gang laid the conduits in two sections
+of bench-wall each night, that is, one section at Weehawken and the
+other at the western end.
+
+In concreting the bench-walls, the concrete was first placed on the side
+containing the single conduit until it reached the top of the four tiers
+laid, then the concrete gang was turned over to the side with the 4-way
+conduits while four more tiers of single conduits were laid, the work
+thus progressing, the conduits being laid on one side while concrete was
+placed on the other. On the side of the 4-way conduits the concrete was
+built in two layers while that on the side of the single ducts was built
+in three; the interval between the different layers was not sufficiently
+long to prevent a complete bond being obtained, and there were only one
+or two instances where there was any mark on the face to indicate a
+break.
+
+After the work had been in progress some time, it was found to be quite
+feasible to build all the 4-way conduits at night and half the single
+conduits, that is, 6 ducts high, as the mandrels proved amply sufficient
+to hold them in place; in fact, had it been necessary, the writer has no
+doubt that all the ducts might have been laid and held in place with
+very little extra precaution, by the use of the expanding mandrels,
+as described under the head of conduit laying. A =V=-shaped joint about
+½ in. deep was made between each section of bench-wall so that the
+expansion cracks would follow this joint rather than show irregularly on
+the face. These joints divided the face into the even 25-ft. panels, and
+were very effectual in concealing what few cracks there were.
+
+After the construction of the sand-walls was discontinued, the space
+behind the bench-walls, between the neat line and the rock, was filled
+with rock packing, which was generally built, part way up at least, as a
+dry wall ahead of the construction of the bench-wall, or it was put in
+place simultaneously with the concrete, care being taken to keep it as
+free as possible for the drainage of any water there might be. Toward
+the latter part of the work, owing to the difficulty of getting
+sufficient rock packing during the day, a rough back form for the
+bench-wall was built at the neat line, in places where the section was
+at all large, and the space was filled with rock afterward, generally at
+night or on Sundays.
+
+In the sections where water-proofing was required, where no sand-wall
+was built, the rock was taken out for 2 ft. outside the neat line,
+if the excavation was not already that far out (at the expense of the
+contractors, who preferred to do this rather than build the sand-walls
+for the short sections required), so that there would be sufficient room
+for placing the water-proofing on the back of the bench-walls, as shown
+by Fig. 18, _E_. The water-proofing of these sections was left until
+just before the arch was to be built, and after being placed it was
+protected by a single row of brick laid on edge before the rock packing
+was filled in.
+
+
+_Arches._--The centering used for the arches is shown very clearly in
+Fig. 4, Plate XXV, which is a view of the back end of the first section
+built at Weehawken. In this part of the tunnel, the lower part of the
+arch, about 5 ft. above the bench-wall, was built first, as previously
+referred to, but the centers, as will be seen, were built so that they
+could be used for the whole of the arch. The forward bulkhead, and the
+shoveling platform on a section being built, are shown in Fig. 3, Plate
+XXVI.
+
+The front bulkheads used were made in nine sections, bolted to a 2½ by
+2½-in. angle bent to the radius of the arch, as shown in Fig. 3, Plate
+XXVI, and fitting on the end of the lagging; when set they were braced
+partly against the rock of the roof and partly against the gantry. After
+the ribs and part of the lagging had been set by the night gang for a
+fresh section of arch, the braces holding the bulkheads were knocked
+out, the concrete placed during the day having set sufficiently by this
+time; the whole of the bulkhead was then easily moved ahead, sliding
+along the lagging to the forward end, and made ready for the next day’s
+work. The middle section at the top was taken out temporarily, to
+facilitate working at the sides, until it was needed.
+
+The traveling gantry used in handling the concrete for the arch is shown
+in Fig. 1, Plate XXVI, which also shows the form for the circuit-breaker
+chamber, and a car of rock packing on the track beneath.
+
+The arches were built in 10-ft. sections, the ribs being spaced 5 ft.
+apart, the end ribs of each section supporting the end of the lagging on
+two adjoining sections. Five sets of lagging and ten ribs were used at
+each place where the arch was being built, thus giving each section
+practically 4 days’ set before removing the centers. Probably in the
+greater part of the work the centers could have been removed in from 40
+to 48 hours after the concrete had been placed, but 3 days was
+considered the least time which would certainly be safe at all times,
+and the contractors thought that the very slight additional expense
+involved in leaving the centers up 4 days was more than warranted by the
+additional feeling of security.
+
+The lagging was made from 3 by 6-in. clear, hard pine, 10 ft. long,
+dressed to about 2½ in. in thickness, about 5½ in. in width, and the
+sides to radial lines. As it was placed, every third or fourth piece was
+lightly nailed to the ribs; when the latter were released and taken
+down, the nails pulled out, and the lagging was left in place until one
+piece was pried out, allowing the others to fall. A light =A=-frame,
+about 8 ft. long, spanning the bench-walls, was placed below, in order
+to break the fall and allow the lagging to slide to the top of the
+bench-walls rather than fall to the track beneath.
+
+Cross-passages between the two tunnels were built every 300 ft., their
+form being shown on Plate VIII of the paper by Mr. Jacobs. There were
+two circuit-breaker chambers, one at Station 286 and the other at
+Station 310. Steel doors are provided so that all the openings between
+the two tunnels can be closed. At Station 294+24, the core-wall broke
+through for a length of about 40 ft., and instead of filling this in,
+a storage chamber 34 ft. long and 11 ft. wide, inside, was built there,
+the form for which is shown in Fig. 2, Plate XXVI. This photograph, as
+well as Fig. 1, Plate XXVI, a form for a circuit-breaker chamber, shows
+the method of setting the steel doors in the forms, so that they were
+built into the concrete instead of being fastened in with expansion
+bolts afterward, thus showing a perfect fit and a much neater job.
+
+During construction the arches in each tunnel were kept even with each
+other, so that when the cross-passages were reached, they, and the
+sections of arch which they joined, could be completed at one operation.
+
+By the methods used on this work, one section of arch was easily built
+in a shift, so that the monolithic construction of each section was
+easily secured, and concrete, as wet as it was possible to handle with
+shovels, could be used for all except the last 5 ft. or so at the top,
+thus getting a structure which was as nearly impervious as possible
+under the circumstances.
+
+The gangs placing the arches were paid over-time when they were required
+to work after 6 o’clock to finish their section, which was generally
+only necessary when the quantity of rock packing to be placed was very
+large. If they finished their section before 6 o’clock, however, they
+were allowed to quit when this was done, and were given a full day’s
+pay. The difference in time, when there was any, was usually due to the
+greater or less quantity of rock packing, as the excavation varied from
+the standard section line.
+
+In building the arches, the night gang set the two ribs (one at the
+center and one at the forward end of the section to be built), placed
+the lagging on the sides, 4 or 5 ft. high, built the shoveling platform
+on the horizontal cross-braces of the ribs, and placed the traveling
+gantry in position for use. The forward end of the gantry (that is, the
+end farthest from the arch being built), as shown in Fig. 1, Plate XXVI,
+was loaded with rock packing to be used as required. As the concrete was
+brought into the tunnel it was hoisted and dumped on the end of the
+gantry next the arch, and shoveled from there to the platform on the
+ribs and from there into place. The rock packing brought in during the
+day was dumped on the front or back end of the gantry, as was most
+convenient, and handled into the work in the intervals between batches
+of concrete. The concrete and rock packing, with the back-lagging and
+water-proofing, where these were used, were placed simultaneously, or
+nearly so, and brought up the sides together until the key was reached;
+the latter was then worked from the back toward the front. The key was
+usually made about 5 ft. wide, the lagging for this width was made 5 ft.
+long and put up in two sections. It was found to be more convenient to
+have the key of this width than narrower.
+
+The method used in making the closures where two sections of the arch
+came together is shown by Fig. 17.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17. [Full Page]
+  SKETCH SHOWING METHOD OF MAKING ARCH CLOSURE
+    CROSS-SECTION OF TUNNEL SHOWING JACK PARTLY EXTENDED
+    LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF TUNNEL SHOWING JACK PARTLY EXTENDED
+    PLAN OF BOX; END VIEW
+    PLAN OF PLUNGER, BOTTOM OF BOX; END VIEW OF PLUNGER,
+        JACK FULLY EXTENDED]
+
+
+_Water-proofing._--As already pointed out, the original design for the
+lining of these tunnels provided for a brick arch. It was intended to
+cover this arch with water-proofing, this latter extending over the
+whole of the roof and down the sides as far as the bottom of the conduit
+lines. The water-proofing was to be placed against the sand-walls on the
+sides, up to the top of the side walls, Figs. 10 and 14. Over the arch,
+after being placed, it was to be protected by an armor course of brick,
+laid flat, the space between the brick and the excavation, which was
+required to be not less than 4 in. (and, as a matter of fact, was
+actually a great deal more), being filled with rock packing. Besides
+filling the space, this latter was designed to allow any water from the
+roof of the tunnel to find its way easily to the top of the sand-wall,
+from there being carried through the 4-in. cast-iron pipes, shown on
+Plate VIII[4] to the side ditches in the floor of the tunnel.
+
+    [Footnote 4: Of the paper by Mr. Jacobs.]
+
+All the water-proofing placed in these tunnels was of felt and pitch,
+six-ply felt and seven layers of pitch. The felt was required to be
+Hydrex, or of equal quality, and the pitch, “Straight run coal-tar pitch
+which will soften at 60° Fahr., of a grade in which the distillate oils
+will have a specific gravity of 1.05.”
+
+In addition to tests as to the above qualities, the pitch was analyzed
+to determine the amount of free carbon it contained, and was not
+accepted if this fell below 20 per cent.
+
+It was considered quite important that there should be absolutely free
+drainage on the outer side of the lining, so that there would be no
+chance for any water to acquire a head. More than three-quarters of the
+length of these tunnels is below the level of mean high water, and while
+it was hardly expected that there would be any direct connection between
+the water in the Hudson River and the groundwater of the section
+penetrated, it was thought wise to provide ample drainage.
+
+Before the lining was started, however, the excavation had progressed
+sufficiently to show that the tunnels, while very wet in places, and
+varying from that to quite damp, would be, on the whole, much dryer than
+had been anticipated. It was then decided to substitute concrete for the
+brick in the arch and omit the water-proofing over the top, except at
+places where water came into the tunnels in sufficiently large
+quantities to form practically a continuous stream. Three general types
+of construction for the arch were decided on, as shown in Fig. 18. The
+first, as shown at _A_, was to be used where the tunnel was quite dry.
+In this type, the sand-wall was omitted entirely, and the concrete and
+rock packing were built up together, the rock packing impinging to a
+certain extent on the concrete, and the concrete squeezing somewhat into
+the rock packing, as shown by Fig. 4, Plate XXV. The section shown at
+_B_ was used where the tunnels were damp, or where there were slight
+droppers not forming a continuous stream. The back lagging, of 1-in.
+boards, which was left in place, provided a practically smooth outer
+surface on the concrete arch, and allowing the concrete and rock packing
+to be built almost simultaneously. It was considered that the free
+drainage through the rock packing, the surface of the boards, and the
+smooth outer surface of the concrete in the arch would allow the
+comparatively small quantity of water in these parts of the tunnel to
+find its way to the sides, and thence to the ditches at the bottom,
+rather than to percolate through the concrete, and this proved to be
+very generally the case, as is shown by the dry condition of the tunnel
+as built. The back lagging was used over the arch, both where the
+sand-wall was built and where it was omitted, as well as being placed
+over the water-proofing of the arch as an armor course where
+water-proofing was required. Where the sand-walls were built and
+water-proofed, and where the water-proofing was not carried over the
+arch, the water-proofing was turned in at the top, as shown at _C_, Fig.
+18.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18. [Full Page]
+  VARIOUS TYPES OF ARCHES, AND WATER-PROOFING USED
+    Method of Lapping Mats over Arch
+    Method of making joint when work on section was not continuous. Part
+      of joint on radial line, part sloping slightly toward outside of
+      arch.
+    DETAILS OF WATER-PROOFING
+    One layer of felt with 4" overlap to be nailed to lagging of inch
+      boards, using tin washers on nails over the whole of the intrados
+      of the arch before starting any concrete or placing any of the
+      permanent felt and pitch water-proofing. The water-proofing over
+      the arch can be laid in mats of three thicknesses of felt properly
+      joined together with pitch made as shown diagrammatically at “_x_”
+    Each of these mats of three-ply felt will be overlapped half the
+      width of the mat, as shown diagrammatically at “_y_”]
+
+The third method provided for water-proofing the whole of the arch, and
+was the same as _B_ except for the addition of the water-proofing inside
+the back lagging. In placing this water-proofing, the felt was cut in
+strips about 11 ft. long (about 1 ft. longer than the length of a
+section of arch), and six thicknesses were cemented together with hot
+pitch. These mats were then laid shingle-fashion, as shown at _D_, Fig.
+18, up the sides of the arch until a space about 5 ft. wide remained at
+the crown; shorter mats were then brought out over this, laying them
+perpendicular to the axis of the tunnel. Care was taken in making all
+laps, irrespective of the direction in which the arch was built, so that
+they would lay with the grade, that is, so that the water would tend to
+flow over the edges of the laps rather than against them.
+
+Most of the wet sections of the tunnel were at the ends, where
+sand-walls had been built for the purpose of providing a smooth surface
+against which the water-proofing was to be placed; there were several
+wet places at isolated points in the tunnels, however, and, in order to
+avoid building sand-walls at these points, the method shown at _E_, Fig.
+18, was adopted. This involved a slightly larger excavation, 2 ft.
+outside of the neat line, up to the height of the top of the bench,
+where there was not already that much room. The bench-wall was built
+with a back form on the neat line, the water-proofing was placed as
+shown, protected by an armor course of brick, and then continued over
+the arch when this latter was built. The excavation and refilling with
+rock packing were done at the contractor’s expense, which he was willing
+to assume rather than build these short sections of sand-wall.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXVII.
+  Fig. 1: K 181. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) Timbered section near Weehawken Shaft, showing method of
+  placing waterproofing and keying arch. Dec. 8, 08.
+  Fig. 2: K 184. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels). View of completed tunnel looking Eastward from Sta.
+  323+60. South Tunnel. Feb. 8, 09.
+  Fig. 3: K 149. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Hackensack Portal, general view of completed Portal, and
+  arches through cut and cover section looking East. Oct. 15, 07.
+  Fig. 4: K 190. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) Hackensack Approach. General view, looking East. March 16,
+  09.]
+
+The method of water-proofing that part of the timbered section which was
+very wet, is shown at _F_, Fig. 18, and in Fig. 4, Plate XXVI, and
+Fig. 1, Plate XXVII. A lagging of 1-in. boards was nailed up the sides
+and to the soffit of the segmental timbering, all the spaces outside of
+this lagging being carefully filled with rock packing. Before starting
+any concrete work, a single thickness of water-proofing felt was nailed
+to the inner side of the lagging, which not only served to protect the
+finished surfaces of the concrete from the water which fell copiously
+from the roof, but also provided a comparatively dry surface to which
+the regular six-ply water-proofing could be cemented with pitch and held
+in position, while the concrete was placed against it.
+
+In placing the water-proofing in this section on the sides, the strips
+of felt were placed vertically, nailed at the top to the wall-plate, to
+support their weight, and lapped and cemented with pitch to the sides as
+on the sand-walls, except that there was no trouble from the overhang.
+After the bench-wall had been built, the felt was cut just below the
+nails and about 2 ft. above the top of the bench, so that the mats which
+were placed over the arch could be inserted behind it. The roof was
+covered with three-ply mats and lapped over a little more than half, as
+shown diagrammatically on the drawing.
+
+When the upper part of the arch was reached, where the cementing
+strength of the pitch was not sufficient to hold the felt in place, the
+mats were braced temporarily from the centering, as shown by Fig. 1,
+Plate XXVII, until the concrete could be packed against it.
+
+Where the water-proofing was placed against the sand-wall, the method of
+securing the sheets at the top is shown in the small sketch on Fig. 14
+and by Figs. 3 and 4, Plate XXIV. Fig. 3, Plate XXV, shows the laps of
+the sheets and the method of hanging. At the start an attempt was made
+to stick the water-proofing to the sand-wall, but this could not be done
+on account of its dampness and the overhang at the top.
+
+The sand-wall water-proofing was kept about 35 ft. ahead of the finished
+bench-wall, as shown by Fig. 3, Plate XXV. As the bench-wall form was
+moved ahead and set, the mat was braced back against the sand-wall from
+the forms at a point just above the top of the finished bench, care
+being taken to avoid wrinkles, as, if these were once formed, it was
+practically impossible to straighten them out.
+
+The completion of the bench-wall left the upper part of this
+water-proofing stretched taut across the curved top of the sand-wall,
+forming a chord of the arc. As the arch was built up, the top was
+gradually slackened so as to allow the concrete to press the mat back
+into place until the top of the sand-wall was reached, when the end was
+turned in, as shown at _C_, Fig. 18, or the water-proofing was continued
+over the arch, if that was necessary.
+
+The desire to obtain a dry tunnel, and the methods adopted to secure it,
+were responsible in a great measure for the decision to build the arch
+in short lengths, as well as the reasons given under the head of arches.
+Had the tunnels been dry throughout, the method shown at _A_, Fig. 18,
+could have been used exclusively, and, except for the fact that
+monolithic concrete might not have been obtained, there would have been
+no objection to building longer lengths.
+
+The quantity of water reaching the tunnel drains and flowing out of
+their lower ends after the completion of the lining was about 100,000
+gal. per day, or 75 gal. per min.; of this it is estimated that
+considerably less than 1% comes through the lining in the form of leaks.
+The very general distribution of this water over the roof is indicated
+by the fact that, during the excavation of the first 1,000 ft. of both
+tunnels from the Weehawken end, oilskins had to be provided for the
+laborers to induce them to work at all. The success, therefore, of the
+rock packing as a means of diverting this water to the side drains, is
+shown, especially in view of the fact that, excluding the cut-and-cover
+section, only 10% of the length of the arch, 1,189 ft., was
+water-proofed.
+
+Considerable care was taken to make all joints in the concrete which
+were in such a position that water might follow through them to the
+inside of the tunnel lining, in such a manner that they would slope
+outward toward the rock. The top of the sand-wall is shown by Figs. 14
+and 18. The slope of the back of the foundation may be noted in Fig. 18,
+and the method of making the joint in the arch, in the few instances
+where a section was not completed at one operation, is shown at _A_,
+Fig. 18. These joints in the arch were not allowed to be made above a
+point 60° above the springing line.
+
+
+HACKENSACK PORTAL AND APPROACH.
+
+The approach cut at the western end is 300 ft. long, the alignment being
+a 2° curve, as shown in Fig. 19. The bench-walls and conduit lines built
+throughout the length of the tunnels are extended through the approach
+cut, the top of the former gradually sloping from the portal to the
+mouth of the cut, where they are just level with the top of the rail,
+the conduits also being depressed to the same relative position with the
+tops of the benches.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 19. [Full Page]
+  BERGEN HILLS TUNNELS.
+  Hackensack Portal and Approach.
+  SECTIONS AND ELEVATIONS.
+    PLAN OF APPROACH.
+    PROFILE THROUGH APPROACH.
+    SECTION SHOWING METHOD OF MAKING JOINT BETWEEN COPING AND WALL.
+    PLAN SHOWING METHOD OF MAKING JOINT BETWEEN ADJOINING SECTIONS.
+    SECTION OF BENCH AND RETAINING WALLS AND HALF ELEVATION OF PORTAL.]
+
+The top of the rock at the mouth of the cut, Station 327, was from 4 to
+6 ft. below the top of the rail, and gradually rose through the approach
+until at the portal it was about 6 or 8 ft. above the roof of the
+tunnel. The rock was covered with hardpan. A profile of this part of the
+work is shown on Fig. 19. The rock throughout the approach was
+water-bearing to a considerable extent, and a face-wall was built at the
+sides with free drainage, through rock packing and vitrified and
+cast-iron drains behind it, to keep this water from flowing over the
+tops of the bench-walls, and also to keep the lines of conduits dry.
+
+The retaining walls were built in 25-ft. sections, the joints
+corresponding to those in the benches, being at the even stations, +08,
++33, +58, and +83. =V=-shaped joints were made down the face, and the
+ends of the sections were made as shown by Fig. 19. The back part of the
+joint was mopped with hot pitch before the next section was built, so
+that there was practically no bond between any two adjoining sections.
+
+The concrete in these walls was placed late in the season, and the
+expansion cracks, which were entirely confined to the =V=-shaped joints,
+were quite small even in the coldest weather of the following winter,
+nor were there any indications during the past summer of any stresses
+due to expansion. The coping and drain at the top of the wall were built
+together, but separate from the rest of the wall, the joint being made
+as shown in the sketch on Fig. 19. Thus far, there has seemed to be no
+seepage through either the vertical or horizontal joints.
+
+The portal is built of granite, a half elevation being shown on Fig. 19,
+the stone being supplied by the Millstone Granite Company, Millstone
+Point, Conn. Fig. 3, Plate XXVII, shows the portal and the cut-and-cover
+section after the arches were completed but not covered.
+
+The forms for the concrete in the approach were made of ordinary dressed
+lumber, and the surface was rubbed twice after the forms were removed,
+which was as soon as possible after the concrete had set. The surface
+was first very lightly rubbed with a piece of soft, light-colored,
+sandstone to remove any irregularities, being wetted slightly if
+necessary while being rubbed. After the concrete had become fairly hard
+and dry, it was rubbed a second time and a uniform texture and color
+obtained. The completion of this work was delayed until the second week
+in January, and considerable difficulty was encountered in obtaining a
+good finish of that part which was built after cold weather set in, when
+it was necessary to protect it from frost. Unless extreme care was taken
+to prevent freezing after the rubbing, the entire surface was likely to
+scale off, although no cement or other material was added to it after
+the removal of the forms. A general view of the completed approach is
+shown by Fig. 4, Plate XXVII.
+
+  TABLE 6.
+
+  ---------------------+----------------------+-----------------------+
+                       |         DAY.         |         NIGHT.        |
+         Title.        +-----+-------+--------+-----+-------+---------+
+                       | No. | Rate. | Amount.| No. | Rate. | Amount. |
+  ---------------------+-----+-------+--------+-----+-------+---------+
+  Walking bosses       |   2 | $5.00 | $10.00 |     |       |         |
+  Timekeeper           |   2 |  3.00 |   6.00 |     |       |         |
+  Watchmen             |     |       |        |  5  | $2.00 |  $10.00 |
+  Waterboys            |   1 |  1.50 |   1.50 |     |       |         |
+  Carpenter foremen    |   2 |  3.50 |   7.00 |  1  |  4.00 |    4.00 |
+  Carpenters           |  14 |  2.50 |  35.00 |  8  |  2.50 |   20.00 |
+  Pipe-fitters         |   1 |  3.00 |   3.00 |     |       |         |
+  Pipe-fitter’s helper |   1 |  1.75 |   1.75 |     |       |         |
+  Wheelwright          |   1 |  2.75 |   2.75 |     |       |         |
+  Wheelwright’s helper |   1 |  1.75 |   1.75 |     |       |         |
+  Blacksmith           |   1 |  3.00 |   3.00 |     |       |         |
+  Blacksmith’s helper  |   1 |  1.75 |   1.75 |     |       |         |
+  Foremen riggers      |   1 |  3.00 |   3.00 |     |       |         |
+  Riggers              |   6 |  1.75 |  10.50 |     |       |         |
+  Foremen trackmen     |   1 |  3.00 |   3.00 |     |       |         |
+  Trackmen             |   6 |  1.50 |   9.00 |     |       |         |
+  Machinist            |   2 |  3.00 |   6.00 |     |       |         |
+  Machinist’s helper   |   1 |  1.75 |   1.75 |     |       |         |
+  Electrician          |   2 |  3.00 |   6.00 |  1  |  2.50 |    2.50 |
+  Electrician’s helper |   1 |  1.75 |   1.75 |     |       |         |
+  Lampman              |   1 |  1.50 |   1.50 |     |       |         |
+  Pumpman              |   1 |  1.50 |   1.50 |     |       |         |
+  Finishers            |   3 |  2.50 |   7.50 |     |       |         |
+  Hoist engineers      |  12 |  3.00 |  36.00 |     |       |         |
+  Dinky engineers      |   5 |  2.75 |  13.75 |  1  |  2.75 |    2.75 |
+  Brakemen             |   5 |  1.75 |   8.75 |  1  |  1.75 |    1.75 |
+  Switchmen            |   1 |  1.50 |   1.50 |     |       |         |
+  Barnmen              |   1 |  2.00 |   2.00 |  1  |  2.50 |    2.50 |
+  Drivers              |   9 |  1.50 |  13.50 |     |       |         |
+  Foremen ductmen      |     |       |        |  2  |  2.50 |    2.50 |
+  Ductmen              |     |       |        |  5  |  2.00 |   10.00 |
+  Foremen laborers     |  13 |  3.50 |  45.50 |  2  |  3.50 |    7.00 |
+  Laborers             | 120 |  1.75 | 210.00 | 20  |  1.75 |   35.00 |
+  Compressor engineer  |   1 |  3.50 |   3.50 |  1  |  3.50 |    3.50 |
+  Firemen              |   2 |  2.50 |   5.00 |  1  |  2.50 |    2.50 |
+  Oiler                |   1 |  1.75 |   1.75 |     |       |         |
+  Coal passers         |   2 |  1.75 |   3.50 |  1  |  1.75 |    1.75 |
+  ---------------------+-----+-------+--------+-----+-------+---------+
+        Totals         | 334 |       |$469.75 | 50  |       | $108.25 |
+
+                         Total daily labor expense              $578.00
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The water finding its way into the side ditches in the approach, which
+of course included all rain falling in this area, was intercepted just
+inside the portal and carried back to the mouth of the cut through
+24-in. cast-iron pipes laid beneath the conduits in the central
+bench-wall, thus disposing by natural drainage of a not inconsiderable
+quantity of water which would otherwise have flowed through the tunnels
+to the sump at the Weehawken Shaft, from which it would have had to be
+pumped to the surface.
+
+About 100 ft. of the tunnel immediately east of the Hackensack Portal
+was built by the cut-and-cover method, and the arch section used in the
+tunnel was modified by widening the haunches, the thickness of the arch
+at the crown being gradually increased from 22 in. at the portal,
+Station 324, to 34 in. at Station 323, where the regular segmental
+timbering at the tunnel commenced. A general view of the approach during
+construction is shown by Fig. 1, Plate XXV.
+
+
+CONTRACTOR’S ORGANIZATION.
+
+Table 6 shows approximately the number of men employed daily on the
+tunnel lining, by both the contractor and the sub-contractors, their
+occupation, the average rate of wages and the total daily expense for
+labor when the work was in full swing.
+
+
+ENGINEERING ORGANIZATION.
+
+The whole of the work of the North River Division was designed and
+executed under the direction of Charles M. Jacobs, M. Am. Soc. C. E.,
+Chief Engineer, and James Forgie, M. Am. Soc. C. E., Chief Assistant
+Engineer, the construction of Section “K,” Bergen Hill Tunnels, being
+directly in charge of the writer as Resident Engineer.
+
+  [Transcriber’s Note:
+  The two organizational charts, Figs. 20 and 21, have been reformatted
+  for space.]
+
+  [Chart: Fig. 20.
+
+  PENNSYLVANIA TUNNEL AND TERMINAL RAILROAD COMPANY,
+  SECTION “K”--BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.
+
+  Organization of Staff of Resident Engineer.
+
+  Organization Previous to the Holing Through of the Tunnels.
+
+                      Resident Engineer.
+                  _______________|________
+                 |           |            |
+             Assistant       |        Assistant
+             Engineer.       |        Engineer.
+       _________|________    |            |
+       |                |    |            |
+  Cost and Office  Field Inspection.  Alignment.
+     Records.
+
+  Cost and Office Records.
+    Inspector.
+    Two Clerks.
+    Stenographer.
+    Telephone Operator.
+    Messenger.
+    Janitors.
+
+  Field Inspection.
+    Weehawken.
+      Chief Inspector.
+        Inspector, N. Tunnel
+            ”      S. Tunnel.
+            ”      Mixer.
+            ”      Excavation and Force Account.
+        Inspector, Night.
+        Cement Warehouseman.
+          Conduit Inspector. (_one position_)
+    Hackensack.
+      Chief Inspector.
+      Chief Inspector.
+        Inspector, N. Tunnel
+            ”      S. Tunnel.
+            ”      Mixer.
+            ”      Excavation and Force Account.
+        Inspector, Night.
+        Cement Warehouseman.
+          Conduit Inspector. (_one position_)
+
+  Alignment.
+    Weehawken.
+      Chief of Party.
+      Instrumentman.
+      Rodman.
+      Chainman.
+    Hackensack.
+      Chief of Party.
+      Instrumentman.
+      Rodman.
+      Chainman.]
+
+
+  [Chart: Fig. 21.
+
+  Organization After the Tunnels Had Been Holed Through.
+
+                        Resident Engineer.
+                 ________________|_______________
+                |             |      |           |
+            Assistant         |      |      Assistant
+            Engineer.         |      |      Engineer.
+         _______|______       |      |           |
+        |              |      |      |           |
+  Cost and Office  Field Inspection. |      Alignment.
+      Records.    _____|_____________|
+                 |                   |
+              Tunnels.    Conduit Inspector.
+
+  Cost and Office Records.
+    Two Inspectors.
+    Two Clerks.
+    Stenographer.
+    Telephone Operator.
+    Messenger.
+    Janitor.
+
+  Tunnels.
+    Chief Inspector.
+      8 Tunnel Inspectors.
+      2 Mixer Inspectors.
+      1 Night Inspector.
+  Conduit Inspector.
+    Inspector, Hackensack Approach.
+
+  Alignment.
+    1 Instrumentman.
+    1 Draftsman.
+    2 Rodmen.
+    3 Chainmen.]
+
+The general organization of the staff is shown by the two diagrams,
+Figs. 20 and 21. Fig. 20 shows the organization previous to the holing
+through of the tunnels, during which time a separate office was
+maintained at the western end for the use of the men stationed there;
+Fig. 21 shows the organization during the latter part of the time, after
+the tunnels were holed through. The Assistant Engineer in charge of the
+construction was J. R. Taft, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E.; the Chief
+Inspector, J. S. Frazer, Jun. Am. Soc. C. E., had charge of about 75% of
+the work of the lining of the tunnels. The alignment has been from the
+beginning under the charge of R. L. Reynolds, Assistant Engineer.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Errors and Notes:
+
+  Each Plate was printed with the same header:
+      PLATE __.
+      TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.
+      VOL. LXVIII, No. 1154.
+      LAVIS ON
+      PENNSYLVANIA R.R. TUNNELS: BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.
+  These headers were omitted for the e-text. Captions beginning in
+  “K” with a number were printed directly on the photograph; some
+  readings are uncertain and are indicated by question marks (?).
+
+  In the tables of Figures 1-4, variation between “to” and “-”, and
+  formatting of table entries, is as in the original.
+
+  [Fig. 1, table]
+  Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section: 3-33
+    _may be error for “3-3.3”_
+  [Fig. 1, last line of table]
+  Total Pounds
+    _text reads “Pound”_
+  Figs. 3 and 4, and Plate XXIV
+    _apparent error for “Figs. 3 and 4, Plate XXIV” (usual form)_
+  [Figure 15 A, B, C...]
+    _letters other than “B” do not appear in the printed Figure_
+  [Figure 15, caption]
+  DETAILS OF “WEASEL”
+    _quotation marks look hand-written, but printed text has spaces_
+  [Figure 15, “Index” (small table)]
+  Multi-Duct Mandrel
+    _text reads “Mult-Duct”_
+  which would be satisfactory to the engineers
+    _text reads “satifactory”_
+
+  Missing or superfluous punctuation was silently corrected.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Transactions of the American Society
+of Civil Engineers, vol. LXVIII, Sep, by F. Lavis
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Transactions of the American Society of
+Civil Engineers, vol. LXVIII, Sept. 1910, by F. Lavis
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. LXVIII, Sept. 1910
+       The Bergen Hill Tunnels. Paper No. 1154
+
+Author: F. Lavis
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2007 [EBook #21083]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Juliet Sutherland and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [Transcriber's Note:
+
+  Two other papers from ASCE _Transactions_ LXVIII (September 1910) are
+  referenced in this paper:
+
+    No. 1150, "The New York Tunnel Extension..." by Charles W. Raymond,
+    available from Project Gutenberg as e-text #18229.
+
+    No. 1151, "The North River Division" by Charles M. Jacobs, e-text
+    #18548, generally cited as "the paper by Mr. Jacobs".
+
+  The word "Figure" is used in two ways. It refers either to individual
+  numbered Figures (1-21), or to any of the four pictures that make up
+  each Plate, identified in the form "Fig. 2, Plate XXI". Figures 1-4
+  are always discussed as a group.
+
+  Single letters in boldface are shown as =A=. Typographical errors are
+  listed at the end of the text.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  American Society of Civil Engineers
+  Instituted 1852
+  TRANSACTIONS
+
+  Paper No. 1154
+
+  THE NEW YORK TUNNEL EXTENSION OF THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.
+  THE BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.[1]
+
+  By F. LAVIS, M. Am. Soc. C. E.
+
+    [Footnote 1: Presented at the meeting of April 6th, 1910.]
+
+
+_Location._--That section of the Pennsylvania Railroad's New York
+Tunnels lying west of the Hudson River is designated Section "K," and
+the tunnels are generally spoken of as the Bergen Hill Tunnels. Bergen
+Hill is a trap dike (diabase) forming the lower extension of the Hudson
+River Palisades.
+
+There are two parallel single-track tunnels, cross-sections of which are
+shown on Plate VIII of the paper by Charles M. Jacobs, M. Am. Soc. C. E.
+The center line is a tangent, and nearly on the line of 32d Street, New
+York City, produced, its course being N. 50� 30' W. The elevation of the
+top of the rail at the Weehawken Shaft (a view of which is shown by
+Fig. 2, Plate XXII), on the west bank of the Hudson River, is about 64
+ft. below mean high water; and at the Western Portal, or Hackensack end,
+the rail is about 17 ft. above; the grade throughout is 1.3%, ascending
+from east to west. The length of each tunnel between the portals is
+5,920 ft.
+
+A general plan and profile of these tunnels is shown on Plate I of the
+paper by Charles W. Raymond, M. Am. Soc. C. E. At Central Avenue a shaft
+212 ft. deep was sunk. It is 3,620 ft. from the Weehawken Shaft.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXI.
+  Fig. 1: K 94. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. D. Section K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) from Hackensack Poral, North Cut and Cover Section, and
+  Portal looking East from Sta. 323. Dec. 8, 05.
+  Fig. 2: K 71. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Method of using Cross-Section Rod in getting Sections of
+  Tunnel. Aug. 30, 06.
+  Fig. 3: K 115. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel Conveyor used by King Rice
+  and Garney for handling and placing concrete. June 3, 07.
+  Fig. 4: K 116. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel. View of conveyor for placing
+  concrete, with bucket suspended over hopper above belt. Steel forms
+  in fore ground. June 4, 07.]
+
+
+_History._--The contract for this work was let on March 6th, 1905, to
+the John Shields Construction Company; it was abandoned by the Receiver
+for that company on January 20th, 1906, and on March 20th, of that year,
+was re-let to William Bradley, who completed the work by December 31st,
+1908.
+
+The progress of excavation and lining in the North Tunnel is shown
+graphically on the progress diagram, Fig. 9, that of the South Tunnel
+being practically the same.
+
+
+_Geology._--Starting west from the Weehawken Shaft, the tunnels pass
+through a wide fault for a distance of nearly 400 ft., this fault being
+a continuation of that which forms the valley between the detached mass
+of trap and sandstone known as King's Bluff, which lies north of the
+tunnels, and the main trap ridge of Bergen Hill.
+
+The broken ground of the fault, which consists of decomposed sandstone,
+shale, feldspar, calcite, etc., interspersed with masses of harder
+sandstone and baked shale, gradually merges into a compact granular
+sandstone, which, at a distance of 460 ft. from the shaft, was
+self-supporting, and did not require timbering, which, of course, had
+been necessary up to this point.
+
+A full face of sandstone continued to Station 274 + 60, 940 ft. from the
+shaft, where the main overlying body of trap appeared in the heading.
+The full face of the tunnel was wholly in trap at about Station 275 +
+30, and continued in this through to the Western Portal, where the top
+of the trap was slightly below the roof of the tunnel, with hardpan
+above. The contact between the sandstone and the overlying trap was very
+clearly defined, the angle of dip being approximately 17� 40' toward the
+northwest.
+
+The sandstone and trap are of the Triassic Period, and the trap of this
+vicinity is more particularly classified as diabase.
+
+The character of the trap rock varied considerably. At the contact,
+at Station 275, and for a distance of approximately 200 ft. west,
+corresponding to a thickness of about 60 ft. measured at right angles to
+the line of the contact, a very hard, fine-grained trap, almost black in
+color, was found, having a specific gravity of 2.98, and weighing 186
+lb. per cu. ft. The hardness of this rock is attested by the fact that
+the average time required to drill a 10-ft. hole in the heading, with a
+No. 34 slugger drill, with air at 90 lb. pressure, was almost 10 hours.
+The specific gravity of this rock is not as high as that of some other
+specimens of trap tested, which were much more easily drilled. This rock
+was very blocky, causing the drills to bind and stick badly, and, when
+being shoveled back from the heading, as it fell it sounded very much as
+though it were broken glass.
+
+The remainder of the trap varied from this, through several changes of
+texture and color, due to different amounts of quartz and feldspar, to a
+very coarse-grained rock, closely resembling granite of a light color,
+though quite hard. The speed of drilling the normal trap in the heading
+was approximately 20 to 25 min. per ft., as compared with the 60 min.
+per ft. noted above, the larger amounts of quartz and feldspar
+accounting for the greater brittleness and consequently the easier
+drilling qualities of the rock. The normal trap in these tunnels has a
+specific gravity varying from 2.85 to 3.04, and weighs from 179 to 190
+lb. per cu. ft.
+
+The temperature of the tunnels, at points 1,000 ft. from the portals at
+both ends, remained nearly stationary, and approximately between 50� in
+winter and 60� in summer, up to the time the headings were holed
+through, being practically unaffected by daily changes in the
+temperature outside. At the western end, after the connection with the
+Central Shaft headings was made, there was almost always a current of
+air from the portal to the shaft, and ascending through the latter. This
+tended to make the temperature in this part of the tunnel correspond
+more nearly with the outside temperature; in fact, the variation was
+seldom more than 5� Fahr.
+
+
+_Timbering._--These tunnels have been excavated entirely by the center
+top heading method, almost invariably used in the United States.
+Timbering, where required, was of the usual segmental form with outside
+lagging, as shown in several of the photographs. In a few places it was
+necessary to hold the ground as the work progressed, and, in such cases,
+crown bars were used in the headings.
+
+There was some little trouble at the Western Portal, where the top of
+the rock was very near the roof of the tunnel, as shown by Fig. 1, Plate
+XXI. A side heading was driven at the level of the springing line until
+a point was reached where the roof was self-supporting, and the
+timbering was brought out to the face of the portal from that point.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXII.
+  Fig. 1: K 26. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. D. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels,) Weehawken Shaft. Scaffold car in South Tunnel at Sta.
+  267+60. Jan. 11, 06.
+  Fig. 2: K 31. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft. Headhouse at ? elevator frame work,
+  looking West. Oct. 17, 06.
+  Fig. 3.--Round Holes in Concrete Forms.
+  Fig. 4.--Round Holes in Concrete Forms Completed.]
+
+
+_Drilling._--Where no timbering was required, several different methods
+were used in drilling and excavating the solid rock, though in all cases
+a center top heading was driven. The four diagrams, Figs. 1, 2, 3,
+and 4, give typical examples of these methods and show, in the order of
+their numbers, the general tendency of the development from a small
+heading kept some distance ahead of the bench, to a large heading with
+the bench kept close to it. The notes on each diagram give the general
+details of the quantity of drilling and powder used, methods of
+blasting, etc., and on the progress profile, Fig. 6, is indicated those
+portions of the tunnels in which each method was used.
+
+All the drills used throughout the work by Mr. Bradley were Rand No. 34
+sluggers, with 3-5/8-in. cylinders, and the steel was that known as the
+"Black Diamond Brand," 1-3/8-in., octagon. It was used in 2, 4, 6, 8,
+10, and 12-ft. lengths; toward the end of the work it was proposed to
+use 14-ft. lengths, but owing to some delay in delivery this length was
+never obtained. The starters, 18 to 24 in. long, were sharpened to 2� to
+3-in. gauge, which was generally held up to depths of 6 ft.; then the
+gauge gradually decreased until it was 1� to 2� in. at the bottom of a
+12-ft. hole. Frequently, as many as three or four starters were used in
+starting a hole, and generally two sharpenings were required for each
+2 ft. drilled, after the first 6 ft. It is estimated that about � in. of
+steel was used for each sharpening, and that there was an average of one
+sharpening for every foot drilled.
+
+The total quantity of steel used up, lost, or scrapped on the whole work
+was almost exactly 1 ft. for each 10 cu. yd. excavated, equal to 1� in.
+of steel per yard, distributed approximately as follows:
+
+  Sharpening      � to 7/8 in.
+  Other losses    � to 3/8  "
+                 ---------------
+  Total         1� in. per cu. yd.
+
+An "Ajax" drill sharpener was used, and proved very satisfactory. Rubber
+and cotton hose, covered with woven marlin, was used for the bench
+(3 in. inside diameter, in 50-ft. lengths), for drills (1 in. in
+diameter, in 25-ft. lengths), and for steam shovels (2� in. in diameter,
+in 50-ft. lengths). Hose coverings of wound marlin, and of woven marlin
+with spiral steel wire covering were tried, but were not satisfactory,
+owing to the unwinding of the marlin and the bending of the steel
+covering.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 1. {Drilling Method No. 1}
+  CROSS-SECTION, LONGITUDINAL SECTION, PLAN]
+
+  Drilling Method No. 1: Small heading, 60 to 80 ft. long. Two columns
+    used in heading, with two drills on each. Drills on sub-bench and
+    main bench mounted on tripods.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------+
+  |                    Per Round                     |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  |         |  Total  | No. of  |  Pounds  |         |
+  |         |  Depth  | Cubic   |    of    | Advance |
+  |         | Drilled | Yards   | Dynamite |         |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | Heading | 140-155 | 18-21.6 |  93-131  |   5-6   |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | Bench   | 110-120 | 53-60   |  76-97   |  3�-4   |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+
+  +---------+--------------------+-----------------------------+
+  |         |   Per Cubic Yard   |  Per linear Foot of Tunnel  |
+  |         +---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  |         | Linear  |  Pounds  | Cubic | No. of  |  Pounds   |
+  |         |  Feet   |    of    | Yards |  Feet   |   of      |
+  |         | Drilled | Dynamite |       | Drilled | Dynamite  |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  | Heading |   8-9   |    5-6   |  3.6  | 29.-32  |   18-22   |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  |  Bench  |     2   |  1.4-1.6 | 15.4  | 30.-31  | 21.5-24.6 |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  |                       Total  | 19    | 59.63   | 39.5-46.6 |
+  +------------------------------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  | Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section | 3 to 33 |  2.1-2.5  |
+  +--------------------------------------+---------+-----------+
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                                   |  Number    |
+  |           Blasting Notes:                         | of Sticks  |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  | Heading: First Round: 6 sticks, 60% in each cut   |            |
+  |            hole, cut generally blasted twice      |  36 to  72 |
+  |          Second Round: 3 side holes each side,    |            |
+  |            5 sticks, 40% ea.                      |     30     |
+  |          Third Round: Rest of side holes and dry  |            |
+  |            holes, 5 sticks, 40% each              |     40     |
+  |          Stub holes, say                          |   5 to  15 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Sticks    | 111 to 157 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Pounds    |  93 to 131 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  | Sub-bench: 4 widening holes; 2 to 3 sticks,       |            |
+  |              each, 40%                            |  10 to  12 |
+  |            6 down holes; 5 to 7 sticks, each, 40% |  30 to  42 |
+  | Bench: 6 holes; 6 to 8 sticks each, 40%           |  36 to  48 |
+  |        Taking up bottom, average, say             |     15     |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Sticks    |  91 to 117 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Pounds    |  76 to  97 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2.
