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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Documentary History of the Rio Grande Pueblos
+of New Mexico; I. Bibliographic Introduction, by Adolph Francis Alphonse
+Bandelier
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Documentary History of the Rio Grande Pueblos of New Mexico; I. Bibliographic Introduction
+       Papers of the School of American Archaeology, No. 13
+
+
+Author: Adolph Francis Alphonse Bandelier
+
+
+
+Release Date: September 4, 2007  [eBook #22510]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE RIO
+GRANDE PUEBLOS OF NEW MEXICO; I. BIBLIOGRAPHIC INTRODUCTION***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Joe Longo and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from digital material generously
+made available by Internet Archive/American Libraries
+(http://www.archive.org/details/americana)
+
+
+
+Note: Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/documentaryhisto01bandiala
+
+
+
+
+
+Archaeological Institute of America
+
+Papers of the School of American Archaeology
+
+Number Thirteen
+
+DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE RIO GRANDE PUEBLOS OF NEW MEXICO
+
+I. BIBLIOGRAPHIC INTRODUCTION
+
+by
+
+ADOLPH F. BANDELIER
+
+1910
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE RIO GRANDE
+PUEBLOS OF NEW MEXICO
+
+BY ADOLPH F. BANDELIER
+
+I.--BIBLIOGRAPHIC INTRODUCTION
+
+
+Seventeen years have elapsed since I was in the territory in which the
+events in the early history of the Rio Grande Pueblos transpired, and
+twenty-nine years since I first entered the field of research among
+those Pueblos under the auspices of the Archaeological Institute of
+America. I am now called upon by the Institute to do for the Indians of
+the Rio Grande villages what I did nearly two decades ago for the Zuni
+tribe, namely, to record their documentary history.
+
+I shall follow the method employed by me in the case of the documentary
+history of Zuni, by giving the events with strict adherence to
+documentary sources, so far as may be possible, and shall employ the
+correlated information of other branches only when absolutely
+indispensable to the elucidation of the documentary material.
+
+The geographical features of the region to be treated are too well known
+to require mention. Neither can folklore and tradition, notwithstanding
+their decisive importance in a great many cases, be touched upon except
+when alluded to in the sources themselves. I am fully aware, as I stated
+in presenting the history of the Zuni tribe, that a history based
+exclusively on documents, whether printed or written, must necessarily
+be imperfect because it is not impartial, since it summarizes the views
+of those who saw and understood but one side of the question, and judged
+it only from their own standpoint. This defect cannot be remedied, as it
+underlies the very nature of the task, and the greater therefore is the
+necessity of carefully studying the folklore of the Indians in order to
+check and complete as well as to correct the picture presented by people
+acquainted with the art of writing.
+
+In this Introduction I forego the employment of quotations, reserving
+such for the main work. Quotations and footnotes are not, as it has been
+imagined, a mere display of erudition--they are a duty towards the
+source from which they are taken, and a duty to its author; moreover,
+they are a duty towards the reader, who as far as possible should be
+placed in a position himself to judge the value and nature of the
+information presented, and, finally, they are a necessary indication of
+the extent of the author's responsibility. If the sources are given
+clearly and circumstantially, yet happen