+  CROSS-SECTION, LONGITUDINAL SECTION, PLAN]
+
+  Drilling Method, No. 2: Five drills in heading, mounted on three
+    columns; the holes marked with a cross (X) were drilled with the
+    drills on the center column.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------+
+  |                    Per Round                     |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  |         |  Total  | No. of  |  Pounds  |         |
+  |         |  Depth  | Cubic   |    of    | Advance |
+  |         | Drilled | Yards   | Dynamite |         |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | Heading | 190-220 | 35-42   | 134-196  | 6�-8    |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | Bench   | 110-130 |   55    |  79-106  |    4    |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+
+  +---------+--------------------+-----------------------------+
+  |         |   Per Cubic Yard   |  Per linear Foot of Tunnel  |
+  |         +---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  |         | Linear  |  Pounds  | Cubic | No. of  |  Pounds   |
+  |         |  Feet   |    of    | Yards |  Feet   |   of      |
+  |         | Drilled | Dynamite |       | Drilled | Dynamite  |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  | Heading | 5.4-6.0 |  3.9-5.0 |  5.3  |28 to 32.| 20.7-26.5 |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  | Bench   |  2.-2.4 |  1.4-2.0 | 13.7  | 27.-33. | 19.2-27.4 |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  |                       Total  |  19   | 55.-65. | 39.9-53.9 |
+  +------------------------------+-------+---------+-----------+
+  | Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section | 2.9-3.4 |  2.1-2.8  |
+  +--------------------------------------+---------+-----------+
+
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                                   |  Number    |
+  |           Blasting Notes:                         | of Sticks  |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  | Heading: First Round; 2 to 3 relieving holes      |            |
+  |            sprung with 4 to 5 sticks each         |   8 to  15 |
+  |          8 cut holes, 7 sticks each               |            |
+  |            (sometimes shot twice)                 |  56 to 112 |
+  |          First side round, 6 holes, 6 sticks      |            |
+  |            each                                   |       36   |
+  |          Widening and dry holes, 10 to 12,        |            |
+  |            6 sticks each                          |  60 to  72 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Sticks    | 160 to 235 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Pounds    | 134 to 196 |
+  |                                   ----------------+------------+
+  | Sub-bench: 8 holes, 4 to 6 sticks, each           |  32 to  48 |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | Bench: 8 holes, 6 to 8 sticks, each               |  46 to  64 |
+  |        Taking up bottom, average                  |     15     |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Sticks    |  95 to 127 |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  |                                   Total Pounds    |  79 to 109 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.
+  CROSS-SECTION, LONGITUDINAL SECTION, PLAN]
+
+  Drilling Method No. 3: Heading same as second method, but larger lift
+    taken off bench, and lift holes drilled in bottom bench in order to
+    get down to grade in floor. Bench kept closer to heading.
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                       Per Round                         |
+  +---------+------------+-----------+------------+---------+
+  |         |   Total    |  No. of   |   Pounds   |         |
+  |         |   Depth    |  Cubic    |     of     | Advance |
+  |         |  Drilled   |  Yards    |  Dynamite  |         |
+  +---------+------------+-----------+------------+---------+
+  | Heading | 190 to 220 | 35 to 42  | 134 to 196 | 6� to 8 |
+  +---------+------------+-----------+------------+---------+
+  |         |            |           |            |         |
+  | Bench   | 145  " 190 | 90 to 110 | 118  " 167 | 6�  " 8 |
+  +---------+------------+-----------+------------+---------+
+
+  +-----+-------------------------+----------------------------------+
+  |     |     Per Cubic Yard      |    Per linear Foot of Tunnel     |
+  |     +------------+------------+-------+-----------+--------------+
+  |     |  Linear    |   Pounds   | Cubic |  No. of   |   Pounds     |
+  |     |   Feet     |     of     | Yards |   Feet    |    of        |
+  |     |  Drilled   |  Dynamite  |       |  Drilled  |  Dynamite    |
+  +-----+------------+------------+-------+-----------+--------------+
+  | Hd. | 5.4 to 6.0 | 3.9 to 5.0 |  5.3  |  28 to 32 | 20.7 to 26.5 |
+  +-----+------------+------------+-------+-----------+--------------+
+  | B.  | 1.6  " 1.9 | 1.3  " 1.8 | 13.7  |  22  " 36 | 17.8  " 24.7 |
+  +-----+------------+------------+-------+-----------+--------------+
+  |                        Total  | 19    |  50  " 58 | 38.5  " 51.2 |
+  +-------------------------------+-------+-----------+--------------+
+  | Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section  | 2.6 " 3.1 |  2.0  "  2.6 |
+  +---------------------------------------+-----------+--------------+
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                                   |  Number    |
+  |           Blasting Notes:                         | of Sticks  |
+  |                                                   +------------+
+  | Heading: First Round: 2 to 3 relieving holes      |            |
+  |            sprung, with 4 to 5 sticks each        |   8 to  15 |
+  |          8 cut holes, 7 sticks each               |            |
+  |            (sometimes shot twice)                 |  56 to 112 |
+  |          First side round, 6 holes, 6 sticks      |            |
+  |            each                                   |    36      |
+  |          Widening and dry holes, 10 to 12 holes,  |            |
+  |            6 sticks each                          |  60 to  72 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                   Total Sticks    | 160 to 235 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                   Total Pounds    | 134 to 196 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | Sub-bench: 4 widening holes, 4 to 5 sticks each,  |            |
+  |              2 rounds                             |  32 to  40 |
+  |            6 down holes, 5 to 7 sticks each,      |            |
+  |              2 rounds                             |  60 to  84 |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | Bench: 4 down holes, 5 to 7 sticks each           |  20 to  28 |
+  |        6 to 8 lift holes, 5 to 6 sticks each      |  30 to  48 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                   Total Sticks    | 142 to 200 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                   Total Pounds    | 118 to 167 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 4.
+  CROSS-SECTION, LONGITUDINAL SECTION, PLAN]
+
+  Drilling Method No. 4: 8 drills on 4 columns used in heading. Bench
+    taken off in one lift. Bottom taken up with lift holes.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------+
+  |                    Per Round                     |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  |         |  Total  | No. of  |  Pounds  |         |
+  |         |  Depth  | Cubic   |    of    | Advance |
+  |         | Drilled | Yards   | Dynamite |         |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | Heading | 310-320 |  63-71  | 215-257  |   8-9   |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | Bench   | 190-210 | 89-100  | 107-155  |   8-9   |
+  +---------+---------+---------+----------+---------+
+
+  +---------+--------------------+------------------------------+
+  |         |   Per Cubic Yard   |  Per linear Foot of Tunnel   |
+  |         +---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+
+  |         | Linear  |  Pounds  | Cubic | No. of   |  Pounds   |
+  |         |  Feet   |    of    | Yards |  Feet    |   of      |
+  |         | Drilled | Dynamite |       | Drilled  | Dynamite  |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+
+  | Heading | 4.5-5.1 | 3.4-5.7  |  7.9  | 35.6-45. | 26.9-45.0 |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+
+  | Bench   | 1.9-2.2 | 1.2-1.7  | 11.1  | 21.1-24. | 13.3-18.9 |
+  +---------+---------+----------+-------+----------+-----------+
+  |                       Total  | 19    | 56.7-69. | 40.2-63.9 |
+  +------------------------------+-------+----------+-----------+
+  | Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section |   3.-3.6 |  2.1-3.4  |
+  +--------------------------------------+----------+-----------+
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+  |                                                   |  Number    |
+  |           Blasting Notes:                         | of Sticks  |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | All holes of whole round are cleaned and loaded   |            |
+  |   before blasting is started                      |            |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | First Round: 5-6 lift holes, 7 to 9 sticks each   |  35 to  54 |
+  |     First row, sub-bench, 6 holes, 6 to 8         |            |
+  |         sticks each                               |  36 to  48 |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | Second Round: Second row, sub-bench and widening  |            |
+  |         holes, 8 to 10 holes, 6 to 8 sticks each  |  48 to  64 |
+  |     Stub holes                                    |  10 to  20 |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  |                            Bench: Total Sticks    | 129 to 186 |
+  |                                   Total Pounds    | 107 to 155 |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  | Third Round: 8 cut holes, 7 sticks each, often    |            |
+  |         requires 3 to 4 charges                   | 112 to 224 |
+  | Fourth Round: 8 holes, First side round, 5 to 7   |            |
+  |         sticks each                               |  40 to  56 |
+  | Fifth Round: 8 holes, Second side round, 5 to 7   |            |
+  |         sticks each                               |  40 to  56 |
+  |     2 dry holes 5 to 7 sticks each                |  10 to  14 |
+  | Sixth Round: 4 to 6 widening holes and dry holes, |            |
+  |         6 sticks each                             |  36 to  48 |
+  |     Stub holes                                    |  20 to  30 |
+  |                                                   |            |
+  |                          Heading: Total Sticks    | 258 to 428 |
+  |                                   Total Pounds    | 215 to 357 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------+------------+
+
+
+The average quantity of powder used on the whole work was about 2.9 lb.
+per cu. yd. The tables on the diagrams, Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, show that
+the quantity actually used in making the advance at the main working
+faces was about 2.5 lb. The difference is accounted for by the larger
+percentage of powder used for trimming the sides, breaking out the
+cross-passages between the tunnels, and the excavation of the ditches,
+the latter operation not being done until the concrete lining was about
+to be put in.
+
+There was some time, too, during the earlier stages of the work, when it
+is believed that an excessive quantity of powder was used; for one or
+two months it ran up to 4 lb. per cu. yd.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 5.
+  MUCK CAR USED AT WEEHAWKEN SHAFT]
+
+The dynamite used was "Forcite." At first, both 40% and 60% were used,
+the 60% generally only for blasting the cut in the headings; during the
+latter part of the work, however, the 60% was used exclusively.
+
+The rock as a rule broke very well, and only a comparatively small
+quantity could not be handled by the shovels without being broken up
+further by block-holing. In the sandstone the quantity of powder per
+cubic yard was much more than for any of the trap.
+
+In drilling the Central Shaft, a 6-hole cut was made approximately on
+the center line, east and west, the enlargement requiring about 18 more
+holes, which were generally about 6 ft. deep, the average advance being
+about 4 ft. per day of 24 hours.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 6.
+  PROGRESS PROFILES OF NORTH AND SOUTH TUNNELS SHOWING MONTHLY
+  EXCAVATION]
+
+The drills were run by steam until a depth of about 150 ft. had been
+reached, air from the plant at Hackensack being available after that
+time. Four drills were used most of the time, and six later when air was
+available. This work was done entirely by the John Shields Construction
+Company, and a depth of 205 ft. was sunk in 6 months (from July 15th,
+1905, to January 15th, 1906). A derrick was used for hoisting and
+lowering men and tools during the sinking, elevators being put in later.
+
+
+  [Illustration:
+  PLATE XXIII.]
+
+_Drilling Data._--During the progress of the work, both general and
+detailed observations were made of the drilling, the results of which
+are shown in the tables. Table 1 has been compiled from the records as
+platted daily on the chart from the inspectors' reports, as shown by
+Plate XXIII, and described on page 113. Table 2 contains some data
+relating to the drilling in the headings.
+
+The general results of these observations show that the average time the
+drills were "actually working" was 5.2 hours per shift, and that they
+were actually "hitting the rock" about half of this time, or about 2.5
+hours per shift. The average depth drilled per hour, during the time the
+drills were "actually working," was 2.66 ft.
+
+The "actual working time," as noted above, covers the period from the
+time the drills were first set up in the heading after blasting until
+they were taken down for the next blast; it does not include the time
+occupied in setting up or taking down, which would probably average 30
+min. more per shift. It is believed that this figure will also apply
+very closely to drills working on the bench, though no actual
+observations were taken to determine this, on account of the
+irregularity with which they were worked.
+
+The actual working time of the drills in the 736 shifts (7,360 hours)
+covered by Table 1, was 3,826 hours, or 5.2 hours per shift. The average
+depth drilled per yard, as shown in the last column of Table 1, agrees
+fairly well with the figures on the diagrams, Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4.
+
+Table 2 has been compiled from detailed timed observations of individual
+drilling of down holes in the bench, for periods of 7 or 8 hours each,
+in January, 1907. The work at that time was in fairly normal condition
+at all points.
+
+The figures in the third column of Table 2 include the time required for
+moving from one hole to another, when this occurred during the
+observation, the time required for changing bits, oiling drills, etc.,
+and all delays of all kinds. A close record of the delays was kept, and
+it was considered that, of the 93 hours, 48 min., in Table 2, the
+unnecessary delays amounted to 5 hours, 7 min., or about 5� per cent.
+
+  TABLE 1.
+
+  #S. Number of shifts covered by observations.
+  #Hrs Average number of hours worked per shift.
+  D/Hr Average depth drilled per hour per drill.
+  D/Yd Average depth drilled per yard.
+  Hack. Hackensack
+  Whk. Weehawken
+  CS Central Shaft
+
+  ----------------+-----------+----+-----------+------+------+------
+      Method.     |   Date.   | #S | Place.    | #Hrs | D/Hr | D/Yd
+  ----------------+-----------+----+-----------+------+------+------
+                 {| Aug.  '06 | 44 | Hack., N. | 5.69 | 2.78 | 10.1
+                 {| Sept. '06 | 38 |   "    N. | 5.80 | 3.77 | 11.1
+  No. 1--        {| Aug.  '06 | 43 |   "    S. | 5.60 | 2.89 |  9.1
+      4-drill    {| Sept. '06 | 36 |   "    S. | 6.18 | 2.65 |  8.7
+                 {| Jan.  '07 | 16 | CS E.  N. | 5.99 | 2.99 |  8.2
+                 {| Jan.  '07 | 20 |   "    S. | 6.05 | 2.9  |  7.1
+                 {| Apr.  '07 | 48 | CS W.  N. | 4.92 | 3.3  |  6.7
+                 {| Apr.  '07 | 48 |   "    S. | 5.00 | 3.2  |  7.7
+                  |           |    |           |      |      |
+                 {| Dec.  '06 | 54 | Whk.,  N. | 4.95 | 2.16 |  4.52
+  Nos. 2 and 3-- {| Dec.  '06 | 54 |   "    S. | 5.23 | 2.14 |  4.54
+      5-drill    {| Dec.  '06 | 52 | Hack., N. | 5.03 | 2.2  |  5.77
+                 {| Dec.  '06 | 54 |   "    S. | 5.90 | 1.82 |  5.67
+                  |           |    |           |      |      |
+  No. 4--        {| June  '07 | 56 | Whk.,  N. | 4.77 | 2.55 |  4.23
+      7-drill    {| June  '07 | 58 |   "    S. | 4.82 | 2.26 |  3.88
+                  |           |    |           |      |      |
+      8-drill    {| May   '07 | 60 | Hack., N. | 4.67 | 2.44 |  5.00
+                 {| May   '07 | 60 |   "    S. | 4.54 | 2.57 |  4.80
+  ----------------+-----------+----+-----------+------+------+------
+
+
+  TABLE 2.
+
+  Hrs. _Hours._
+  Min. _Minutes._
+
+  ----------------+----------+---------------+----------------
+        Date.     |  Place.  |     Total     | Number of feet
+                  |          | working time. |    drilled.
+  ----------------+----------+---------------+----------------
+                  |          |  Hrs.   Min.  |
+  Jan. 14th, 1907 | Whk.  N. |   8      0    |      15
+   "   15th, 1907 |   "   N. |   7     32    |      12
+                  |   "   N. |   7     22    |      14
+   "   12th, 1907 |   "   S. |   8      0    |      20
+                  |   "   S. |   8      0    |      11
+                  |   "   S. |   8      0    |      10
+   "   11th, 1907 | Hack. N. |   8      0    |      13
+   "   17th, 1907 |   "   N. |   7     10    |      10
+                  |   "   N. |   7      5    |      11
+                  |   "   N. |   7     10    |      10
+   "   16th, 1907 |   "   S. |   4     20    |      10
+                  |   "   S. |   6      9    |      10
+                  |   "   S. |   7     ...   |       8
+  ----------------+----------+---------------+---------------
+       Totals.    |          |  93     48    |     154
+  ----------------+----------+---------------+---------------
+  Average: 36.6 min. per ft. drilled, or 1.64 ft. drilled per hour.
+
+As a check on the average figures obtained from various sources, the
+following estimate of the cost of drilling per cubic yard was made up
+from these average figures, for comparison with the actual average cost
+on the whole work. The cost records show this to be about $2.25 per yd.,
+exclusive of power for running the drills, almost exactly what the
+following estimates give for theoretical average conditions, although no
+effort was made to have this latter compare so closely.
+
+          _Estimated Cost per Drill per Day._
+
+  Drill Runner                            1 at $3.50 per day, $3.50
+  Helper                                  1  "  2.00  "   "    2.00
+  Nipper                                1/5  "  1.75  "   "    0.35
+  Heading foreman                      1/12  "  5.00  "   "    0.42
+  Walking boss                         1/50  "  7.50  "   "    0.15
+  Blacksmith                           1/12  "  4.00  "   "    0.34
+  Blacksmith helper                    1/12  "  2.00  "   "    0.16
+  Machinist                            1/12  "  3.00  "   "    0.25
+  Machinist helper                     1/24  "  1.75  "   "    0.07
+  Pipe fitter and helper               1/50  "  5.00  "   "    0.10
+  Oil, waste, blacksmith coal, etc.                            0.24
+  Drill steel, 6 in. per shift                                 0.20
+                                                              -----
+                                                              $7.78
+
+  Average number of feet drilled per cubic yard            3 to 3.5
+  Number of feet drilled per drill, per shift            10.5 to 12
+  Number of yards per drill, per shift                         3.5�
+  Cost of drilling, per yard, $7.78/3.5                      $2.22�
+
+In all the foregoing tables and computations, the quantities used have
+been those paid for. The quantity taken out, however, has been 10% more
+than that paid for, and 28% more than the contractor was actually
+required to take out.
+
+The specifications required that the excavation should be taken entirely
+outside of the neat line, as shown on Plate VIII of the paper by Mr.
+Jacobs, but not necessarily beyond this line, but that the contractor
+would be paid for rock out to the standard section line, which is 1 ft.
+larger on the sides and top and 6 in. deeper in the bottom than the neat
+line.
+
+A great deal of the extra quantity was due to rock falling from the
+core-wall side whenever one working face was behind the other. Blasting
+at the face behind generally loosened more or less rock on the core-wall
+side of the tunnel which was ahead, in one or two instances breaking
+entirely through, as shown in Fig. 2, Plate XXVI, the hole in the
+core-wall in this case being utilized by building a storage chamber in
+it.
+
+Table 3 gives some of the statistics of drilling in the Simplon Tunnel,
+as compared with the drilling on this work, the figures for the Simplon
+being taken from papers read before the Institution of Civil Engineers
+of Great Britain.
+
+  TABLE 3.
+  -------------------------------------------+--------------+----------
+                                             |              |
+                                             | Bergen Hill. | Simplon.
+  -------------------------------------------+--------------+----------
+  Drills set up in heading, percentage of    |              |
+    total elapsed time                       |      50%     |   60%
+  Actually drilling the rock, percentage of  |              |
+    total elapsed time                       |      25%     |   50%
+  Average advance per round (attack)         |    8.5 ft.   | 3.8 ft.
+  Average time for each attack               |   36 hours.  | 5 hours.
+  Average advance per day of 24 hours        |     5 ft.    | 18 ft.**
+  Depth of holes                             |    10 ft.    | 4.6 ft.
+  Diameter of holes                          |    2� in.    | 2� in.
+  Linear feet drilled per hour, per drill    |     2.7      |   7.0
+  Linear feet drilled per cubic yard         |     5.0      |   6.0
+  Pounds of dynamite per cubic yard          |  3.4 to 5.7  |  8�
+  Average depth drilled with one sharpening  |    12 in.    | 6� in.
+  Total number of men per day of 24 hours*   |     450      |  3,300
+  -------------------------------------------+--------------+----------
+
+    [* On Bergen Hill Tunnels, for two full working faces at the
+    Hackensack end, about 3,000 ft. in from portal (March, 1908). At
+    Simplon, two full faces and two headings, at a distance of about
+    5,000 ft. in from the portal (January, 1900). These both include
+    lining as well as excavation. The lining of the Bergen Hill Tunnels
+    progressed about twice as fast as the excavation; it is inferred
+    that on the Simplon it progressed at about the same rate as the
+    excavation.]
+
+    [** At the Italian end, in Antigoric gneiss, which is stated to be
+    very hard rock.]
+
+The figures in Table 3 are for "heading only" in both cases, except for
+the last item (number of men), the heading in the Simplon Tunnels being
+about 60 sq. ft., as compared with the heading of Method No 4 (which has
+been used for comparison), of 210 sq. ft.
+
+
+_Mucking and Disposal._--The conditions affecting the disposal of the
+muck, after blasting, were quite different at the two ends, the grade
+descending in the direction of the loads at Weehawken and ascending at
+the Hackensack end. At the Weehawken end the mouth of the tunnels was at
+the bottom of a shaft some 80 ft. deep, Fig. 2, Plate XXII, the muck in
+the tunnel cars being hoisted by elevators to a platform at the top from
+which it was dumped into standard-gauge cars supplied by the Erie
+Railroad, as shown by Fig. 7; or later hauled to the crusher or storage
+pile, some 500 ft. distant, on the north side of Baldwin Avenue. At the
+western end, the cars were hauled directly to the surface through the
+approach cut, and the material, except that required for concrete and
+rock packing, was deposited in the embankment across the Hackensack
+Meadows, a haul of from 1,000 to 3,000 ft. beyond the portal.
+
+All disposal tracks were of 3-ft. gauge, the main running tracks being
+generally laid with 60-lb. second-hand rails, although some of lighter
+weight were used.
+
+Except for about 1,000 ft. in each tunnel at the Weehawken end, where
+the muck was loaded by hand, four steam shovels, operated by compressed
+air, were used, one at each working face. One of these was a "Marion,
+Model No. 20," weighing 38 tons, the others were "Vulcan Little Giant,"
+of about 30 tons each. All these shovels were on standard-gauge track,
+and were moved back from 300 to 500 ft. from the working face during
+blasting.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 7.
+  METHOD OF EMPTYING DUMP CARS AT WEEHAWKEN SHAFT:
+  FRONT VIEW, SIDE VIEW]
+
+At Weehawken, previous to the time the shovels were installed, the muck
+was shoveled by hand into the cars from the bottom of the bench, and the
+heading muck was dumped into them from the movable platform (Jumbo)
+shown by Fig. 1, Plate XXII. There were three loading tracks at the
+face. The cars used at that time were similar to that shown by Fig. 5,
+but were about two-thirds the size and had no end door; stop-planks were
+supposed to be placed in the ends but seldom were. The loads averaged
+about � cu. yd. (measured in place). After the shovel was installed the
+cars shown by Fig. 5 were used, and the loads averaged nearly 1 cu. yd.
+
+The empty cars were pushed up to the shovel by hand from the storage
+track. When loaded, they were given a start with the bucket of the
+shovel, and were then allowed to coast by gravity out to the storage
+track near the shaft, where they were stopped by placing rolls of cement
+bags or burlap on the rails. After the lining was started, the loaded
+cars were stopped on the inside of the lining and only sent out over the
+single track through this latter at stated intervals, when several cars
+followed in close succession, with a long interval which permitted the
+concrete to be brought in. The empty cars were hauled back to the
+storage track near the working face by mules, one mule usually hauling
+two cars at a time.
+
+Up to the time the trap rock was reached, about 1,100 ft. from the
+shaft, the excavated material was disposed of by loading it on flat
+cars. All the trap, however, was stored to be used later for concrete
+and ballast.
+
+When the tunnels were in full working order, sixty muck cars of the type
+shown by Fig. 5, were in use, about evenly divided between the two
+tunnels. For some time the work was greatly hampered by lack of cars,
+and even with the sixty finally obtained, there were many times when
+extra cars could have been used to advantage to keep the shovel working.
+
+When mucking by hand, the mucking gangs consisted of from 15 to 20 men.
+The maximum output was 50 cu. yd., and averaged about 35 cu. yd. per
+shift; there was a great deal of trouble in keeping the gangs full, as
+labor at that time was very scarce, and the tunnels were quite wet. The
+maximum output of either of the shovels was 159 cu. yd. in one shift,
+and the best average in any month--which was between July and December,
+1907, during which time only the enlargement and bench of the Central
+Shaft headings was being taken out from the western end--was 60 cu. yd.
+per shift. As the shovels were generally idle for one shift out of
+three, the quantity actually handled averaged 90 cu. yd. per shift
+during the shifts the shovel worked. All these quantities were "measured
+in place," and, as previously noted, would be about equal to twice as
+much measured loose in the cars.
+
+The shovels at both ends were usually worked with three crews for the
+two tunnels; two day crews, one at each shovel, and a night crew which
+was used in either tunnel as occasion required. The day crews generally
+averaged from 45 to 60 hours overtime during the month, one of them
+working during the early part of the evenings in the opposite tunnel to
+the night crew. For a short time, when the ventilation at the western
+end was very bad, four crews were worked, day and night crews in each
+tunnel; but, as a general rule, the method of working three crews was
+preferred by the men, and was less expensive for the contractor.
+
+At the Hackensack end, 4-yd., Allison, one-way, dump cars were used,
+being handled by "dinky" locomotives, of which there were three in use
+up to October, 1907, and four after that. One 15-ton Porter engine, with
+10 by 16-in. cylinders, was used outside the tunnels for handling the
+trains (from 6 to 8 cars) on the dumps and to the crusher; the other
+three, 12-ton Vulcans, 9 by 14-in., were used in the tunnels. About 30
+dump cars were in use, and of these there were generally from 3 to 6
+under repair.
+
+Generally, 4 cars were hauled out together, although 5 and occasionally
+6 were handled. The work was generally arranged so that the heavy
+mucking shift alternated in the two tunnels, the two engines being
+worked there and a single engine in the other tunnel.
+
+The tunnel engines left the cars on a track just outside the portal,
+from which they were made up into trains of from 6 to 8 cars and taken
+to the dump or crusher by the large "dinky."
+
+The muck from the Central Shaft headings was loaded by hand into cars
+similar to that shown by Fig. 5, but smaller and having no door at the
+forward end. A double elevator took the cars to a platform about 20 ft.
+above the surface, where they were dumped by revolving platforms,
+similar to those at Weehawken, into storage bins or directly into
+wagons. The muck was all hauled away in wagons; part of it was used to
+fill some vacant lots, and part was hauled to the crusher at the Western
+Portal.
+
+The method under which the best results were obtained was that in which
+a full round was blasted every 36 hours, securing an advance of
+practically 9 ft. of full section. During the first shift of the three,
+as soon as the blasting had been completed and lights strung, the shovel
+was moved forward, and cleaned up the floor to the main pile of muck,
+the material from the blast being scattered from 150 to 300 ft. back
+from the face; during this shift, also, the drillers mucked the heading
+and set up their drills, the muckers helping to carry in the columns and
+drills. During the second shift the main pile of muck was disposed of,
+leaving not more than 2 or 3 hours' work for the shovel on the third
+shift. This left nearly the whole of the third shift for drilling the
+lift holes.
+
+
+_Ventilation._--At Weehawken considerable difficulty was caused by fog
+and smoke accumulating in the tunnels after blasting. This was generally
+worse on days when the barometric pressure was low outside, and worse in
+the North than in the South Tunnel. A 6-ft. fan, driven by an electric
+motor, was installed in the cross-passage at Station 274, 900 ft. from
+the shaft, the headings at that time being about 300 ft. in advance of
+this point, to force the air from the South into the North Tunnel,
+drawing it in at the mouth of the South Tunnel and discharging it at the
+mouth of the North Tunnel, thus insuring a circulation in both tunnels,
+as shown in plan by Fig. 8.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 8.]
+
+This necessitated, of course, that the cross-passages between that in
+which the fan was placed and the mouths of the tunnels should be blocked
+tight. There was some difficulty in keeping this blocking tight, owing
+to the force of the blasting blowing out the bulkheads. The fan,
+however, did good service when it and the bulkheads were in good order.
+The compressed air discharged from the drills kept the headings fairly
+clear, as well as that part of the tunnel between the headings and the
+fan. The fan was moved ahead to the next cross-passage at Station 277
+when the work had progressed far enough, and was used there for some
+time; it was found, however, that by the time the excavation had reached
+Station 280, about 1,500 ft. from the shaft, there was practically no
+further difficulty from fog and smoke. No satisfactory explanation was
+found for this, as it would rather be expected that the ventilation and
+trouble with smoke and fumes from blasting would be worse as the
+distance increased between the mouth of the tunnel and the working face.
+One explanation was offered: That the blasting of the softer sandstone
+tended to create more and lighter dust than the heavier trap rock;
+whether or not this was so, it is a fact that there was far less trouble
+with fog and smoke after the sandstone was passed.
+
+At Hackensack, the principal cause of trouble was the smoke from the
+"dinky" locomotives. As the tunnels progressed, this gradually became
+worse, until a connection was made with the Central Shaft headings.
+A fan was installed in the cross-passage at Station 316 (700 ft. in from
+the portal), but was never worked properly. Apparently, the men, at
+least the walking bosses and foremen, had little faith in the fan as a
+means of ventilation; no real attempt was made to keep it in order or
+operate it properly, and a great deal of time and money was lost groping
+around in the smoke and fog, the density of which increased, not only
+with the state of the atmosphere, but also with the direction of the
+wind. On some days the tunnels easily cleared themselves, and on others
+the smoke was so thick that a candle held at arm's length could not be
+seen. At this end, the South Tunnel was generally worse than the North.
+After the headings were holed through between the portal and the Central
+Shaft there was very little trouble, there being usually a strong
+up-draft through the shaft. This was so pronounced when the wind was
+blowing toward the portal, that the moisture-laden air, as it ascended
+from the mouth of the shaft, presented the appearance of a heavy
+rainstorm with the rain ascending instead of descending. When the wind
+was blowing away from the portal, that is, from the southeast, the
+effect of the shaft as a chimney was neutralized, and, consequently, the
+smoke accumulated in the tunnels. To overcome this, a large blower, with
+a fan 9 ft. in diameter, and with blades 4 ft. wide and 2 ft. 3 in.
+long, operated by a vertical 12-h.p. engine, was installed at the top of
+the shaft, and this kept the tunnels reasonably clear of smoke at all
+times. After the bench and enlargement had passed the bottom of the
+shaft, the use of the fan was abandoned, as it was found that the
+tunnels cleared themselves fairly well, probably owing to the larger
+cross-section reaching all the way to the Shaft. What little fog and
+smoke there might be did not cause enough trouble to warrant the cost of
+running the fan, which, owing to its location, required the whole time
+of a mechanic in attendance day and night.
+
+
+_Lighting._--During the earlier stages of the work, gasoline lamps and
+Kitson lights were used. The former, of the familiar banjo type, and a
+modification of this, with a section of wrought-iron pipe for the
+reservoir, were very unsatisfactory, and were out of repair and leaking
+a large proportion of the time. The Kitson lights were given only a
+short trial, but were found unsatisfactory, owing to the necessity of
+moving them frequently and having to set them up in insecure positions.
+Electric lights were installed by Mr. Bradley, on his assumption of the
+contract.
+
+The number of lamps maintained in each of the tunnels for the excavation
+was approximately as follows:
+
+  At the main working face                 From  8 to 10
+  On and around the shovel                   "   9 to 12
+  Between the portal and the working face    "  60 to 80
+
+The cost of lighting for the whole work averaged about 15 cents per
+cu. yd., which is quite large. This was mainly due to the fact that
+current was bought from outside sources during a large part of the time
+(one-third of the yardage). Part of this current cost 5 cents per
+kw-hr., and there were fairly heavy charges for connecting the tunnel
+wiring system with the source of supply. Current bought from the Public
+Service Corporation cost from 10 to 12 cents per kw-hr. delivered at the
+mouth of the tunnel.
+
+
+_Pumping._--The quantity of water encountered during the excavation of
+the tunnels, measured somewhat roughly, was approximately as follows:
+
+  At Weehawken        74 gal. per min.
+  At Central Shaft     1  "    "   "
+  At Hackensack       18  "    "   "
+
+The water at the Weehawken end had to be pumped from the bottom of the
+shaft, a lift of about 90 ft., while at the Hackensack end it had to be
+pumped back from the face up grade to the portal.
+
+The cost of pumping was about $100 to $125 per month for labor for the
+whole work, besides the cost of the plant (about $1,200) and the power
+for running it.
+
+
+PROGRESS.
+
+The total time elapsed from the time of starting work at the Weehawken
+end, in May, 1905, to the completion of the excavation, in May, 1908,
+was almost exactly three years. Of this time about 40 days were lost in
+February and March, 1906, when work was stopped by the Receiver of the
+Shields Company, the total number of days actually worked being about
+940, giving an average progress of 6.26 ft. per working day in each of
+the two tunnels, which, omitting the Central Shaft headings, gives an
+average rate of progress for each working face, of 3.13 ft. per day.
+
+These 940 days include practically all the time elapsed, except Sundays
+and such few holidays as were observed. For some of this time, work was
+being carried on at only one or two points; the time, therefore,
+represents practically the total possible working time during the period
+covered.
+
+
+_Progress at Weehawken._--At Weehawken the total number of days worked
+was 763, divided as follows:
+
+186 days in timbered section, about 426 ft., an average rate of 2.3 ft.
+    per day in each tunnel;
+
+176 days in hard sandstone, about 563 ft., an average rate of 3.2 ft.
+    per day in each tunnel;
+
+112 days in hard trap, about 267 ft., an average rate of 2.4 ft. per
+    day in each tunnel;
+
+289 days in ordinary trap, about 1,316 ft., an average rate of 4.55 ft.
+    per day in each tunnel.
+
+
+_Progress at Central Shaft._--At Central Shaft the average length driven
+per day in each of the four headings is shown by Table 4.
+
+TABLE 4.
+
+  -----------+----------------+-----------------+---------------------+
+   Location. | Number of days | Total length of |  Average length of  |
+             |     worked.    |   heading, in   |  heading driven per |
+             |                |     feet.       | day worked, in feet.|
+  -----------+----------------+-----------------+---------------------+
+             |                |                 |                     |
+     N.E.    |      227       |      446        |         1.96        |
+     S.E.    |      168       |      346        |         2.06        |
+     N.W.    |      272       |      768        |         2.82        |
+     S.W.    |      234       |      698        |         2.98        |
+  -----------+----------------+-----------------+---------------------+
+
+
+_Progress at Hackensack._--At Hackensack the total number of days worked
+on the tunnels proper, all in trap rock (omitting the cut and cover) was
+about 792, divided as shown in Table 5.
+
+  TABLE 5.
+
+  ------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
+                                |Number of |          | Average  |
+                Location.       |  days    | Advance. | advance  |
+                                | worked.  |          | per day. |
+  ------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
+  Station 323 to Central Shaft  |          |          |          |
+    headings                    |   492    |   1,450  |   4.5    |
+  Bench and enlargement of      |   159    | { 1,150* |   7.2*   |
+    Central Shaft headings      |          | {   906**|   5.7**  |
+  Central Shaft headings to     |          |          |          |
+    Weehawken headings          |   141    |     620  |   4.4    |
+  ------------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+    [* Actual advance.]
+
+    [** Equivalent linear feet of full section tunnel.]
+
+The best month's work in each location was as follows, the actual
+yardage excavated and paid for being reduced to equivalent linear feet
+of full section. The tunnels were generally taken out to full section,
+except for a small amount left in the bottom, which latter reduced the
+equivalent linear feet of full section to about 95% of the actual
+advance at the face.
+
+  _Weehawken._--
+                                                            Feet
+                                                    Linear  per
+                                                     feet.  day.
+  Full timbered section, North Tunnel   Nov., 1905,    87 = 3.0
+  Sandstone                "     "      May,  1906,   109 = 3.9
+  Trap (normal)          South   "      July, 1907,   144 = 5.3
+
+
+  _Hackensack (All trap)._--
+                                                          Feet
+                                                  Linear  per
+                                                   feet.  day.
+
+  Portal to Central Shaft headings,
+    South Tunnel                        May,  1907, 139 = 5.0
+  * Enlargement of headings,
+       "     "                          Nov., 1907, 175 = 6.0
+  Central Shaft headings to Weehawken
+    headings, North Tunnel              Apr., 1908, 145 = 5.2
+
+    [* The actual advance of the bench this month was 202 lin. ft.]
+
+
+_Central Shaft Headings._--During April, 1907, 122 lin. ft. of heading,
+averaging 3.8 cu. yd. per lin. ft., were taken out in the South Tunnel,
+west of the shaft. This was equal to 5.0 ft. per day for the 24 days
+worked.
+
+
+_The Best Week's Work._--The best week's work at either of the main
+working faces, when the full section was being excavated in trap rock,
+was 803 cu. yd., equal to 41.8 lin. ft. of full-section tunnel, or an
+average of 6.0 lin. ft. of full section per day; this was from the South
+Tunnel at Hackensack for the week ending January 11th, 1908.
+
+
+_The Best Yardage._--The largest number of yards taken out in any one
+week from one working face was 1,087, equivalent to 56.6 lin. ft. of
+full section, or an average of 8.1 lin. ft. of full section per day.
+This was bench and enlargement only (Central Shaft headings) in the
+North Tunnel, Hackensack, for the week ending October 19th, 1907.
+
+The largest yardage for the whole work in any one week was 3,238 cu. yd.
+from four working faces--two at Weehawken in full section and two at the
+Hackensack bench and enlargement (Central Shaft headings). This was
+equivalent to 168.4 lin. ft. of full-section tunnel, or an average of
+6 ft. per day from each working face.
+
+
+_The Best Month's Work._--The best month's work with each of the four
+methods of drilling the headings, as shown in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4,
+where the work was straight forward and the full section was being taken
+out, was as follows:
+
+  Method No. 1      About  90 ft. in sandstone.
+    "    No. 2        "   100  "  in trap.
+    "    No. 3        "   137  "  in trap.
+    "    No. 4        "   145  "  in trap.
+
+In regard to these figures it should be noted, as stated previously,
+that the organization of the men and plant was not properly completed
+until near the time Method No. 4 was put in operation.
+
+In Fig. 9 is shown graphically the relation of the progress to the time
+elapsed in the North Tunnel, the diagram for the South Tunnel being
+almost exactly the same.
+
+
+PLANT.
+
+The plant installed by the John Shields Construction Company, and taken
+over by Mr. Bradley, was composed very largely of second-hand material,
+and eventually most of it had to be replaced. Insufficient and
+inefficient plant and delay in installation were largely responsible for
+the small progress made by the Shields Company, and Mr. Bradley's
+endeavor to utilize this plant not only caused much delay during the
+first 8 or 10 months after he started work, but also involved large
+expense.
+
+
+_Power Plant._--At Weehawken the plant installed by the Shields Company
+consisted of three old locomotive boilers, each having a nominal
+capacity of about 125 h.p., and one Rand and one Ingersoll-Sergeant
+compressor, each of a rated capacity of about 1,250 cu. ft. of free air
+per min. compressed to 100 lb.
+
+To this Mr. Bradley added two more second-hand locomotive boilers, and
+another Rand compressor of the same type and capacity as the first. The
+theoretical steam capacity of each of the five old locomotive boilers
+was about 4,250 lb. per hour, or a total capacity of 21,250 lb. per
+hour.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 9.
+  PROGRESS PROFILE--NORTH TUNNEL]
+
+Theoretically, the demand on this steam was:
+
+                                                     Pounds per hour.
+
+  Three compressors, about 5,600 lb. per hour each            16,800
+  One dynamo                                            About  1,000
+  One 500-gal. pump                                       "    1,000
+  One hoisting engine for elevators                       "    2,000
+                                                              ______
+        Total                                                 20,800
+
+Actually, there was considerable deficiency of steam when an endeavor
+was made to work the three compressors at their full capacity.
+A separate boiler was afterward installed to run the hoisting engine
+for the elevators and the pumps, thus leaving a requirement of only
+approximately 18,000 lb. of steam per hour, but even this was beyond the
+capacity of the boilers, especially as one was almost always out of
+commission.
+
+The two Rand compressors were 24 by 24 by 30-in., straight-line,
+one-stage, steam-driven, with a nominal capacity of 1,250 cu. ft. of
+free air per min. at 80 rev. per min. The Ingersoll-Sergeant was of
+similar type and capacity. Therefore, the theoretical quantity available
+was 3,750 cu. ft. of free air per min.
+
+The theoretical air requirements (as taken from manufacturers'
+catalogues) were:
+
+                                            Cubic feet of free
+                                              air per minute.
+
+  20 Rand slugger drills (12 by 174)             2,088
+   2 Little Giant shovels
+       (taking air two-thirds of the time)       1,100
+                                                 -----
+  Total                                          3,188
+
+This estimate, based on the assumption (given in the catalogues) that
+the drills would be working about three-fifths of the time, and the
+shovels about two-thirds of the time, left apparently an ample margin
+between the full capacity of the compressors and the requirements for
+the drills; as a matter of fact, however, it was seldom that more than
+80 lb. of air was available, and the pressure often dropped to 60 or 50
+lb. at the compressors. During the time this plant was in use the
+greatest distance to the drills was about 1,500 ft.
+
+As this plant proved to be entirely inadequate to the demands, an
+arrangement was made with the O'Rourke Construction Company on August
+17th, 1906, whereby they agreed to supplement the air supply by 1,000
+cu. ft. of free air per min. at 100 lb. pressure. This arrangement was
+not altogether satisfactory, and finally (on December 5th, 1906) an
+arrangement was made with the same company to supply air up to 4,000 cu.
+ft. of free air per min. at 100 lb., and the old plant was shut down.
+
+The new plant had been in use previously in the construction of the
+River Tunnels. The air from it was compressed to 40 lb. by low-pressure
+machines, one being used all the time and two when necessary. These
+machines were built by the Ingersoll-Sergeant Company, the engines being
+of the Corliss duplex type, cross-compound steam, with simple duplex air
+cylinders, each compressor having a capacity of nearly 4,000 cu. ft.
+of free air per min. This air, at 40 lb., was delivered to an
+Ingersoll-Sergeant high-pressure machine, having Corliss cross-compound
+engines, 14 by 26 by 36-in., with air cylinders of the piston inlet
+type, 13� by 36-in., which compressed it to 100 lb. The capacity of this
+latter machine, taking air at normal pressure, is 920 cu. ft. of free
+air per min. working at 85 rev. per min.; by taking the air at 40 lb.,
+and working at a somewhat higher speed, this machine alone supplied all
+the air used at the Weehawken end (approximately 4,000 ft.) from
+December, 1906, to November, 1907, and, with very few exceptions, the
+pressure was steadily maintained at from 90 to 100 lb., there being no
+break-down of any kind.
+
+At Hackensack the plant taken over by Mr. Bradley consisted of six old
+locomotive boilers and four Rand compressors, all of the same type as
+those at Weehawken. To this he added two second-hand marine boilers,
+each of a stated capacity of about 350 h.p., and two more Rand
+compressors of the same type and capacity as the others, making the
+total theoretical steam power available approximately 1,450 h.p., with a
+compressor capacity of approximately 7,500 cu. ft. of free air per min.,
+equal to about 1,500 h.p., allowing for 15% of loss.
+
+Nowhere near the theoretical steam power was ever developed from the
+boilers. The tubes of the old locomotive boilers were filled with mud in
+many cases, and were always leaking. The marine boilers were not
+properly installed to give the best results, and it was seldom possible
+to work more than four compressors at once, or to keep the air pressure
+at the power-house much greater than from 70 to 80 lb. at any time.
+
+This plant had been built by the Shields Company on the meadows
+alongside the Erie and New York, Susquehanna and Western Railroads, and
+the foundations were not made sufficiently strong to resist the effect
+of the vibration caused by the passing trains. It was impossible to keep
+the steam connections tight, and there was not only the loss of steam
+due to leaky joints, but positive danger of one of the main steam lines
+breaking entirely. After attempting to operate this plant for nearly 5
+months, Mr. Bradley determined to abandon the site and the boilers, and
+build a new plant, farther back from the railroad, on solid ground, in
+such a position that a spur track could be built to a coal trestle in
+front of the boilers.
+
+Two pairs of Stirling boilers, with a total capacity of 2,000 h.p., were
+installed. As a rule, at times of maximum demand, three of the boilers
+were in use; after the Central Shaft was stopped, two were generally
+sufficient, until, toward the latter part of the excavation, the losses
+in the transmission of the air made it necessary to keep three going.
+
+Eight compressors (the six old ones with two brought from Weehawken),
+were installed in the new power-house. All were of the same type,
+namely, Rand, straight-line, steam-driven, 24 by 24 by 30-in., each with
+a nominal capacity of 1,250 cu. ft. of free air per min. Seven of these
+were generally worked to their full capacity in order to keep up the
+necessary supply of air.
+
+The maximum requirements of air at this end were primarily estimated as
+follows:
+
+  Central Shaft, four headings              24 drills.
+  Hackensack, two working faces             20 drills.
+                                            ----------
+        Total                               44 drills.
+
+                                            Cubic feet of free
+                                            air per minute.
+
+  44 Slugger drills (25 by 174) require       4,350
+   2 Steam shovels                            1,600
+     Pumps and machine-shop, say              1,000
+   4 Hoisting engines, placing concrete       2,000
+   4 Derricks                                 2,000
+                                             ------
+           Total                             10,950
+
+The theoretical capacity of the whole eight compressors was:
+
+  1250 � 8 = 10,000 cu. ft. of free air per min.
+
+It was considered that not more than two-thirds of the above equipment
+would be working at the same time; the actual requirement, therefore,
+was taken at about 8,000 cu. ft. of free air per min., thus leaving a
+margin of one spare compressor.
+
+As actually worked out, there were probably never more than eight drills
+working at any one time at the Central Shaft, and this work was entirely
+suspended in June, 1907, before there was any demand for power in
+connection with the tunnel lining. The heaviest actual requirement,
+therefore, was approximately as follows:
+
+  (_A_) _Previous to June 25th, 1907:_
+
+                                   Cubic feet of free
+                                   air per minute.
+
+  40 Drills (22 by 174)              3,828
+   2 Shovels                         1,600
+     Pumps and machine-shop, say     1,000
+   2 Derricks                        1,000
+                                     -----
+          Total                      7,428
+
+  (_B_) _After November, 1907_ (_after completion of enlargement of
+  Central Shaft headings_):
+                                     Cubic feet of free
+                                     air per minute.
+
+  32 Drills (17 by 174)                2,958
+   2 Shovels                           1,600
+     Pumps, etc                        1,000
+   3 Hoisting engines on concrete,
+       each working one-third time       500
+   2 Derricks                          1,000
+                                       -----
+          Total                        7,058
+
+The average number of drillers per shift was about 25 at the two main
+working faces. There were also from 5 to 10 drills trimming and cleaning
+up for concrete, say an average of 7, making 32 in all.
+
+After November 1st, it actually required three boilers under steam all
+the time, and not less than seven compressors running at full capacity,
+to keep the air at proper pressure, the theoretical capacity of the
+compressors being 8,750 cu. ft. of free air per min., as against 7,000
+to 7,400 cu. ft., the theoretical maximum requirement.
+
+Some of this deficiency was due to losses in transmission, part also was
+due to the fact that the actual was probably considerably below the
+theoretical capacity of the compressors.
+
+
+ACCIDENTS.
+
+Two accidents occurred to the powder magazines, the causes of which were
+never absolutely determined. The first occurred on January 10th, 1907,
+when the dynamite burned up without exploding. The second accident was
+on March 3d, 1907, when an explosion occurred which damaged property
+over a very large area, but did not involve any serious injury to
+persons, only one man being slightly hurt.
+
+The only serious blasting accident in the tunnels occurred on January
+26th, 1908, and was due to a premature blast, the cause for which could
+not be ascertained.
+
+
+_Contractor's Organization._--The work was in general charge of a
+superintendent, and, during the time it was being carried on at both
+ends, an assistant superintendent had charge at night. At each end there
+was a day and a night walking boss, who had general supervision of the
+men in the tunnels, the day walking boss being the superior, and
+responsible for the general conduct of the work at his end, both day and
+night. Two 10-hour shifts were worked, thirteen shifts every two weeks,
+no work being done on alternate Sundays and Sunday nights. With the
+exception of the walking bosses and the master mechanic, all the men
+changed from the day to the night shift every two weeks.
+
+The organization was approximately as follows, for each shift:
+
+  _General_--_Both Tunnels._
+
+  1 Master mechanic (days only),
+  1 Machinist,
+  1 Engine runner,
+  2 Firemen,
+  2 Oilers,
+  1 Electrician and helper,
+  1 Drill machinist and helper,
+  3 Blacksmiths and helpers,
+  1 Powderman,
+  1 Walking boss,
+  4 Locomotive engine runners,
+  4 Brakemen,
+  1 Switchman,
+  1 Foreman on dump,
+  6 Men on dump,
+  1 Foreman on track,
+  6 Men on track.
+
+  _In Each Tunnel._
+
+  _Drilling and Blasting._
+   1 Foreman,
+  12 Drillers,
+  12 Helpers,
+   1 Nipper,
+   1 Pipe-fitter.
+  _Mucking._
+   1 Shovel engineer,
+   1 Cranesman,
+   1 Muck boss,
+  12 Muckers.
+
+
+RECORDS.
+
+The records of the work have been based largely on the reports of the
+day and night inspectors, which were made out on regular forms.
+
+A daily report card was made out each morning and forwarded to the
+office of the chief engineer. It covered the work done for the previous
+24 hours, up to 6 o'clock each morning.
+
+A telephone report was made to the resident engineer by the inspectors
+each day at 8.30 A.M., giving the conditions, number of men, etc., at
+the opening of the day's work.
+
+A daily progress profile, on 10 by 10 to the inch cross-section paper,
+covering the whole length of the tunnels, was kept in the office of the
+resident engineer. This was mounted in sections, on a piece of
+composition board, and hung on the wall for convenient reference. The
+information, showing the progress up to 6 o'clock each morning, was
+shown on the report of the night inspector, and was plotted on this
+profile at 7 o'clock each morning. The plotting was left in pencil, and
+each month's work was colored in. A progress profile was taken by the
+men of the alignment corps each Saturday morning and plotted by them,
+alternate weeks being in red and blue ink on the same profile.
+
+A chart showing the number of drills working, time worked, blasting
+periods, etc. (Plate XXIII), was plotted each morning and was extremely
+useful, not only in keeping in touch with the work, but in compiling
+many of the statistics used in the preparation of this paper. These
+cross-section sheets were ruled 12 by 12 to the inch, thus giving one
+space per hour horizontally. In the top vertical space are shown the
+heading drills, their time of stopping and starting, and their number,
+each heavy line representing one drill. In the next space below are
+shown the drills on the bench, lift holes, etc.
+
+The blasting time is shown by the portion hatched (shown in red on the
+original), which covers the whole vertical space when a complete round
+of both heading and bench is blasted, and only part, top or bottom, as
+the case might be, if only one or the other. The number of drillers and
+muckers at the main working face is shown, and below that (in red ink on
+the original) the number of cubic yards handled each shift. The time the
+shovel is working is shown by the heavy line filling a whole space; and
+the air pressure, platted from the recording gauge charts, is shown in
+the space below.
+
+A combination daily and weekly report, showing the total number of men
+working on each section, and the number of cubic yards excavated, was
+entered every day and kept on a filing board in the office of the
+resident engineer, and a copy was sent to the main office at the end of
+the week, with such notes on the back as might be necessary, or of
+interest.
+
+A report was made out weekly and sent to the contractor's
+superintendent, showing any deviations from grade, any tight places, and
+the station of bench and headings.
+
+A monthly report was made to the chief engineer, giving detailed
+statistics of the amount of work done, etc., plant installed, and short
+notes of any matter of interest affecting the work in any way.
+
+
+TUNNEL LINING.
+
+_Preliminary Considerations._--For the placing of the concrete lining, a
+sub-contract was given to Messrs. King, Rice and Ganey, by Mr. Bradley,
+which provided substantially that all materials should be supplied by
+him, and delivered to the sub-contractors at track level, at or near the
+point in the tunnel at which they were to be placed, and that he would
+supply light and power; the sub-contractors were to supply the plant,
+forms, and labor necessary for placing the concrete and water-proofing,
+building the conduit lines, manholes, etc., etc., to complete the
+lining, the general form of which is shown on Plate VIII of the paper by
+Mr. Jacobs, and in Fig. 10. The latter also shows the different sections
+into which the lining was divided for purposes of construction, and the
+nomenclature adopted for each. It may be noted, incidentally, that the
+cubic contents of the lining per linear foot of tunnel is almost exactly
+half the quantity excavated, out to the standard section lines, and as
+there was some excavation outside of these lines, all of which had to be
+replaced, the actual quantity of material which had to be brought back
+into the tunnel was quite a little more than half the quantity taken
+out. It will be evident, therefore, that the question of transportation
+was an important one.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 10.
+  SKETCH SHOWING DIVISION OF LINING FOR PURPOSES OF CONSTRUCTION,
+  AND NAMES OF SECTIONS]
+
+An essential part of the agreement with the sub-contractors provided
+that the operations incident to the placing of the lining should be
+carried on so as to provide at all times space for a single track of
+3-ft. gauge, running through the work, and the necessary clearance for
+the locomotives and cars used in hauling out the muck. A clearance
+diagram of one of the "dinkys" used in the tunnels, and its relation to
+the forms used, is shown by Fig. 12 and also by Fig. 16, the 4-yd.
+Allison cars, used for handling the muck, taking practically the same
+width, although they were not quite as high. This requirement and the
+limited space available must be kept in mind in considering the design
+finally adopted for the forms and plant required in placing the lining.
+It should also be kept in mind that, with the rolling stock used, there
+was only room for a single track through that part of the tunnel where
+any concrete had been built. As the concrete progressed, therefore, the
+length of single track was necessarily lengthened, and the problem of
+transportation was made increasingly difficult.
+
+In working out a design for the bench-wall forms, another highly
+important and controlling factor, which had to be considered, was the
+arrangement of the conduit lines, as shown in the general
+cross-section.[2]
+
+    [Footnote 2: Plate VIII of the paper by Mr. Jacobs.]
+
+The quantities of the various materials in the lining, per linear foot
+of tunnel, were as follows:
+
+  Concrete                                         7.64 cu. yd.
+  Rock packing: Paid for           1.48 cu. yd.
+  Outside standard section line    1.74  "   "
+                                   ------------    3.22  "   "
+  Iron and steel                                  44.2  lb.
+  Vitrified conduits                              84.0  duct ft.
+  Water-proofing                                  13.0  sq. ft.
+  Flags                                            3.3   "   "
+
+
+_General Methods._--The lining was started at both ends of the tunnels
+before the headings were finally holed through, so that there was
+practically a separate organization at each end, each in charge of one
+of the members of the firm. The work at the Weehawken end was started
+first, and the plant and scheme of working adopted there was thoroughly
+tried out before the plant for the western end was built, consequently,
+the latter was somewhat more efficient, being designed in the light of
+the experience gained at the Weehawken end.
+
+The general sequence of the plan first adopted in placing the concrete
+is shown by Fig. 10. The concrete was first placed in the foundations up
+to the elevation of the bottom of the conduit bines, this work, of
+course, being kept well in advance; next followed, in the order named,
+the sand-walls, water-proofing, conduits, bench-walls, and finally the
+arch. The foundation was built in any convenient lengths, multiples of
+16 ft., the length of one section of form, the sand-walls in lengths of
+from 25 to 35 ft., the bench-walls in 25-ft. lengths, and the arch in
+10-ft. lengths. Concrete was placed during the day shift only, the forms
+being moved partly at night, and partly on the alternate days when
+concrete was not being placed in them.
+
+Five gangs were organized at each end, the first placed concrete in the
+foundations in both tunnels, as the excavation was ready. In each tunnel
+there was a gang which built sand-wall one day and bench-wall the next,
+the two tunnels alternating so that only one bench-wall was built each
+day, and finally a gang in each tunnel building arches, a 10-ft. section
+being completed each day. During the night shift, the arch forms and
+travelers were moved, and all other forms, etc., were made ready for the
+concrete to be placed the following day. Some of the conduit laying was
+done by the night shift, but part of it was necessarily done during the
+day, as the concrete was built up. A small gang was kept busy in both
+tunnels, during the day shift, laying conduits and water-proofing. The
+latter two operations were generally performed by the same gang.
+
+This organization, of course, required considerable regularity in the
+work, and this was finally attained, but at the beginning many sections
+were often not finished on time, thus creating considerable confusion.
+The progress possible with this organization (finally maintained with
+great regularity) was 75 ft. of bench-wall and 60 ft. of arch per week
+at each of the two working faces in each tunnel. This allowed the
+bench-wall to gain considerably on the arch, and therefore at a suitable
+point, as shown on the progress diagram, Fig. 9, a third pair of arches
+was started, one in each tunnel, increasing the progress on the arches
+to 180 ft. per week in each tunnel.
+
+
+_Mixing and Transportation._--All the concrete used on this section was
+mixed in Hains mixers, one being at each end. At the Weehawken shaft the
+mixer was installed in the framework supporting the head-house and
+elevators; and storage bins were arranged above, as shown by Fig. 11,
+_A_, the whole structure being somewhat strengthened to allow this to be
+done. At the western end the mixer was placed immediately under the bins
+of the stone crusher, as shown by Fig. 11, _B_, the track below being
+connected directly with the tunnels. The stone bin under the screen of
+the crusher plant at the Hackensack end was divided into three parts,
+the center being filled with sand by a derrick having a clam-shell
+bucket, the other two with stone directly from the screen above.
+
+This type of mixer proved very efficient on this work. The largest
+number of full batches (0.8 cu. yd.) mixed in one plant per hour was
+about 35; the largest number per day of 10 hours was about 240; but the
+apparatus was never worked to its full capacity, the quantity of
+concrete which it was possible to use being limited by other
+considerations.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 11.
+  _A_ CROSS-SECTION OF HAINS MIXER INSTALLATION, AT WEEHAWKEN SHAFT
+  _B_ CROSS-SECTION OF HAINS MIXER INSTALLATION,
+    STONE AND SAND BINS ABOVE AND SCREEN OF CRUSHER, AT HACKENSACK
+    PORTAL]
+
+The concrete for the foundations was hauled in steel, =V=-shaped,
+dumping cars holding about 1 cu. yd., and the concrete for the
+bench-walls and arches in Stuebner, 1-yd., bottom-dumping buckets placed
+on small flat cars, as shown by Fig. 1, Plate XXIV. Rock packing was
+handled in Allison 4-yd. cars and also in the cars shown by Fig. 5,
+as well as in the Stuebner buckets, the latter, however, being most
+generally used. Mules were used for a short time at the Weehawken end to
+haul the concrete in, but proved entirely inadequate to haul the loaded
+cars up the 1.3% grade, and locomotives were substituted after the
+headings were holed through. At the western end the cars were allowed to
+coast in, and, up to the time the headings were holed through, were
+hauled back by mules; after that they were pushed out by a locomotive
+which had gone in ahead of them. As a rule, from 8 to 10 cars of
+concrete and rock packing were sent in, one after the other, in proper
+order, a boy riding on each car and stopping it at the proper place; all
+these cars were pushed out together when empty.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXIV.
+  Fig. 1: K 131. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel. Rear view of conveyor for
+  concrete, showing method of hoisting bucket from car on track in
+  hopper over belt. June 7, 07.
+  Fig. 2: K 130. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, South Tunnel. View showing waterproofing
+  (extreme left) portion of completed sand wall, sand wall forms,
+  traveller and end of conveyor overhead. July 22, 07.
+  Fig. 3: K 148. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken. View showing method of placing concrete in
+  forms. Hoisting apparatus and bucket in background. Sept. 24, 07.
+  Fig. 4: K 154. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel. Method of placing concrete
+  in bench walls. Top of waterproofing suspended from top of sandwall.
+  Oct. 21, 07.]
+
+During the time the excavation was being carried on simultaneously with
+the lining at the Weehawken end, the rock packing was loaded at the
+working face and sent out to the point where it was to be used; after
+that the rock packing was sent in from outside from the reserve pile on
+the north side of Baldwin Avenue.
+
+At the western end the larger part of the rock packing was sent in from
+outside, but occasionally, during the time the excavation was going on,
+the cars from the heading were stopped at convenient points, generally
+under the gantries, where the lining was being placed, and whatever
+stone could be utilized was sorted from the top and passed up to the
+platforms above.
+
+After the headings were holed through, there was considerable difficulty
+at times in getting a sufficient supply of concrete and rock packing
+into the tunnel at the time it was required, and while undoubtedly the
+transportation facilities may have had some influence in this, the
+principal trouble lay in the difficulty of securing a sufficient supply
+of proper stone for rock packing, and for the crusher.
+
+While the excavation was progressing, the cars of muck, as they came
+from the headings, were taken directly to the crusher and dumped into
+it, the proportion of fine material being fairly constant and the supply
+regular. At this time, also, a portion of the rock not required at the
+crusher was dumped along the edge of the bank on the south side of the
+approach, the larger stones rolling to the bottom where they were easily
+available to be loaded into cars for rock packing, being entirely free
+from the fine material; as this stone at the bottom of the bank was used
+up, the supply was renewed, the rock suitable for rock packing being
+automatically separated from the fine material as it rolled to the foot
+of the slope.
+
+After the excavation was completed, however, it was necessary to go into
+the bulk of the storage piles to get material for the crusher and for
+rock packing, and then the difficulties were materially increased by the
+large quantity of fine material encountered, the proportion remaining
+after the rock packing had been sorted out being too large to send
+through the crusher. It was not only the handling over of this fine
+material which caused delay, but the difficulty of disposing of it. On
+rainy days the trouble was increased by the difficulty of getting men to
+work in the open.
+
+The delays due to transportation were usually caused by derailments,
+which were more numerous than they should have been, and were due to the
+condition of the rolling stock rather than to that of the track. These
+delays, especially when they occurred in the early part of the day,
+greatly increased the cost, by necessitating over-time work; a delay of
+1 hour in the forenoon generally meant 2 hours' work after 6 o'clock to
+finish the day's work.
+
+The average number of cars handled (round trips of 1 car) during a day
+(two 10-hour shifts) at the Hackensack end during January, 1908, when
+the excavation and lining were in full swing, was about 125 cars of muck
+and 200 cars of lining material, the former being hauled by locomotives
+and the latter by mules.
+
+
+_Methods of Handling Concrete in the Tunnels._--The concrete for the
+floor, ditches, and foundations, was brought into the tunnel in
+=V=-shaped steel, dumping cars, and dumped as near as possible to the
+place it was to occupy.
+
+The concrete for the arches and bench-walls was loaded at the mixers
+into 1-yd., Stuebner, bottom-dumping buckets which just held a 4-bag
+batch. These buckets were placed on small flat cars, hauled into the
+tunnel, placed beneath the traveling gantry, as shown by Fig. 1, Plate
+XXIV, and hoisted to the platform above.
+
+These traveling gantries, the details of which are shown by Fig. 12,
+consisted essentially of platforms at each end of which an =A=-frame was
+erected; the latter supported at their apexes two =I=-beams, from the
+lower flanges of which was suspended a traveling block, shown at _A_,
+Fig. 12, and through which the hoisting rope was rigged. The buckets
+were hoisted through an opening in the platform and then moved along to
+where they could be dumped. The platforms were supported on wheels
+traveling on rails laid on the concrete of the foundation (for the
+bench-wall gantries) or on top of the bench-wall (for the arch
+gantries).
+
+Each of the first two of these traveling gantries used was equipped with
+a belt conveyor working on a cantilever arm, as shown by Figs. 3 and 4,
+Plate XXI, and Figs. 1 and 2, Plate XXIV. In using these belt conveyors,
+the concrete was dumped from the Stuebner bucket into a hopper, Fig. 1,
+Plate XXIV, with an adjustable slot in the bottom, under which the belt
+ran.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 12. [Full Page]
+  DETAILS OF TRAVELING GANTRY USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE TUNNEL
+  LINING:
+    SECTIONAL ELEVATION
+    CROSS-SECTION
+    A. DETAIL OF TRAVELING BLOCK
+    B. DETAIL OF TOP SHEAVE
+    C. DETAIL OF LOWER SHEAVE.]
+
+It was the original intention, in designing the conveyor, that the end
+of the cantilever arm should be swung from one side of the tunnel to the
+other, and that the traveler should be moved backward or forward, as
+might be required, and thus deliver the concrete from the end of the
+belt directly over the place in which it was to be deposited in the
+bench-walls. As a matter of fact, it was found impractical in operation
+to move the gantry readily, owing to its great weight, which was
+supported on only four ordinary car wheels and their bearings, and it
+was found more convenient to leave the arm in one position near the
+center, letting the concrete drop on the platform above the bench- or
+sand-wall forms, whence it could be shoveled into place, than to attempt
+to move it as had been intended. Both of these difficulties might
+possibly have been overcome by modifications in the design of the gantry
+and conveyor, had this method of handling the concrete seemed otherwise
+desirable.
+
+The principal difficulty with its use, however, was the inability to
+take care of more than one batch of concrete at a time. When one batch
+had been dumped into the hopper, a second could not be disposed of until
+the first had nearly all run through on the belt, and this took from 7
+to 20 min., varying with the consistency of the concrete, etc. In a few
+instances, where there happened to be some fairly dry batches, the
+concrete could not be started through the slot at all, and had to be
+shoveled out of the hopper. On the other hand, it is stated that some
+batches, under favorable conditions, passed through in about 2 min., but
+this was quite exceptional, and the operation was irregular and
+uncertain.
+
+Before the final method of handling the concrete was adopted, a trial
+was made of two forms of cars and buckets, to be used on the top
+platform, as shown by Figs. 3 and 4, and Plate XXIV. In the method shown
+by Fig. 3, Plate XXIV, the concrete was hoisted in the regular Stuebner
+buckets, one of which can be seen suspended in the background of this
+photograph, and dumped into the car shown, which was mounted so that it
+could be revolved in a horizontal plane. It was intended to move this
+car on the tracks to the point at which the concrete was required, and
+dump it directly through a chute into the bench-walls. This car was
+abandoned, as there was a great deal of difficulty in turning it when it
+was loaded, and in several instances it had to be dumped straight ahead
+in the middle of the platform and the concrete shoveled into the forms.
+This method was also objectionable when the bucket was dumped, inasmuch
+as the force of the impact of a whole batch of concrete dumped from such
+a height into the forms, not only tended to throw the conduits out of
+line, and to break them, but also caused considerable strain on the
+forms.
+
+The bucket shown by Fig. 4, Plate XXIV, was next tried. It had a
+slanting bottom and a door opening at the side. It was filled at the
+mixer, came into the tunnel on a small flat car, and was hoisted and
+placed on a similar car on top, as shown. This bucket was not
+successful, as its great weight made it difficult to handle, and it
+generally required a man to shovel the concrete out, which latter, of
+course, had been pretty well compacted in the bottom of the bucket by
+its trip from the mixer. All these cars were hauled backward and forward
+on the top platform by a rope running to the winch on the hoisting
+engine on the traveling gantry.
+
+Aside from the fact that neither type was a success, neither of these
+schemes was much improvement over the belt, inasmuch as only one batch
+could be handled at a time, owing to the necessity of using the engine
+to haul the cars back and forth on the platform. The final solution was
+found in the use of the traveling gantry, shown by Fig. 12 and Fig. 1,
+Plate XXVI, the latter being one of the arch gantries. The gantry used
+for the bench- and sand-walls was supported on framed bents on wheels
+running on rails laid on the foundation; that for the arch was the same,
+except that the high-framed bent was dispensed with, the side-sills
+resting directly on the journals of wheels traveling on rails on top of
+the finished bench-wall.
+
+These gantries were used only as a means of hoisting the buckets and
+moving them along to where they could be dumped directly on the
+platform, whence the concrete was shoveled into wheel-barrows, which
+could be dumped directly into the bench-walls; or, in the case of the
+arches, shoveled from the platform of the gantry to the intermediate
+platform on the arch ribs, and thence directly into the arch. This use
+of wheel-barrows, though apparently a somewhat crude method and a
+retrogression from the use of the belt conveyor, proved very successful,
+and really involved no more labor than did the conveyors, although this
+might not have been the case had these latter worked as they were
+originally designed to.
+
+The method finally adopted allowed as many as four buckets to be dumped
+on the platform on one end of the arch gantry at one time, and eight on
+one end of that used for the bench-walls, the workmen handling about
+three of these latter into the forms by the time the last of the eight
+was dumped. It required about 1� min. to place a car under the gantry,
+hoist the bucket, dump, close it, and return it to the car below.
+
+Rock packing was stored at the other end of the platform, for use as
+required, when it was not handled directly from the end nearest the
+work. This method allowed the concrete and other materials to be brought
+in in trains at infrequent intervals, and provided a sufficient supply
+of material on hand so that the men handling it on top could be kept
+steadily at work.
+
+Each hoisting engine on these gantries had 7 by 10-in. cylinders, and a
+double drum; some of them were Lamberts and some Mundys, operated by
+compressed air.
+
+
+_Ditches, Floor and Foundations._--The first method of building the
+foundation was that shown by Fig. 13, _A_; no attempt was then made to
+build the ditch, or floor, the intention being to leave these until the
+completion of the remainder of the lining. In building the bench-wall on
+this foundation, however, it was found difficult to secure the bottom of
+the forms properly (Fig. 2, Plate XXV), so as to prevent any give, as
+the material under the track was not solid enough to brace against. It
+was decided, therefore, to build the whole of the ditch (see Fig. 13,
+_B_) so that the bottom of the forms could be braced against the solid
+concrete. At the beginning of the work, the face of the bench-wall was
+built up to the level of the bottom of the conduits with the foundation;
+if, therefore, in placing the concrete above this level, extreme care
+were not taken to get a tight fit between the bench-wall form and the
+lower face, and then to hold it rigidly in place, the result was a
+rather unsightly horizontal joint high enough to be plainly visible. The
+position of this joint may be seen in Fig. 2, Plate XXV, which shows the
+first section of bench-wall built. Several subsequent sections showed an
+overhang above this joint, amounting in one or two cases to as much as �
+in., due to the fact that the bench-wall form moved or did not fit
+tightly. This defect was obviated by building the foundations with an
+offset on the face, shown by Fig. 13, _B_, so that the joint came at the
+level of the top of the flagging over the ditches, and therefore was
+almost entirely concealed; at the same time this allowed a sufficient
+surface, on the plane of the face of the bench-wall, against which the
+bench-wall forms could be braced and lined up.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 13.
+  PLAN SHOWING VARIOUS METHODS OF BUILDING FLOOR AND FOUNDATION,
+  AND DETAILS OF FORMS]
+
+The ditch forms were set very carefully to line and grade by the
+alignment corps, as this formed the starting point of all the rest of
+the work, the only other thing which was necessary was to give a level
+at the front end of the bench-wall form, after it was set, for the
+elevation of the top of the bench, and to check up the stations of the
+ends of the sections occasionally to see that they were at the even
+25-ft. points (that is +08, +33, +58, and +83).
+
+After a short length had been built with the ditches only, it was
+thought desirable to try and put in the floor as well, so that the whole
+of the concrete would be put in place as the lining advanced, and leave
+less cleaning up to be done over the end of a single track, in the
+restricted spaces between the bench-walls. Fig. 13, _C_, shows the
+method finally adopted. In this may be seen the three stages in which it
+was put in, the details of the ditch forms being shown by Fig. 13, _D_.
+
+In that part of the tunnel where sand-walls were built, a hollow tile
+drain was built into the foundation, as shown in Fig. 13, _A_ and _B_,
+along the foot of the water-proofing and connected at intervals with the
+drains by 4-in. cast-iron pipes. When the sand-walls and water-proofing
+were not built, however, the concrete of the foundations was sloped from
+the neat line back to the rock, as shown by Fig. 13, _C_3, so that in
+case any water found its way down through the rock packing, its tendency
+would be to flow back against the rock, or to follow the low part of
+this concrete to 4-in. cast-iron pipes leading to the side ditches,
+rather than to find its way through the joint between the foundation and
+the bench-wall and so into the lower duct lines.
+
+
+_Sand-Walls._--The sand-wall forms first used are shown in Fig. 2, Plate
+XXIV, with a section of the finished sand-wall. As this work was only
+intended to give a comparatively smooth surface against which to place
+the water-proofing, no particular care was taken with the surface,
+except to avoid sharp projections which might cut through the felt and
+pitch used for this purpose. A rather porous concrete (with all the rock
+which could be safely embedded in it and have the wall stand) was used,
+so that it would not act as a dam, but rather tend to allow the water to
+find its way to the bottom of the tunnel, and so into the drains.
+
+The traveling gantry for placing the concrete in the sand-walls, as
+first designed, with the belt conveyor, could of course only deliver the
+concrete at one end. Before setting the forms for a new section, it was
+necessary, therefore, to move the gantry ahead, before the cross-bracing
+between the tops of the forms, which also held the top platform, could
+be placed in position. Fig. 2, Plate XXIV, shows the end of the conveyor
+over the top of the cross-braces. In order to hold the bottom of these
+forms, small wooden blocks were embedded in the foundation concrete,
+against which they could be wedged, as shown by Fig. 13, _A_; these
+blocks were cut out after the sand-wall had been built.
+
+After the forms had been filled, the conveyor could not be moved back to
+the bench-wall until the concrete had set sufficiently so that these
+cross-braces could be removed, and, on account of the overhang at the
+top, the set had to be fairly good in order to prevent this overhang
+from breaking off. This arrangement, therefore, for placing the concrete
+was found to be impractical, if the proposed schedule of a section of
+bench-wall and a section of sand-wall to be built on alternate days, was
+to be carried out. In a few instances, where the sand-wall was finished
+fairly early in the afternoon, the forms were released next morning, and
+the conveyor was moved back, but, even then, 2 or 3 hours at least were
+lost at the beginning of the shift. The conveyor, however, was
+abandoned, for the reasons previously given, and the traveling gantry
+was rearranged to allow concrete to be delivered at either end; it was
+then only necessary to move it backward and forward between the bench-
+and sand-wall forms instead of through these forms. This permitted the
+construction of the much more substantial type of forms shown by Fig.
+14.
+
+After being moved ahead on the track on top of the foundation, the form
+was first blocked up to grade, and then adjusted to line by the screws
+and slotted cleats shown at _B_, Fig. 14, after which it was secured by
+the braces from the ditches, as shown. The face lagging was placed in
+separate pieces and held against the uprights by lightly nailing every
+third or fourth piece; the whole was removed each time the form was
+moved, and built up again as the concrete was placed.
+
+Considerable care was taken to slope the top of the sand-wall back
+toward the rock, as shown by Fig. 14, and to allow free drainage along
+the top (which ran parallel to the grade of the tunnel) to the 4-in.
+cast-iron drain pipes which carried the water from the rock packing
+above the arch to the drains beneath the track.
+
+Sand-walls were built for a length of about 1,100 ft. in each tunnel at
+the Weehawken end, and about 700 ft. in each tunnel at the western end,
+the remainder of the work, with the exception of a few short stretches,
+not being considered wet enough to require water-proofing.
+
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 14.
+  TRAVELING FORM FOR BUILDING SAND-WALL;
+  DETAIL SHOWING METHOD OF HANGING WATER-PROOFING FROM TOP OF SAND-WALL]
+
+_Conduits._--The arrangement of the conduit lines is shown in the
+general cross-section.[3] On the core-wall side there are 48 lines for
+telegraph and telephone cables, built of 4-way multiple conduit, each
+piece of which is 3 ft. long and about 10 in. square outside. On the
+other side there are the high- and low-tension lines, built of single
+conduit 18 in. long and a little more than 5 in. square outside.
+Manholes or splicing chambers are built every 400 ft., and are about
+8 ft. long and 4 ft. wide. General views of the conduits as built are
+shown in Fig. 4, Plate XXV, which shows all the lines in one tunnel, and
+in Fig. 1, Plate XXV, which shows the telegraph and telephone lines,
+with the expanding mandrels used in laying them.
+
+    [Footnote 3: Plate VIII in the paper by Mr. Jacobs.]
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXV.
+  Fig. 1: K 173. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) Hackensack Portal and Approach. Telephone and Telegraph
+  ducts and mandrels. Nov. 20, 08.
+  Fig. 2: K 125. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel. View showing general
+  construction of tunnel lining forms, and clearance to allow disposal
+  of excavated material. June 17, 07.
+  Fig. 3: K 156. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken Shaft, South Tunnel. North side looking East,
+  showing method of placing waterproofing. Oct. 22, 07.
+  Fig. 4: K 147. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Weehawken. General view showing center and first section of
+  arch and completed lining, North Tunnel. Sept. 24, 07.]
+
+In attempting to plan the work of placing the lining, two methods of
+building the bench-wall were considered. One was to build the wall in
+longitudinal sections, each section separated by a line of ducts; and
+the other was to attempt to build the wall in the manner called for by
+the specifications, which required the concrete to be carried up in
+layers as the conduits were laid. In this latter method, it was proposed
+to bond the concrete together with the forked bonds, the details of
+which are shown by Fig. 15, _A_, but, as it might have been impractical
+to use these if the wall had been built in sections, provision was made
+in the contract to place expanded metal, as shown by Fig. 15, _B_, if
+this was thought advisable. The method of construction necessary, if the
+wall had been built in sections, is shown graphically by the five
+sketches, Fig. 15, _B_, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
+
+The form and details of the expanding mandrel which was finally designed
+to meet the conditions, and proved so satisfactory in every way, are
+shown by Fig. 15, _C_. The mandrel consisted of two triangular pieces of
+hard pine, separated by wedges attached to one piece which fitted into
+slots in the other; these, when expanded, practically filled the whole
+of the inside of the ducts. One of these mandrels was placed in each
+line of single ducts and two in each 4-way duct, placed diagonally, as
+shown in Fig. 1, Plate XXV. This required 60 mandrels at each working
+point, or 240 for the whole work. The mandrels were 35 ft. long, so that
+they easily covered the whole of a 25-ft. section, projected
+sufficiently far back into the previously finished work to assure the
+continuity of the alignment, and allowed the ends to be racked out at
+the forward end to secure proper breaks between the joints.
+
+In laying the single conduits, as a rule, the (collapsed) mandrels were
+pulled ahead from the previous section as each line was laid, and the
+conduits were strung on it until the whole length was completed; the
+conduits were then pushed up tight together, so as to close the joints
+as tightly as possible, and then the mandrel was expanded. The conduits
+were thus held firmly in position, and the forward end of the line was
+lifted slightly so that the wraps could be placed around the joints. The
+4-way conduits were generally laid in the ordinary way, except that no
+laying mandrel was necessary. One dowel was used between each of the
+pieces of conduit, at the center, and the joints were wrapped. When a
+line was finished, two mandrels were placed diagonally in each line and
+expanded simultaneously, so that any inequalities in the ducts
+themselves were divided as far as possible. In connection with the use
+of these mandrels, one of the points which was most carefully watched
+was that they projected back into the last completed section, thus
+insuring the continuity of the alignment.
+
+It was originally intended to wrap the joints of the 4-way ducts only,
+but it was found to be impractical to keep the grout from the wet
+concrete entirely out of the single ducts, and, after a short trial, it
+was decided to wrap these also. The expanding mandrel kept out a great
+deal of the cement, and, in the sections laid without wraps, the only
+difficulty from this cause seemed to be that a slight film of grout,
+from 1/16 to 1/8 in. thick, was deposited on the bottom of the inside of
+the ducts at some places, and although this was not considered a serious
+defect, it was thought that the slight extra cost of placing the wraps
+would undoubtedly be justified by the practically perfect results
+obtained by using them.
+
+Considerable attention was given to breaking the joints of the ducts
+properly, so as to maintain throughout the conduit lines the greatest
+break possible. The joints in each superimposed line were broken at half
+the length of the individual pieces of conduit, the joints in lines in
+the same horizontal plane being broken at one-quarter the length, thus
+preventing any joints from touching one another either at the sides or
+corners, which tended to prevent a burn-out on one line from being
+communicated to another. There was some little difficulty at first in
+maintaining the breaks, owing to slight variations in the lengths of the
+conduit, but after a very short time both the workmen and the inspectors
+became very expert at this and in the proper use of short lengths to
+maintain the spacing; after the first few weeks there was little if any
+difficulty in attaining at all times almost perfect results. The method
+of making the breaks is shown in the photographs and by the isometric
+sketch at _F_, Fig. 15.
+
+All the conduits used on this work were furnished by the Great Eastern
+Clay Company, and were made at its factory at South River, N.J., where
+they were inspected before shipment.
+
+The mandrel used in the final rodding was made as shown at _G_, Fig. 15,
+the larger size being used for all lines. The rods for pushing it
+through the conduit lines were made of 6�-ft. lengths of ordinary 1-in.
+wrought-iron pipe with extra long (3-in.) couplings. The lines were
+rodded in both directions from alternate manholes, thus avoiding
+uncoupling the rods and allowing every pull to be effective in pushing
+the mandrel through the ducts.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 15. [Full Page]
+  ELECTRICAL CONDUITS: METHODS OF LAYING, RODDING, ETC.
+    A. FORK ENDED STEEL BONDS FOR CONDUITS.
+    B. SEQUENCE OF METHODS OF BUILDING BENCH-WALL PROPOSED WHEN USING
+        EXPANDED METAL BONDS.
+    C. ISOMETRIC DRAWING OF EXPANDING MANDREL.
+    D. DETAILS OF "WEASEL" Used for gripping disconnected pipe rods in
+        conduit
+    E. CUTTER FOR REMOVING OBSTRUCTIONS IN CONDUITS.
+    F. ISOMETRIC SKETCH SHOWING METHOD OF BREAKING JOINTS AND POSITION
+        FORKED BONDS.
+    G. PLAN AND SECTIONS OF EXPANDING MANDREL.
+
+   INDEX
+  +-----+------------+----------------+
+  |     | Multi-Duct |  Single-Duct   |
+  |     | Mandrel    |  Mandrel       |
+  +-----+------------+----------------+
+  | _A_ |   3�"      |   3-3/8"       |
+  | _B_ |    �"      |     7/8"       |
+  | _C_ |   2�"      |   2-5/8"       |
+  +-----+------------+----------------+
+
+  Note
+
+  End pipe connections may be changed to suit connections of rodding
+  outfit, care being taken to use a connection which will not split and
+  expand the mandrel if it should be driven back into it, in attempting
+  to ram the mandrel back when stuck in a duct.
+
+  Connection at Head End may be dispensed with, if the mandrel is
+  threaded through ducts by rods attached to the trailing end.]
+
+Wooden rods were used at first, but proved entirely too light, as the
+mandrels used were a close fit, and it required considerable effort to
+push them through 400 ft. of conduit. Iron pipe with ordinary couplings
+was next tried, but the couplings broke quite often, as the threads
+became worn in uncoupling the sections to move the rods from one line to
+another, and the break was generally inside a duct line. The long
+couplings were finally adopted, and a set of rods was put in each line,
+that is, six sets in all, so that when coupled up they remained in the
+line until it was finished. The expense of the extra quantity of pipe
+thus required was more than offset by the decreased labor cost.
+
+It was thought necessary at first to run a cutter, Fig. 15, _E_, through
+the conduits ahead of the final rodding mandrel, but this was soon found
+to be unnecessary except in a very few instances, and, after a short
+experience, the cutter was only used at places where an obstruction was
+encountered by the mandrel.
+
+At such times as the pipe became uncoupled inside the duct line, the
+part remaining inside was recovered by the use of the tool shown at _D_,
+Fig. 15, called a "weasel." In two instances, the mandrel became stuck
+in such a manner that the duct line had to be cut into in order to take
+it out.
+
+The best day's work of the rodding gang (1 foreman and 4 men) was 20,400
+duct ft. of the 4-way conduit in the telegraph and telephone line, and
+19,200 duct ft. of single conduit on the low-tension line, an average
+day's work under ordinary conditions being about 10,000 duct ft. The
+cost, including labor, material, and all tools, for rodding for the
+whole work was slightly less than 0.2 cent per duct ft. The average cost
+of the single conduit was about 0.25 cents per ft., and of the 4-way,
+0.15 cents per ft. About 10% of the conduit lines were rodded twice,
+owing to partial sections having been rodded once before completion. The
+best continuous work on rodding was done between October 22d and 29th,
+1908, when in 7 working days, 105,600 duct ft. were rodded, an average
+of a little more than 15,000 ft. per day.
+
+
+_Bench-walls._--The original design for the tunnels provided for the
+construction of a brick arch above a point 22� above the springing line,
+that is, the part above the side-walls (Fig. 10). It was thought
+desirable, therefore, in designing the bench-wall forms, to provide for
+placing the concrete in the side-walls and bench-walls at one operation.
+These forms, as first designed, are shown by Fig. 2, Plate XXV, and the
+details in Fig. 16, _A_ and _A'_; they were built of steel, the facing
+plates being 5/16 in. thick, in pieces 4 ft. 6 in. wide, and in length
+about 6 in. more than the height of the bench-wall.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 16. [Full Page]
+  DETAILS OF TRAVELING FORMS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BENCH WALLS
+    A'. CROSS-SECTION OF STEEL FORM
+    A. LONGITUDINAL SECTION AND ELEVATION OF STEEL FORM USED AT
+        WEEHAWKEN END
+    B. DETAILS OF SCREW-JACKS FOR ADJUSTING FORM TO LINE
+    C. SECTION _C_-_D_ SHOWING CONNECTION OF FACE PLATES TO I-BEAM
+        UPRIGHTS
+    D. DETAILS OF WOODEN FORMS USED AT WESTERN END: CROSS-SECTION,
+        PART LONGITUDINAL SECTION
+    No chutes were used with these forms, the wheel-barrows being dumped
+      from the runways on the sides.]
+
+The design was controlled very largely by the necessity of providing the
+requisite clearance for the locomotives and muck cars, and the principal
+feature was the support of the forms on two trusses, one at either side,
+the front ends of which were supported from the foundation on a long
+leg, as shown in Fig. 3, Plate XXV, and the rear ends directly on the
+journal-boxes of wheels traveling on a rail on the top of the finished
+bench, as shown in Fig. 2, Plate XXV.
+
+Although it had been decided to substitute concrete for brick in the
+arch before any of the lining was actually placed, two sets of forms for
+the Weehawken end had already been ordered and delivered, so it was
+decided to use them as designed, and place the side-wall with the bench.
+
+The forms were designed so that 30-ft. lengths could be built, and this
+was done at the start, but owing to the occurrence of the refuge niches,
+ladders, etc., at 25-ft. intervals, it was soon seen that it would be
+advisable to build the bench-wall in sections of that length (25 ft.),
+or multiples of it, and as the clearance conditions seemed to preclude
+the possibility of making the forms 50 ft. long, 25 ft. was adopted.
+This permitted the removal of one of the panels, 4 ft. 6 in. wide, and
+at the same time it was decided to remove the side-wall forms. This
+decreased the load on the trusses considerably, but being still a trifle
+weak, they were strengthened by the substitution of 1�-in. truss rods
+instead of the �-in. rods used originally. The top platform and the
+cross-bracing were also stiffened a little and tightened up to prevent
+racking.
+
+The construction of the side-walls in conjunction with the bench-wall
+was abandoned for three reasons: First, it was found that there would be
+a much more even distribution of the work by including the side-wall
+with the arch rather than with the bench; second, there was difficulty
+in getting a good finish for the top of the bench-wall, as of course a
+top form for the latter had to be placed to prevent the concrete from
+squeezing up when the side-wall was built above it, which prevented
+troweling; the third reason was the weakness of the whole form as
+designed, and the increasing difficulty of adjusting it to line as the
+work progressed, the principal difficulty being with the curved
+side-wall forms.
+
+The bench-wall forms were set in position, after they had been moved
+ahead, by first blocking the bottom against the face of the foundation,
+as shown by Fig. 13. As previously noted, this foundation face had been
+built very carefully to line. The back end of the form, of course, was
+blocked tightly against the end of the previously finished section, and
+the top was made plumb by the adjusting screwjacks shown in Fig. 16,
+_B_. At first these screws were �-in., but they were afterward changed
+to 1�-in. The only points which it was necessary for the alignment corps
+to give in setting these forms was a grade at each of the front ends for
+the top of the finished bench.
+
+The steel face forms in both tunnels gave excellent results, as far as
+smoothness of finish was concerned, but, owing to the imperviousness of
+the steel, small air holes were formed in the surface, though not in
+sufficient numbers or size to cause trouble or disfigure the work in any
+way.
+
+The design of the bench-wall forms used at the western end, where this
+differs from the steel form, is shown by Fig. 16, _D_. The principal
+features in which they differed from those used at the Weehawken end was
+in the substitution of 2�-in. tongued and grooved hard pine for the
+face. This timber was of the very best quality obtainable, each piece
+being especially selected and as nearly clear and free from knots or
+other defects as it was possible to get it. The edges of each piece were
+planed at the back so as to insure a tight joint on the face, and all
+joints were shellacked. These forms were used, without renewal of the
+face timber and with only two planings, for a length of 2,500 ft., or
+100 separate sections, and gave good satisfaction.
+
+In order to obtain a surface to which the face lagging could be
+fastened, wooden uprights were used and were reinforced on either side
+by light channels bolted together through the timber, in place of the
+=I=-beams used on the steel forms. The lagging was nailed to these
+uprights by 6-in. wire nails driven through the top edges of each piece
+as it was placed in position, thus leaving the surface entirely clear
+and free from any marks or nail holes, and in condition for planing when
+this became necessary. Runways for wheeling the concrete were built one
+either side over the bench-walls instead of having a center platform
+with chutes, as was used at Weehawken.
+
+When the original lagging had become too much worn for further use, it
+was resurfaced with strips of 7/8 by 2�-in., clear, tongued and grooved,
+hard pine, placed vertically, which did fairly well and lasted to the
+end (about 1,000 ft.), although it was not altogether satisfactory, and
+the last eight or ten sections built had to be rubbed down with a wooden
+float in order to obtain a suitable finish.
+
+In designing the forms for all exposed surfaces in the tunnels, it was
+the desire of the contractors to obtain directly from them a surface
+which would be satisfactory to the engineers without further finishing
+than the patching of minor defects. In this they were generally quite
+successful, and excellent results were obtained, as shown in the view of
+the finished tunnel, Fig. 2, Plate XXVII. The surface of the bench-walls
+was obtained solely by spading the face with a flat spade as the work
+progressed. No after treatment was resorted to, except for the few
+sections where the forms became worn. The top of the bench-wall was
+finished with a float about 2 or 3 hours after the concrete was placed.
+
+When the work was well organized, a bench-wall was built at each end
+each day, one day in the North Tunnel, and the following day in the
+South. During the time sand-walls were being built, a sand-wall and
+bench-wall were built on alternate days in each tunnel, care being taken
+that when a bench-wall was being built in one tunnel, the sand-wall was
+being built in the other, this being necessary in order to equalize the
+work of the night gang and the conduit layers as well as the
+transportation.
+
+The conduit layers on the day shift, two or three men and a foreman,
+required about 2 hours in the forenoon and 1 hour in the afternoon to
+lay their portion of the conduits, and usually finished this work by 3
+P.M. At other times during the shift they were utilized at those points
+where rock packing was heaviest, and when the packing was brought in in
+the large cars, as shown in Fig. 1, Plate XXVI, these men helped unload
+it so that the track could be cleared as soon as possible. When
+water-proofing was to be done, the number of men in this gang was
+increased, so as to enable them to do that work also.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXVI.
+  Fig. 1: K 167. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) View of form for circuit breaker chamber at Sta. 286, and
+  travelling gantry for placing concrete in arches, looking Easterly
+  from near Sta. 280+85, South Tunnel. Oct. 3, 08.
+  Fig. 2: K 166. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) View of forms for storage chamber at Sta. 294+24, looking
+  Southward. Sept. 17, 08.
+  Fig. 3: K 163. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) Tunnel lining. Rock packing over arches, South tunnel Sta.
+  ???+?? end of completed section. May 19, 08.
+  Fig. 4: K 168. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) Showing method of waterproofing in timbered tunnel section
+  at Weehawken end. Oct. 21, 08.]
+
+A gang of four rough carpenters and a foreman was employed on the day
+shift; they moved and set the bench-wall forms or sand-wall forms, as
+the case might be, and moved the traveling gantry into position. This
+was done in the afternoon, and required about 3 hours. They also took
+out, cleaned, repaired, and set all ditch forms, all passenger forms,
+circuit-breaker forms, and did all other repair work. The ladder forms,
+the refuge-niche forms, and overhead conductor pocket forms were
+attended to by one man, who set, removed, cleaned, and repaired them.
+The carpenters on the night shift set the arch centers and gantries,
+also the manhole forms when needed. The conduit layers on the night
+shift laid up half the 4-way conduits (3-high) and one-third of the
+single ducts (4-high). This one gang laid the conduits in two sections
+of bench-wall each night, that is, one section at Weehawken and the
+other at the western end.
+
+In concreting the bench-walls, the concrete was first placed on the side
+containing the single conduit until it reached the top of the four tiers
+laid, then the concrete gang was turned over to the side with the 4-way
+conduits while four more tiers of single conduits were laid, the work
+thus progressing, the conduits being laid on one side while concrete was
+placed on the other. On the side of the 4-way conduits the concrete was
+built in two layers while that on the side of the single ducts was built
+in three; the interval between the different layers was not sufficiently
+long to prevent a complete bond being obtained, and there were only one
+or two instances where there was any mark on the face to indicate a
+break.
+
+After the work had been in progress some time, it was found to be quite
+feasible to build all the 4-way conduits at night and half the single
+conduits, that is, 6 ducts high, as the mandrels proved amply sufficient
+to hold them in place; in fact, had it been necessary, the writer has no
+doubt that all the ducts might have been laid and held in place with
+very little extra precaution, by the use of the expanding mandrels,
+as described under the head of conduit laying. A =V=-shaped joint about
+� in. deep was made between each section of bench-wall so that the
+expansion cracks would follow this joint rather than show irregularly on
+the face. These joints divided the face into the even 25-ft. panels, and
+were very effectual in concealing what few cracks there were.
+
+After the construction of the sand-walls was discontinued, the space
+behind the bench-walls, between the neat line and the rock, was filled
+with rock packing, which was generally built, part way up at least, as a
+dry wall ahead of the construction of the bench-wall, or it was put in
+place simultaneously with the concrete, care being taken to keep it as
+free as possible for the drainage of any water there might be. Toward
+the latter part of the work, owing to the difficulty of getting
+sufficient rock packing during the day, a rough back form for the
+bench-wall was built at the neat line, in places where the section was
+at all large, and the space was filled with rock afterward, generally at
+night or on Sundays.
+
+In the sections where water-proofing was required, where no sand-wall
+was built, the rock was taken out for 2 ft. outside the neat line,
+if the excavation was not already that far out (at the expense of the
+contractors, who preferred to do this rather than build the sand-walls
+for the short sections required), so that there would be sufficient room
+for placing the water-proofing on the back of the bench-walls, as shown
+by Fig. 18, _E_. The water-proofing of these sections was left until
+just before the arch was to be built, and after being placed it was
+protected by a single row of brick laid on edge before the rock packing
+was filled in.
+
+
+_Arches._--The centering used for the arches is shown very clearly in
+Fig. 4, Plate XXV, which is a view of the back end of the first section
+built at Weehawken. In this part of the tunnel, the lower part of the
+arch, about 5 ft. above the bench-wall, was built first, as previously
+referred to, but the centers, as will be seen, were built so that they
+could be used for the whole of the arch. The forward bulkhead, and the
+shoveling platform on a section being built, are shown in Fig. 3, Plate
+XXVI.
+
+The front bulkheads used were made in nine sections, bolted to a 2� by
+2�-in. angle bent to the radius of the arch, as shown in Fig. 3, Plate
+XXVI, and fitting on the end of the lagging; when set they were braced
+partly against the rock of the roof and partly against the gantry. After
+the ribs and part of the lagging had been set by the night gang for a
+fresh section of arch, the braces holding the bulkheads were knocked
+out, the concrete placed during the day having set sufficiently by this
+time; the whole of the bulkhead was then easily moved ahead, sliding
+along the lagging to the forward end, and made ready for the next day's
+work. The middle section at the top was taken out temporarily, to
+facilitate working at the sides, until it was needed.
+
+The traveling gantry used in handling the concrete for the arch is shown
+in Fig. 1, Plate XXVI, which also shows the form for the circuit-breaker
+chamber, and a car of rock packing on the track beneath.
+
+The arches were built in 10-ft. sections, the ribs being spaced 5 ft.
+apart, the end ribs of each section supporting the end of the lagging on
+two adjoining sections. Five sets of lagging and ten ribs were used at
+each place where the arch was being built, thus giving each section
+practically 4 days' set before removing the centers. Probably in the
+greater part of the work the centers could have been removed in from 40
+to 48 hours after the concrete had been placed, but 3 days was
+considered the least time which would certainly be safe at all times,
+and the contractors thought that the very slight additional expense
+involved in leaving the centers up 4 days was more than warranted by the
+additional feeling of security.
+
+The lagging was made from 3 by 6-in. clear, hard pine, 10 ft. long,
+dressed to about 2� in. in thickness, about 5� in. in width, and the
+sides to radial lines. As it was placed, every third or fourth piece was
+lightly nailed to the ribs; when the latter were released and taken
+down, the nails pulled out, and the lagging was left in place until one
+piece was pried out, allowing the others to fall. A light =A=-frame,
+about 8 ft. long, spanning the bench-walls, was placed below, in order
+to break the fall and allow the lagging to slide to the top of the
+bench-walls rather than fall to the track beneath.
+
+Cross-passages between the two tunnels were built every 300 ft., their
+form being shown on Plate VIII of the paper by Mr. Jacobs. There were
+two circuit-breaker chambers, one at Station 286 and the other at
+Station 310. Steel doors are provided so that all the openings between
+the two tunnels can be closed. At Station 294+24, the core-wall broke
+through for a length of about 40 ft., and instead of filling this in,
+a storage chamber 34 ft. long and 11 ft. wide, inside, was built there,
+the form for which is shown in Fig. 2, Plate XXVI. This photograph, as
+well as Fig. 1, Plate XXVI, a form for a circuit-breaker chamber, shows
+the method of setting the steel doors in the forms, so that they were
+built into the concrete instead of being fastened in with expansion
+bolts afterward, thus showing a perfect fit and a much neater job.
+
+During construction the arches in each tunnel were kept even with each
+other, so that when the cross-passages were reached, they, and the
+sections of arch which they joined, could be completed at one operation.
+
+By the methods used on this work, one section of arch was easily built
+in a shift, so that the monolithic construction of each section was
+easily secured, and concrete, as wet as it was possible to handle with
+shovels, could be used for all except the last 5 ft. or so at the top,
+thus getting a structure which was as nearly impervious as possible
+under the circumstances.
+
+The gangs placing the arches were paid over-time when they were required
+to work after 6 o'clock to finish their section, which was generally
+only necessary when the quantity of rock packing to be placed was very
+large. If they finished their section before 6 o'clock, however, they
+were allowed to quit when this was done, and were given a full day's
+pay. The difference in time, when there was any, was usually due to the
+greater or less quantity of rock packing, as the excavation varied from
+the standard section line.
+
+In building the arches, the night gang set the two ribs (one at the
+center and one at the forward end of the section to be built), placed
+the lagging on the sides, 4 or 5 ft. high, built the shoveling platform
+on the horizontal cross-braces of the ribs, and placed the traveling
+gantry in position for use. The forward end of the gantry (that is, the
+end farthest from the arch being built), as shown in Fig. 1, Plate XXVI,
+was loaded with rock packing to be used as required. As the concrete was
+brought into the tunnel it was hoisted and dumped on the end of the
+gantry next the arch, and shoveled from there to the platform on the
+ribs and from there into place. The rock packing brought in during the
+day was dumped on the front or back end of the gantry, as was most
+convenient, and handled into the work in the intervals between batches
+of concrete. The concrete and rock packing, with the back-lagging and
+water-proofing, where these were used, were placed simultaneously, or
+nearly so, and brought up the sides together until the key was reached;
+the latter was then worked from the back toward the front. The key was
+usually made about 5 ft. wide, the lagging for this width was made 5 ft.
+long and put up in two sections. It was found to be more convenient to
+have the key of this width than narrower.
+
+The method used in making the closures where two sections of the arch
+came together is shown by Fig. 17.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17. [Full Page]
+  SKETCH SHOWING METHOD OF MAKING ARCH CLOSURE
+    CROSS-SECTION OF TUNNEL SHOWING JACK PARTLY EXTENDED
+    LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF TUNNEL SHOWING JACK PARTLY EXTENDED
+    PLAN OF BOX; END VIEW
+    PLAN OF PLUNGER, BOTTOM OF BOX; END VIEW OF PLUNGER,
+        JACK FULLY EXTENDED]
+
+
+_Water-proofing._--As already pointed out, the original design for the
+lining of these tunnels provided for a brick arch. It was intended to
+cover this arch with water-proofing, this latter extending over the
+whole of the roof and down the sides as far as the bottom of the conduit
+lines. The water-proofing was to be placed against the sand-walls on the
+sides, up to the top of the side walls, Figs. 10 and 14. Over the arch,
+after being placed, it was to be protected by an armor course of brick,
+laid flat, the space between the brick and the excavation, which was
+required to be not less than 4 in. (and, as a matter of fact, was
+actually a great deal more), being filled with rock packing. Besides
+filling the space, this latter was designed to allow any water from the
+roof of the tunnel to find its way easily to the top of the sand-wall,
+from there being carried through the 4-in. cast-iron pipes, shown on
+Plate VIII[4] to the side ditches in the floor of the tunnel.
+
+    [Footnote 4: Of the paper by Mr. Jacobs.]
+
+All the water-proofing placed in these tunnels was of felt and pitch,
+six-ply felt and seven layers of pitch. The felt was required to be
+Hydrex, or of equal quality, and the pitch, "Straight run coal-tar pitch
+which will soften at 60� Fahr., of a grade in which the distillate oils
+will have a specific gravity of 1.05."
+
+In addition to tests as to the above qualities, the pitch was analyzed
+to determine the amount of free carbon it contained, and was not
+accepted if this fell below 20 per cent.
+
+It was considered quite important that there should be absolutely free
+drainage on the outer side of the lining, so that there would be no
+chance for any water to acquire a head. More than three-quarters of the
+length of these tunnels is below the level of mean high water, and while
+it was hardly expected that there would be any direct connection between
+the water in the Hudson River and the groundwater of the section
+penetrated, it was thought wise to provide ample drainage.
+
+Before the lining was started, however, the excavation had progressed
+sufficiently to show that the tunnels, while very wet in places, and
+varying from that to quite damp, would be, on the whole, much dryer than
+had been anticipated. It was then decided to substitute concrete for the
+brick in the arch and omit the water-proofing over the top, except at
+places where water came into the tunnels in sufficiently large
+quantities to form practically a continuous stream. Three general types
+of construction for the arch were decided on, as shown in Fig. 18. The
+first, as shown at _A_, was to be used where the tunnel was quite dry.
+In this type, the sand-wall was omitted entirely, and the concrete and
+rock packing were built up together, the rock packing impinging to a
+certain extent on the concrete, and the concrete squeezing somewhat into
+the rock packing, as shown by Fig. 4, Plate XXV. The section shown at
+_B_ was used where the tunnels were damp, or where there were slight
+droppers not forming a continuous stream. The back lagging, of 1-in.
+boards, which was left in place, provided a practically smooth outer
+surface on the concrete arch, and allowing the concrete and rock packing
+to be built almost simultaneously. It was considered that the free
+drainage through the rock packing, the surface of the boards, and the
+smooth outer surface of the concrete in the arch would allow the
+comparatively small quantity of water in these parts of the tunnel to
+find its way to the sides, and thence to the ditches at the bottom,
+rather than to percolate through the concrete, and this proved to be
+very generally the case, as is shown by the dry condition of the tunnel
+as built. The back lagging was used over the arch, both where the
+sand-wall was built and where it was omitted, as well as being placed
+over the water-proofing of the arch as an armor course where
+water-proofing was required. Where the sand-walls were built and
+water-proofed, and where the water-proofing was not carried over the
+arch, the water-proofing was turned in at the top, as shown at _C_, Fig.
+18.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18. [Full Page]
+  VARIOUS TYPES OF ARCHES, AND WATER-PROOFING USED
+    Method of Lapping Mats over Arch
+    Method of making joint when work on section was not continuous. Part
+      of joint on radial line, part sloping slightly toward outside of
+      arch.
+    DETAILS OF WATER-PROOFING
+    One layer of felt with 4" overlap to be nailed to lagging of inch
+      boards, using tin washers on nails over the whole of the intrados
+      of the arch before starting any concrete or placing any of the
+      permanent felt and pitch water-proofing. The water-proofing over
+      the arch can be laid in mats of three thicknesses of felt properly
+      joined together with pitch made as shown diagrammatically at "_x_"
+    Each of these mats of three-ply felt will be overlapped half the
+      width of the mat, as shown diagrammatically at "_y_"]
+
+The third method provided for water-proofing the whole of the arch, and
+was the same as _B_ except for the addition of the water-proofing inside
+the back lagging. In placing this water-proofing, the felt was cut in
+strips about 11 ft. long (about 1 ft. longer than the length of a
+section of arch), and six thicknesses were cemented together with hot
+pitch. These mats were then laid shingle-fashion, as shown at _D_, Fig.
+18, up the sides of the arch until a space about 5 ft. wide remained at
+the crown; shorter mats were then brought out over this, laying them
+perpendicular to the axis of the tunnel. Care was taken in making all
+laps, irrespective of the direction in which the arch was built, so that
+they would lay with the grade, that is, so that the water would tend to
+flow over the edges of the laps rather than against them.
+
+Most of the wet sections of the tunnel were at the ends, where
+sand-walls had been built for the purpose of providing a smooth surface
+against which the water-proofing was to be placed; there were several
+wet places at isolated points in the tunnels, however, and, in order to
+avoid building sand-walls at these points, the method shown at _E_, Fig.
+18, was adopted. This involved a slightly larger excavation, 2 ft.
+outside of the neat line, up to the height of the top of the bench,
+where there was not already that much room. The bench-wall was built
+with a back form on the neat line, the water-proofing was placed as
+shown, protected by an armor course of brick, and then continued over
+the arch when this latter was built. The excavation and refilling with
+rock packing were done at the contractor's expense, which he was willing
+to assume rather than build these short sections of sand-wall.
+
+  [Illustration: Plate XXVII.
+  Fig. 1: K 181. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) Timbered section near Weehawken Shaft, showing method of
+  placing waterproofing and keying arch. Dec. 8, 08.
+  Fig. 2: K 184. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels). View of completed tunnel looking Eastward from Sta.
+  323+60. South Tunnel. Feb. 8, 09.
+  Fig. 3: K 149. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels) Hackensack Portal, general view of completed Portal, and
+  arches through cut and cover section looking East. Oct. 15, 07.
+  Fig. 4: K 190. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill
+  Tunnels.) Hackensack Approach. General view, looking East. March 16,
+  09.]
+
+The method of water-proofing that part of the timbered section which was
+very wet, is shown at _F_, Fig. 18, and in Fig. 4, Plate XXVI, and
+Fig. 1, Plate XXVII. A lagging of 1-in. boards was nailed up the sides
+and to the soffit of the segmental timbering, all the spaces outside of
+this lagging being carefully filled with rock packing. Before starting
+any concrete work, a single thickness of water-proofing felt was nailed
+to the inner side of the lagging, which not only served to protect the
+finished surfaces of the concrete from the water which fell copiously
+from the roof, but also provided a comparatively dry surface to which
+the regular six-ply water-proofing could be cemented with pitch and held
+in position, while the concrete was placed against it.
+
+In placing the water-proofing in this section on the sides, the strips
+of felt were placed vertically, nailed at the top to the wall-plate, to
+support their weight, and lapped and cemented with pitch to the sides as
+on the sand-walls, except that there was no trouble from the overhang.
+After the bench-wall had been built, the felt was cut just below the
+nails and about 2 ft. above the top of the bench, so that the mats which
+were placed over the arch could be inserted behind it. The roof was
+covered with three-ply mats and lapped over a little more than half, as
+shown diagrammatically on the drawing.
+
+When the upper part of the arch was reached, where the cementing
+strength of the pitch was not sufficient to hold the felt in place, the
+mats were braced temporarily from the centering, as shown by Fig. 1,
+Plate XXVII, until the concrete could be packed against it.
+
+Where the water-proofing was placed against the sand-wall, the method of
+securing the sheets at the top is shown in the small sketch on Fig. 14
+and by Figs. 3 and 4, Plate XXIV. Fig. 3, Plate XXV, shows the laps of
+the sheets and the method of hanging. At the start an attempt was made
+to stick the water-proofing to the sand-wall, but this could not be done
+on account of its dampness and the overhang at the top.
+
+The sand-wall water-proofing was kept about 35 ft. ahead of the finished
+bench-wall, as shown by Fig. 3, Plate XXV. As the bench-wall form was
+moved ahead and set, the mat was braced back against the sand-wall from
+the forms at a point just above the top of the finished bench, care
+being taken to avoid wrinkles, as, if these were once formed, it was
+practically impossible to straighten them out.
+
+The completion of the bench-wall left the upper part of this
+water-proofing stretched taut across the curved top of the sand-wall,
+forming a chord of the arc. As the arch was built up, the top was
+gradually slackened so as to allow the concrete to press the mat back
+into place until the top of the sand-wall was reached, when the end was
+turned in, as shown at _C_, Fig. 18, or the water-proofing was continued
+over the arch, if that was necessary.
+
+The desire to obtain a dry tunnel, and the methods adopted to secure it,
+were responsible in a great measure for the decision to build the arch
+in short lengths, as well as the reasons given under the head of arches.
+Had the tunnels been dry throughout, the method shown at _A_, Fig. 18,
+could have been used exclusively, and, except for the fact that
+monolithic concrete might not have been obtained, there would have been
+no objection to building longer lengths.
+
+The quantity of water reaching the tunnel drains and flowing out of
+their lower ends after the completion of the lining was about 100,000
+gal. per day, or 75 gal. per min.; of this it is estimated that
+considerably less than 1% comes through the lining in the form of leaks.
+The very general distribution of this water over the roof is indicated
+by the fact that, during the excavation of the first 1,000 ft. of both
+tunnels from the Weehawken end, oilskins had to be provided for the
+laborers to induce them to work at all. The success, therefore, of the
+rock packing as a means of diverting this water to the side drains, is
+shown, especially in view of the fact that, excluding the cut-and-cover
+section, only 10% of the length of the arch, 1,189 ft., was
+water-proofed.
+
+Considerable care was taken to make all joints in the concrete which
+were in such a position that water might follow through them to the
+inside of the tunnel lining, in such a manner that they would slope
+outward toward the rock. The top of the sand-wall is shown by Figs. 14
+and 18. The slope of the back of the foundation may be noted in Fig. 18,
+and the method of making the joint in the arch, in the few instances
+where a section was not completed at one operation, is shown at _A_,
+Fig. 18. These joints in the arch were not allowed to be made above a
+point 60� above the springing line.
+
+
+HACKENSACK PORTAL AND APPROACH.
+
+The approach cut at the western end is 300 ft. long, the alignment being
+a 2� curve, as shown in Fig. 19. The bench-walls and conduit lines built
+throughout the length of the tunnels are extended through the approach
+cut, the top of the former gradually sloping from the portal to the
+mouth of the cut, where they are just level with the top of the rail,
+the conduits also being depressed to the same relative position with the
+tops of the benches.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 19. [Full Page]
+  BERGEN HILLS TUNNELS.
+  Hackensack Portal and Approach.
+  SECTIONS AND ELEVATIONS.
+    PLAN OF APPROACH.
+    PROFILE THROUGH APPROACH.
+    SECTION SHOWING METHOD OF MAKING JOINT BETWEEN COPING AND WALL.
+    PLAN SHOWING METHOD OF MAKING JOINT BETWEEN ADJOINING SECTIONS.
+    SECTION OF BENCH AND RETAINING WALLS AND HALF ELEVATION OF PORTAL.]
+
+The top of the rock at the mouth of the cut, Station 327, was from 4 to
+6 ft. below the top of the rail, and gradually rose through the approach
+until at the portal it was about 6 or 8 ft. above the roof of the
+tunnel. The rock was covered with hardpan. A profile of this part of the
+work is shown on Fig. 19. The rock throughout the approach was
+water-bearing to a considerable extent, and a face-wall was built at the
+sides with free drainage, through rock packing and vitrified and
+cast-iron drains behind it, to keep this water from flowing over the
+tops of the bench-walls, and also to keep the lines of conduits dry.
+
+The retaining walls were built in 25-ft. sections, the joints
+corresponding to those in the benches, being at the even stations, +08,
++33, +58, and +83. =V=-shaped joints were made down the face, and the
+ends of the sections were made as shown by Fig. 19. The back part of the
+joint was mopped with hot pitch before the next section was built, so
+that there was practically no bond between any two adjoining sections.
+
+The concrete in these walls was placed late in the season, and the
+expansion cracks, which were entirely confined to the =V=-shaped joints,
+were quite small even in the coldest weather of the following winter,
+nor were there any indications during the past summer of any stresses
+due to expansion. The coping and drain at the top of the wall were built
+together, but separate from the rest of the wall, the joint being made
+as shown in the sketch on Fig. 19. Thus far, there has seemed to be no
+seepage through either the vertical or horizontal joints.
+
+The portal is built of granite, a half elevation being shown on Fig. 19,
+the stone being supplied by the Millstone Granite Company, Millstone
+Point, Conn. Fig. 3, Plate XXVII, shows the portal and the cut-and-cover
+section after the arches were completed but not covered.
+
+The forms for the concrete in the approach were made of ordinary dressed
+lumber, and the surface was rubbed twice after the forms were removed,
+which was as soon as possible after the concrete had set. The surface
+was first very lightly rubbed with a piece of soft, light-colored,
+sandstone to remove any irregularities, being wetted slightly if
+necessary while being rubbed. After the concrete had become fairly hard
+and dry, it was rubbed a second time and a uniform texture and color
+obtained. The completion of this work was delayed until the second week
+in January, and considerable difficulty was encountered in obtaining a
+good finish of that part which was built after cold weather set in, when
+it was necessary to protect it from frost. Unless extreme care was taken
+to prevent freezing after the rubbing, the entire surface was likely to
+scale off, although no cement or other material was added to it after
+the removal of the forms. A general view of the completed approach is
+shown by Fig. 4, Plate XXVII.
+
+  TABLE 6.
+
+  ---------------------+----------------------+-----------------------+
+                       |         DAY.         |         NIGHT.        |
+         Title.        +-----+-------+--------+-----+-------+---------+
+                       | No. | Rate. | Amount.| No. | Rate. | Amount. |
+  ---------------------+-----+-------+--------+-----+-------+---------+
+  Walking bosses       |   2 | $5.00 | $10.00 |     |       |         |
+  Timekeeper           |   2 |  3.00 |   6.00 |     |       |         |
+  Watchmen             |     |       |        |  5  | $2.00 |  $10.00 |
+  Waterboys            |   1 |  1.50 |   1.50 |     |       |         |
+  Carpenter foremen    |   2 |  3.50 |   7.00 |  1  |  4.00 |    4.00 |
+  Carpenters           |  14 |  2.50 |  35.00 |  8  |  2.50 |   20.00 |
+  Pipe-fitters         |   1 |  3.00 |   3.00 |     |       |         |
+  Pipe-fitter's helper |   1 |  1.75 |   1.75 |     |       |         |
+  Wheelwright          |   1 |  2.75 |   2.75 |     |       |         |
+  Wheelwright's helper |   1 |  1.75 |   1.75 |     |       |         |
+  Blacksmith           |   1 |  3.00 |   3.00 |     |       |         |
+  Blacksmith's helper  |   1 |  1.75 |   1.75 |     |       |         |
+  Foremen riggers      |   1 |  3.00 |   3.00 |     |       |         |
+  Riggers              |   6 |  1.75 |  10.50 |     |       |         |
+  Foremen trackmen     |   1 |  3.00 |   3.00 |     |       |         |
+  Trackmen             |   6 |  1.50 |   9.00 |     |       |         |
+  Machinist            |   2 |  3.00 |   6.00 |     |       |         |
+  Machinist's helper   |   1 |  1.75 |   1.75 |     |       |         |
+  Electrician          |   2 |  3.00 |   6.00 |  1  |  2.50 |    2.50 |
+  Electrician's helper |   1 |  1.75 |   1.75 |     |       |         |
+  Lampman              |   1 |  1.50 |   1.50 |     |       |         |
+  Pumpman              |   1 |  1.50 |   1.50 |     |       |         |
+  Finishers            |   3 |  2.50 |   7.50 |     |       |         |
+  Hoist engineers      |  12 |  3.00 |  36.00 |     |       |         |
+  Dinky engineers      |   5 |  2.75 |  13.75 |  1  |  2.75 |    2.75 |
+  Brakemen             |   5 |  1.75 |   8.75 |  1  |  1.75 |    1.75 |
+  Switchmen            |   1 |  1.50 |   1.50 |     |       |         |
+  Barnmen              |   1 |  2.00 |   2.00 |  1  |  2.50 |    2.50 |
+  Drivers              |   9 |  1.50 |  13.50 |     |       |         |
+  Foremen ductmen      |     |       |        |  2  |  2.50 |    2.50 |
+  Ductmen              |     |       |        |  5  |  2.00 |   10.00 |
+  Foremen laborers     |  13 |  3.50 |  45.50 |  2  |  3.50 |    7.00 |
+  Laborers             | 120 |  1.75 | 210.00 | 20  |  1.75 |   35.00 |
+  Compressor engineer  |   1 |  3.50 |   3.50 |  1  |  3.50 |    3.50 |
+  Firemen              |   2 |  2.50 |   5.00 |  1  |  2.50 |    2.50 |
+  Oiler                |   1 |  1.75 |   1.75 |     |       |         |
+  Coal passers         |   2 |  1.75 |   3.50 |  1  |  1.75 |    1.75 |
+  ---------------------+-----+-------+--------+-----+-------+---------+
+        Totals         | 334 |       |$469.75 | 50  |       | $108.25 |
+
+                         Total daily labor expense              $578.00
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+The water finding its way into the side ditches in the approach, which
+of course included all rain falling in this area, was intercepted just
+inside the portal and carried back to the mouth of the cut through
+24-in. cast-iron pipes laid beneath the conduits in the central
+bench-wall, thus disposing by natural drainage of a not inconsiderable
+quantity of water which would otherwise have flowed through the tunnels
+to the sump at the Weehawken Shaft, from which it would have had to be
+pumped to the surface.
+
+About 100 ft. of the tunnel immediately east of the Hackensack Portal
+was built by the cut-and-cover method, and the arch section used in the
+tunnel was modified by widening the haunches, the thickness of the arch
+at the crown being gradually increased from 22 in. at the portal,
+Station 324, to 34 in. at Station 323, where the regular segmental
+timbering at the tunnel commenced. A general view of the approach during
+construction is shown by Fig. 1, Plate XXV.
+
+
+CONTRACTOR'S ORGANIZATION.
+
+Table 6 shows approximately the number of men employed daily on the
+tunnel lining, by both the contractor and the sub-contractors, their
+occupation, the average rate of wages and the total daily expense for
+labor when the work was in full swing.
+
+
+ENGINEERING ORGANIZATION.
+
+The whole of the work of the North River Division was designed and
+executed under the direction of Charles M. Jacobs, M. Am. Soc. C. E.,
+Chief Engineer, and James Forgie, M. Am. Soc. C. E., Chief Assistant
+Engineer, the construction of Section "K," Bergen Hill Tunnels, being
+directly in charge of the writer as Resident Engineer.
+
+  [Transcriber's Note:
+  The two organizational charts, Figs. 20 and 21, have been reformatted
+  for space.]
+
+  [Chart: Fig. 20.
+
+  PENNSYLVANIA TUNNEL AND TERMINAL RAILROAD COMPANY,
+  SECTION "K"--BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.
+
+  Organization of Staff of Resident Engineer.
+
+  Organization Previous to the Holing Through of the Tunnels.
+
+                      Resident Engineer.
+                  _______________|________
+                 |           |            |
+             Assistant       |        Assistant
+             Engineer.       |        Engineer.
+       _________|________    |            |
+       |                |    |            |
+  Cost and Office  Field Inspection.  Alignment.
+     Records.
+
+  Cost and Office Records.
+    Inspector.
+    Two Clerks.
+    Stenographer.
+    Telephone Operator.
+    Messenger.
+    Janitors.
+
+  Field Inspection.
+    Weehawken.
+      Chief Inspector.
+        Inspector, N. Tunnel
+            "      S. Tunnel.
+            "      Mixer.
+            "      Excavation and Force Account.
+        Inspector, Night.
+        Cement Warehouseman.
+          Conduit Inspector. (_one position_)
+    Hackensack.
+      Chief Inspector.
+      Chief Inspector.
+        Inspector, N. Tunnel
+            "      S. Tunnel.
+            "      Mixer.
+            "      Excavation and Force Account.
+        Inspector, Night.
+        Cement Warehouseman.
+          Conduit Inspector. (_one position_)
+
+  Alignment.
+    Weehawken.
+      Chief of Party.
+      Instrumentman.
+      Rodman.
+      Chainman.
+    Hackensack.
+      Chief of Party.
+      Instrumentman.
+      Rodman.
+      Chainman.]
+
+
+  [Chart: Fig. 21.
+
+  Organization After the Tunnels Had Been Holed Through.
+
+                        Resident Engineer.
+                 ________________|_______________
+                |             |      |           |
+            Assistant         |      |      Assistant
+            Engineer.         |      |      Engineer.
+         _______|______       |      |           |
+        |              |      |      |           |
+  Cost and Office  Field Inspection. |      Alignment.
+      Records.    _____|_____________|
+                 |                   |
+              Tunnels.    Conduit Inspector.
+
+  Cost and Office Records.
+    Two Inspectors.
+    Two Clerks.
+    Stenographer.
+    Telephone Operator.
+    Messenger.
+    Janitor.
+
+  Tunnels.
+    Chief Inspector.
+      8 Tunnel Inspectors.
+      2 Mixer Inspectors.
+      1 Night Inspector.
+  Conduit Inspector.
+    Inspector, Hackensack Approach.
+
+  Alignment.
+    1 Instrumentman.
+    1 Draftsman.
+    2 Rodmen.
+    3 Chainmen.]
+
+The general organization of the staff is shown by the two diagrams,
+Figs. 20 and 21. Fig. 20 shows the organization previous to the holing
+through of the tunnels, during which time a separate office was
+maintained at the western end for the use of the men stationed there;
+Fig. 21 shows the organization during the latter part of the time, after
+the tunnels were holed through. The Assistant Engineer in charge of the
+construction was J. R. Taft, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E.; the Chief
+Inspector, J. S. Frazer, Jun. Am. Soc. C. E., had charge of about 75% of
+the work of the lining of the tunnels. The alignment has been from the
+beginning under the charge of R. L. Reynolds, Assistant Engineer.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+           *       *       *       *
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+  Errors and Notes:
+
+  Each Plate was printed with the same header:
+      PLATE __.
+      TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.
+      VOL. LXVIII, No. 1154.
+      LAVIS ON
+      PENNSYLVANIA R.R. TUNNELS: BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.
+  These headers were omitted for the e-text. Captions beginning in
+  "K" with a number were printed directly on the photograph; some
+  readings are uncertain and are indicated by question marks (?).
+
+  In the tables of Figures 1-4, variation between "to" and "-", and
+  formatting of table entries, is as in the original.
+
+  [Fig. 1, table]
+  Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section: 3-33
+    _may be error for "3-3.3"_
+  [Fig. 1, last line of table]
+  Total Pounds
+    _text reads "Pound"_
+  Figs. 3 and 4, and Plate XXIV
+    _apparent error for "Figs. 3 and 4, Plate XXIV" (usual form)_
+  [Figure 15 A, B, C...]
+    _letters other than "B" do not appear in the printed Figure_
+  [Figure 15, caption]
+  DETAILS OF "WEASEL"
+    _quotation marks look hand-written, but printed text has spaces_
+  [Figure 15, "Index" (small table)]
+  Multi-Duct Mandrel
+    _text reads "Mult-Duct"_
+  which would be satisfactory to the engineers
+    _text reads "satifactory"_
+
+  Missing or superfluous punctuation was silently corrected.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Transactions of the American Society
+of Civil Engineers, vol. LXVIII, Sept. 1910, by F. Lavis
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ***
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+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Transactions of the American Society of
+Civil Engineers, vol. LXVIII, Sept. 191, by F. Lavis
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. LXVIII, Sept. 1910
+       The Bergen Hill Tunnels. Paper No. 1154
+
+Author: F. Lavis
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2007 [EBook #21083]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Louise Hope, Juliet Sutherland and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p>
+This e-text includes a few characters that will only display in UTF-8
+(Unicode) file encoding:</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">⅛ ⅜ ⅝ ⅞ †</p>
+
+<p>
+If any of these characters do not display properly, or if the quotation
+marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, you may have an incompatible
+browser or unavailable fonts. First, make sure that the browser’s
+“character set” or “file encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). You may
+also need to change your browser’s default font.</p>
+
+<p>Two other papers from ASCE <i>Transactions</i> LXVIII (September
+1910) are referenced in this paper:</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">
+No. 1150, “The New York Tunnel Extension...” by Charles W. Raymond,
+available from Project Gutenberg as <a href =
+"http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/18229" target = "_blank">e-text
+18229</a>.</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">
+No. 1151, “The North River Division” by Charles M. Jacobs, <a href =
+"http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/18548" target = "_blank">e-text
+18548</a>, generally cited as “the paper by Mr. Jacobs”.</p>
+
+<p>The word “Figure” is used in two ways. It refers either to individual
+numbered Figures (1-21), or to any of the four pictures that make up
+each Plate, identified in the form “Fig.&nbsp;2, Plate XXI”. Figures 1-4
+are always discussed as a group.</p>
+
+<p>
+Larger Figures are shown as thumbnails, followed by inline enlargements
+or links. If your browser supports image mapping, some of the more
+complicated Figures can be clicked directly.</p>
+
+<p align = "center"><a href = "#illus">
+List of Illustrations</a> (added by transcriber)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<span class = "pagenum">84</span>
+<!--png 084-->
+<h3>AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS</h3>
+
+<h6>INSTITUTED 1852</h6>
+
+<hr class = "tiny">
+
+<h2 class = "boldf">TRANSACTIONS</h2>
+
+<hr class = "tiny">
+
+<h4 class = "boldf">Paper No. 1154</h4>
+
+<hr class = "tiny">
+
+<h4>THE NEW YORK TUNNEL EXTENSION OF THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.<br>
+THE BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.<a class = "tag" name = "tag1" id = "tag1" href
+= "#note1">1</a></h4>
+
+<h5 class = "smallcaps">By F. Lavis, M. Am. Soc. C. E.</h5>
+
+<hr class = "tiny">
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "location"><i>Location.</i></a>&mdash;That section of the
+Pennsylvania Railroad’s New York Tunnels lying west of the Hudson River
+is designated Section “K,” and the tunnels are generally spoken of as
+the Bergen Hill Tunnels. Bergen Hill is a trap dike (diabase) forming
+the lower extension of the Hudson River Palisades.</p>
+
+<p>There are two parallel single-track tunnels, cross-sections of which
+are shown on Plate VIII of the paper by Charles M. Jacobs, M.&nbsp;Am.
+Soc. C.&nbsp;E. The center line is a tangent, and nearly on the line of
+32d Street, New York City, produced, its course being N. 50° 30' W. The
+elevation of the top of the rail at the Weehawken Shaft (a&nbsp;view of
+which is shown by Fig.&nbsp;2, <a href = "#plateXXII">Plate XXII</a>),
+on the west bank of the Hudson River, is about 64 ft. below mean high
+water; and at the Western Portal, or Hackensack end, the rail is about
+17 ft. above; the grade throughout is 1.3%, ascending from east to west.
+The length of each tunnel between the portals is 5,920&nbsp;ft.</p>
+
+<p>A general plan and profile of these tunnels is shown on Plate I of
+the paper by Charles W. Raymond, M.&nbsp;Am. Soc. C.&nbsp;E. At
+<span class = "pagenum">85</span>
+<!--png 087-->
+Central Avenue a shaft 212 ft. deep was sunk. It is 3,620 ft. from the
+Weehawken Shaft.</p>
+
+
+<!--png 085-->
+<!--png 086-->
+
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#plateXXIend">
+<i>Skip to text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "plate">
+<a name = "plateXXI" id = "plateXXI"> </a>
+<p class = "header">
+PLATE XXI.<br>
+TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.<br>
+VOL. LXVIII, No. 1154.<br>
+LAVIS ON<br>
+PENNSYLVANIA R.R. TUNNELS: BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate21a.jpg" width = "484" height = "388"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 1.</span>
+K 94. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. D. Section K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels.) from
+Hackensack Poral, North Cut and Cover Section, and Portal looking East
+from Sta. 323. Dec. 8,&nbsp;05.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate21b.jpg" width = "492" height = "396"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 2.</span>
+K 71. P.R.R. Tunnels, N.R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels) Method of
+using Cross-Section Rod in getting Sections of Tunnel. Aug.
+30,&nbsp;06.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate21c.jpg" width = "485" height = "389"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 3.</span>
+K 115. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels)
+Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel Conveyor used by King Rice and Garney for
+handling and placing concrete. June 3,&nbsp;07.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate21d.jpg" width = "486" height = "391"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 4.</span>
+K 116. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels)
+Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel. View of conveyor for placing concrete,
+with bucket suspended over hopper above belt. Steel forms in fore
+ground. June 4,&nbsp;07.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "plateXXIend" id = "plateXXIend"> </a>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "history"><i>History.</i></a>&mdash;The contract for this work
+was let on March 6th, 1905, to the John Shields Construction Company; it
+was abandoned by the Receiver for that company on January 20th, 1906,
+and on March 20th, of that year, was re-let to William Bradley, who
+completed the work by December 31st, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of excavation and lining in the North Tunnel is shown
+graphically on the progress diagram, <a href = "#fig9">Fig.&nbsp;9</a>,
+that of the South Tunnel being practically the same.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "geology"><i>Geology.</i></a>&mdash;Starting west from the
+Weehawken Shaft, the tunnels pass through a wide fault for a distance of
+nearly 400 ft., this fault being a continuation of that which forms the
+valley between the detached mass of trap and sandstone known as King’s
+Bluff, which lies north of the tunnels, and the main trap ridge of
+Bergen Hill.</p>
+
+<p>The broken ground of the fault, which consists of decomposed
+sandstone, shale, feldspar, calcite, etc., interspersed with masses of
+harder sandstone and baked shale, gradually merges into a compact
+granular sandstone, which, at a distance of 460 ft. from the shaft, was
+self-supporting, and did not require timbering, which, of course, had
+been necessary up to this point.</p>
+
+<p>A full face of sandstone continued to Station 274 + 60, 940 ft. from
+the shaft, where the main overlying body of trap appeared in the
+heading. The full face of the tunnel was wholly in trap at about Station
+275 + 30, and continued in this through to the Western Portal, where the
+top of the trap was slightly below the roof of the tunnel, with hardpan
+above. The contact between the sandstone and the overlying trap was very
+clearly defined, the angle of dip being approximately 17° 40' toward the
+northwest.</p>
+
+<p>The sandstone and trap are of the Triassic Period, and the trap of
+this vicinity is more particularly classified as diabase.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the trap rock varied considerably. At the contact,
+at Station 275, and for a distance of approximately 200 ft. west,
+corresponding to a thickness of about 60&nbsp;ft. measured at right
+angles to the line of the contact, a&nbsp;very hard, fine-grained trap,
+almost black in color, was found, having a specific gravity of 2.98, and
+weighing 186 lb. per cu. ft. The hardness of this rock is attested by
+the fact that the average time required to drill a 10-ft. hole in the
+heading, with
+<span class = "pagenum">86</span>
+<!--png 088-->
+a No. 34 slugger drill, with air at 90 lb. pressure, was almost
+10&nbsp;hours. The specific gravity of this rock is not as high as that
+of some other specimens of trap tested, which were much more easily
+drilled. This rock was very blocky, causing the drills to bind and stick
+badly, and, when being shoveled back from the heading, as it fell it
+sounded very much as though it were broken glass.</p>
+
+<p>The remainder of the trap varied from this, through several changes
+of texture and color, due to different amounts of quartz and feldspar,
+to a very coarse-grained rock, closely resembling granite of a light
+color, though quite hard. The speed of drilling the normal trap in the
+heading was approximately 20 to 25 min. per ft., as compared with the
+60&nbsp;min. per ft. noted above, the larger amounts of quartz and
+feldspar accounting for the greater brittleness and consequently the
+easier drilling qualities of the rock. The normal trap in these tunnels
+has a specific gravity varying from 2.85 to 3.04, and weighs from 179 to
+190 lb. per cu.&nbsp;ft.</p>
+
+<p>The temperature of the tunnels, at points 1,000 ft. from the portals
+at both ends, remained nearly stationary, and approximately between 50°
+in winter and 60° in summer, up to the time the headings were holed
+through, being practically unaffected by daily changes in the
+temperature outside. At the western end, after the connection with the
+Central Shaft headings was made, there was almost always a current of
+air from the portal to the shaft, and ascending through the latter. This
+tended to make the temperature in this part of the tunnel correspond
+more nearly with the outside temperature; in fact, the variation was
+seldom more than 5° Fahr.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "timbering"><i>Timbering.</i></a>&mdash;These tunnels have
+been excavated entirely by the center top heading method, almost
+invariably used in the United States. Timbering, where required, was of
+the usual segmental form with outside lagging, as shown in several of
+the photographs. In a few places it was necessary to hold the ground as
+the work progressed, and, in such cases, crown bars were used in the
+headings.</p>
+
+<p>There was some little trouble at the Western Portal, where the top of
+the rock was very near the roof of the tunnel, as shown by Fig.&nbsp;1,
+<a href = "#plateXXI">Plate XXI</a>. A&nbsp;side heading was driven at
+the level of the springing line until a point was reached where the roof
+was self-supporting, and the timbering was brought out to the face of
+the portal from that point.</p>
+
+
+<!--png 089-->
+<!--png 090-->
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#plateXXIIend">
+<i>Skip to text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "plate">
+<a name = "plateXXII" id = "plateXXII"> </a>
+<p class = "header">
+PLATE XXII.<br>
+TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.<br>
+VOL. LXVIII, No. 1154.<br>
+LAVIS ON<br>
+PENNSYLVANIA R.R. TUNNELS: BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate22a.jpg" width = "388" height = "484"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 1.</span>
+K 26. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. D. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels,) Weehawken
+Shaft. Scaffold car in South Tunnel at Sta. 267+60. Jan.
+11,&nbsp;06.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate22b.jpg" width = "389" height = "481"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 2.</span>
+K 31. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels)
+Weehawken Shaft. Headhouse<ins class = "correction" title = "illegible">
+at ? </ins>elevator frame work, looking West. Oct. 17,&nbsp;06.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate22c.jpg" width = "389" height = "482"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Fig. 3.&mdash;Round Holes in Concrete Forms.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate22d.jpg" width = "388" height = "483"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "smallcaps">Fig. 4.&mdash;Round Holes in Concrete Forms
+Completed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a name = "plateXXIIend" id = "plateXXIIend"> </a>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">87</span>
+<!--png 091-->
+<i>Drilling.</i>&mdash;Where no timbering was required, several
+different methods were used in drilling and excavating the solid rock,
+though in all cases a center top heading was driven. The four diagrams,
+Figs. 1, 2, 3, and&nbsp;4, give typical examples of these methods and
+show, in the order of their numbers, the general tendency of the
+development from a small heading kept some distance ahead of the bench,
+to a large heading with the bench kept close to it. The notes on each
+diagram give the general details of the quantity of drilling and powder
+used, methods of blasting, etc., and on the progress profile, <a href =
+"#fig6">Fig.&nbsp;6</a>, is indicated those portions of the tunnels in
+which each method was used.</p>
+
+<p>All the drills used throughout the work by Mr. Bradley were Rand No.
+34 sluggers, with 3⅝-in. cylinders, and the steel was that known as the
+“Black Diamond Brand,” 1⅜-in., octagon. It was used in 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,
+and 12-ft. lengths; toward the end of the work it was proposed to use
+14-ft. lengths, but owing to some delay in delivery this length was
+never obtained. The starters, 18 to 24 in. long, were sharpened to 2¾ to
+3-in. gauge, which was generally held up to depths of 6&nbsp;ft.; then
+the gauge gradually decreased until it was 1¾ to 2¼ in. at the bottom of
+a 12-ft. hole. Frequently, as many as three or four starters were used
+in starting a hole, and generally two sharpenings were required for each
+2&nbsp;ft. drilled, after the first 6&nbsp;ft. It is estimated that
+about ¼&nbsp;in. of steel was used for each sharpening, and that there
+was an average of one sharpening for every foot drilled.</p>
+
+<p>The total quantity of steel used up, lost, or scrapped on the whole
+work was almost exactly 1&nbsp;ft. for each 10 cu. yd. excavated, equal
+to 1¼&nbsp;in. of steel per yard, distributed approximately as
+follows:</p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td class = "right">Sharpening</td>
+<td width = "50%">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>¾ to ⅞ in.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "right">Other losses</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>½ to ⅜ &nbsp;”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "toppad">
+<td class = "right">Total</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "overline">1¼ in. per cu. yd.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>An “Ajax” drill sharpener was used, and proved very satisfactory.
+Rubber and cotton hose, covered with woven marlin, was used for the
+bench (3&nbsp;in. inside diameter, in 50-ft. lengths), for drills
+(1&nbsp;in. in diameter, in 25-ft. lengths), and for steam shovels
+(2½&nbsp;in. in diameter, in 50-ft. lengths). Hose coverings of wound
+marlin, and of woven marlin with spiral steel wire covering were tried,
+but were not satisfactory, owing to the unwinding of the marlin and the
+bending of the steel covering.</p>
+
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#fig4end">
+<i>Skip to Text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "mynote">
+<p>
+Figures 1-4 were identically laid out; Figure 1 is representative.
+In the enlarged views, the plans have been rotated to match the
+longitudinal section. In the tables, variation between “to” and “-”,
+and formatting of table entries, is as in the original.</p>
+
+<p class = "inset">
+Adv.: Advance<br>
+Cu. Yd.: Cubic Yards</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig1thumb.png" width = "486" height = "406"
+alt = "Figure 1 thumbnail">
+</p>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">88</span>
+<!--png 092-->
+<!--used ½ because 3½-4 could be confusing-->
+
+<p class = "fighead top"><a name = "fig1" id = "fig1">Fig. 1.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig1cross.png" width = "174" height = "170"
+alt = "cross-section">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+CROSS-SECTION</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig1long.png" width = "384" height = "152"
+alt = "longitudinal section">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+LONGITUDINAL SECTION</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig1plan.png" width = "322" height = "176"
+alt = "plan">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+PLAN</p>
+
+<table class = "outline smaller" summary = "figure 1 data">
+<caption>Drilling Method No. 1: Small heading, 60 to 80 ft. long. Two
+columns used in heading, with two drills on each. Drills on sub-bench
+and main bench mounted on tripods.</caption>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td rowspan = "2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan = "4">Per Round</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Per Cubic Yard</td>
+<td colspan = "3">Per linear Foot of Tunnel</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Total Depth Drilled</td>
+<td>No. of Cubic Yards</td>
+<td>Pounds of Dynamite</td>
+<td>Adv.</td>
+<td>Linear Feet Drilled</td>
+<td>Pounds of Dynamite</td>
+<td>Cu. Yd.</td>
+<td>Linear Feet Drilled</td>
+<td>Pounds of Dynamite</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td>Heading</td>
+<td>140-155</td>
+<td>18-21.6</td>
+<td>93-131</td>
+<td>5-6</td>
+<td>8-9</td>
+<td>5-6</td>
+<td>3.6</td>
+<td>29.-32</td>
+<td>18-22</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td>Bench</td>
+<td>110-120</td>
+<td>53-60</td>
+<td>76-97</td>
+<td>3½-4</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>1.4-1.6</td>
+<td>15.4</td>
+<td>30.-31</td>
+<td>21.5-24.6</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td class = "right" colspan = "7">Total</td>
+<td class = "center">19</td>
+<td class = "center">59.63</td>
+<td class = "center">39.5-46.6</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td class = "right" colspan = "8">
+Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section</td>
+<td class = "center">3&nbsp;to&nbsp;<ins class = "correction" title =
+"error for ‘3.3’?">33</ins></td>
+<td class = "center">2.1-2.5</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "outline" summary = "figure 1 data">
+<tr class = "center middle">
+<td colspan = "2">Blasting Notes: </td>
+<td class = "outline">Number of Sticks</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Heading:</td>
+<td><p>First Round: 6 sticks, 60% in each cut hole, cut generally
+blasted twice</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">36 to 72</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Second Round: 3 side holes each side, 5&nbsp;sticks, 40%
+ea.</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Third Round: Rest of side holes and dry holes, 5&nbsp;sticks, 40%
+each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>Stub holes, say</td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">5 to 15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "right">Total Sticks</td>
+<td class = "outline center middle">111 to 157</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "right">Total Pounds</td>
+<td class = "outline center middle">93 to 131</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Sub&#x2011;bench:</p></td>
+<td><p>4 widening holes; 2 to 3 sticks, each, 40%</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">10 to 12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>6 down holes; 5&nbsp;to 7 sticks, each, 40%</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">30 to 42</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Bench:</td>
+<td>6 holes; 6&nbsp;to 8 sticks each, 40%</td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">36 to 48</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>Taking up bottom, average, say</td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "right">Total Sticks</td>
+<td class = "outline center middle">91 to 117</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "right">Total
+<ins class = "correction" title = "text reads ‘Pound’">Pounds</ins></td>
+<td class = "outline center middle">76 to 97</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">89</span>
+<!--png 093-->
+
+<p class = "fighead top"><a name = "fig2" id = "fig2">Fig. 2.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig2cross.png" width = "181" height = "176"
+alt = "cross-section">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+CROSS-SECTION</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig2long.png" width = "519" height = "163"
+alt = "longitudinal section">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+LONGITUDINAL SECTION</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig2plan.png" width = "343" height = "178"
+alt = "plan">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+PLAN</p>
+
+
+<table class = "outline smaller" summary = "figure 2 data">
+<caption>Drilling Method, No. 2: Five drills in heading, mounted on
+three columns; the holes marked with a cross (X) were drilled with the
+drills on the center column<ins class = "correction"
+title = "period missing">. </ins></caption>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td rowspan = "2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan = "4">Per Round</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Per Cubic Yard</td>
+<td colspan = "3">Per linear Foot of Tunnel</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Total Depth Drilled</td>
+<td>No. of Cubic Yards</td>
+<td>Pounds of Dynamite</td>
+<td>Adv.</td>
+<td>Linear Feet Drilled</td>
+<td>Pounds of Dynamite</td>
+<td>Cu. Yd.</td>
+<td>Linear Feet Drilled</td>
+<td>Pounds of Dynamite</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td>Heading</td>
+<td>190-220</td>
+<td>35-42</td>
+<td>134-196</td>
+<td>6½-8</td>
+<td>5.4-6.0</td>
+<td>3.9-5.0</td>
+<td>5.3</td>
+<td>28 to 32.</td>
+<td>20.7-26.5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td>Bench</td>
+<td>110-130</td>
+<td>55</td>
+<td>79-106</td>
+<td>4</td>
+<td>2.-2.4</td>
+<td>1.4-2.0</td>
+<td>13.7</td>
+<td>27.-33.</td>
+<td>19.2-27.4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td class = "right" colspan = "7">Total</td>
+<td class = "center">19</td>
+<td class = "center">55.-65.</td>
+<td class = "center">39.9-53.9</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td class = "right" colspan = "8">
+Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section</td>
+<td class = "center">2.9-<ins class = "correction"
+title = "text reads ‘3.4.’">3.4</ins></td>
+<td class = "center">2.1-2.8</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<table class = "outline" summary = "figure 2 data">
+<tr class = "center middle">
+<td colspan = "2">Blasting Notes: </td>
+<td class = "outline">Number of Sticks</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Heading:</td>
+<td><p>First Round; 2 to 3 relieving holes sprung with 4 to 5 sticks
+each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">8 to 15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>8 cut holes, 7&nbsp;sticks each (sometimes shot twice)</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">56 to 112</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>First side round, 6&nbsp;holes, 6&nbsp;sticks each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">36</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Widening and dry holes, 10 to 12, 6&nbsp;sticks each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">60 to 72</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "right">Total Sticks</td>
+<td class = "outline center middle">160 to 235</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "right">Total Pounds</td>
+<td class = "outline center middle">134 to 196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Sub&#x2011;bench:</p></td>
+<td><p>8 holes, 4 to 6 sticks, each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">32 to 48</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Bench:</td>
+<td>8 holes, 6 to 8 sticks, each</td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">46 to 64</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>Taking up bottom, average</td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "right">Total Sticks</td>
+<td class = "outline center middle">95 to 127</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "right">Total Pounds</td>
+<td class = "outline center middle">79 to 109</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">90</span>
+<!--png 094-->
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig3" id = "fig3">Fig. 3.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig3cross.png" width = "170" height = "172"
+alt = "cross-section">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+CROSS-SECTION</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig3long.png" width = "372" height = "161"
+alt = "longitudinal section">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+LONGITUDINAL SECTION</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig3plan.png" width = "326" height = "173"
+alt = "plan">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+PLAN</p>
+
+<table class = "outline smaller" summary = "figure 3 data">
+<caption>Drilling Method No. 3: Heading same as second method, but
+larger lift taken off bench, and lift holes drilled in bottom bench in
+order to get down to grade in floor. Bench kept closer to
+heading.</caption>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td rowspan = "2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan = "4">Per Round</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Per Cubic Yard</td>
+<td colspan = "3">Per linear Foot of Tunnel</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Total Depth Drilled</td>
+<td>No. of Cubic Yards</td>
+<td>Pounds of Dynamite</td>
+<td>Adv.</td>
+<td>Linear Feet Drilled</td>
+<td>Pounds of Dynamite</td>
+<td>Cu. Yd.</td>
+<td>Linear Feet Drilled</td>
+<td>Pounds of Dynamite</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td>Heading</td>
+<td>190 to 220</td>
+<td>35 to 42</td>
+<td>134 to 196</td>
+<td>6½ to 8</td>
+<td>5.4 to 6.0</td>
+<td>3.9 to 5.0</td>
+<td>5.3</td>
+<td>28 to 32</td>
+<td>20.7 to 26.5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td>Bench</td>
+<td>145 ” 190</td>
+<td>90 to 110</td>
+<td>118 ” 167</td>
+<td>6½ ” 8</td>
+<td>1.6 ” 1.9</td>
+<td>1.3 ” 1.8</td>
+<td>13.7</td>
+<td>22 ” 36</td>
+<td>17.8 ” 24.7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td class = "right" colspan = "7">Total</td>
+<td class = "center">19</td>
+<td class = "center">50 ” 58</td>
+<td class = "center">38.5 ” 51.2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td class = "right" colspan = "8">
+Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section</td>
+<td class = "center">2.6 ” 3.1</td>
+<td class = "center">2.0 ” 2.6</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "outline" summary = "figure 3 data">
+<tr class = "center middle">
+<td colspan = "2">Blasting Notes: </td>
+<td class = "outline">Number of Sticks</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Heading:</td>
+<td><p>First Round: 2 to 3 relieving holes sprung, with 4 to 5 sticks
+each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">8 to 15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>8 cut holes, 7&nbsp;sticks each (sometimes shot twice)</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">56 to 112</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>First side round, 6&nbsp;holes, 6&nbsp;sticks each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">36</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Widening and dry holes, 10 to 12 holes, 6&nbsp;sticks
+each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">60 to 72</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "right">Total Sticks</td>
+<td class = "outline center middle">160 to 235</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "right">Total Pounds</td>
+<td class = "outline center middle">134 to 196</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Sub&#x2011;bench:</p></td>
+<td><p>4 widening holes, 4 to 5 sticks each, 2 rounds</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">32 to 40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>6 down holes, 5&nbsp;to 7 sticks each, 2&nbsp;rounds</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">60 to 84</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Bench:</td>
+<td><p>4 down holes, 5 to 7 sticks each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">20 to 28</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>6 to 8 lift holes, 5&nbsp;to 6 sticks each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">30 to 48</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "right">Total Sticks</td>
+<td class = "outline center middle">142 to 200</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "right">Total Pounds</td>
+<td class = "outline center middle">118 to 167</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">91</span>
+<!--png 095-->
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig4" id = "fig4">Fig. 4.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig4cross.png" width = "161" height = "155"
+alt = "cross-section">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+CROSS-SECTION</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig4long.png" width = "329" height = "154"
+alt = "longitudinal section">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+LONGITUDINAL SECTION</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig4plan.png" width = "303" height = "166"
+alt = "plan">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+PLAN</p>
+
+<table class = "outline smaller" summary = "figure 4 data">
+<caption>Drilling Method No. 4: 8 drills on 4 columns used in heading.
+Bench taken off in one lift. Bottom taken up with lift holes<ins class =
+"correction" title = "period missing">. </ins></caption>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td rowspan = "2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan = "4">Per Round</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Per Cubic Yard</td>
+<td colspan = "3">Per linear Foot of Tunnel</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Total Depth Drilled</td>
+<td>No. of Cubic Yards</td>
+<td>Pounds of Dynamite</td>
+<td>Adv.</td>
+<td>Linear Feet Drilled</td>
+<td>Pounds of Dynamite</td>
+<td>Cu. Yd.</td>
+<td>Linear Feet Drilled</td>
+<td>Pounds of Dynamite</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td>Heading</td>
+<td>310-320</td>
+<td>63-71</td>
+<td>215-257</td>
+<td>8-9</td>
+<td>4.5-5.1</td>
+<td>3.4-5.7</td>
+<td>7.9</td>
+<td>35.6-45.</td>
+<td>26.9-45.0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td>Bench</td>
+<td>190-210</td>
+<td>89-100</td>
+<td>107-155</td>
+<td>8-9</td>
+<td>1.9-2.2</td>
+<td>1.2-1.7</td>
+<td>11.1</td>
+<td>21.1-24.</td>
+<td>13.3-18.9</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td class = "right" colspan = "7">Total</td>
+<td class = "center">19</td>
+<td class = "center">56.7-69.</td>
+<td class = "center">40.2-63.9</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td class = "right" colspan = "8">
+Per cubic yard, whole tunnel section</td>
+<td class = "center">3.-3.6</td>
+<td class = "center">2.1-3.4</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "outline" summary = "figure 4 data">
+<tr class = "center middle">
+<td colspan = "2">Blasting Notes:<br>
+<p>All holes of whole round are cleaned and loaded before blasting is
+started</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline">Number of Sticks</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "toppad">
+<td>First Round:</td>
+<td><p>5-6 lift holes, 7 to 9 sticks each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">35 to 54</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>First row, sub-bench, 6&nbsp;holes, 6 to 8 sticks each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">36 to 48</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Second&nbsp;Round:</td>
+<td><p>Second row, sub-bench and widening holes, 8&nbsp;to 10 holes,
+6&nbsp;to 8 sticks each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">48 to 64</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>Stub holes</td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">10 to 20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "right"><p>Bench: Total Sticks</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">129 to 186</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "right">Total Pounds</td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">107 to 155</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Third Round:</td>
+<td><p>8 cut holes, 7&nbsp;sticks each, often requires 3 to 4
+charges</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">112 to 224</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fourth Round:</td>
+<td><p>8 holes, First side round, 5&nbsp;to 7 sticks each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">40 to 56</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Fifth Round:</td>
+<td><p>8 holes, Second side round, 5&nbsp;to 7 sticks each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">40 to 56</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>2 dry holes 5 to 7 sticks each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">10 to 14</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sixth Round:</td>
+<td><p>4 to 6 widening holes and dry holes, 6&nbsp;sticks each</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">36 to 48</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><p>Stub holes</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">20 to 30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "right"><p>Heading: Total Sticks</p></td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">258 to 428</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "right">Total Pounds</td>
+<td class = "sideline center middle">215 to 357</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "fig4end" id = "fig4end"> </a>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">92</span>
+<!--png 096-->
+The average quantity of powder used on the whole work was about 2.9 lb.
+per cu. yd. The tables on the diagrams, Figs. 1, 2, 3, and&nbsp;4, show
+that the quantity actually used in making the advance at the main
+working faces was about 2.5 lb. The difference is accounted for by the
+larger percentage of powder used for trimming the sides, breaking out
+the cross-passages between the tunnels, and the excavation of the
+ditches, the latter operation not being done until the concrete lining
+was about to be put&nbsp;in.</p>
+
+<p>There was some time, too, during the earlier stages of the work, when
+it is believed that an excessive quantity of powder was used; for one or
+two months it ran up to 4&nbsp;lb. per cu.&nbsp;yd.</p>
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig5" id = "fig5">Fig. 5.</a></p>
+
+<p class= "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig5.png" width = "491" height = "233"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption bottom">
+MUCK CAR USED AT WEEHAWKEN SHAFT</p>
+
+<p>The dynamite used was “Forcite.” At first, both 40% and 60% were
+used, the 60% generally only for blasting the cut in the headings;
+during the latter part of the work, however, the 60% was used
+exclusively.</p>
+
+<p>The rock as a rule broke very well, and only a comparatively small
+quantity could not be handled by the shovels without being broken up
+further by block-holing. In the sandstone the quantity of powder per
+cubic yard was much more than for any of the trap.</p>
+
+<p>In drilling the Central Shaft, a 6-hole cut was made approximately on
+the center line, east and west, the enlargement requiring about 18 more
+holes, which were generally about 6&nbsp;ft. deep, the average advance
+being about 4&nbsp;ft. per day of 24 hours.</p>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">93</span>
+<!--png 097-->
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig6" id = "fig6">Fig. 6.</a></p>
+
+<p class= "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig6Nthumb.png" width = "387" height = "206"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+NORTH TUNNEL<br>
+<a href = "images/fig6Nwide.png" target = "_blank">larger view</a></p>
+
+<p class= "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig6Sthumb.png" width = "389" height = "210"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+SOUTH TUNNEL<br>
+<a href = "images/fig6Swide.png" target = "_blank">larger view</a></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+PROGRESS PROFILES OF NORTH AND SOUTH TUNNELS SHOWING MONTHLY
+EXCAVATION</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The drills were run by steam until a depth of about 150 ft. had been
+reached, air from the plant at Hackensack being available after
+<span class = "pagenum">94</span>
+<!--png 098-->
+that time. Four drills were used most of the time, and six later when
+air was available. This work was done entirely by the John Shields
+Construction Company, and a depth of 205 ft. was sunk in 6&nbsp;months
+(from July 15th, 1905, to January 15th, 1906). A&nbsp;derrick was used
+for hoisting and lowering men and tools during the sinking, elevators
+being put in later.</p>
+
+
+<!--png 000-->
+<!--png 000-->
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#plateXXIIIend">
+<i>Skip to text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "plate">
+<a name = "plateXXIII" id = "plateXXIII"> </a>
+<p class = "header">
+PLATE XXIII.<br>
+TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.<br>
+VOL. LXVIII, No. 1154.<br>
+LAVIS ON<br>
+PENNSYLVANIA R.R. TUNNELS: BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate23thumb.jpg" width = "471" height = "649"
+alt = "see text">
+</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<a href = "images/plate23.jpg" target = "_blank">larger view</a></p>
+
+<a name = "plateXXIIIend" id = "plateXXIIIend"> </a>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "drilling"><i>Drilling Data.</i></a>&mdash;During the progress
+of the work, both general and detailed observations were made of the
+drilling, the results of which are shown in the tables. Table&nbsp;1 has
+been compiled from the records as platted daily on the chart from the
+inspectors’ reports, as shown by Plate XXIII, and described on <a href =
+"#records">page 113</a>. Table&nbsp;2 contains some data relating to the
+drilling in the headings.</p>
+
+<p>The general results of these observations show that the average time
+the drills were “actually working” was 5.2&nbsp;hours per shift, and
+that they were actually “hitting the rock” about half of this time, or
+about 2.5&nbsp;hours per shift. The average depth drilled per hour,
+during the time the drills were “actually working,” was
+2.66&nbsp;ft.</p>
+
+<p>The “actual working time,” as noted above, covers the period from the
+time the drills were first set up in the heading after blasting until
+they were taken down for the next blast; it does not include the time
+occupied in setting up or taking down, which would probably average
+30&nbsp;min. more per shift. It is believed that this figure will also
+apply very closely to drills working on the bench, though no actual
+observations were taken to determine this, on account of the
+irregularity with which they were worked.</p>
+
+<p>The actual working time of the drills in the 736 shifts (7,360 hours)
+covered by Table&nbsp;1, was 3,826 hours, or 5.2 hours per shift. The
+average depth drilled per yard, as shown in the last column of
+Table&nbsp;1, agrees fairly well with the figures on the diagrams,
+Figs.&nbsp;1, 2, 3, and&nbsp;4.</p>
+
+<p>Table 2 has been compiled from detailed timed observations of
+individual drilling of down holes in the bench, for periods of 7 or 8
+hours each, in January, 1907. The work at that time was in fairly normal
+condition at all points.</p>
+
+<p>The figures in the third column of Table 2 include the time required
+for moving from one hole to another, when this occurred during the
+observation, the time required for changing bits, oiling drills, etc.,
+and all delays of all kinds. A&nbsp;close record of the delays was
+<span class = "pagenum">95</span>
+<!--png 099-->
+kept, and it was considered that, of the 93 hours, 48 min., in
+Table&nbsp;2, the unnecessary delays amounted to 5 hours, 7&nbsp;min.,
+or about 5½&nbsp;per cent.</p>
+
+<h5><a name = "table1" id = "table1">TABLE 1.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "key" summary = "table headers abbreviated">
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p>Shifts: Number of shifts covered by observations.</p>
+<p>Hours: Average number of hours worked per shift.</p>
+<p>D/Hr: Average depth drilled per hour per drill</p>
+<p>D/Yd: Average depth drilled per yard.</p>
+</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>
+<p>Hack.: Hackensack</p>
+<p>Whk.: Weehawken</p>
+<p>CS: Central Shaft</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "outline double" summary = "drilling data">
+<tr class = "outline center middle">
+<td>Method.</td>
+<td>Date.</td>
+<td>Shifts</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Place.</td>
+<td>Hours</td>
+<td>D/Hr</td>
+<td>D/Yd</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "middle" rowspan = "8"><p>No. 1&mdash;<br>
+4-drill</p></td>
+<td>Aug. ’06</td>
+<td>44</td>
+<td>Hack.,</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>5.69</td>
+<td>2.78</td>
+<td>10.1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Sept. ’06</td>
+<td>38</td>
+<td> &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>5.80</td>
+<td>3.77</td>
+<td>11.1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Aug. ’06</td>
+<td>43</td>
+<td> &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>5.60</td>
+<td>2.89</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 9.1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Sept. ’06</td>
+<td>36</td>
+<td> &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>6.18</td>
+<td>2.65</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 8.7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Jan. ’07</td>
+<td>16</td>
+<td>CS E.</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>5.99</td>
+<td>2.99</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 8.2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Jan. ’07</td>
+<td>20</td>
+<td> &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>6.05</td>
+<td>2.9</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 7.1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Apr. ’07</td>
+<td>48</td>
+<td>CS W.</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>4.92</td>
+<td>3.3</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 6.7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Apr. ’07</td>
+<td>48</td>
+<td> &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>5.00</td>
+<td>3.2</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 7.7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class = "sideline toppad">
+<td class = "middle" rowspan = "4"><p>Nos.&nbsp;2 and&nbsp;3&mdash;<br>
+5-drill</p></td>
+<td>Dec. ’06</td>
+<td>54</td>
+<td>Whk.,</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>4.95</td>
+<td>2.16</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 4.52</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Dec. ’06</td>
+<td>54</td>
+<td> &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>5.23</td>
+<td>2.14</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 4.54</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Dec. ’06</td>
+<td>52</td>
+<td>Hack.,</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>5.03</td>
+<td>2.2</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 5.77</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>Dec. ’06</td>
+<td>54</td>
+<td> &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>5.90</td>
+<td>1.82</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 5.67</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class = "sideline toppad">
+<td class = "middle" rowspan = "2"><p>No. 4&mdash;<br>
+7-drill</p></td>
+<td>June ’07</td>
+<td>56</td>
+<td>Whk.,</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>4.77</td>
+<td>2.55</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 4.23</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>June ’07</td>
+<td>58</td>
+<td> &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>4.82</td>
+<td>2.26</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 3.88</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr class = "sideline toppad">
+<td class = "middle" rowspan = "2"><p><br>8-drill</p></td>
+<td>May ’07</td>
+<td>60</td>
+<td>Hack.,</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>4.67</td>
+<td>2.44</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 5.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>May ’07</td>
+<td>60</td>
+<td> &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>4.54</td>
+<td>2.57</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 4.80</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h5><a name = "table2" id = "table2">TABLE 2.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "outline double center" summary = "drilling data">
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td>Date.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Place.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Total working time.</td>
+<td>Number of<br>
+feet drilled.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td></td>
+<td colspan = "2"></td>
+<td><i>Hours.</i></td>
+<td class = "noleft"><i>Minutes.</i></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td>Jan. 14th, 1907</td>
+<td>Weehawken</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>8</td>
+<td class = "noleft">0</td>
+<td>15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td>&nbsp; ” &nbsp; 15th, 1907</td>
+<td>&nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>7</td>
+<td class = "noleft">32</td>
+<td>12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td></td>
+<td>&nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>7</td>
+<td class = "noleft">22</td>
+<td>14</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td>&nbsp; ” &nbsp; 12th, 1907</td>
+<td>&nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>8</td>
+<td class = "noleft">0</td>
+<td>20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td></td>
+<td>&nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>8</td>
+<td class = "noleft">0</td>
+<td>11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td></td>
+<td>&nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>8</td>
+<td class = "noleft">0</td>
+<td>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td>&nbsp; ” &nbsp; 11th, 1907</td>
+<td>Hackensack</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>8</td>
+<td class = "noleft">0</td>
+<td>13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td>&nbsp; ” &nbsp; 17th, 1907</td>
+<td>&nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>7</td>
+<td class = "noleft">10</td>
+<td>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td></td>
+<td>&nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>7</td>
+<td class = "noleft">5</td>
+<td>11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td></td>
+<td>&nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">N.</td>
+<td>7</td>
+<td class = "noleft">10</td>
+<td>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td>&nbsp; ” &nbsp; 16th, 1907</td>
+<td>&nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>4</td>
+<td class = "noleft">20</td>
+<td>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td></td>
+<td>&nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>6</td>
+<td class = "noleft">9</td>
+<td>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td></td>
+<td>&nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "noleft">S.</td>
+<td>7</td>
+<td class = "noleft">...</td>
+<td>8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline">
+<td>Totals.</td>
+<td colspan = "2"></td>
+<td>93</td>
+<td class = "noleft">48</td>
+<td>154</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p align = "center">Average: 36.6 min. per ft. drilled, or 1.64 ft.
+drilled per hour.</p>
+
+<p>As a check on the average figures obtained from various sources, the
+following estimate of the cost of drilling per cubic yard was made up
+from these average figures, for comparison with the actual average cost
+on the whole work. The cost records show this to be about $2.25 per yd.,
+exclusive of power for running the drills, almost exactly what
+<span class = "pagenum">96</span>
+<!--png 100-->
+the following estimates give for theoretical average conditions,
+although no effort was made to have this latter compare so closely.</p>
+
+<p align = "center"><i>Estimated Cost per Drill per Day.</i></p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td><p>Drill Runner</p></td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>at $3.50 per day,</td>
+<td>$3.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Helper</p></td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>&nbsp;” &nbsp; 2.00 &nbsp; ” &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 2.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Nipper</p></td>
+<td>1/5</td>
+<td>&nbsp;” &nbsp; 1.75 &nbsp; ” &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 0.35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Heading foreman</p></td>
+<td>1/12</td>
+<td>&nbsp;” &nbsp; 5.00 &nbsp; ” &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 0.42</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Walking boss</p></td>
+<td>1/50</td>
+<td>&nbsp;” &nbsp; 7.50 &nbsp; ” &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 0.15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Blacksmith</p></td>
+<td>1/12</td>
+<td>&nbsp;” &nbsp; 4.00 &nbsp; ” &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 0.34</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Blacksmith helper</p></td>
+<td>1/12</td>
+<td>&nbsp;” &nbsp; 2.00 &nbsp; ” &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 0.16</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Machinist</p></td>
+<td>1/12</td>
+<td>&nbsp;” &nbsp; 3.00 &nbsp; ” &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 0.25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Machinist helper</p></td>
+<td>1/24</td>
+<td>&nbsp;” &nbsp; 1.75 &nbsp; ” &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 0.07</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Pipe fitter and helper</p></td>
+<td>1/50</td>
+<td>&nbsp;” &nbsp; 5.00 &nbsp; ” &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 0.10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Oil, waste, blacksmith coal, etc.</p></td>
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td>&nbsp; 0.24</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Drill steel, 6 in. per shift</p></td>
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td>&nbsp; 0.20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td><td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "overline">$7.78</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td><p>Average number of feet drilled per cubic yard</p></td>
+<td class = "right">3 to 3.5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Number of feet drilled per drill, per shift</p></td>
+<td class = "right">10.5 to 12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Number of yards per drill, per shift</p></td>
+<td class = "right">3.5±</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Cost of drilling, per yard, $7.78/3.5</p></td>
+<td class = "right">$2.22±</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In all the foregoing tables and computations, the quantities used
+have been those paid for. The quantity taken out, however, has been 10%
+more than that paid for, and 28% more than the contractor was actually
+required to take out.</p>
+
+<p>The specifications required that the excavation should be taken
+entirely outside of the neat line, as shown on Plate VIII of the paper
+by Mr. Jacobs, but not necessarily beyond this line, but that the
+contractor would be paid for rock out to the standard section line,
+which is 1&nbsp;ft. larger on the sides and top and&nbsp;6&nbsp;in.
+deeper in the bottom than the neat line.</p>
+
+<p>A great deal of the extra quantity was due to rock falling from the
+core-wall side whenever one working face was behind the other. Blasting
+at the face behind generally loosened more or less rock on the core-wall
+side of the tunnel which was ahead, in one or two instances breaking
+entirely through, as shown in Fig.&nbsp;2, <a href = "#plateXXVI">Plate
+XXVI</a>, the hole in the core-wall in this case being utilized by
+building a storage chamber in&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">97</span>
+<!--png 101-->
+Table 3 gives some of the statistics of drilling in the Simplon Tunnel,
+as compared with the drilling on this work, the figures for the Simplon
+being taken from papers read before the Institution of Civil Engineers
+of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<h5><a name = "table3" id = "table3">TABLE 3.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "outline double center" summary = "drilling data">
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td></td>
+<td>Bergen Hill.</td>
+<td>Simplon.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Drills set up in heading, percentage of total
+elapsed time</p></td>
+<td>50%</td>
+<td>60%</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Actually drilling the rock, percentage of total
+elapsed time</p></td>
+<td>25%</td>
+<td>50%</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Average advance per round (attack)</p></td>
+<td>8.5&nbsp;ft.</td>
+<td>3.8&nbsp;ft.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Average time for each attack</p></td>
+<td>36 hours.</td>
+<td>5 hours.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Average advance per day of 24 hours</p></td>
+<td>5&nbsp;ft.</td>
+<td>18 ft.†</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Depth of holes</p></td>
+<td>10 ft.</td>
+<td>4.6&nbsp;ft.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Diameter of holes</p></td>
+<td>2¾ in.</td>
+<td>2¾ in.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Linear feet drilled per hour, per drill</p></td>
+<td>2.7</td>
+<td>7.0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Linear feet drilled per cubic yard</p></td>
+<td>5.0</td>
+<td>6.0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Pounds of dynamite per cubic yard</p></td>
+<td>3.4 to 5.7</td>
+<td>8½</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Average depth drilled with one sharpening</p></td>
+<td>12 in.</td>
+<td>6½ in.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Total number of men per day of 24 hours*</p></td>
+<td>450</td>
+<td>3,300
+</table>
+
+<p class = "footnote">*
+On Bergen Hill Tunnels, for two full working faces at the Hackensack
+end, about 3,000 ft. in from portal (March, 1908). At Simplon, two full
+faces and two headings, at a distance of about 5,000 ft. in from the
+portal (January, 1900). These both include lining as well as excavation.
+The lining of the Bergen Hill Tunnels progressed about twice as fast as
+the excavation; it is inferred that on the Simplon it progressed at
+about the same rate as the excavation.</p>
+
+<p class = "footnote">†
+At the Italian end, in Antigoric gneiss, which is stated to be very hard
+rock.</p>
+
+<p>The figures in Table 3 are for “heading only” in both cases, except
+for the last item (number of men), the heading in the Simplon Tunnels
+being about 60 sq.&nbsp;ft., as compared with the heading of Method
+No&nbsp;4 (which has been used for comparison), of 210 sq.&nbsp;ft.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "mucking"><i>Mucking and Disposal.</i></a>&mdash;The
+conditions affecting the disposal of the muck, after blasting, were
+quite different at the two ends, the grade descending in the direction
+of the loads at Weehawken and ascending at the Hackensack end. At the
+Weehawken end the mouth of the tunnels was at the bottom of a shaft some
+80 ft. deep, Fig.&nbsp;2, <a href = "#plateXXII">Plate XXII</a>, the
+muck in the tunnel cars being hoisted by elevators to a platform at the
+top from which it was dumped into standard-gauge cars supplied by the
+Erie Railroad, as shown by <a href = "#fig7">Fig.&nbsp;7</a>; or later
+hauled to the crusher or storage pile, some 500 ft. distant, on the
+north side of Baldwin Avenue. At the western end, the cars were hauled
+directly to the surface through the approach cut, and the material,
+except that required for concrete and rock packing, was deposited in the
+embankment across the Hackensack Meadows, a&nbsp;haul of from 1,000 to
+3,000 ft. beyond the portal.</p>
+
+<p>All disposal tracks were of 3-ft. gauge, the main running tracks
+being generally laid with 60-lb. second-hand rails, although some of
+lighter weight were used.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">98</span>
+<!--png 102-->
+Except for about 1,000 ft. in each tunnel at the Weehawken end, where
+the muck was loaded by hand, four steam shovels, operated by compressed
+air, were used, one at each working face. One of these was a “Marion,
+Model No. 20,” weighing 38 tons, the others were “Vulcan Little Giant,”
+of about 30 tons each. All these shovels were on standard-gauge track,
+and were moved back from 300 to 500 ft. from the working face during
+blasting.</p>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig7" id = "fig7">Fig. 7.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig7thumb.png" width = "404" height = "204"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+METHOD OF EMPTYING DUMP CARS AT WEEHAWKEN SHAFT</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<a href = "images/fig7.png" target = "_blank">larger view</a></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>At Weehawken, previous to the time the shovels were installed, the
+muck was shoveled by hand into the cars from the bottom of the bench,
+and the heading muck was dumped into them from the movable platform
+(Jumbo) shown by Fig.&nbsp;1, <a href = "#plateXXII">Plate XXII</a>.
+There were three loading tracks at the face. The cars used at that time
+were similar to that shown by <a href = "#fig5">Fig.&nbsp;5</a>, but
+were about two-thirds the size and had no end door; stop-planks were
+supposed to be placed in the ends but seldom were. The loads averaged
+about ½&nbsp;cu.&nbsp;yd. (measured in place). After the shovel was
+installed the cars shown by Fig.&nbsp;5 were used, and the loads
+averaged nearly 1&nbsp;cu.&nbsp;yd.</p>
+
+<p>The empty cars were pushed up to the shovel by hand from the storage
+track. When loaded, they were given a start with the bucket of the
+shovel, and were then allowed to coast by gravity out to the storage
+track near the shaft, where they were stopped by placing rolls of cement
+bags or burlap on the rails. After the lining was started, the loaded
+cars were stopped on the inside of the lining and only sent out over the
+single track through this latter at stated intervals,
+<span class = "pagenum">99</span>
+<!--png 103-->
+when several cars followed in close succession, with a long interval
+which permitted the concrete to be brought in. The empty cars were
+hauled back to the storage track near the working face by mules, one
+mule usually hauling two cars at a time.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the time the trap rock was reached, about 1,100 ft. from the
+shaft, the excavated material was disposed of by loading it on flat
+cars. All the trap, however, was stored to be used later for concrete
+and ballast.</p>
+
+<p>When the tunnels were in full working order, sixty muck cars of the
+type shown by <a href = "#fig5">Fig.&nbsp;5</a>, were in use, about
+evenly divided between the two tunnels. For some time the work was
+greatly hampered by lack of cars, and even with the sixty finally
+obtained, there were many times when extra cars could have been used to
+advantage to keep the shovel working.</p>
+
+<p>When mucking by hand, the mucking gangs consisted of from 15 to 20
+men. The maximum output was 50 cu. yd., and averaged about 35
+cu.&nbsp;yd. per shift; there was a great deal of trouble in keeping the
+gangs full, as labor at that time was very scarce, and the tunnels were
+quite wet. The maximum output of either of the shovels was 159
+cu.&nbsp;yd. in one shift, and the best average in any month&mdash;which
+was between July and December, 1907, during which time only the
+enlargement and bench of the Central Shaft headings was being taken out
+from the western end&mdash;was 60 cu.&nbsp;yd. per shift. As the shovels
+were generally idle for one shift out of three, the quantity actually
+handled averaged 90 cu.&nbsp;yd. per shift during the shifts the shovel
+worked. All these quantities were “measured in place,” and, as
+previously noted, would be about equal to twice as much measured loose
+in the cars.</p>
+
+<p>The shovels at both ends were usually worked with three crews for the
+two tunnels; two day crews, one at each shovel, and a night crew which
+was used in either tunnel as occasion required. The day crews generally
+averaged from 45 to 60 hours overtime during the month, one of them
+working during the early part of the evenings in the opposite tunnel to
+the night crew. For a short time, when the ventilation at the western
+end was very bad, four crews were worked, day and night crews in each
+tunnel; but, as a general rule, the method of working three crews was
+preferred by the men, and was less expensive for the contractor.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">100</span>
+<!--png 104-->
+At the Hackensack end, 4-yd., Allison, one-way, dump cars were used,
+being handled by “dinky” locomotives, of which there were three in use
+up to October, 1907, and four after that. One 15-ton Porter engine, with
+10 by 16-in. cylinders, was used outside the tunnels for handling the
+trains (from 6 to 8 cars) on the dumps and to the crusher; the other
+three, 12-ton Vulcans, 9&nbsp;by 14-in., were used in the tunnels. About
+30 dump cars were in use, and of these there were generally from
+3&nbsp;to 6 under repair.</p>
+
+<p>Generally, 4 cars were hauled out together, although 5 and
+occasionally 6 were handled. The work was generally arranged so that the
+heavy mucking shift alternated in the two tunnels, the two engines being
+worked there and a single engine in the other tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>The tunnel engines left the cars on a track just outside the portal,
+from which they were made up into trains of from 6 to 8 cars and taken
+to the dump or crusher by the large “dinky.”</p>
+
+<p>The muck from the Central Shaft headings was loaded by hand into cars
+similar to that shown by <a href = "#fig5">Fig.&nbsp;5</a>, but smaller
+and having no door at the forward end. A&nbsp;double elevator took the
+cars to a platform about 20&nbsp;ft. above the surface, where they were
+dumped by revolving platforms, similar to those at Weehawken, into
+storage bins or directly into wagons. The muck was all hauled away in
+wagons; part of it was used to fill some vacant lots, and part was
+hauled to the crusher at the Western Portal.</p>
+
+<p>The method under which the best results were obtained was that in
+which a full round was blasted every 36 hours, securing an advance of
+practically 9&nbsp;ft. of full section. During the first shift of the
+three, as soon as the blasting had been completed and lights strung, the
+shovel was moved forward, and cleaned up the floor to the main pile of
+muck, the material from the blast being scattered from 150 to 300 ft.
+back from the face; during this shift, also, the drillers mucked the
+heading and set up their drills, the muckers helping to carry in the
+columns and drills. During the second shift the main pile of muck was
+disposed of, leaving not more than 2&nbsp;or 3 hours’ work for the
+shovel on the third shift. This left nearly the whole of the third shift
+for drilling the lift holes.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "ventilation"><i>Ventilation.</i></a>&mdash;At Weehawken
+considerable difficulty was caused by fog and smoke accumulating in the
+tunnels after blasting. This was generally worse on days when the
+barometric pressure was low outside,
+<span class = "pagenum">101</span>
+<!--png 105-->
+and worse in the North than in the South Tunnel. A&nbsp;6-ft. fan,
+driven by an electric motor, was installed in the cross-passage at
+Station 274, 900 ft. from the shaft, the headings at that time being
+about 300 ft. in advance of this point, to force the air from the South
+into the North Tunnel, drawing it in at the mouth of the South Tunnel
+and discharging it at the mouth of the North Tunnel, thus insuring a
+circulation in both tunnels, as shown in plan by <a href =
+"#fig8">Fig.&nbsp;8</a>.</p>
+
+<p>This necessitated, of course, that the cross-passages between that in
+which the fan was placed and the mouths of the tunnels should be blocked
+tight. There was some difficulty in keeping this blocking tight, owing
+to the force of the blasting blowing out the bulkheads. The fan,
+however, did good service when it and the bulkheads were in good order.
+The compressed air discharged from the drills kept the headings fairly
+clear, as well as that part of the tunnel between the headings and the
+fan. The fan was moved ahead to the next cross-passage at Station 277
+when the work had progressed far enough, and was used there for some
+time; it was found, however, that by the time the excavation had reached
+Station 280, about 1,500 ft. from the shaft, there was practically no
+further difficulty from fog and smoke. No satisfactory explanation was
+found for this, as it would rather be expected that the ventilation and
+trouble with smoke and fumes from blasting would be worse as the
+distance increased between the mouth of the tunnel and the working face.
+One explanation was offered: That the blasting of the softer sandstone
+tended to create more and lighter dust than the heavier trap rock;
+whether or not this was so, it is a fact that there was far less trouble
+with fog and smoke after the sandstone was passed.</p>
+
+<p class = "fighead top"><a name = "fig8" id = "fig8">Fig. 8.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig8.png" width = "479" height = "75"
+alt = "ventilation shaft">
+</p>
+
+<p>At Hackensack, the principal cause of trouble was the smoke from the
+“dinky” locomotives. As the tunnels progressed, this gradually became
+worse, until a connection was made with the Central Shaft headings.
+A&nbsp;fan was installed in the cross-passage at Station
+<span class = "pagenum">102</span>
+<!--png 106-->
+316 (700 ft. in from the portal), but was never worked properly.
+Apparently, the men, at least the walking bosses and foremen, had little
+faith in the fan as a means of ventilation; no real attempt was made to
+keep it in order or operate it properly, and a great deal of time and
+money was lost groping around in the smoke and fog, the density of which
+increased, not only with the state of the atmosphere, but also with the
+direction of the wind. On some days the tunnels easily cleared
+themselves, and on others the smoke was so thick that a candle held at
+arm’s length could not be seen. At this end, the South Tunnel was
+generally worse than the North. After the headings were holed through
+between the portal and the Central Shaft there was very little trouble,
+there being usually a strong up-draft through the shaft. This was so
+pronounced when the wind was blowing toward the portal, that the
+moisture-laden air, as it ascended from the mouth of the shaft,
+presented the appearance of a heavy rainstorm with the rain ascending
+instead of descending. When the wind was blowing away from the portal,
+that is, from the southeast, the effect of the shaft as a chimney was
+neutralized, and, consequently, the smoke accumulated in the tunnels. To
+overcome this, a&nbsp;large blower, with a fan 9&nbsp;ft. in diameter,
+and with blades 4&nbsp;ft. wide and&nbsp;2&nbsp;ft. 3&nbsp;in. long,
+operated by a vertical 12-h.p. engine, was installed at the top of the
+shaft, and this kept the tunnels reasonably clear of smoke at all times.
+After the bench and enlargement had passed the bottom of the shaft, the
+use of the fan was abandoned, as it was found that the tunnels cleared
+themselves fairly well, probably owing to the larger cross-section
+reaching all the way to the Shaft. What little fog and smoke there might
+be did not cause enough trouble to warrant the cost of running the fan,
+which, owing to its location, required the whole time of a mechanic in
+attendance day and night.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "lighting"><i>Lighting.</i></a>&mdash;During the earlier
+stages of the work, gasoline lamps and Kitson lights were used. The
+former, of the familiar banjo type, and a modification of this, with a
+section of wrought-iron pipe for the reservoir, were very
+unsatisfactory, and were out of repair and leaking a large proportion of
+the time. The Kitson lights were given only a short trial, but were
+found unsatisfactory, owing to the necessity of moving them frequently
+and having to set them up in insecure positions. Electric lights were
+installed by Mr. Bradley, on his assumption of the contract.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">103</span>
+<!--png 107-->
+The number of lamps maintained in each of the tunnels for the excavation
+was approximately as follows:</p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td>At the main working face</td>
+<td>From &nbsp; 8 to 10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>On and around the shovel</td>
+<td>&nbsp; &nbsp; ”&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 9 to 12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Between the portal and the working face</td>
+<td>&nbsp; &nbsp; ”&nbsp; &nbsp; 60 to 80</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The cost of lighting for the whole work averaged about 15 cents per
+cu. yd., which is quite large. This was mainly due to the fact that
+current was bought from outside sources during a large part of the time
+(one-third of the yardage). Part of this current cost 5 cents per
+kw-hr., and there were fairly heavy charges for connecting the tunnel
+wiring system with the source of supply. Current bought from the Public
+Service Corporation cost from 10 to 12 cents per kw-hr. delivered at the
+mouth of the tunnel.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "pumping"><i>Pumping.</i></a>&mdash;The quantity of water
+encountered during the excavation of the tunnels, measured somewhat
+roughly, was approximately as follows:</p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td>At Weehawken</td>
+<td>74 gal. per min.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>At Central Shaft</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 1&nbsp; &nbsp; ”&nbsp; &nbsp; ”&nbsp; &nbsp; ”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>At Hackensack</td>
+<td>18&nbsp; &nbsp; ”&nbsp; &nbsp; ”&nbsp; &nbsp; ”</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The water at the Weehawken end had to be pumped from the bottom of
+the shaft, a&nbsp;lift of about 90 ft., while at the Hackensack end it
+had to be pumped back from the face up grade to the portal.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of pumping was about $100 to $125 per month for labor for
+the whole work, besides the cost of the plant (about $1,200) and the
+power for running&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+
+<h5 class = "smallcaps">
+<a name = "progress" id = "progress">Progress.</a></h5>
+
+<p>The total time elapsed from the time of starting work at the
+Weehawken end, in May, 1905, to the completion of the excavation, in
+May, 1908, was almost exactly three years. Of this time about 40 days
+were lost in February and March, 1906, when work was stopped by the
+Receiver of the Shields Company, the total number of days actually
+worked being about 940, giving an average progress of 6.26 ft. per
+working day in each of the two tunnels, which, omitting the Central
+Shaft headings, gives an average rate of progress for each working face,
+of 3.13 ft. per day.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">104</span>
+<!--png 108-->
+These 940 days include practically all the time elapsed, except Sundays
+and such few holidays as were observed. For some of this time, work was
+being carried on at only one or two points; the time, therefore,
+represents practically the total possible working time during the period
+covered.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "weehawken"><i>Progress at Weehawken.</i></a>&mdash;At
+Weehawken the total number of days worked was 763, divided as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">
+186 days in timbered section, about 426 ft., an average rate of
+2.3&nbsp;ft. per day in each tunnel;</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">
+176 days in hard sandstone, about 563 ft., an average rate of
+3.2&nbsp;ft. per day in each tunnel;</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">
+112 days in hard trap, about 267 ft., an average rate of 2.4 ft. per day
+in each tunnel;</p>
+
+<p class = "hanging">
+289 days in ordinary trap, about 1,316 ft., an average rate of 4.55 ft.
+per day in each tunnel.
+</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "central_shaft"><i>Progress at Central Shaft.</i></a>&mdash;At
+Central Shaft the average length driven per day in each of the four
+headings is shown by Table&nbsp;4.</p>
+
+<h5><a name = "table4" id = "table4">TABLE 4.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "outline double center" summary = "drilling data">
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td width = "25%">Location.</td>
+<td>Number of days worked.</td>
+<td>Total length of heading, in feet.</td>
+<td width = "25%">Average length of heading driven per day worked, in
+feet.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td>N.E.</td>
+<td>227</td>
+<td>446</td>
+<td>1.96</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td>S.E.</td>
+<td>168</td>
+<td>346</td>
+<td>2.06</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td>N.W.</td>
+<td>272</td>
+<td>768</td>
+<td>2.82</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td>S.W.</td>
+<td>234</td>
+<td>698</td>
+<td>2.98</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "hackensack"><i>Progress at Hackensack.</i></a>&mdash;At
+Hackensack the total number of days worked on the tunnels proper, all in
+trap rock (omitting the cut and cover) was about 792, divided as shown
+in Table&nbsp;5.</p>
+
+<h5><a name = "table5" id = "table5">TABLE 5.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "outline double center" summary = "drilling data">
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td>Location.</td>
+<td>Number of days worked.</td>
+<td>Advance.</td>
+<td>Average advnce per day.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Station 323 to Central Shaft headings</td>
+<td>492</td>
+<td>1,450</td>
+<td>4.5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline middle">
+<td class = "left"><p>Bench and enlargement of Central Shaft
+headings</p></td>
+<td>159</td>
+<td>{1,150*<br>
+{&nbsp; &nbsp;906†</td>
+<td>7.2*<br>
+5.7†</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left"><p>Central Shaft headings to Weehawken headings</td>
+<td>141</td>
+<td>620</td>
+<td>4.4</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "footnote">*
+Actual advance.</p>
+
+<p class = "footnote">†
+Equivalent linear feet of full section tunnel.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">105</span>
+<!--png 109-->
+The best month’s work in each location was as follows, the actual
+yardage excavated and paid for being reduced to equivalent linear feet
+of full section. The tunnels were generally taken out to full section,
+except for a small amount left in the bottom, which latter reduced the
+equivalent linear feet of full section to about 95% of the actual
+advance at the face.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weehawken.</i>&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr class = "center middle">
+<td></td><td></td><td></td>
+<td>Linear&nbsp;<br>
+feet.</td>
+<td>Feet<br>
+per<br>
+day.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Full timbered section,</td>
+<td>North Tunnel</td>
+<td>Nov., 1905,</td>
+<td class = "center" colspan = "2">&nbsp; 87 == 3.0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Sandstone</td>
+<td>&nbsp; &nbsp; ”&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>May, 1906,</td>
+<td class = "center" colspan = "2">109 == 3.9</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Trap (normal)</td>
+<td>South&nbsp; &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>July, 1907,</td>
+<td class = "center" colspan = "2">144 == 5.3</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "space"><i>Hackensack (All trap).</i>&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr class = "center middle">
+<td></td><td></td><td></td>
+<td>Linear&nbsp;<br>
+feet.</td>
+<td>Feet<br>
+per<br>
+day.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>Portal to Central Shaft headings,</td>
+<td>South Tunnel</td>
+<td>May, 1907,</td>
+<td class = "center" colspan = "2">139 == 5.0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>* Enlargement of headings,</p></td>
+<td><p>&nbsp; &nbsp; ”&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; ”</p></td>
+<td>Nov., 1907,</td>
+<td class = "center" colspan = "2">175 == 6.0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "2"><p>Central Shaft headings to Weehawken headings,<br>
+North Tunnel</p></td>
+<td>Apr., 1908,</td>
+<td class = "center" colspan = "2">145 == 5.2</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "footnote overline">*
+The actual advance of the bench this month was 202 lin. ft.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "headings"><i>Central Shaft Headings.</i></a>&mdash;During
+April, 1907, 122 lin. ft. of heading, averaging 3.8 cu. yd. per lin.
+ft., were taken out in the South Tunnel, west of the shaft. This was
+equal to 5.0&nbsp;ft. per day for the 24 days worked.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "best_week"><i>The Best Week’s Work.</i></a>&mdash;The best
+week’s work at either of the main working faces, when the full section
+was being excavated in trap rock, was 803 cu. yd., equal to 41.8 lin.
+ft. of full-section tunnel, or an average of 6.0 lin. ft. of full
+section per day; this was from the South Tunnel at Hackensack for the
+week ending January 11th, 1908.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "best_yardage"><i>The Best Yardage.</i></a>&mdash;The largest
+number of yards taken out in any one week from one working face was
+1,087, equivalent to 56.6 lin. ft. of full section, or an average of 8.1
+lin. ft. of full section per day. This was bench and enlargement only
+(Central Shaft headings) in the North Tunnel, Hackensack, for the week
+ending October 19th, 1907.</p>
+
+<p>The largest yardage for the whole work in any one week was 3,238 cu.
+yd. from four working faces&mdash;two at Weehawken in full section and
+<span class = "pagenum">106</span>
+<!--png 110-->
+two at the Hackensack bench and enlargement (Central Shaft headings).
+This was equivalent to 168.4 lin. ft. of full-section tunnel, or an
+average of 6&nbsp;ft. per day from each working face.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "best_month"><i>The Best Month’s Work.</i></a>&mdash;The best
+month’s work with each of the four methods of drilling the headings, as
+shown in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and&nbsp;4, where the work was straight forward
+and the full section was being taken out, was as follows:</p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td>Method</td>
+<td>No. 1</td>
+<td width = "25%">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>About</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 90 ft. in sandstone.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp; &nbsp;”</td>
+<td>No. 2</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>&nbsp; &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>100&nbsp; ”&nbsp; in trap.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp; &nbsp;”</td>
+<td>No. 3</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>&nbsp; &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>137&nbsp; ”&nbsp; in trap.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp; &nbsp;”</td>
+<td>No. 4</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>&nbsp; &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td>145&nbsp; ”&nbsp; in trap.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In regard to these figures it should be noted, as stated previously,
+that the organization of the men and plant was not properly completed
+until near the time Method No.&nbsp;4 was put in operation.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href = "#fig9">Fig. 9</a> is shown graphically the relation of
+the progress to the time elapsed in the North Tunnel, the diagram for
+the South Tunnel being almost exactly the same.</p>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">107</span>
+<!--png 111-->
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig9" id = "fig9">Fig. 9.</a></p>
+
+<p class= "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig9thumb.png" width = "484" height = "239"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">PROGRESS PROFILE&mdash;NORTH TUNNEL</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<a href = "images/fig9.png" target = "_blank">larger view</a></p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<h5 class = "smallcaps"><a name = "plant" id = "plant">Plant.</a></h5>
+
+<p>The plant installed by the John Shields Construction Company, and
+taken over by Mr. Bradley, was composed very largely of second-hand
+material, and eventually most of it had to be replaced. Insufficient and
+inefficient plant and delay in installation were largely responsible for
+the small progress made by the Shields Company, and Mr. Bradley’s
+endeavor to utilize this plant not only caused much delay during the
+first 8 or 10 months after he started work, but also involved large
+expense.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "power_plant"><i>Power Plant.</i></a>&mdash;At Weehawken the
+plant installed by the Shields Company consisted of three old locomotive
+boilers, each having a nominal capacity of about 125 h.p., and one Rand
+and one Ingersoll-Sergeant compressor, each of a rated capacity of about
+1,250 cu. ft. of free air per min. compressed to 100&nbsp;lb.</p>
+
+<p>To this Mr. Bradley added two more second-hand locomotive boilers,
+and another Rand compressor of the same type and capacity as the first.
+The theoretical steam capacity of each of the five old locomotive
+boilers was about 4,250 lb. per hour, or a total capacity of 21,250 lb.
+per hour.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">108</span>
+<!--png 112-->
+Theoretically, the demand on this steam was:</p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "center">Pounds<br>
+per hour.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "2">
+Three compressors, about 5,600 lb. per hour each</td>
+<td class = "number">16,800</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>One dynamo</td>
+<td>About</td>
+<td class = "number">1,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>One 500-gal. pump</td>
+<td>&nbsp; &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "number">1,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>One hoisting engine for elevators</td>
+<td>&nbsp; &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td class = "number">2,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset toppad" colspan = "2">Total</td>
+<td class = "number overline">20,800</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Actually, there was considerable deficiency of steam when an endeavor
+was made to work the three compressors at their full capacity.
+A&nbsp;separate boiler was afterward installed to run the hoisting
+engine for the elevators and the pumps, thus leaving a requirement of
+only approximately 18,000 lb. of steam per hour, but even this was
+beyond the capacity of the boilers, especially as one was almost always
+out of commission.</p>
+
+<p>The two Rand compressors were 24 by 24 by 30-in., straight-line,
+one-stage, steam-driven, with a nominal capacity of 1,250 cu.&nbsp;ft.
+of free air per min. at 80 rev. per min. The Ingersoll-Sergeant was of
+similar type and capacity. Therefore, the theoretical quantity available
+was 3,750 cu.&nbsp;ft. of free air per min.</p>
+
+<p>The theoretical air requirements (as taken from manufacturers’
+catalogues) were:</p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "center">Cubic feet<br>
+of free air<br>
+per minute.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>20 Rand slugger drills (12 by 174)</td>
+<td class = "number">2,088</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p>&nbsp; 2 Little Giant shovels (taking air two-thirds of the
+time)</p></td>
+<td class = "number">1,100</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset toppad">Total</td>
+<td class = "number overline">3,188</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This estimate, based on the assumption (given in the catalogues) that
+the drills would be working about three-fifths of the time, and the
+shovels about two-thirds of the time, left apparently an ample margin
+between the full capacity of the compressors and the requirements for
+the drills; as a matter of fact, however, it was seldom that more than
+80 lb. of air was available, and the pressure often dropped to 60 or 50
+lb. at the compressors. During the time this plant was in use the
+greatest distance to the drills was about 1,500&nbsp;ft.</p>
+
+<p>As this plant proved to be entirely inadequate to the demands, an
+arrangement was made with the O’Rourke Construction Company on
+<span class = "pagenum">109</span>
+<!--png 113-->
+August 17th, 1906, whereby they agreed to supplement the air supply by
+1,000 cu. ft. of free air per min. at 100 lb. pressure. This arrangement
+was not altogether satisfactory, and finally (on&nbsp;December 5th,
+1906) an arrangement was made with the same company to supply air up to
+4,000 cu. ft. of free air per min. at 100 lb., and the old plant was
+shut down.</p>
+
+<p>The new plant had been in use previously in the construction of the
+River Tunnels. The air from it was compressed to 40 lb. by low-pressure
+machines, one being used all the time and two when necessary. These
+machines were built by the Ingersoll-Sergeant Company, the engines being
+of the Corliss duplex type, cross-compound steam, with simple duplex air
+cylinders, each compressor having a capacity of nearly 4,000 cu. ft. of
+free air per min. This air, at 40&nbsp;lb., was delivered to an
+Ingersoll-Sergeant high-pressure machine, having Corliss cross-compound
+engines, 14 by 26 by 36-in., with air cylinders of the piston inlet
+type, 13¼ by 36-in., which compressed it to 100 lb. The capacity of this
+latter machine, taking air at normal pressure, is 920 cu. ft. of free
+air per min. working at 85 rev. per min.; by taking the air at
+40&nbsp;lb., and working at a somewhat higher speed, this machine alone
+supplied all the air used at the Weehawken end (approximately 4,000 ft.)
+from December, 1906, to November, 1907, and, with very few exceptions,
+the pressure was steadily maintained at from 90 to 100 lb., there being
+no break-down of any kind.</p>
+
+<p>At Hackensack the plant taken over by Mr. Bradley consisted of six
+old locomotive boilers and four Rand compressors, all of the same type
+as those at Weehawken. To this he added two second-hand marine boilers,
+each of a stated capacity of about 350 h.p., and two more Rand
+compressors of the same type and capacity as the others, making the
+total theoretical steam power available approximately 1,450 h.p., with a
+compressor capacity of approximately 7,500 cu. ft. of free air per min.,
+equal to about 1,500 h.p., allowing for 15% of loss.</p>
+
+<p>Nowhere near the theoretical steam power was ever developed from the
+boilers. The tubes of the old locomotive boilers were filled with mud in
+many cases, and were always leaking. The marine boilers were not
+properly installed to give the best results, and it was seldom possible
+to work more than four compressors at once, or to keep the air pressure
+at the power-house much greater than from 70 to 80 lb. at any time.</p>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">110</span>
+<!--png 114-->
+This plant had been built by the Shields Company on the meadows
+alongside the Erie and New York, Susquehanna and Western Railroads, and
+the foundations were not made sufficiently strong to resist the effect
+of the vibration caused by the passing trains. It was impossible to keep
+the steam connections tight, and there was not only the loss of steam
+due to leaky joints, but positive danger of one of the main steam lines
+breaking entirely. After attempting to operate this plant for nearly
+5&nbsp;months, Mr. Bradley determined to abandon the site and the
+boilers, and build a new plant, farther back from the railroad, on solid
+ground, in such a position that a spur track could be built to a coal
+trestle in front of the boilers.</p>
+
+<p>Two pairs of Stirling boilers, with a total capacity of 2,000 h.p.,
+were installed. As a rule, at times of maximum demand, three of the
+boilers were in use; after the Central Shaft was stopped, two were
+generally sufficient, until, toward the latter part of the excavation,
+the losses in the transmission of the air made it necessary to keep
+three going.</p>
+
+<p>Eight compressors (the six old ones with two brought from Weehawken),
+were installed in the new power-house. All were of the same type,
+namely, Rand, straight-line, steam-driven, 24 by 24 by 30-in., each with
+a nominal capacity of 1,250 cu. ft. of free air per min. Seven of these
+were generally worked to their full capacity in order to keep up the
+necessary supply of air.</p>
+
+<p>The maximum requirements of air at this end were primarily estimated
+as follows:</p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td>Central Shaft, four headings</td>
+<td>24 drills.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Hackensack, two working faces</td>
+<td>20 drills.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "toppad inset">Total</td>
+<td class = "overline">44 drills.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "center">Cubic feet<br>
+of free air<br>
+per minute.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>44</td>
+<td>Slugger drills (25 by 174) require</td>
+<td class = "number">4,350</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp; 2</td>
+<td>Steam shovels</td>
+<td class = "number">1,600</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>Pumps and machine-shop, say</td>
+<td class = "number">1,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp; 4</td>
+<td>Hoisting engines, placing concrete</td>
+<td class = "number">2,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp; 4</td>
+<td>Derricks</td>
+<td class = "number">2,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "toppad">
+<td></td>
+<td class = "inset">Total</td>
+<td class = "number overline">10,950</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">111</span>
+<!--png 115-->
+The theoretical capacity of the whole eight compressors was:</p>
+
+<p align = "center">
+1250 × 8 = 10,000 cu. ft. of free air per min.</p>
+
+<p>It was considered that not more than two-thirds of the above
+equipment would be working at the same time; the actual requirement,
+therefore, was taken at about 8,000 cu. ft. of free air per min., thus
+leaving a margin of one spare compressor.</p>
+
+<p>As actually worked out, there were probably never more than eight
+drills working at any one time at the Central Shaft, and this work was
+entirely suspended in June, 1907, before there was any demand for power
+in connection with the tunnel lining. The heaviest actual requirement,
+therefore, was approximately as follows:</p>
+
+<h5>(<i>A</i>) <i>Previous to June 25th, 1907:</i></h5>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "center">Cubic feet<br>
+of free air<br>
+per minute.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>40</td>
+<td>Drills (22 by 174)</td>
+<td class = "number">3,828</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp; 2</td>
+<td>Shovels</td>
+<td class = "number">1,600</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>Pumps and machine-shop, say</td>
+<td class = "number">1,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp; 2</td>
+<td>Derricks</td>
+<td class = "number">1,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "toppad">
+<td></td>
+<td class = "inset">Total</td>
+<td class = "number overline">7,428</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h5>(<i>B</i>) <i>After November, 1907</i> (<i>after completion of
+enlargement of Central Shaft headings</i>):</h5>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "center">Cubic feet<br>
+of free air<br>
+per minute.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>32</td>
+<td>Drills (17 by 174)</td>
+<td class = "number">2,958</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp; 2</td>
+<td>Shovels</td>
+<td class = "number">1,600</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td>Pumps, etc</td>
+<td class = "number">1,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp; 3</td>
+<td><p>Hoisting engines on concrete, each working one-third
+time</p></td>
+<td class = "number">500</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp; 2</td>
+<td>Derricks</td>
+<td class = "number">1,000</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "toppad">
+<td></td>
+<td class = "inset">Total</td>
+<td class = "number overline">7,058</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The average number of drillers per shift was about 25 at the two main
+working faces. There were also from 5 to 10 drills trimming and cleaning
+up for concrete, say an average of&nbsp;7, making 32 in all.</p>
+
+<p>After November 1st, it actually required three boilers under steam
+all the time, and not less than seven compressors running at full
+capacity, to keep the air at proper pressure, the theoretical capacity
+<span class = "pagenum">112</span>
+<!--png 116-->
+of the compressors being 8,750 cu. ft. of free air per min., as against
+7,000 to 7,400 cu. ft., the theoretical maximum requirement.</p>
+
+<p>Some of this deficiency was due to losses in transmission, part also
+was due to the fact that the actual was probably considerably below the
+theoretical capacity of the compressors.</p>
+
+
+<h5 class = "smallcaps">
+<a name = "accidents" id = "accidents">Accidents.</a></h5>
+
+<p>Two accidents occurred to the powder magazines, the causes of which
+were never absolutely determined. The first occurred on January 10th,
+1907, when the dynamite burned up without exploding. The second accident
+was on March 3d, 1907, when an explosion occurred which damaged property
+over a very large area, but did not involve any serious injury to
+persons, only one man being slightly hurt.</p>
+
+<p>The only serious blasting accident in the tunnels occurred on January
+26th, 1908, and was due to a premature blast, the cause for which could
+not be ascertained.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "contractor_org"><i>Contractor’s
+Organization.</i></a>&mdash;The work was in general charge of a
+superintendent, and, during the time it was being carried on at both
+ends, an assistant superintendent had charge at night. At each end there
+was a day and a night walking boss, who had general supervision of the
+men in the tunnels, the day walking boss being the superior, and
+responsible for the general conduct of the work at his end, both day and
+night. Two 10-hour shifts were worked, thirteen shifts every two weeks,
+no work being done on alternate Sundays and Sunday nights. With the
+exception of the walking bosses and the master mechanic, all the men
+changed from the day to the night shift every two weeks.</p>
+
+<p>The organization was approximately as follows, for each shift:</p>
+
+<h5><i>General&mdash;Both Tunnels.</i></h5>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p>1 Master mechanic (days only),</p>
+<p>1 Machinist,</p>
+<p>1 Engine runner,</p>
+<p>2 Firemen,</p>
+<p>2 Oilers,</p>
+<p>1 Electrician and helper,</p>
+<p>1 Drill machinist and helper,</p>
+<p>3 Blacksmiths and helpers,</p>
+<p>1 Powderman,</p>
+</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>
+<p>1 Walking boss,</p>
+<p>4 Locomotive engine runners,</p>
+<p>4 Brakemen,</p>
+<p>1 Switchman,</p>
+<p>1 Foreman on dump,</p>
+<p>6 Men on dump,</p>
+<p>1 Foreman on track,</p>
+<p>6 Men on track.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">113</span>
+<!--png 117-->
+<h5><i>In Each Tunnel.</i></h5>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr class = "center">
+<td><i>Drilling and Blasting.</i></td>
+<td width = "20%">&nbsp;</td>
+<td><i>Mucking.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p>&nbsp; 1 Foreman,</p>
+<p>12 Drillers,</p>
+<p>12 Helpers,</p>
+<p>&nbsp; 1 Nipper,</p>
+<p>&nbsp; 1 Pipe-fitter.</p>
+</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>
+<p>&nbsp; 1 Shovel engineer,</p>
+<p>&nbsp; 1 Cranesman,</p>
+<p>&nbsp; 1 Muck boss,</p>
+<p>12 Muckers.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<h5 class = "smallcaps">
+<a name = "records" id = "records">Records.</a></h5>
+
+<p>The records of the work have been based largely on the reports of the
+day and night inspectors, which were made out on regular forms.</p>
+
+<p>A daily report card was made out each morning and forwarded to the
+office of the chief engineer. It covered the work done for the previous
+24 hours, up to 6&nbsp;o’clock each morning.</p>
+
+<p>A telephone report was made to the resident engineer by the
+inspectors each day at 8.30 <span class = "smallcaps">A.M.</span>,
+giving the conditions, number of men, etc., at the opening of the day’s
+work.</p>
+
+<p>A daily progress profile, on 10 by 10 to the inch cross-section
+paper, covering the whole length of the tunnels, was kept in the office
+of the resident engineer. This was mounted in sections, on a piece of
+composition board, and hung on the wall for convenient reference. The
+information, showing the progress up to 6&nbsp;o’clock each morning, was
+shown on the report of the night inspector, and was plotted on this
+profile at 7&nbsp;o’clock each morning. The plotting was left in pencil,
+and each month’s work was colored in. A&nbsp;progress profile was taken
+by the men of the alignment corps each Saturday morning and plotted by
+them, alternate weeks being in red and blue ink on the same profile.</p>
+
+<p>A chart showing the number of drills working, time worked, blasting
+periods, etc. (<a href = "#plateXXIII">Plate&nbsp;XXIII</a>), was
+plotted each morning and was extremely useful, not only in keeping in
+touch with the work, but in compiling many of the statistics used in the
+preparation of this paper. These cross-section sheets were ruled 12 by
+12 to the inch, thus giving one space per hour horizontally. In the top
+vertical space are shown the heading drills, their time of stopping and
+starting, and their number, each heavy line representing one drill. In
+the next space below are shown the drills on the bench, lift holes,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p>The blasting time is shown by the portion hatched (shown in red on
+the original), which covers the whole vertical space when a complete
+<span class = "pagenum">114</span>
+<!--png 118-->
+round of both heading and bench is blasted, and only part, top or
+bottom, as the case might be, if only one or the other. The number of
+drillers and muckers at the main working face is shown, and below that
+(in&nbsp;red ink on the original) the number of cubic yards handled each
+shift. The time the shovel is working is shown by the heavy line filling
+a whole space; and the air pressure, platted from the recording gauge
+charts, is shown in the space below.</p>
+
+<p>A combination daily and weekly report, showing the total number of
+men working on each section, and the number of cubic yards excavated,
+was entered every day and kept on a filing board in the office of the
+resident engineer, and a copy was sent to the main office at the end of
+the week, with such notes on the back as might be necessary, or of
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>A report was made out weekly and sent to the contractor’s
+superintendent, showing any deviations from grade, any tight places, and
+the station of bench and headings.</p>
+
+<p>A monthly report was made to the chief engineer, giving detailed
+statistics of the amount of work done, etc., plant installed, and short
+notes of any matter of interest affecting the work in any way.</p>
+
+
+<h5 class = "smallcaps">
+<a name = "lining" id = "lining">Tunnel Lining.</a></h5>
+
+<p>
+<a name = "preliminary"><i>Preliminary Considerations.</i></a>&mdash;For
+the placing of the concrete lining, a&nbsp;sub-contract was given to
+Messrs. King, Rice and Ganey, by Mr. Bradley, which provided
+substantially that all materials should be supplied by him, and
+delivered to the sub-contractors at track level, at or near the point in
+the tunnel at which they were to be placed, and that he would supply
+light and power; the sub-contractors were to supply the plant, forms,
+and labor necessary for placing the concrete and water-proofing,
+building the conduit lines, manholes, etc., etc., to complete the
+lining, the general form of which is shown on Plate VIII of the paper by
+Mr. Jacobs, and in <a href = "#fig10">Fig. 10</a>. The latter also shows
+the different sections into which the lining was divided for purposes of
+construction, and the nomenclature adopted for each. It may be noted,
+incidentally, that the cubic contents of the lining per linear foot of
+tunnel is almost exactly half the quantity excavated, out to the
+standard section lines, and as there was some excavation outside of
+these lines, all of which had to be replaced, the actual quantity of
+material which had to be brought back into the tunnel
+<span class = "pagenum">115</span>
+<!--png 119-->
+was quite a little more than half the quantity taken out. It will be
+evident, therefore, that the question of transportation was an important
+one.</p>
+
+<p class = "fighead top"><a name = "fig10" id = "fig10">Fig. 10.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig10.png" width = "482" height = "442"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption bottom">
+SKETCH SHOWING DIVISION OF LINING FOR PURPOSES OF CONSTRUCTION, AND
+NAMES OF SECTIONS</p>
+
+<p>An essential part of the agreement with the sub-contractors provided
+that the operations incident to the placing of the lining should be
+carried on so as to provide at all times space for a single track of
+3-ft. gauge, running through the work, and the necessary clearance for
+the locomotives and cars used in hauling out the muck. A&nbsp;clearance
+diagram of one of the “dinkys” used in the tunnels, and its relation to
+the forms used, is shown by <a href = "#fig12">Fig. 12</a> and also by
+<a href = "#fig16">Fig. 16</a>, the 4-yd. Allison cars, used for
+handling the muck, taking practically the same width, although they were
+not quite as high. This requirement and the limited space available must
+be kept in mind in considering the design finally adopted for the forms
+and plant required in placing
+<span class = "pagenum">116</span>
+<!--png 120-->
+the lining. It should also be kept in mind that, with the rolling stock
+used, there was only room for a single track through that part of the
+tunnel where any concrete had been built. As the concrete progressed,
+therefore, the length of single track was necessarily lengthened, and
+the problem of transportation was made increasingly difficult.</p>
+
+<p>In working out a design for the bench-wall forms, another highly
+important and controlling factor, which had to be considered, was the
+arrangement of the conduit lines, as shown in the general
+cross-section.<a class = "tag" name = "tag2" id = "tag2" href =
+"#note2">2</a></p>
+
+<p>The quantities of the various materials in the lining, per linear
+foot of tunnel, were as follows:</p>
+
+<table class = "inline" summary = "data">
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "2">Concrete</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 7.64 cu. yd.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>Rock packing: Paid for</td>
+<td>1.48 cu. yd.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "inset">Outside standard section line</td>
+<td>1.74 &nbsp; ” &nbsp; ”</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "toppad">
+<td></td>
+<td class = "overline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 3.22 &nbsp; ” &nbsp; ”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "2">Iron and steel</td>
+<td>44.2 lb.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "2">Vitrified conduits</td>
+<td>84.0 duct ft.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "2">Water-proofing</td>
+<td>13.0 sq. ft.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "2">Flags</td>
+<td>&nbsp; 3.3 &nbsp; ” &nbsp; ”</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "general"><i>General Methods.</i></a>&mdash;The lining was
+started at both ends of the tunnels before the headings were finally
+holed through, so that there was practically a separate organization at
+each end, each in charge of one of the members of the firm. The work at
+the Weehawken end was started first, and the plant and scheme of working
+adopted there was thoroughly tried out before the plant for the western
+end was built, consequently, the latter was somewhat more efficient,
+being designed in the light of the experience gained at the Weehawken
+end.</p>
+
+<p>The general sequence of the plan first adopted in placing the
+concrete is shown by <a href = "#fig10">Fig. 10</a>. The concrete was
+first placed in the foundations up to the elevation of the bottom of the
+conduit bines, this work, of course, being kept well in advance; next
+followed, in the order named, the sand-walls, water-proofing, conduits,
+bench-walls, and finally the arch. The foundation was built in any
+convenient lengths, multiples of 16 ft., the length of one section of
+form, the sand-walls in lengths of from 25 to 35 ft., the bench-walls in
+25-ft. lengths, and the arch in 10-ft. lengths. Concrete was placed
+during the day shift only,
+<span class = "pagenum">117</span>
+<!--png 121-->
+the forms being moved partly at night, and partly on the alternate days
+when concrete was not being placed in them.</p>
+
+<p>Five gangs were organized at each end, the first placed concrete in
+the foundations in both tunnels, as the excavation was ready. In each
+tunnel there was a gang which built sand-wall one day and bench-wall the
+next, the two tunnels alternating so that only one bench-wall was built
+each day, and finally a gang in each tunnel building arches,
+a&nbsp;10-ft. section being completed each day. During the night shift,
+the arch forms and travelers were moved, and all other forms, etc., were
+made ready for the concrete to be placed the following day. Some of the
+conduit laying was done by the night shift, but part of it was
+necessarily done during the day, as the concrete was built up.
+A&nbsp;small gang was kept busy in both tunnels, during the day shift,
+laying conduits and water-proofing. The latter two operations were
+generally performed by the same gang.</p>
+
+<p>This organization, of course, required considerable regularity in the
+work, and this was finally attained, but at the beginning many sections
+were often not finished on time, thus creating considerable confusion.
+The progress possible with this organization (finally maintained with
+great regularity) was 75 ft. of bench-wall and 60 ft. of arch per week
+at each of the two working faces in each tunnel. This allowed the
+bench-wall to gain considerably on the arch, and therefore at a suitable
+point, as shown on the progress diagram, <a href = "#fig9">Fig. 9</a>,
+a&nbsp;third pair of arches was started, one in each tunnel, increasing
+the progress on the arches to 180 ft. per week in each tunnel.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "mixing"><i>Mixing and Transportation.</i></a>&mdash;All the
+concrete used on this section was mixed in Hains mixers, one being at
+each end. At the Weehawken shaft the mixer was installed in the
+framework supporting the head-house and elevators; and storage bins were
+arranged above, as shown by <a href = "#fig11">Fig. 11</a>, <i>A</i>,
+the whole structure being somewhat strengthened to allow this to be
+done. At the western end the mixer was placed immediately under the bins
+of the stone crusher, as shown by Fig. 11,&nbsp;<i>B</i>, the track
+below being connected directly with the tunnels. The stone bin under the
+screen of the crusher plant at the Hackensack end was divided into three
+parts, the center being filled with sand by a derrick having a
+clam-shell bucket, the other two with stone directly from the screen
+above.</p>
+
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#fig11end">
+<i>Skip to Text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig11" id = "fig11">Fig. 11.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig11thumb.png" width = "467" height = "357"
+alt = "Figure 11 thumbnail" usemap = "#fig11map">
+</p>
+
+<map name = "fig11map" id = "fig11map">
+<area shape = "poly" coords = "0,0, 145,0, 250,357, 0,357"
+href = "images/fig11a.png" target = "_blank"
+alt = "mixer at Weehawken">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "260,0,467,357"
+href = "images/fig11b.png" target = "_blank"
+alt = "mixer at Hackensack">
+</map>
+
+<p class = "caption bottom">
+<a href = "images/fig11a.png" target = "_blank">Cross-Section of Hains
+Mixer Installation, at Weehawken Shaft</a><br>
+(Larger view)</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+<a href = "images/fig11b.png" target = "_blank">Cross-Section of Hains
+Mixer Installation, Stone and Sand Bins Above and Screen of Crusher, at
+Hackensack Portal</a><br>
+(Larger view)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "fig11end" id = "fig11end"> </a>
+
+<p>This type of mixer proved very efficient on this work. The largest
+<span class = "pagenum">118</span>
+<!--png 122-->
+number of full batches (0.8 cu. yd.) mixed in one plant per hour was
+about 35; the largest number per day of 10 hours was about 240; but the
+apparatus was never worked to its full capacity, the quantity of
+concrete which it was possible to use being limited by other
+considerations.</p>
+
+<p>The concrete for the foundations was hauled in steel,
+<b>V</b>-shaped, dumping cars holding about 1 cu.&nbsp;yd., and the
+concrete for the bench-walls and arches in Stuebner, 1-yd.,
+bottom-dumping buckets placed on small flat cars, as shown by
+Fig.&nbsp;1, <a href = "#plateXXIV">Plate XXIV</a>. Rock packing was
+handled in Allison 4-yd. cars and also in the cars shown by <a href =
+"#fig5">Fig.&nbsp;5</a>, as well as in the Stuebner buckets, the latter,
+however, being most generally used. Mules were used for a short time at
+the Weehawken end to haul the concrete in, but proved entirely
+inadequate to haul the loaded cars up the 1.3%&nbsp;grade, and
+locomotives were substituted after the headings were holed through. At
+the western end the cars were allowed to coast in, and, up to the time
+the headings were holed through, were hauled back by mules; after that
+they were pushed out by a locomotive which had gone in ahead of them. As
+a rule, from 8 to 10 cars of concrete and rock packing were sent in, one
+after the other, in proper order, a&nbsp;boy riding on each car and
+stopping it at the proper place; all these cars were pushed out together
+when empty.</p>
+
+<!--png 123-->
+<!--png 124-->
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#plateXXIVend">
+<i>Skip to text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "plate">
+<a name = "plateXXIV" id = "plateXXIV"> </a>
+<p class = "header">
+PLATE XXIV.<br>
+TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.<br>
+VOL. LXVIII, No. 1154.<br>
+LAVIS ON<br>
+PENNSYLVANIA R.R. TUNNELS: BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate24a.jpg" width = "485" height = "391"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 1.</span>
+K 131. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels)
+Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel. Rear view of conveyor for concrete,
+showing method of hoisting bucket from car on track in hopper over belt.
+June 7,&nbsp;07.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate24b.jpg" width = "482" height = "387"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 2.</span>
+K 130. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels)
+Weehawken Shaft, South Tunnel. View showing waterproofing (extreme left)
+portion of completed sand wall, sand wall forms, traveller and end of
+conveyor overhead. July 22,&nbsp;07.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate24c.jpg" width = "485" height = "388"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 3.</span>
+K 148. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels)
+Weehawken. View showing method of placing concrete in forms. Hoisting
+apparatus and bucket in background. Sept. 24,&nbsp;07.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate24d.jpg" width = "484" height = "387"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 4.</span>
+K 154. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels)
+Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel. Method of placing concrete in bench
+walls. Top of waterproofing suspended from top of sandwall. Oct.
+21,&nbsp;07.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "plateXXIVend" id = "plateXXIVend"> </a>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">119</span>
+<!--png 125-->
+During the time the excavation was being carried on simultaneously with
+the lining at the Weehawken end, the rock packing was loaded at the
+working face and sent out to the point where it was to be used; after
+that the rock packing was sent in from outside from the reserve pile on
+the north side of Baldwin Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>At the western end the larger part of the rock packing was sent in
+from outside, but occasionally, during the time the excavation was going
+on, the cars from the heading were stopped at convenient points,
+generally under the gantries, where the lining was being placed, and
+whatever stone could be utilized was sorted from the top and passed up
+to the platforms above.</p>
+
+<p>After the headings were holed through, there was considerable
+difficulty at times in getting a sufficient supply of concrete and rock
+packing into the tunnel at the time it was required, and while
+undoubtedly the transportation facilities may have had some influence in
+this, the principal trouble lay in the difficulty of securing a
+sufficient supply of proper stone for rock packing, and for the
+crusher.</p>
+
+<p>While the excavation was progressing, the cars of muck, as they came
+from the headings, were taken directly to the crusher and dumped into
+it, the proportion of fine material being fairly constant and the supply
+regular. At this time, also, a&nbsp;portion of the rock not required at
+the crusher was dumped along the edge of the bank on the south side of
+the approach, the larger stones rolling to the bottom where they were
+easily available to be loaded into cars for rock packing, being entirely
+free from the fine material; as this stone at the bottom of the bank was
+used up, the supply was renewed, the rock suitable for rock packing
+being automatically separated from the fine material as it rolled to the
+foot of the slope.</p>
+
+<p>After the excavation was completed, however, it was necessary to go
+into the bulk of the storage piles to get material for the crusher and
+for rock packing, and then the difficulties were materially increased by
+the large quantity of fine material encountered, the proportion
+remaining after the rock packing had been sorted out being too large to
+send through the crusher. It was not only the handling over of this fine
+material which caused delay, but the difficulty of disposing of it. On
+rainy days the trouble was increased by the difficulty of getting men to
+work in the open.</p>
+
+<p>The delays due to transportation were usually caused by derailments,
+<span class = "pagenum">120</span>
+<!--png 126-->
+which were more numerous than they should have been, and were due to the
+condition of the rolling stock rather than to that of the track. These
+delays, especially when they occurred in the early part of the day,
+greatly increased the cost, by necessitating over-time work;
+a&nbsp;delay of 1&nbsp;hour in the forenoon generally meant
+2&nbsp;hours’ work after 6&nbsp;o’clock to finish the day’s work.</p>
+
+<p>The average number of cars handled (round trips of 1&nbsp;car) during
+a day (two 10-hour shifts) at the Hackensack end during January, 1908,
+when the excavation and lining were in full swing, was about 125 cars of
+muck and 200 cars of lining material, the former being hauled by
+locomotives and the latter by mules.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "concrete"><i>Methods of Handling Concrete in the
+Tunnels.</i></a>&mdash;The concrete for the floor, ditches, and
+foundations, was brought into the tunnel in <b>V</b>-shaped steel,
+dumping cars, and dumped as near as possible to the place it was to
+occupy.</p>
+
+<p>The concrete for the arches and bench-walls was loaded at the mixers
+into 1-yd., Stuebner, bottom-dumping buckets which just held a 4-bag
+batch. These buckets were placed on small flat cars, hauled into the
+tunnel, placed beneath the traveling gantry, as shown by Fig.&nbsp;1, <a
+href = "#plateXXIV">Plate XXIV</a>, and hoisted to the platform
+above.</p>
+
+<p>These traveling gantries, the details of which are shown by <a href =
+"#fig12">Fig. 12</a>, consisted essentially of platforms at each end of
+which an <b>A</b>-frame was erected; the latter supported at their
+apexes two <b>I</b>-beams, from the lower flanges of which was suspended
+a traveling block, shown at <i>A</i>, Fig.&nbsp;12, and through which
+the hoisting rope was rigged. The buckets were hoisted through an
+opening in the platform and then moved along to where they could be
+dumped. The platforms were supported on wheels traveling on rails laid
+on the concrete of the foundation (for the bench-wall gantries) or on
+top of the bench-wall (for the arch gantries).</p>
+
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#fig12end">
+<i>Skip to Text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">121</span>
+<!--png 127-->
+
+<p class = "fighead">
+<a name = "fig12" id = "fig12">Fig. 12.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig12thumb.png" width = "447" height = "293"
+alt = "Figure 12 thumbnail" usemap ="#fig12map">
+</p>
+
+<map name = "fig12map" id = "fig12map">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,0,257,160"
+href = "images/fig12elev.png" target = "_blank"
+alt = "sectional elevation">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "257,0,441,195" href = "#fig12sec"
+alt = "cross-section">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "95,160,257,250" href = "#fig12a"
+alt = "A: traveling block">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,160,95,210" href = "#fig12b"
+alt = "B: top sheave">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,210,95,293" href = "#fig12c"
+alt = "C: lower sheave">
+</map>
+
+<p class = "caption bottom">
+DETAILS OF TRAVELING GANTRY USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE TUNNEL
+LINING</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+SECTIONAL ELEVATION<br>
+<a href = "images/fig12elev.png" target = "_blank">(Larger view)</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig12sec" id = "fig12sec"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig12sec.png" width = "380" height = "348"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+CROSS-SECTION</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig12a" id = "fig12a"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig12a.png" width = "324" height = "157"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+A. DETAIL OF TRAVELING BLOCK</p>
+
+<table class = "picture" summary = "part of figure 12">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig12b" id = "fig12b"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig12b.png" width = "146" height = "82"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig12c" id = "fig12c"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig12c.png" width = "135" height = "176"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "caption second">
+B. DETAIL OF TOP SHEAVE</p>
+</td>
+<td><p class = "caption second">
+C. DETAIL OF LOWER SHEAVE.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "fig12end" id = "fig12end"> </a>
+
+<p>Each of the first two of these traveling gantries used was equipped
+with a belt conveyor working on a cantilever arm, as shown by Figs. 3
+and&nbsp;4, <a href = "#plateXXI">Plate&nbsp;XXI</a>, and Figs. 1
+and&nbsp;2, <a href = "#plateXXIV">Plate&nbsp;XXIV</a>. In using these
+belt conveyors, the concrete was dumped from the Stuebner bucket into a
+hopper, Fig.&nbsp;1, Plate&nbsp;XXIV, with an adjustable slot in the
+bottom, under which the belt ran.</p>
+
+<p>It was the original intention, in designing the conveyor, that the
+end of the cantilever arm should be swung from one side of the tunnel
+<span class = "pagenum">122</span>
+<!--png 128-->
+to the other, and that the traveler should be moved backward or forward,
+as might be required, and thus deliver the concrete from the end of the
+belt directly over the place in which it was to be deposited in the
+bench-walls. As a matter of fact, it was found impractical in operation
+to move the gantry readily, owing to its great weight, which was
+supported on only four ordinary car wheels and their bearings, and it
+was found more convenient to leave the arm in one position near the
+center, letting the concrete drop on the platform above the bench- or
+sand-wall forms, whence it could be shoveled into place, than to attempt
+to move it as had been intended. Both of these difficulties might
+possibly have been overcome by modifications in the design of the gantry
+and conveyor, had this method of handling the concrete seemed otherwise
+desirable.</p>
+
+<p>The principal difficulty with its use, however, was the inability to
+take care of more than one batch of concrete at a time. When one batch
+had been dumped into the hopper, a&nbsp;second could not be disposed of
+until the first had nearly all run through on the belt, and this took
+from 7 to 20 min., varying with the consistency of the concrete, etc. In
+a few instances, where there happened to be some fairly dry batches, the
+concrete could not be started through the slot at all, and had to be
+shoveled out of the hopper. On the other hand, it is stated that some
+batches, under favorable conditions, passed through in about
+2&nbsp;min., but this was quite exceptional, and the operation was
+irregular and uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>Before the final method of handling the concrete was adopted,
+a&nbsp;trial was made of two forms of cars and buckets, to be used on
+the top platform, as shown by Figs. 3 and&nbsp;4<ins class =
+"correction" title = "apparent error for ‘Figs. 3 and 4, Plate XXIV’">,
+and </ins><a href = "#plateXXIV">Plate&nbsp;XXIV</a>. In the method
+shown by Fig.&nbsp;3, Plate&nbsp;XXIV, the concrete was hoisted in the
+regular Stuebner buckets, one of which can be seen suspended in the
+background of this photograph, and dumped into the car shown, which was
+mounted so that it could be revolved in a horizontal plane. It was
+intended to move this car on the tracks to the point at which the
+concrete was required, and dump it directly through a chute into the
+bench-walls. This car was abandoned, as there was a great deal of
+difficulty in turning it when it was loaded, and in several instances it
+had to be dumped straight ahead in the middle of the platform and the
+concrete shoveled into the forms. This method was also objectionable
+when the bucket was dumped, inasmuch as the force of the impact
+<span class = "pagenum">123</span>
+<!--png 129-->
+of a whole batch of concrete dumped from such a height into the forms,
+not only tended to throw the conduits out of line, and to break them,
+but also caused considerable strain on the forms.</p>
+
+<p>The bucket shown by Fig. 4, <a href = "#plateXXIV">Plate XXIV</a>,
+was next tried. It had a slanting bottom and a door opening at the side.
+It was filled at the mixer, came into the tunnel on a small flat car,
+and was hoisted and placed on a similar car on top, as shown. This
+bucket was not successful, as its great weight made it difficult to
+handle, and it generally required a man to shovel the concrete out,
+which latter, of course, had been pretty well compacted in the bottom of
+the bucket by its trip from the mixer. All these cars were hauled
+backward and forward on the top platform by a rope running to the winch
+on the hoisting engine on the traveling gantry.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from the fact that neither type was a success, neither of these
+schemes was much improvement over the belt, inasmuch as only one batch
+could be handled at a time, owing to the necessity of using the engine
+to haul the cars back and forth on the platform. The final solution was
+found in the use of the traveling gantry, shown by <a href =
+"#fig12">Fig. 12</a> and Fig.&nbsp;1, <a href = "#plateXXVI">Plate
+XXVI</a>, the latter being one of the arch gantries. The gantry used for
+the bench- and sand-walls was supported on framed bents on wheels
+running on rails laid on the foundation; that for the arch was the same,
+except that the high-framed bent was dispensed with, the side-sills
+resting directly on the journals of wheels traveling on rails on top of
+the finished bench-wall.</p>
+
+<p>These gantries were used only as a means of hoisting the buckets and
+moving them along to where they could be dumped directly on the
+platform, whence the concrete was shoveled into wheel-barrows, which
+could be dumped directly into the bench-walls; or, in the case of the
+arches, shoveled from the platform of the gantry to the intermediate
+platform on the arch ribs, and thence directly into the arch. This use
+of wheel-barrows, though apparently a somewhat crude method and a
+retrogression from the use of the belt conveyor, proved very successful,
+and really involved no more labor than did the conveyors, although this
+might not have been the case had these latter worked as they were
+originally designed&nbsp;to.</p>
+
+<p>The method finally adopted allowed as many as four buckets to be
+dumped on the platform on one end of the arch gantry at one time, and
+eight on one end of that used for the bench-walls, the workmen
+<span class = "pagenum">124</span>
+<!--png 130-->
+handling about three of these latter into the forms by the time the last
+of the eight was dumped. It required about 1½&nbsp;min. to place a car
+under the gantry, hoist the bucket, dump, close it, and return it to the
+car below.</p>
+
+<p>Rock packing was stored at the other end of the platform, for use as
+required, when it was not handled directly from the end nearest the
+work. This method allowed the concrete and other materials to be brought
+in in trains at infrequent intervals, and provided a sufficient supply
+of material on hand so that the men handling it on top could be kept
+steadily at work.</p>
+
+<p>Each hoisting engine on these gantries had 7 by 10-in. cylinders, and
+a double drum; some of them were Lamberts and some Mundys, operated by
+compressed air.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "floor"><i>Ditches, Floor and Foundations.</i></a>&mdash;The
+first method of building the foundation was that shown by <a href =
+"#fig13">Fig. 13</a>, <i>A</i>; no attempt was then made to build the
+ditch, or floor, the intention being to leave these until the completion
+of the remainder of the lining. In building the bench-wall on this
+foundation, however, it was found difficult to secure the bottom of the
+forms properly (Fig.&nbsp;2, <a href = "#plateXXV">Plate XXV</a>), so as
+to prevent any give, as the material under the track was not solid
+enough to brace against. It was decided, therefore, to build the whole
+of the ditch (see <a href = "#fig13">Fig. 13</a>, <i>B</i>) so that the
+bottom of the forms could be braced against the solid concrete. At the
+beginning of the work, the face of the bench-wall was built up to the
+level of the bottom of the conduits with the foundation; if, therefore,
+in placing the concrete above this level, extreme care were not taken to
+get a tight fit between the bench-wall form and the lower face, and then
+to hold it rigidly in place, the result was a rather unsightly
+horizontal joint high enough to be plainly visible. The position of this
+joint may be seen in Fig.&nbsp;2, <a href = "#plateXXV">Plate XXV</a>,
+which shows the first section of bench-wall built. Several subsequent
+sections showed an overhang above this joint, amounting in one or two
+cases to as much as ½&nbsp;in., due to the fact that the bench-wall form
+moved or did not fit tightly. This defect was obviated by building the
+foundations with an offset on the face, shown by <a href = "#fig13">Fig.
+13</a>, <i>B</i>, so that the joint came at the level of the top of the
+flagging over the ditches, and therefore was almost entirely concealed;
+at the same time this allowed a sufficient surface, on the plane of the
+face of the bench-wall, against which the bench-wall forms could be
+braced and lined&nbsp;up.</p>
+
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#fig13end">
+<i>Skip to Text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">125</span>
+<!--png 131-->
+
+<p class = "fighead">
+<a name = "fig13" id = "fig13">Fig. 13.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">PLAN SHOWING VARIOUS METHODS OF BUILDING FLOOR AND
+FOUNDATION, AND DETAILS OF FORMS</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig13thumb.png" width = "463" height = "309"
+alt = "Figure 13 thumbnail" usemap ="#fig13map">
+</p>
+
+<map name = "fig13map" id = "fig13map">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,0,195,185" href = "#fig13ab"
+alt = "sectional elevation">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "240,0,463,240" href = "#fig13c"
+alt = "sectional elevation">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,185,240,309"
+href = "images/fig13d.png" target = "_blank"
+alt = "sectional elevation">
+</map>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig13ab" id = "fig13ab"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig13ab.png" width = "464" height = "443"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig13c" id = "fig13c"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig13c.png" width = "458" height = "475"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+Method Finally Adopted</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+DETAILS OF DITCH FORMS<br>
+<a href = "images/fig13d.png" target = "_blank">(Larger View)</a></p>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "fig13end" id = "fig13end"> </a>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">126</span>
+<!--png 132-->
+The ditch forms were set very carefully to line and grade by the
+alignment corps, as this formed the starting point of all the rest of
+the work, the only other thing which was necessary was to give a level
+at the front end of the bench-wall form, after it was set, for the
+elevation of the top of the bench, and to check up the stations of the
+ends of the sections occasionally to see that they were at the even
+25-ft. points (that is +08, +33, +58, and +83).</p>
+
+<p>After a short length had been built with the ditches only, it was
+thought desirable to try and put in the floor as well, so that the whole
+of the concrete would be put in place as the lining advanced, and leave
+less cleaning up to be done over the end of a single track, in the
+restricted spaces between the bench-walls. <a href = "#fig13">Fig.
+13</a>, <i>C</i>, shows the method finally adopted. In this may be seen
+the three stages in which it was put in, the details of the ditch forms
+being shown by Fig. 13,&nbsp;<i>D</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In that part of the tunnel where sand-walls were built, a hollow tile
+drain was built into the foundation, as shown in <a href = "#fig13">Fig.
+13</a>, <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>, along the foot of the water-proofing and
+connected at intervals with the drains by 4-in. cast-iron pipes. When
+the sand-walls and water-proofing were not built, however, the concrete
+of the foundations was sloped from the neat line back to the rock, as
+shown by Fig. 13,&nbsp;<i>C</i><sup>3</sup>, so that in case any water
+found its way down through the rock packing, its tendency would be to
+flow back against the rock, or to follow the low part of this concrete
+to 4-in. cast-iron pipes leading to the side ditches, rather than to
+find its way through the joint between the foundation and the bench-wall
+and so into the lower duct lines.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "sand_walls"><i>Sand-Walls.</i></a>&mdash;The sand-wall forms
+first used are shown in Fig. 2,&nbsp;<a href = "#plateXXIV">Plate
+XXIV</a>, with a section of the finished sand-wall. As this work was
+only intended to give a comparatively smooth surface against which to
+place the water-proofing, no particular care was taken with the surface,
+except to avoid sharp projections which might cut through the felt and
+pitch used for this purpose. A&nbsp;rather porous concrete (with all the
+rock which could be safely embedded in it and have the wall stand) was
+used, so that it would not act as a dam, but rather tend to allow the
+water to find its way to the bottom of the tunnel, and so into the
+drains.</p>
+
+<p>The traveling gantry for placing the concrete in the sand-walls, as
+first designed, with the belt conveyor, could of course only deliver the
+concrete at one end. Before setting the forms for a new section, it
+<span class = "pagenum">127</span>
+<!--png 133-->
+was necessary, therefore, to move the gantry ahead, before the
+cross-bracing between the tops of the forms, which also held the top
+platform, could be placed in position. Fig.&nbsp;2, <a href =
+"#plateXXIV">Plate XXIV</a>, shows the end of the conveyor over the top
+of the cross-braces. In order to hold the bottom of these forms, small
+wooden blocks were embedded in the foundation concrete, against which
+they could be wedged, as shown by <a href = "#fig13">Fig. 13</a>,
+<i>A</i>; these blocks were cut out after the sand-wall had been
+built.</p>
+
+<p>After the forms had been filled, the conveyor could not be moved back
+to the bench-wall until the concrete had set sufficiently so that these
+cross-braces could be removed, and, on account of the overhang at the
+top, the set had to be fairly good in order to prevent this overhang
+from breaking off. This arrangement, therefore, for placing the concrete
+was found to be impractical, if the proposed schedule of a section of
+bench-wall and a section of sand-wall to be built on alternate days, was
+to be carried out. In a few instances, where the sand-wall was finished
+fairly early in the afternoon, the forms were released next morning, and
+the conveyor was moved back, but, even then, 2&nbsp;or 3 hours at least
+were lost at the beginning of the shift. The conveyor, however, was
+abandoned, for the reasons previously given, and the traveling gantry
+was rearranged to allow concrete to be delivered at either end; it was
+then only necessary to move it backward and forward between the bench-
+and sand-wall forms instead of through these forms. This permitted the
+construction of the much more substantial type of forms shown by <a href
+= "#fig14">Fig.&nbsp;14</a>.</p>
+
+<p class = "fighead top"><a name = "fig14" id = "fig14">Fig. 14.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig14a.png" width = "384" height = "398"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+TRAVELING FORM FOR BUILDING SAND-WALL</p>
+
+<table class = "picture" summary = "part of figure 14">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<img src = "images/fig14b.png" width = "162" height = "194"
+alt = "see caption and text"></td>
+<td>
+<p class = "caption">
+DETAIL SHOWING METHOD<br>
+OF HANGING WATER-PROOFING<br>
+FROM TOP OF SAND-WALL</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>After being moved ahead on the track on top of the foundation, the
+form was first blocked up to grade, and then adjusted to line by the
+screws and slotted cleats shown at <i>B</i>, <a href = "#fig14">Fig.
+14</a>, after which it was secured by the braces from the ditches, as
+shown. The face lagging was placed in separate pieces and held against
+the uprights by lightly nailing every third or fourth piece; the whole
+was removed each time the form was moved, and built up again as the
+concrete was placed.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable care was taken to slope the top of the sand-wall back
+toward the rock, as shown by <a href = "#fig14">Fig. 14</a>, and to
+allow free drainage along the top (which ran parallel to the grade of
+the tunnel) to the 4-in. cast-iron drain pipes which carried the water
+from the rock packing above the arch to the drains beneath the
+track.</p>
+
+<p>Sand-walls were built for a length of about 1,100 ft. in each tunnel
+at the Weehawken end, and about 700 ft. in each tunnel at the western
+<span class = "pagenum">128</span>
+<!--png 134-->
+end, the remainder of the work, with the exception of a few short
+stretches, not being considered wet enough to require
+water-proofing.</p>
+
+
+<!--png 135-->
+<!--png 136-->
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#plateXXVend">
+<i>Skip to text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "plate">
+<a name = "plateXXV" id = "plateXXV"> </a>
+<p class = "header">
+PLATE XXV.<br>
+TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.<br>
+VOL. LXVIII, No. 1154.<br>
+LAVIS ON<br>
+PENNSYLVANIA R.R. TUNNELS: BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate25a.jpg" width = "483" height = "389"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 1.</span>
+K 173. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels.)
+Hackensack Portal and Approach. Telephone and Telegraph ducts and
+mandrels. Nov. 20,&nbsp;08.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate25b.jpg" width = "486" height = "387"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 2.</span>
+K 125. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels)
+Weehawken Shaft, North Tunnel. View showing general construction of
+tunnel lining forms, and clearance to allow disposal of excavated
+material. June 17,&nbsp;07.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate25c.jpg" width = "485" height = "389"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 3.</span>
+K 156. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels)
+Weehawken Shaft, South Tunnel. North side looking East, showing method
+of placing waterproofing. Oct. 22,&nbsp;07.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate25d.jpg" width = "482" height = "387"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 4.</span>
+K 147. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels)
+Weehawken. General view showing center and first section of arch and
+completed lining, North Tunnel. Sept. 24,&nbsp;07.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "plateXXVend" id = "plateXXVend"> </a>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "conduits"><i>Conduits.</i></a>&mdash;The arrangement of the
+conduit lines is shown in the general cross-section.<a class = "tag"
+name = "tag3" id = "tag3" href = "#note3">3</a> On the core-wall side
+there are 48 lines for telegraph and telephone cables, built of 4-way
+multiple conduit, each piece of which is 3&nbsp;ft. long and about 10
+in. square outside. On the other side there are the high- and
+low-tension lines, built of single conduit 18&nbsp;in. long and a little
+more than 5&nbsp;in. square outside. Manholes or splicing chambers are
+built every 400 ft., and are about 8&nbsp;ft. long and&nbsp;4&nbsp;ft.
+wide. General views of the conduits as built are shown in Fig.&nbsp;4,
+<a href = "#plateXXV">Plate XXV</a>, which shows all the lines in one
+tunnel, and in Fig.&nbsp;1, Plate XXV, which shows the telegraph and
+telephone lines, with the expanding mandrels used in laying them.</p>
+
+<p>In attempting to plan the work of placing the lining, two methods of
+building the bench-wall were considered. One was to build the wall in
+longitudinal sections, each section separated by a line of ducts; and
+the other was to attempt to build the wall in the manner called for by
+the specifications, which required the concrete to be carried up in
+layers as the conduits were laid. In this latter method, it was
+<span class = "pagenum">129</span>
+<!--png 137-->
+proposed to bond the concrete together with the forked bonds, the
+details of which are shown by <a href = "#fig15">Fig. 15</a>, <i>A</i>,
+but, as it might have been impractical to use these if the wall had been
+built in sections, provision was made in the contract to place expanded
+metal, as shown by Fig. 15, <i>B</i>, if this was thought advisable. The
+method of construction necessary, if the wall had been built in
+sections, is shown graphically by the five sketches, Fig. 15, <i>B</i>,
+1, 2, 3, 4, and&nbsp;5.</p>
+
+<p>The form and details of the expanding mandrel which was finally
+designed to meet the conditions, and proved so satisfactory in every
+way, are shown by <a href = "#fig15">Fig. 15</a>, <i>C</i>. The mandrel
+consisted of two triangular pieces of hard pine, separated by wedges
+attached to one piece which fitted into slots in the other; these, when
+expanded, practically filled the whole of the inside of the ducts. One
+of these mandrels was placed in each line of single ducts and two in
+each 4-way duct, placed diagonally, as shown in Fig.&nbsp;1, <a href =
+"#plateXXV">Plate XXV</a>. This required 60 mandrels at each working
+point, or 240 for the whole work. The mandrels were 35 ft. long, so that
+they easily covered the whole of a 25-ft. section, projected
+sufficiently far back into the previously finished work to assure the
+continuity of the alignment, and allowed the ends to be racked out at
+the forward end to secure proper breaks between the joints.</p>
+
+<p>In laying the single conduits, as a rule, the (collapsed) mandrels
+were pulled ahead from the previous section as each line was laid, and
+the conduits were strung on it until the whole length was completed; the
+conduits were then pushed up tight together, so as to close the joints
+as tightly as possible, and then the mandrel was expanded. The conduits
+were thus held firmly in position, and the forward end of the line was
+lifted slightly so that the wraps could be placed around the joints. The
+4-way conduits were generally laid in the ordinary way, except that no
+laying mandrel was necessary. One dowel was used between each of the
+pieces of conduit, at the center, and the joints were wrapped. When a
+line was finished, two mandrels were placed diagonally in each line and
+expanded simultaneously, so that any inequalities in the ducts
+themselves were divided as far as possible. In connection with the use
+of these mandrels, one of the points which was most carefully watched
+was that they projected back into the last completed section, thus
+insuring the continuity of the alignment.</p>
+
+<p>It was originally intended to wrap the joints of the 4-way ducts
+<span class = "pagenum">130</span>
+<!--png 138-->
+only, but it was found to be impractical to keep the grout from the wet
+concrete entirely out of the single ducts, and, after a short trial, it
+was decided to wrap these also. The expanding mandrel kept out a great
+deal of the cement, and, in the sections laid without wraps, the only
+difficulty from this cause seemed to be that a slight film of grout,
+from 1/16 to ⅛&nbsp;in. thick, was deposited on the bottom of the inside
+of the ducts at some places, and although this was not considered a
+serious defect, it was thought that the slight extra cost of placing the
+wraps would undoubtedly be justified by the practically perfect results
+obtained by using them.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable attention was given to breaking the joints of the ducts
+properly, so as to maintain throughout the conduit lines the greatest
+break possible. The joints in each superimposed line were broken at half
+the length of the individual pieces of conduit, the joints in lines in
+the same horizontal plane being broken at one-quarter the length, thus
+preventing any joints from touching one another either at the sides or
+corners, which tended to prevent a burn-out on one line from being
+communicated to another. There was some little difficulty at first in
+maintaining the breaks, owing to slight variations in the lengths of the
+conduit, but after a very short time both the workmen and the inspectors
+became very expert at this and in the proper use of short lengths to
+maintain the spacing; after the first few weeks there was little if any
+difficulty in attaining at all times almost perfect results. The method
+of making the breaks is shown in the photographs and by the isometric
+sketch at <i>F</i>, <a href = "#fig15">Fig.&nbsp;15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>All the conduits used on this work were furnished by the Great
+Eastern Clay Company, and were made at its factory at South River, N.J.,
+where they were inspected before shipment.</p>
+
+<p>The mandrel used in the final rodding was made as shown at <i>G</i>,
+<a href = "#fig15">Fig. 15</a>, the larger size being used for all
+lines. The rods for pushing it through the conduit lines were made of
+6½-ft. lengths of ordinary 1-in. wrought-iron pipe with extra long
+(3-in.) couplings. The lines were rodded in both directions from
+alternate manholes, thus avoiding uncoupling the rods and allowing every
+pull to be effective in pushing the mandrel through the ducts.</p>
+
+<p>Wooden rods were used at first, but proved entirely too light, as the
+mandrels used were a close fit, and it required considerable effort to
+push them through 400 ft. of conduit. Iron pipe with ordinary couplings
+<span class = "pagenum">132</span>
+<!--png 140-->
+was next tried, but the couplings broke quite often, as the threads
+became worn in uncoupling the sections to move the rods from one line to
+another, and the break was generally inside a duct line. The long
+couplings were finally adopted, and a set of rods was put in each line,
+that is, six sets in all, so that when coupled up they remained in the
+line until it was finished. The expense of the extra quantity of pipe
+thus required was more than offset by the decreased labor cost.</p>
+
+
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#fig15end">
+<i>Skip to Text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">131</span>
+<!--png 139-->
+
+<p class = "mynote">
+In the Figure as printed, only <i>B</i> was shown. Red letters were
+added by the transcriber.</p>
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig15" id = "fig15">Fig. 15.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig15thumb.png" width = "436" height = "311"
+alt = "Figure 15 thumbnail" usemap ="#fig15map">
+</p>
+
+<map name = "fig15map" id = "fig15map">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,0,100,75" href = "#fig15a"
+alt = "A: bonds for conduits">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "100,0,436,75" href = "#fig15b"
+alt = "B: bench-wall">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,75,300,116"
+href = "images/fig15c.png" target = "_blank"
+alt = "C: isometric drawing of mandrel">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "318,75,436,218" href = "#fig15d"
+alt = "D: weasel">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,210,125,280" href = "#fig15e"
+alt = "E: cutter">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,116,102,210" href = "#fig15f"
+alt = "F: joints and bonds">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "102,116,275,190" href = "#fig15g"
+alt = "G: plan and section of mandrel">
+<area shape = "poly" coords = "102,190, 225,190, 320,215, 320,243,
+200,243, 102,212"
+href = "images/fig15mandrel_det.png" target = "_blank"
+alt = "details of mandrel">
+</map>
+
+<p class = "caption bottom">
+ELECTRICAL CONDUITS: METHODS OF LAYING, RODDING, ETC.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig15a" id = "fig15a"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig15a.png" width = "218" height = "138"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+A. FORK ENDED STEEL BONDS FOR CONDUITS.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig15b" id = "fig15b"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig15b.png" width = "499" height = "359"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+B. SEQUENCE OF METHODS OF BUILDING BENCH-WALL PROPOSED WHEN USING
+EXPANDED METAL BONDS.</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+C. ISOMETRIC DRAWING OF EXPANDING MANDREL.<br>
+<a href = "images/fig15c.png" target = "_blank">
+(Larger view)</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig15d" id = "fig15d"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig15d.png" width = "308" height = "317"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+D. DETAILS OF <ins class = "correction" title =
+"quotation marks hand-drawn in extra space">“WEASEL”</ins><br>
+Used for gripping disconnected pipe rods in conduit</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig15e" id = "fig15e"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig15e.png" width = "304" height = "156"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+E. CUTTER FOR REMOVING OBSTRUCTIONS IN CONDUITS.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig15f" id = "fig15f"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig15f.png" width = "271" height = "195"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+F. ISOMETRIC SKETCH SHOWING METHOD OF BREAKING JOINTS AND POSITION
+FORKED BONDS.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig15g" id = "fig15g"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig15g.png" width = "436" height = "179"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+G. PLAN AND SECTIONS OF EXPANDING MANDREL.</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+MANDREL DETAILS<br>
+<a href = "images/fig15mandrel_det.png" target = "_blank">
+(Larger view)</a></p>
+
+<p class = "caption second top">
+DETAILS OF FINAL RODDING MANDRELS</p>
+
+<table class = "outline float center" summary = "part of figure 15">
+<caption><span class = "sans">INDEX</span></caption>
+<tr class = "outline">
+<td></td>
+<td><ins class = "correction" title =
+"text reads ‘Mult-’">Multi</ins>-Duct<br>
+Mandrel</td>
+<td>Single-Duct<br>
+Mandrel</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline">
+<td><i>A</i></td>
+<td>3¼”</td>
+<td>3⅜”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline">
+<td><i>B</i></td>
+<td>¾”</td>
+<td>⅞”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline">
+<td><i>C</i></td>
+<td>2½”</td>
+<td>2⅝”</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h5>Note</h5>
+
+<p class = "smallroman">
+End pipe connections may be changed to suit connections of rodding
+outfit, care being taken to use a connection which will not split and
+expand the mandrel if it should be driven back into it, in attempting to
+ram the mandrel back when stuck in a duct.</p>
+
+<p class = "smallroman">
+Connection at Head End may be dispensed with, if the mandrel is threaded
+through ducts by rods attached to the trailing end.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "fig15end" id = "fig15end"> </a>
+
+<p>It was thought necessary at first to run a cutter, <a href =
+"#fig15">Fig. 15</a>, <i>E</i>, through the conduits ahead of the final
+rodding mandrel, but this was soon found to be unnecessary except in a
+very few instances, and, after a short experience, the cutter was only
+used at places where an obstruction was encountered by the mandrel.</p>
+
+<p>At such times as the pipe became uncoupled inside the duct line, the
+part remaining inside was recovered by the use of the tool shown at
+<i>D</i>, <a href = "#fig15">Fig. 15</a>, called a “weasel.” In two
+instances, the mandrel became stuck in such a manner that the duct line
+had to be cut into in order to take it out.</p>
+
+<p>The best day’s work of the rodding gang (1 foreman and 4 men) was
+20,400 duct ft. of the 4-way conduit in the telegraph and telephone
+line, and 19,200 duct ft. of single conduit on the low-tension line, an
+average day’s work under ordinary conditions being about 10,000 duct ft.
+The cost, including labor, material, and all tools, for rodding for the
+whole work was slightly less than 0.2 cent per duct ft. The average cost
+of the single conduit was about 0.25 cents per ft., and of the 4-way,
+0.15 cents per ft. About 10% of the conduit lines were rodded twice,
+owing to partial sections having been rodded once before completion. The
+best continuous work on rodding was done between October 22d and 29th,
+1908, when in 7&nbsp;working days, 105,600 duct ft. were rodded, an
+average of a little more than 15,000 ft. per day.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "bench_walls"><i>Bench-walls.</i></a>&mdash;The original
+design for the tunnels provided for the construction of a brick arch
+above a point 22° above the springing line, that is, the part above the
+side-walls (<a href = "#fig10">Fig. 10</a>). It was thought desirable,
+therefore, in designing the bench-wall forms, to provide for placing the
+concrete in the side-walls and bench-walls at one operation. These
+forms, as first designed, are shown by Fig.&nbsp;2, <a href =
+"#plateXXV">Plate XXV</a>, and the details in <a href = "#fig16">Fig.
+16</a>, <i>A</i> and <i>A’</i>; they were built of steel, the facing
+plates being 5/16 in. thick, in pieces 4&nbsp;ft. 6&nbsp;in. wide, and
+in length about 6&nbsp;in. more than the height of the bench-wall.</p>
+
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#fig16end">
+<i>Skip to Text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">133</span>
+<!--png 141-->
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig16" id = "fig16">Fig. 16.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig16thumb.png" width = "416" height = "308"
+alt = "Figure 16 thumbnail" usemap = "#fig16map">
+</p>
+
+<map name = "fig16map" id = "fig16map">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,0,175,160" href = "#fig16a1"
+alt = "D: weasel">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "175,0,416,150"
+href = "images/fig16a.png" target = "_blank"
+alt = "A: section and elevation">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,170,115,250" href = "#fig16b"
+alt = "B: screw-jacks">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "25,250,110,308" href = "#fig16c"
+alt = "C: section C-D">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "120,160,295,308" href = "#fig16d"
+alt = "D: wooden forms">
+</map>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+DETAILS OF TRAVELING FORMS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BENCH
+WALLS</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig16a1" id = "fig16a1"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig16a1.png" width = "453" height = "486"
+alt = "A’: Cross-Section of Steel Form"
+title = "A’: Cross-Section of Steel Form">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+A. LONGITUDINAL SECTION AND ELEVATION OF STEEL FORM USED AT WEEHAWKEN
+END<br>
+<a href = "images/fig16a.png" target = "_blank">
+(Larger view)</a></p>
+
+<table class = "picture" summary = "part of figure 16">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig16b" id = "fig16b"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig16b.png" width = "275" height = "196"
+alt = "see caption and text"></td>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig16c" id = "fig16c"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig16c.png" width = "192" height = "78"
+alt = "see caption and text"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td><p class = "caption second">
+B. DETAILS OF SCREW-JACKS FOR ADJUSTING FORM TO LINE</p>
+</td>
+<td><p class = "caption second">
+C. SECTION <i>C</i>-<i>D</i> SHOWING CONNECTION OF FACE PLATES TO I-BEAM
+UPRIGHTS</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig16d" id = "fig16d"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig16d.png" width = "486" height = "314"
+alt = "see caption and text" title = "No chutes were used with these forms, the wheel-barrows being dumped from the runways on the sides.">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+D. DETAILS OF WOODEN FORMS USED AT WESTERN END<br>
+CROSS-SECTION (left),<br>
+PART LONGITUDINAL SECTION (right)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "fig16end" id = "fig16end"> </a>
+
+<p><span class = "pagenum">134</span>
+<!--png 142-->
+The design was controlled very largely by the necessity of providing the
+requisite clearance for the locomotives and muck cars, and the principal
+feature was the support of the forms on two trusses, one at either side,
+the front ends of which were supported from the foundation on a long
+leg, as shown in Fig.&nbsp;3, <a href = "#plateXXV">Plate XXV</a>, and
+the rear ends directly on the journal-boxes of wheels traveling on a
+rail on the top of the finished bench, as shown in Fig.&nbsp;2, Plate
+XXV.</p>
+
+<p>Although it had been decided to substitute concrete for brick in the
+arch before any of the lining was actually placed, two sets of forms for
+the Weehawken end had already been ordered and delivered, so it was
+decided to use them as designed, and place the side-wall with the
+bench.</p>
+
+<p>The forms were designed so that 30-ft. lengths could be built, and
+this was done at the start, but owing to the occurrence of the refuge
+niches, ladders, etc., at 25-ft. intervals, it was soon seen that it
+would be advisable to build the bench-wall in sections of that length
+(25 &nbsp;ft.), or multiples of it, and as the clearance conditions
+seemed to preclude the possibility of making the forms 50 ft. long,
+25&nbsp;ft. was adopted. This permitted the removal of one of the
+panels, 4&nbsp;ft. 6&nbsp;in. wide, and at the same time it was decided
+to remove the side-wall forms. This decreased the load on the trusses
+considerably, but being still a trifle weak, they were strengthened by
+the substitution of 1¼-in. truss rods instead of the ¾-in. rods used
+originally. The top platform and the cross-bracing were also stiffened a
+little and tightened up to prevent racking.</p>
+
+<p>The construction of the side-walls in conjunction with the bench-wall
+was abandoned for three reasons: First, it was found that there would be
+a much more even distribution of the work by including the side-wall
+with the arch rather than with the bench; second, there was difficulty
+in getting a good finish for the top of the bench-wall, as of course a
+top form for the latter had to be placed to prevent the concrete from
+squeezing up when the side-wall was built above it, which prevented
+troweling; the third reason was the weakness of the whole form as
+designed, and the increasing difficulty of adjusting it to line as the
+work progressed, the principal difficulty being with the curved
+side-wall forms.</p>
+
+<p>The bench-wall forms were set in position, after they had been moved
+ahead, by first blocking the bottom against the face of the
+<span class = "pagenum">135</span>
+<!--png 143-->
+foundation, as shown by <a href = "#fig13">Fig. 13</a>. As previously
+noted, this foundation face had been built very carefully to line. The
+back end of the form, of course, was blocked tightly against the end of
+the previously finished section, and the top was made plumb by the
+adjusting screwjacks shown in <a href = "#fig16">Fig. 16</a>, <i>B</i>.
+At first these screws were ¾-in., but they were afterward changed to
+1¼-in. The only points which it was necessary for the alignment corps to
+give in setting these forms was a grade at each of the front ends for
+the top of the finished bench.</p>
+
+<p>The steel face forms in both tunnels gave excellent results, as far
+as smoothness of finish was concerned, but, owing to the imperviousness
+of the steel, small air holes were formed in the surface, though not in
+sufficient numbers or size to cause trouble or disfigure the work in any
+way.</p>
+
+<p>The design of the bench-wall forms used at the western end, where
+this differs from the steel form, is shown by <a href = "#fig16">Fig.
+16</a>, <i>D</i>. The principal features in which they differed from
+those used at the Weehawken end was in the substitution of 2½-in.
+tongued and grooved hard pine for the face. This timber was of the very
+best quality obtainable, each piece being especially selected and as
+nearly clear and free from knots or other defects as it was possible to
+get it. The edges of each piece were planed at the back so as to insure
+a tight joint on the face, and all joints were shellacked. These forms
+were used, without renewal of the face timber and with only two
+planings, for a length of 2,500 ft., or 100 separate sections, and gave
+good satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>In order to obtain a surface to which the face lagging could be
+fastened, wooden uprights were used and were reinforced on either side
+by light channels bolted together through the timber, in place of the
+<b>I</b>-beams used on the steel forms. The lagging was nailed to these
+uprights by 6-in. wire nails driven through the top edges of each piece
+as it was placed in position, thus leaving the surface entirely clear
+and free from any marks or nail holes, and in condition for planing when
+this became necessary. Runways for wheeling the concrete were built one
+either side over the bench-walls instead of having a center platform
+with chutes, as was used at Weehawken.</p>
+
+<p>When the original lagging had become too much worn for further use,
+it was resurfaced with strips of ⅞ by 2½-in., clear, tongued and
+grooved, hard pine, placed vertically, which did fairly well and lasted
+to the end (about 1,000 ft.), although it was not altogether
+satisfactory,
+<span class = "pagenum">136</span>
+<!--png 144-->
+and the last eight or ten sections built had to be rubbed down with a
+wooden float in order to obtain a suitable finish.</p>
+
+<p>In designing the forms for all exposed surfaces in the tunnels, it
+was the desire of the contractors to obtain directly from them a surface
+which would be <ins class = "correction" title =
+"text reads ‘satifactory’">satisfactory</ins> to the engineers without
+further finishing than the patching of minor defects. In this they were
+generally quite successful, and excellent results were obtained, as
+shown in the view of the finished tunnel, Fig.&nbsp;2, <a href =
+"#plateXXVII">Plate XXVII</a>. The surface of the bench-walls was
+obtained solely by spading the face with a flat spade as the work
+progressed. No after treatment was resorted to, except for the few
+sections where the forms became worn. The top of the bench-wall was
+finished with a float about 2 or 3 hours after the concrete was
+placed.</p>
+
+<p>When the work was well organized, a bench-wall was built at each end
+each day, one day in the North Tunnel, and the following day in the
+South. During the time sand-walls were being built, a&nbsp;sand-wall and
+bench-wall were built on alternate days in each tunnel, care being taken
+that when a bench-wall was being built in one tunnel, the sand-wall was
+being built in the other, this being necessary in order to equalize the
+work of the night gang and the conduit layers as well as the
+transportation.</p>
+
+<p>The conduit layers on the day shift, two or three men and a foreman,
+required about 2&nbsp;hours in the forenoon and&nbsp;1 hour in the
+afternoon to lay their portion of the conduits, and usually finished
+this work by 3&nbsp;<span class = "smallcaps">P.M.</span> At other times
+during the shift they were utilized at those points where rock packing
+was heaviest, and when the packing was brought in in the large cars, as
+shown in Fig.&nbsp;1, <a href = "#plateXXVI">Plate XXVI</a>, these men
+helped unload it so that the track could be cleared as soon as possible.
+When water-proofing was to be done, the number of men in this gang was
+increased, so as to enable them to do that work also.</p>
+
+
+<!--png 145-->
+<!--png 146-->
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#plateXXVIend">
+<i>Skip to text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "plate">
+<a name = "plateXXVI" id = "plateXXVI"> </a>
+<p class = "header">
+PLATE XXVI.<br>
+TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.<br>
+VOL. LXVIII, No. 1154.<br>
+LAVIS ON<br>
+PENNSYLVANIA R.R. TUNNELS: BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate26a.jpg" width = "486" height = "389"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 1.</span>
+K 167. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels.) View
+of form for circuit breaker chamber at Sta. 286, and travelling gantry
+for placing concrete in arches, looking Easterly from near Sta. 280+85,
+South Tunnel. Oct. 3,&nbsp;08.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate26b.jpg" width = "482" height = "387"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 2.</span>
+K 166. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels.) View
+of forms for storage chamber at Sta. 294+24, looking Southward. Sept.
+17,&nbsp;08.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate26c.jpg" width = "482" height = "387"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 3.</span>
+K 163. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels.) Tunnel
+lining. Rock packing over arches, South tunnel Sta. <ins class =
+"correction" title = "illegible">???+??</ins> end of completed section.
+May 19,&nbsp;08.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate26d.jpg" width = "485" height = "390"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 4.</span>
+K 168. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels.)
+Showing method of waterproofing in timbered tunnel section at Weehawken
+end. Oct. 21,&nbsp;08.</p>
+</div>
+
+<a name = "plateXXVIend" id = "plateXXVIend"> </a>
+
+<p>A gang of four rough carpenters and a foreman was employed on the day
+shift; they moved and set the bench-wall forms or sand-wall forms, as
+the case might be, and moved the traveling gantry into position. This
+was done in the afternoon, and required about 3&nbsp;hours. They also
+took out, cleaned, repaired, and set all ditch forms, all passenger
+forms, circuit-breaker forms, and did all other repair work. The ladder
+forms, the refuge-niche forms, and overhead conductor
+<span class = "pagenum">137</span>
+<!--png 147-->
+pocket forms were attended to by one man, who set, removed, cleaned, and
+repaired them. The carpenters on the night shift set the arch centers
+and gantries, also the manhole forms when needed. The conduit layers on
+the night shift laid up half the 4-way conduits (3-high) and one-third
+of the single ducts (4-high). This one gang laid the conduits in two
+sections of bench-wall each night, that is, one section at Weehawken and
+the other at the western end.</p>
+
+<p>In concreting the bench-walls, the concrete was first placed on the
+side containing the single conduit until it reached the top of the four
+tiers laid, then the concrete gang was turned over to the side with the
+4-way conduits while four more tiers of single conduits were laid, the
+work thus progressing, the conduits being laid on one side while
+concrete was placed on the other. On the side of the 4-way conduits the
+concrete was built in two layers while that on the side of the single
+ducts was built in three; the interval between the different layers was
+not sufficiently long to prevent a complete bond being obtained, and
+there were only one or two instances where there was any mark on the
+face to indicate a break.</p>
+
+<p>After the work had been in progress some time, it was found to be
+quite feasible to build all the 4-way conduits at night and half the
+single conduits, that is, 6&nbsp;ducts high, as the mandrels proved
+amply sufficient to hold them in place; in fact, had it been necessary,
+the writer has no doubt that all the ducts might have been laid and held
+in place with very little extra precaution, by the use of the expanding
+mandrels, as described under the head of conduit laying.
+A&nbsp;<b>V</b>-shaped joint about ½&nbsp;in. deep was made between each
+section of bench-wall so that the expansion cracks would follow this
+joint rather than show irregularly on the face. These joints divided the
+face into the even 25-ft. panels, and were very effectual in concealing
+what few cracks there were.</p>
+
+<p>After the construction of the sand-walls was discontinued, the space
+behind the bench-walls, between the neat line and the rock, was filled
+with rock packing, which was generally built, part way up at least, as a
+dry wall ahead of the construction of the bench-wall, or it was put in
+place simultaneously with the concrete, care being taken to keep it as
+free as possible for the drainage of any water there might be. Toward
+the latter part of the work, owing to the difficulty of getting
+sufficient rock packing during the day, a&nbsp;rough back form
+<span class = "pagenum">138</span>
+<!--png 148-->
+for the bench-wall was built at the neat line, in places where the
+section was at all large, and the space was filled with rock afterward,
+generally at night or on Sundays.</p>
+
+<p>In the sections where water-proofing was required, where no sand-wall
+was built, the rock was taken out for 2&nbsp;ft. outside the neat line,
+if the excavation was not already that far out (at&nbsp;the expense of
+the contractors, who preferred to do this rather than build the
+sand-walls for the short sections required), so that there would be
+sufficient room for placing the water-proofing on the back of the
+bench-walls, as shown by <a href = "#fig18">Fig. 18</a>, <i>E</i>. The
+water-proofing of these sections was left until just before the arch was
+to be built, and after being placed it was protected by a single row of
+brick laid on edge before the rock packing was filled&nbsp;in.</p>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "arches"><i>Arches.</i></a>&mdash;The centering used for the
+arches is shown very clearly in Fig.&nbsp;4, <a href = "#plateXXV">Plate
+XXV</a>, which is a view of the back end of the first section built at
+Weehawken. In this part of the tunnel, the lower part of the arch, about
+5&nbsp;ft. above the bench-wall, was built first, as previously referred
+to, but the centers, as will be seen, were built so that they could be
+used for the whole of the arch. The forward bulkhead, and the shoveling
+platform on a section being built, are shown in Fig.&nbsp;3, <a href =
+"#plateXXVI">Plate XXVI</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The front bulkheads used were made in nine sections, bolted to a 2½
+by 2½-in. angle bent to the radius of the arch, as shown in Fig.&nbsp;3,
+<a href = "#plateXXVI">Plate XXVI</a>, and fitting on the end of the
+lagging; when set they were braced partly against the rock of the roof
+and partly against the gantry. After the ribs and part of the lagging
+had been set by the night gang for a fresh section of arch, the braces
+holding the bulkheads were knocked out, the concrete placed during the
+day having set sufficiently by this time; the whole of the bulkhead was
+then easily moved ahead, sliding along the lagging to the forward end,
+and made ready for the next day’s work. The middle section at the top
+was taken out temporarily, to facilitate working at the sides, until it
+was needed.</p>
+
+<p>The traveling gantry used in handling the concrete for the arch is
+shown in Fig.&nbsp;1, <a href = "#plateXXVI">Plate XXVI</a>, which also
+shows the form for the circuit-breaker chamber, and a car of rock
+packing on the track beneath.</p>
+
+<p>The arches were built in 10-ft. sections, the ribs being spaced
+5&nbsp;ft. apart, the end ribs of each section supporting the end of the
+lagging
+<span class = "pagenum">139</span>
+<!--png 149-->
+on two adjoining sections. Five sets of lagging and ten ribs were used
+at each place where the arch was being built, thus giving each section
+practically 4 days’ set before removing the centers. Probably in the
+greater part of the work the centers could have been removed in from 40
+to 48 hours after the concrete had been placed, but 3 days was
+considered the least time which would certainly be safe at all times,
+and the contractors thought that the very slight additional expense
+involved in leaving the centers up 4&nbsp;days was more than warranted
+by the additional feeling of security.</p>
+
+<p>The lagging was made from 3 by 6-in. clear, hard pine, 10 ft. long,
+dressed to about 2½ in. in thickness, about 5½&nbsp;in. in width, and
+the sides to radial lines. As it was placed, every third or fourth piece
+was lightly nailed to the ribs; when the latter were released and taken
+down, the nails pulled out, and the lagging was left in place until one
+piece was pried out, allowing the others to fall. A&nbsp;light
+<b>A</b>-frame, about 8&nbsp;ft. long, spanning the bench-walls, was
+placed below, in order to break the fall and allow the lagging to slide
+to the top of the bench-walls rather than fall to the track beneath.</p>
+
+<p>Cross-passages between the two tunnels were built every 300 ft.,
+their form being shown on Plate VIII of the paper by Mr. Jacobs. There
+were two circuit-breaker chambers, one at Station 286 and the other at
+Station 310. Steel doors are provided so that all the openings between
+the two tunnels can be closed. At Station 294+24, the core-wall broke
+through for a length of about 40 ft., and instead of filling this in,
+a&nbsp;storage chamber 34 ft. long and 11 ft. wide, inside, was built
+there, the form for which is shown in Fig.&nbsp;2, <a href =
+"#plateXXVI">Plate XXVI</a>. This photograph, as well as Fig.&nbsp;1,
+Plate XXVI, a&nbsp;form for a circuit-breaker chamber, shows the method
+of setting the steel doors in the forms, so that they were built into
+the concrete instead of being fastened in with expansion bolts
+afterward, thus showing a perfect fit and a much neater job.</p>
+
+<p>During construction the arches in each tunnel were kept even with
+each other, so that when the cross-passages were reached, they, and the
+sections of arch which they joined, could be completed at one
+operation.</p>
+
+<p>By the methods used on this work, one section of arch was easily
+built in a shift, so that the monolithic construction of each section
+was easily secured, and concrete, as wet as it was possible to handle
+with
+<span class = "pagenum">140</span>
+<!--png 150-->
+shovels, could be used for all except the last 5&nbsp;ft. or so at the
+top, thus getting a structure which was as nearly impervious as possible
+under the circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>The gangs placing the arches were paid over-time when they were
+required to work after 6&nbsp;o’clock to finish their section, which was
+generally only necessary when the quantity of rock packing to be placed
+was very large. If they finished their section before 6&nbsp;o’clock,
+however, they were allowed to quit when this was done, and were given a
+full day’s pay. The difference in time, when there was any, was usually
+due to the greater or less quantity of rock packing, as the excavation
+varied from the standard section line.</p>
+
+<p>In building the arches, the night gang set the two ribs (one at the
+center and one at the forward end of the section to be built), placed
+the lagging on the sides, 4&nbsp;or 5&nbsp;ft. high, built the shoveling
+platform on the horizontal cross-braces of the ribs, and placed the
+traveling gantry in position for use. The forward end of the gantry
+(that is, the end farthest from the arch being built), as shown in
+Fig.&nbsp;1, <a href = "#plateXXVI">Plate XXVI</a>, was loaded with rock
+packing to be used as required. As the concrete was brought into the
+tunnel it was hoisted and dumped on the end of the gantry next the arch,
+and shoveled from there to the platform on the ribs and from there into
+place. The rock packing brought in during the day was dumped on the
+front or back end of the gantry, as was most convenient, and handled
+into the work in the intervals between batches of concrete. The concrete
+and rock packing, with the back-lagging and water-proofing, where these
+were used, were placed simultaneously, or nearly so, and brought up the
+sides together until the key was reached; the latter was then worked
+from the back toward the front. The key was usually made about
+5&nbsp;ft. wide, the lagging for this width was made 5&nbsp;ft. long and
+put up in two sections. It was found to be more convenient to have the
+key of this width than narrower.</p>
+
+<p>The method used in making the closures where two sections of the arch
+came together is shown by <a href = "#fig17">Fig.&nbsp;17</a>.</p>
+
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#fig17end">
+<i>Skip to Text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig17" id = "fig17">Fig. 17.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+SKETCH SHOWING METHOD OF MAKING ARCH CLOSURE</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig17cross.png" width = "300" height = "215"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second bottom">
+CROSS-SECTION OF TUNNEL SHOWING JACK PARTLY EXTENDED</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig17long.png" width = "237" height = "314"
+alt = "longitudinal tunnel section"
+title = "LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF TUNNEL SHOWING JACK PARTLY EXTENDED">
+</p>
+
+<table class = "picture" summary = "part of figure 17">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<img src = "images/fig17boxplan.png" width = "92" height = "78"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+<td class = "picture">
+<img src = "images/fig17plungerplan.png" width = "76" height = "62"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+<td class = "picture" rowspan = "3">
+<img src = "images/fig17plungerview.png" width = "82" height = "209"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p class = "caption second">
+PLAN OF BOX</p>
+</td>
+<td>
+<p class = "caption second">
+PLAN OF PLUNGER<br>
+BOTTOM OF BOX</p>
+</td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<img src = "images/fig17boxview.png" width = "92" height = "100"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p class = "caption second">
+END VIEW</p>
+</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>
+<p class = "caption second">
+END VIEW OF PLUNGER<br>
+JACK FULLY EXTENDED</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "fig17end" id = "fig17end"> </a>
+
+<p class = "section">
+<a name = "water_proofing"><i>Water-proofing.</i></a>&mdash;As already
+pointed out, the original design for the lining of these tunnels
+provided for a brick arch. It was intended to cover this arch with
+water-proofing, this latter extending over the whole of the roof and
+down the sides as far as the bottom of the conduit lines. The
+water-proofing was to be placed against the sand-walls
+<span class = "pagenum">141</span>
+<!--png 151-->
+on the sides, up to the top of the side walls, Figs. <a href =
+"#fig10">10</a> and <a href = "#fig14">14</a>. Over the arch, after
+being placed, it was to be protected by an armor course of brick, laid
+flat, the space between the brick and the excavation, which was required
+to be not less than 4&nbsp;in. (and, as a matter of fact, was actually a
+great deal more), being filled with rock packing. Besides filling the
+space, this latter was designed to allow any water from the roof of the
+tunnel to find its way easily to the top of the sand-wall, from there
+being carried through the 4-in. cast-iron pipes, shown on Plate VIII<a
+class = "tag" name = "tag4" id = "tag4" href = "#note4">4</a> to the
+side ditches in the floor of the tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>All the water-proofing placed in these tunnels was of felt and pitch,
+six-ply felt and seven layers of pitch. The felt was required to be
+Hydrex, or of equal quality, and the pitch, “Straight run coal-tar pitch
+which will soften at 60° Fahr., of a grade in which the distillate oils
+will have a specific gravity of 1.05.”</p>
+
+<p>In addition to tests as to the above qualities, the pitch was
+analyzed
+<span class = "pagenum">142</span>
+<!--png 152-->
+to determine the amount of free carbon it contained, and was not
+accepted if this fell below 20 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>It was considered quite important that there should be absolutely
+free drainage on the outer side of the lining, so that there would be no
+chance for any water to acquire a head. More than three-quarters of the
+length of these tunnels is below the level of mean high water, and while
+it was hardly expected that there would be any direct connection between
+the water in the Hudson River and the groundwater of the section
+penetrated, it was thought wise to provide ample drainage.</p>
+
+<p>Before the lining was started, however, the excavation had progressed
+sufficiently to show that the tunnels, while very wet in places, and
+varying from that to quite damp, would be, on the whole, much dryer than
+had been anticipated. It was then decided to substitute concrete for the
+brick in the arch and omit the water-proofing over the top, except at
+places where water came into the tunnels in sufficiently large
+quantities to form practically a continuous stream. Three general types
+of construction for the arch were decided on, as shown in <a href =
+"#fig18">Fig. 18</a>. The first, as shown at <i>A</i>, was to be used
+where the tunnel was quite dry. In this type, the sand-wall was omitted
+entirely, and the concrete and rock packing were built up together, the
+rock packing impinging to a certain extent on the concrete, and the
+concrete squeezing somewhat into the rock packing, as shown by
+Fig.&nbsp;4, <a href = "#plateXXV">Plate XXV</a>. The section shown at
+<i>B</i> was used where the tunnels were damp, or where there were
+slight droppers not forming a continuous stream. The back lagging, of
+1-in. boards, which was left in place, provided a practically smooth
+outer surface on the concrete arch, and allowing the concrete and rock
+packing to be built almost simultaneously. It was considered that the
+free drainage through the rock packing, the surface of the boards, and
+the smooth outer surface of the concrete in the arch would allow the
+comparatively small quantity of water in these parts of the tunnel to
+find its way to the sides, and thence to the ditches at the bottom,
+rather than to percolate through the concrete, and this proved to be
+very generally the case, as is shown by the dry condition of the tunnel
+as built. The back lagging was used over the arch, both where the
+sand-wall was built and where it was omitted, as well as being placed
+over the water-proofing of the arch as an armor course where
+water-proofing was required. Where the sand-walls
+<span class = "pagenum">144</span>
+<!--png 154-->
+were built and water-proofed, and where the water-proofing was not
+carried over the arch, the water-proofing was turned in at the top, as
+shown at <i>C</i>, <a href = "#fig18">Fig.&nbsp;18</a>.</p>
+
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#fig18end">
+<i>Skip to Text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+
+<span class = "pagenum">143</span>
+<!--png 153-->
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig18" id = "fig18">Fig. 18.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig18thumb.png" width = "429" height = "300"
+alt = "see caption and text" usemap = "#fig18map">
+</p>
+
+<map name = "fig18map" id = "fig18map">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,0,70,140" href = "#fig18a"
+alt = "arch A">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,165,70,300" href = "#fig18b"
+alt = "arch B">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "75,165,145,300" href = "#fig18c"
+alt = "arch C">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "160,165,235,300" href = "#fig18e"
+alt = "arch E">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "280,0,350,140" href = "#fig18f"
+alt = "arch F">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "70,0,280,165" href = "#fig18d"
+alt = "lapped mats">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "350,0,429,205" href = "#fig18det"
+alt = "water-proofing">
+</map>
+
+<p class = "caption">
+VARIOUS TYPES OF ARCHES, AND WATER-PROOFING USED</p>
+
+<table class = "picture" summary = "part of figure 18">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig18a" id = "fig18a"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig18a.png" width = "132" height = "268"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+<td width = "33%">
+<p class = "smallroman">
+Method of making joint when work on section was not continuous. Part of
+joint on radial line, part sloping slightly toward outside of arch.</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig18f" id = "fig18f"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig18f.png" width = "140" height = "268"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<a name = "fig18b" id = "fig18b"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig18b.png" width = "137" height = "255"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+<td>
+<a name = "fig18c" id = "fig18c"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig18c.png" width = "135" height = "255"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+<td>
+<a name = "fig18e" id = "fig18e"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig18e.png" width = "140" height = "248"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig18d" id = "fig18d"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig18d.png" width = "412" height = "326"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+Method of Lapping Mats over Arch</p>
+
+<table class = "picture" summary = "part of figure 18">
+<tr>
+<td class = "picture">
+<a name = "fig18det" id = "fig18det"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig18water.png" width = "183" height = "248"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+<td>
+<p class = "caption second">
+DETAILS OF WATER-PROOFING</p>
+<p class = "smallroman">
+One layer of felt with 4" overlap to be nailed to lagging of inch
+boards, using tin washers on nails over the whole of the intrados of the
+arch before starting any concrete or placing any of the permanent felt
+and pitch water-proofing. The water-proofing over the arch can be laid
+in mats of three thicknesses of felt properly joined together with pitch
+made as shown diagrammatically at “<i>x</i>”<br>
+<br>
+Each of these mats of three-ply felt will be overlapped half the width
+of the mat, as shown diagrammatically at “<i>y</i>”
+</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "fig18end" id = "fig18end"> </a>
+
+<p>The third method provided for water-proofing the whole of the arch,
+and was the same as <i>B</i> except for the addition of the
+water-proofing inside the back lagging. In placing this water-proofing,
+the felt was cut in strips about 11 ft. long (about 1&nbsp;ft. longer
+than the length of a section of arch), and six thicknesses were cemented
+together with hot pitch. These mats were then laid shingle-fashion, as
+shown at <i>D</i>, <a href = "#fig18">Fig. 18</a>, up the sides of the
+arch until a space about 5&nbsp;ft. wide remained at the crown; shorter
+mats were then brought out over this, laying them perpendicular to the
+axis of the tunnel. Care was taken in making all laps, irrespective of
+the direction in which the arch was built, so that they would lay with
+the grade, that is, so that the water would tend to flow over the edges
+of the laps rather than against them.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the wet sections of the tunnel were at the ends, where
+sand-walls had been built for the purpose of providing a smooth surface
+against which the water-proofing was to be placed; there were several
+wet places at isolated points in the tunnels, however, and, in order to
+avoid building sand-walls at these points, the method shown at <i>E</i>,
+<a href = "#fig18">Fig. 18</a>, was adopted. This involved a slightly
+larger excavation, 2&nbsp;ft. outside of the neat line, up to the height
+of the top of the bench, where there was not already that much room. The
+bench-wall was built with a back form on the neat line, the
+water-proofing was placed as shown, protected by an armor course of
+brick, and then continued over the arch when this latter was built. The
+excavation and refilling with rock packing were done at the contractor’s
+expense, which he was willing to assume rather than build these short
+sections of sand-wall.</p>
+
+<!--png 155-->
+<!--png 156-->
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#plateXXVIIend">
+<i>Skip to text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "plate">
+<a name = "plateXXVII" id = "plateXXVII"> </a>
+<p class = "header">
+PLATE XXVII.<br>
+TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.<br>
+VOL. LXVIII, No. 1154.<br>
+LAVIS ON<br>
+PENNSYLVANIA R.R. TUNNELS: BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.</p>
+
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate27a.jpg" width = "483" height = "389"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 1.</span>
+K 181. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels.)
+Timbered section near Weehawken Shaft, showing method of placing
+waterproofing and keying arch. Dec. 8,&nbsp;08.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate27b.jpg" width = "483" height = "387"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 2.</span>
+K 184. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels). View
+of completed tunnel looking Eastward from Sta. 323+60. South Tunnel.
+Feb. 8,&nbsp;09.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate27c.jpg" width = "483" height = "389"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 3.</span>
+K 149. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels)
+Hackensack Portal, general view of completed Portal, and arches through
+cut and cover section looking East. Oct. 15,&nbsp;07.</p>
+
+<p class = "illus">
+<img src = "images/plate27d.jpg" width = "482" height = "388"
+alt = "see caption">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption"><span class = "smallcaps">Fig. 4.</span>
+K 190. P.R.R. Tunnels, N. R. Div. Sect. K. (Bergen Hill Tunnels.)
+Hackensack Approach. General view, looking East. March 16,&nbsp;09.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "plateXXVIIend" id = "plateXXVIIend"> </a>
+
+<p>The method of water-proofing that part of the timbered section which
+was very wet, is shown at <i>F</i>, <a href = "#fig18">Fig. 18</a>, and
+in Fig.&nbsp;4, <a href = "#plateXXVI">Plate XXVI</a>, and Fig.&nbsp;1,
+<a href = "#plateXXVII">Plate XXVII</a>. A&nbsp;lagging of 1-in. boards
+was nailed up the sides and to the soffit of the segmental timbering,
+all the spaces outside of this lagging being carefully filled with rock
+packing. Before starting any concrete work, a&nbsp;single thickness of
+water-proofing felt was nailed to the inner side of the lagging, which
+not only served to protect the finished surfaces of the concrete from
+the
+<span class = "pagenum">145</span>
+<!--png 157-->
+water which fell copiously from the roof, but also provided a
+comparatively dry surface to which the regular six-ply water-proofing
+could be cemented with pitch and held in position, while the concrete
+was placed against&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p>In placing the water-proofing in this section on the sides, the
+strips of felt were placed vertically, nailed at the top to the
+wall-plate, to support their weight, and lapped and cemented with pitch
+to the sides as on the sand-walls, except that there was no trouble from
+the overhang. After the bench-wall had been built, the felt was cut just
+below the nails and about 2&nbsp;ft. above the top of the bench, so that
+the mats which were placed over the arch could be inserted behind it.
+The roof was covered with three-ply mats and lapped over a little more
+than half, as shown diagrammatically on the drawing.</p>
+
+<p>When the upper part of the arch was reached, where the cementing
+strength of the pitch was not sufficient to hold the felt in place, the
+mats were braced temporarily from the centering, as shown by
+Fig.&nbsp;1, <a href = "#plateXXVII">Plate XXVII</a>, until the concrete
+could be packed against&nbsp;it.</p>
+
+<p>Where the water-proofing was placed against the sand-wall, the method
+of securing the sheets at the top is shown in the small sketch on <a
+href = "#fig14">Fig. 14</a> and by Figs. 3 and&nbsp;4, <a href =
+"#plateXXIV">Plate XXIV</a>. Fig.&nbsp;3, <a href = "#plateXXV">Plate
+XXV</a>, shows the laps of the sheets and the method of hanging. At the
+start an attempt was made to stick the water-proofing to the sand-wall,
+but this could not be done on account of its dampness and the overhang
+at the top.</p>
+
+<p>The sand-wall water-proofing was kept about 35 ft. ahead of the
+finished bench-wall, as shown by Fig.&nbsp;3, <a href =
+"#plateXXV">Plate XXV</a>. As the bench-wall form was moved ahead and
+set, the mat was braced back against the sand-wall from the forms at a
+point just above the top of the finished bench, care being taken to
+avoid wrinkles, as, if these were once formed, it was practically
+impossible to straighten them out.</p>
+
+<p>The completion of the bench-wall left the upper part of this
+water-proofing stretched taut across the curved top of the sand-wall,
+forming a chord of the arc. As the arch was built up, the top was
+gradually slackened so as to allow the concrete to press the mat back
+into place until the top of the sand-wall was reached, when the end was
+turned in, as shown at <i>C</i>, <a href = "#fig18">Fig. 18</a>, or the
+water-proofing was continued over the arch, if that was necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The desire to obtain a dry tunnel, and the methods adopted to
+<span class = "pagenum">146</span>
+<!--png 158-->
+secure it, were responsible in a great measure for the decision to build
+the arch in short lengths, as well as the reasons given under the head
+of arches. Had the tunnels been dry throughout, the method shown at
+<i>A</i>, <a href = "#fig18">Fig. 18</a>, could have been used
+exclusively, and, except for the fact that monolithic concrete might not
+have been obtained, there would have been no objection to building
+longer lengths.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of water reaching the tunnel drains and flowing out of
+their lower ends after the completion of the lining was about 100,000
+gal. per day, or 75 gal. per min.; of this it is estimated that
+considerably less than 1% comes through the lining in the form of leaks.
+The very general distribution of this water over the roof is indicated
+by the fact that, during the excavation of the first 1,000 ft. of both
+tunnels from the Weehawken end, oilskins had to be provided for the
+laborers to induce them to work at all. The success, therefore, of the
+rock packing as a means of diverting this water to the side drains, is
+shown, especially in view of the fact that, excluding the cut-and-cover
+section, only 10% of the length of the arch, 1,189 ft., was
+water-proofed.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable care was taken to make all joints in the concrete which
+were in such a position that water might follow through them to the
+inside of the tunnel lining, in such a manner that they would slope
+outward toward the rock. The top of the sand-wall is shown by Figs. <a
+href = "#fig14">14</a> and <a href = "#fig18">18</a>. The slope of the
+back of the foundation may be noted in Fig. 18, and the method of making
+the joint in the arch, in the few instances where a section was not
+completed at one operation, is shown at <i>A</i>, Fig.&nbsp;18. These
+joints in the arch were not allowed to be made above a point 60° above
+the springing line.</p>
+
+<p align = "right"><a href = "#fig19end">
+<i>Skip to Text</i></a></p>
+
+<div class = "figure">
+<span class = "pagenum">148</span>
+<!--png 159-->
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig19" id = "fig19">Fig. 19.</a></p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<img src = "images/fig19thumb.png" width = "452" height = "309"
+alt = "Figure 19 thumbnail" usemap = "#fig19map">
+</p>
+
+<map name = "fig19map" id = "fig19map">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,0,175,90" href = "#fig19app_plan"
+alt = "approach plan">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "0,90,190,170" href = "#fig19app_prof"
+alt = "approach profile">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "15,175,150,309"
+href = "#fig19joint_section" alt = "joint section">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "160,215,235,285" href =
+"#fig19joint_plan"
+alt = "joint plan">
+<area shape = "rect" coords = "210,0,452,200" href = "#fig19wall"
+alt = "wall section">
+</map>
+
+<p class = "caption bottom">
+BERGEN HILLS TUNNELS.<br>
+Hackensack Portal and Approach.<br>
+SECTIONS AND ELEVATIONS.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig19app_plan"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig19app_plan.png" width = "461" height = "212"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+PLAN OF APPROACH.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig19app_prof"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig19app_prof.png" width = "436" height = "152"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+PROFILE THROUGH APPROACH.</p>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig19joint_section"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig19joint_section.png" width = "347" height = "318"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+SECTION SHOWING METHOD OF MAKING JOINT<br>
+BETWEEN COPING AND WALL.</p>
+
+<table class = "picture" summary = "part of figure 19">
+<tr>
+<td>
+<a name = "fig19joint_plan"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig19joint_plan.png" width = "158" height = "128"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</td>
+<td>
+<p class = "caption second">
+PLAN SHOWING METHOD OF MAKING JOINT<br>
+BETWEEN ADJOINING SECTIONS.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class = "illustration">
+<a name = "fig19wall"> </a>
+<img src = "images/fig19wall.png" width = "481" height = "328"
+alt = "see caption and text">
+</p>
+
+<p class = "caption second">
+SECTION OF BENCH AND RETAINING WALLS<br>
+AND HALF ELEVATION OF PORTAL.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<a name = "fig19end" id = "fig19end"> </a>
+
+<h5 class = "smallcaps">Hackensack Portal and Approach.</h5>
+
+<p>The approach cut at the western end is 300 ft. long, the alignment
+being a 2° curve, as shown in <a href = "#fig19">Fig. 19</a>. The
+bench-walls and conduit lines built throughout the length of the tunnels
+are extended through the approach cut, the top of the former gradually
+sloping from the portal to the mouth of the cut, where they are just
+level with the top of the rail, the conduits also being depressed to the
+same relative position with the tops of the benches.</p>
+
+<p>The top of the rock at the mouth of the cut, Station 327, was from 4
+to 6&nbsp;ft. below the top of the rail, and gradually rose through
+<span class = "pagenum">148</span>
+<!--png 160-->
+the approach until at the portal it was about 6 or 8&nbsp;ft. above the
+roof of the tunnel. The rock was covered with hardpan. A&nbsp;profile of
+this part of the work is shown on <a href = "#fig19">Fig. 19</a>. The
+rock throughout the approach was water-bearing to a considerable extent,
+and a face-wall was built at the sides with free drainage, through rock
+packing and vitrified and cast-iron drains behind it, to keep this water
+from flowing over the tops of the bench-walls, and also to keep the
+lines of conduits dry.</p>
+
+<p>The retaining walls were built in 25-ft. sections, the joints
+corresponding to those in the benches, being at the even stations, +08,
++33, +58, and +83. <b>V</b>-shaped joints were made down the face, and
+the ends of the sections were made as shown by <a href = "#fig19">Fig.
+19</a>. The back part of the joint was mopped with hot pitch before the
+next section was built, so that there was practically no bond between
+any two adjoining sections.</p>
+
+<p>The concrete in these walls was placed late in the season, and the
+expansion cracks, which were entirely confined to the <b>V</b>-shaped
+joints, were quite small even in the coldest weather of the following
+winter, nor were there any indications during the past summer of any
+stresses due to expansion. The coping and drain at the top of the wall
+were built together, but separate from the rest of the wall, the joint
+being made as shown in the sketch on <a href = "#fig19">Fig. 19</a>.
+Thus far, there has seemed to be no seepage through either the vertical
+or horizontal joints.</p>
+
+<p>The portal is built of granite, a half elevation being shown on <a
+href = "#fig19">Fig. 19</a>, the stone being supplied by the Millstone
+Granite Company, Millstone Point, Conn. Fig.&nbsp;3, <a href =
+"#plateXXVII">Plate XXVII</a>, shows the portal and the cut-and-cover
+section after the arches were completed but not covered.</p>
+
+<p>The forms for the concrete in the approach were made of ordinary
+dressed lumber, and the surface was rubbed twice after the forms were
+removed, which was as soon as possible after the concrete had set. The
+surface was first very lightly rubbed with a piece of soft,
+light-colored, sandstone to remove any irregularities, being wetted
+slightly if necessary while being rubbed. After the concrete had become
+fairly hard and dry, it was rubbed a second time and a uniform texture
+and color obtained. The completion of this work was delayed until the
+second week in January, and considerable difficulty was encountered in
+obtaining a good finish of that part which was built after
+<span class = "pagenum">149</span>
+<!--png 161-->
+cold weather set in, when it was necessary to protect it from frost.
+Unless extreme care was taken to prevent freezing after the rubbing, the
+entire surface was likely to scale off, although no cement or other
+material was added to it after the removal of the forms. A&nbsp;general
+view of the completed approach is shown by Fig.&nbsp;4, <a href =
+"#plateXXVII">Plate XXVII</a>.</p>
+
+<h5><a name = "table6" id = "table6">TABLE 6.</a></h5>
+
+<table class = "outline double center" summary = "labor costs">
+<tr class = "outline middle">
+<td rowspan = "2">Title.</td>
+<td class = "smallcaps" colspan = "3">Day.</td>
+<td class = "smallcaps" colspan = "3">Night.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "outline">
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td>No.</td>
+<td>Rate.</td>
+<td>Amount.</td>
+<td>No.</td>
+<td>Rate.</td>
+<td>Amount.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline toppad">
+<td class = "left">Walking bosses</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>$5.00</td>
+<td>$10.00</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Timekeeper</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>3.00</td>
+<td>6.00</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Watchmen</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td>5</td>
+<td>$2.00</td>
+<td>$10.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Waterboys</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>1.50</td>
+<td>1.50</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Carpenter foremen</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>3.50</td>
+<td>7.00</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>4.00</td>
+<td>4.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Carpenters</td>
+<td>14</td>
+<td>2.50</td>
+<td>35.00</td>
+<td>8</td>
+<td>2.50</td>
+<td>20.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Pipe-fitters</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>3.00</td>
+<td>3.00</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Pipe-fitter’s helper</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Wheelwright</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>2.75</td>
+<td>2.75</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Wheelwright’s helper</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Blacksmith</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>3.00</td>
+<td>3.00</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Blacksmith’s helper</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Foremen riggers</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>3.00</td>
+<td>3.00</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Riggers</td>
+<td>6</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>10.50</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Foremen trackmen</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>3.00</td>
+<td>3.00</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Trackmen</td>
+<td>6</td>
+<td>1.50</td>
+<td>9.00</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Machinist</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>3.00</td>
+<td>6.00</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Machinist’s helper</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Electrician</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>3.00</td>
+<td>6.00</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>2.50</td>
+<td>2.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Electrician’s helper</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Lampman</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>1.50</td>
+<td>1.50</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Pumpman</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>1.50</td>
+<td>1.50</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Finishers</td>
+<td>3</td>
+<td>2.50</td>
+<td>7.50</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Hoist engineers</td>
+<td>12</td>
+<td>3.00</td>
+<td>36.00</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Dinky engineers</td>
+<td>5</td>
+<td>2.75</td>
+<td>13.75</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>2.75</td>
+<td>2.75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Brakemen</td>
+<td>5</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>8.75</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Switchmen</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>1.50</td>
+<td>1.50</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Barnmen</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>2.00</td>
+<td>2.00</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>2.50</td>
+<td>2.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Drivers</td>
+<td>9</td>
+<td>1.50</td>
+<td>13.50</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Foremen ductmen</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>2.50</td>
+<td>2.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Ductmen</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td>5</td>
+<td>2.00</td>
+<td>10.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Foremen laborers</td>
+<td>13</td>
+<td>3.50</td>
+<td>45.50</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>3.50</td>
+<td>7.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Laborers</td>
+<td>120</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>210.00</td>
+<td>20</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>35.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Compressor engineer</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>3.50</td>
+<td>3.50</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>3.50</td>
+<td>3.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Firemen</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>2.50</td>
+<td>5.00</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>2.50</td>
+<td>2.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Oiler</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline">
+<td class = "left">Coal passers</td>
+<td>2</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>3.50</td>
+<td>1</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+<td>1.75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "sideline overline">
+<td>Totals</td>
+<td>334</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>$469.75</td>
+<td>50</td>
+<td></td>
+<td>$108.25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "toppad">
+<td></td>
+<td class = "left" colspan = "5">Total daily labor expense</td>
+<td class = "number">$578.00</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The water finding its way into the side ditches in the approach,
+which of course included all rain falling in this area, was intercepted
+just inside the portal and carried back to the mouth of the cut through
+24-in. cast-iron pipes laid beneath the conduits in the central
+bench-wall, thus disposing by natural drainage of a not inconsiderable
+<span class = "pagenum">150</span>
+<!--png 162-->
+quantity of water which would otherwise have flowed through the tunnels
+to the sump at the Weehawken Shaft, from which it would have had to be
+pumped to the surface.</p>
+
+<p>About 100 ft. of the tunnel immediately east of the Hackensack Portal
+was built by the cut-and-cover method, and the arch section used in the
+tunnel was modified by widening the haunches, the thickness of the arch
+at the crown being gradually increased from 22 in. at the portal,
+Station 324, to 34 in. at Station 323, where the regular segmental
+timbering at the tunnel commenced. A&nbsp;general view of the approach
+during construction is shown by Fig.&nbsp;1, <a href = "#plateXXV">Plate
+XXV</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h5 class = "smallcaps">Contractor’s Organization.</h5>
+
+<p>Table 6 shows approximately the number of men employed daily on the
+tunnel lining, by both the contractor and the sub-contractors, their
+occupation, the average rate of wages and the total daily expense for
+labor when the work was in full swing.</p>
+
+
+<h5 class = "smallcaps">Engineering Organization.</h5>
+
+<p>The whole of the work of the North River Division was designed and
+executed under the direction of Charles M. Jacobs, M.&nbsp;Am. Soc.
+C.&nbsp;E., Chief Engineer, and James Forgie, M.&nbsp;Am. Soc.
+C.&nbsp;E., Chief Assistant Engineer, the construction of Section “K,”
+Bergen Hill Tunnels, being directly in charge of the writer as Resident
+Engineer.</p>
+
+<p class = "fighead top smallroman">
+PENNSYLVANIA TUNNEL AND TERMINAL RAILROAD COMPANY,<br>
+SECTION “K”&mdash;BERGEN HILL TUNNELS.</p>
+
+<h6 class = "smallcaps">Organization of Staff of Resident Engineer.</h6>
+
+<h6 class = "smallcaps">Organization Previous to the Holing Through of
+the Tunnels.</h6>
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig20" id = "fig20">Fig. 20.</a></p>
+
+<table class = "chart" summary = "organizational diagram">
+<tr class = "center">
+<td colspan = "10">Resident Engineer.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width = "10%">&nbsp;</td><td></td>
+<td width = "10%">&nbsp;</td><td></td>
+<td width = "10%">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td width = "10%">&nbsp;</td><td></td>
+<td width = "10%">&nbsp;</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "topline leftline" colspan = "2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "topline midline" rowspan = "3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "topline" colspan = "3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "center">
+<td colspan = "4"><p>Assistant Engineer.</p></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td></td>
+<td colspan = "4"><p>Assistant Engineer.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td></td><td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "leftline" rowspan = "2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "topline leftline" colspan = "3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "leftline midline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td><td></td><td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "names center">
+<td colspan = "2" rowspan = "2"><p>Cost and Office Records.</p></td>
+<td colspan = "4"><p>Field Inspection.</p></td>
+<td colspan = "4">Alignment.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<!--<td></td><td></td>-->
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td><td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "leftline" rowspan = "3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "topline leftline" colspan = "2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "topline leftline" colspan = "2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "names center">
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td colspan = "2">Weehawken.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Hackensack.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Weehawken.</td>
+<td colspan = "2">Hackensack.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td></td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "leftline" rowspan = "3">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "leftline" rowspan = "3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "names">
+<td colspan = "2">Inspector.</td>
+<td colspan = "2"><p>Chief Inspector.</p></td>
+<td colspan = "2"><p>Chief Inspector.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td><td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+</tr>
+<tr class = "names">
+<td colspan = "2">
+<p>Two Clerks.</p>
+<p>Stenographer.</p>
+<p>Telephone Operator.</p>
+<p>Messenger.</p>
+<p>Janitors.</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<p>Inspector, N.&nbsp;Tunnel.</p>
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;”&mdash;&mdash; S.&nbsp;Tunnel.</p>
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;”&mdash;&mdash; Mixer.</p>
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;”&mdash;&mdash; Excavation and Force Account.</p>
+<p>Inspector, Night.</p>
+<p>Cement Warehouseman.</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<p>Inspector, N.&nbsp;Tunnel.</p>
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;”&mdash;&mdash; S.&nbsp;Tunnel.</p>
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;”&mdash;&mdash; Mixer.</p>
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;”&mdash;&mdash; Excavation and Force Account.</p>
+<p>Inspector, Night.</p>
+<p>Cement Warehouseman.</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<p>Chief of Party.</p>
+<p>Instrumentman.</p>
+<p>Rodman.</p>
+<p>Chainman.</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<p>Chief of Party.</p>
+<p>Instrumentman.</p>
+<p>Rodman.</p>
+<p>Chainman.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "2"></td>
+<td class = "center" colspan = "4">
+<p>Conduit Inspector.</p></td>
+<td colspan = "2"></td><td colspan = "2"></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<span class = "pagenum">151</span>
+<!--png 163-->
+
+<p class = "fighead top smallroman">
+Organization After the Tunnels Had Been Holed Through.</p>
+
+<p class = "fighead"><a name = "fig21" id = "fig21">Fig. 21.</a></p>
+
+<table class = "chart" summary = "organizational diagram">
+<tr class = "center">
+<td colspan = "8">Resident Engineer.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td width = "12%">&nbsp;</td><td></td>
+<td width = "12%">&nbsp;</td><td></td>
+<td class = "midline" width = "12%">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<td width = "12%">&nbsp;</td><td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "topline leftline" colspan = "2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "topline leftline" rowspan = "4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "topline leftline" colspan = "2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr class = "center">
+<td colspan = "3"><p>Assistant Engineer.</p></td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td class = "leftline" rowspan = "6">&nbsp;</td>
+<td colspan = "2"><p>Assistant Engineer.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td><td></td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td></td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "topline leftline" colspan = "2">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td class = "center" colspan = "2">Alignment.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan = "2"><p>Cost and Office Records.</p></td>
+<td class = "center" colspan = "3"><p>Field Inspection.</p></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td></td>
+<td class = "leftline" rowspan = "3">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "leftline" rowspan = "4">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td></td>
+<td class = "topline leftline" colspan = "2">&nbsp;</td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td class = "names center" colspan = "2">Tunnels.</td>
+<td class = "names center" colspan = "2"><p>Conduit Inspector.</p></td>
+<td colspan = "2" rowspan = "3">
+<p>1 Instrumentman.</p>
+<p>1 Draftsman.</p>
+<p>2 Rodmen.</p>
+<p>3 Chainmen.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<!--<td></td>-->
+<td></td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "leftline">&nbsp;</td>
+<!--<td></td><td></td>-->
+</tr>
+<tr class = "names">
+<td colspan = "2">
+<p>Two Inspectors.</p>
+<p>Two Clerks.</p>
+<p>Stenographer.</p>
+<p>Telephone Operator.</p>
+<p>Messenger.</p>
+<p>Janitor.</p>
+</td>
+<td colspan = "2"><p>Chief Inspector.</p>
+<p align = "center">|</p>
+<p>8 Tunnel Inspectors.</p>
+<p>2 Mixer Inspectors.</p>
+<p>1 Night Inspector.</p>
+<td colspan = "2">
+<p>Inspector, Hackensack Approach.</p>
+</td>
+<!--<td></td><td></td>-->
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The general organization of the staff is shown by the two diagrams,
+Figs. <a href = "#fig20">20</a> and <a href = "#fig21">21</a>. Fig. 20
+shows the organization previous to the holing through of the tunnels,
+during which time a separate office was maintained at the western end
+for the use of the men stationed there; Fig.&nbsp;21 shows the
+organization during the latter part of the time, after the tunnels were
+holed through. The Assistant Engineer in charge of the construction was
+J.&nbsp;R. Taft, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C.&nbsp;E.; the Chief Inspector,
+J.&nbsp;S. Frazer, Jun. Am. Soc. C.&nbsp;E., had charge of about 75% of
+the work of the lining of the tunnels. The alignment has been from the
+beginning under the charge of R.&nbsp;L. Reynolds, Assistant
+Engineer.</p>
+
+<hr class = "mid">
+
+<div class = "footnote">
+
+<h4>Footnotes</h4>
+
+<p><a name = "note1" id = "note1" href = "#tag1">1.</a>
+Presented at the meeting of April 6th, 1910.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note2" id = "note2" href = "#tag2">2.</a>
+Plate VIII of the paper by Mr. Jacobs.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note3" id = "note3" href = "#tag3">3.</a>
+Plate VIII in the paper by Mr. Jacobs.</p>
+
+<p><a name = "note4" id = "note4" href = "#tag4">4.</a>
+Of the paper by Mr. Jacobs.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class = "illus">
+
+<h4><a name = "illus" id = "illus">List of Illustrations</a></h4>
+<h5>(added by transcriber)</h5>
+
+<p>
+Plates are numbered continuously through the volume; Figures are
+numbered from 1 within each article.</p>
+
+<p>Some illustrations have been repositioned to avoid breaking up the
+text. Page numbers in the table refer to the original printed volume.
+Plates were unpaginated; numbers such as “85” or “129” mean “facing page
+84“, “facing page 128”. When a Figure took up a full (numbered) page,
+its page number is shown in <i>italics</i>. They may be slightly out of
+sequence with nearby page numbers.
+</p>
+
+<table class = "toc" summary = "list of plates">
+<tr>
+<td class = "item smallcaps">Plate</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class = "number">Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXI">
+XXI.</a></td>
+<td><p>Hackensack Portal, Bergen Hill Tunnels; Method of Using
+Cross-Section Rod; and Belt Conveyor for Handling and Placing
+Concrete</p></td>
+<td class = "number">85</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXII">
+XXII.</a></td>
+<td><p>Scaffold Car; Headhouse; and Round Holes in Concrete
+Forms</p></td>
+<td class = "number">87</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXIII">
+XXIII.</a></td>
+<td><p>Record of Drilling, Air Pressure, Mucking, etc., in Bergen Hill
+Tunnels</p></td>
+<td class = "number">95</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXIV">
+XXIV.</a></td>
+<td><p>Belt Conveyor for Handling and Placing Concrete; Water-Proofing,
+Portion of Completed Sand-Wall, etc.; and Methods of Placing Concrete in
+Forms and Bench-Walls</p></td>
+<td class = "number">119</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXV">
+XXV.</a></td>
+<td><p>Telephone and Telegraph Ducts and Mandrels; Tunnel Lining Forms;
+Placing Water-Proofing; and Section of Completed Lining</p></td>
+<td class = "number">129</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXVI">
+XXVI.</a></td>
+<td><p>Form of Circuit-Breaker Chamber and Traveling Gantry; Forms for
+Storage Chamber; Rock Packing Over Arches; Method of Water-Proofing in
+Timbered Tunnels, etc.</p></td>
+<td class = "number">137</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#plateXXVII">
+XXVII.</a></td>
+<td><p>Method of Placing Water-Proofing and Keying Arch; View of
+Completed Tunnel; General View of Completed Hackensack Tunnel and Arches
+Through Cut-and-Cover Section; and View of Hackensack Approach</p></td>
+<td class = "number">145</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class = "toc" summary = "list of figures">
+<tr>
+<td class = "item smallcaps"><a href = "#fig1">Fig.&nbsp;1.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Drilling Method No. 1</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number"><i>88</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig2">2.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Drilling Method No. 2</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number"><i>89</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig3">3.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Drilling Method No. 3</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number"><i>90</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig4">4.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Drilling Method No. 4</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number"><i>91</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig5">5.</a></td>
+<td><p>Muck Car Used at Weehawken Shaft</p></td>
+<td class = "number">92</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig6">6.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Progress Profiles of North and South Tunnels Showing Monthly
+Excavation</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number"><i>93</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig7">7.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Method of Emptying Dump Cars at Weehawken Shaft</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number">98</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig8">8.</a></td>
+<td><p>Ventilation System (<i>no caption</i>)</p></td>
+<td class = "number">101</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig9">9.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Progress Profile&mdash;North Tunnel</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number"><i>107</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig10">10.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Sketch Showing Division of Lining for Purposes of Construction, and
+Names of Sections</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number">115</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig11">11.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p><i>A</i> Cross-Section of Hains Mixer Installation, at Weehawken
+Shaft</p>
+<p><i>B</i> Cross-Section of Hains Mixer Installation, Stone and Sand
+Bins Above and Screen of Crusher, at Hackensack Portal</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number">118</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig12">12.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Details of Traveling Gantry Used in the Construction of the Tunnel
+Lining</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number"><i>121</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig13">13.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Plan Showing Various Methods of Building Floor and Foundation, and
+Details of Forms</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number"><i>125</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig14">14.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Traveling Form for Building Sand-Wall</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number">128</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig15">15.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Electrical Conduits: Methods of Laying, Rodding, etc.</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number"><i>131</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig16">16.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Details of Traveling Forms Used in the Construction of the Bench
+Walls</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number"><i>131</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig17">17.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Sketch Showing Method of Making Arch Closure</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number">141</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig18">18.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Various Types of Arches, and Water-Proofing Used</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number"><i>143</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig19">19.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Bergen Hills Tunnels. Hackensack Portal and Approach. Sections and
+Elevations.</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number"><i>148</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig20">20.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Organization of Staff of Resident Engineer. Organization Previous to
+the Holing Through of the Tunnels.</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number">150</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class = "item"><a href = "#fig21">21.</a></td>
+<td>
+<p>Organization of Staff of Resident Engineer. Organization After the
+Tunnels Had Been Holed Through.</p>
+</td>
+<td class = "number">151</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Transactions of the American Society
+of Civil Engineers, vol. LXVIII, Sep, by F. Lavis
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #21083 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/21083)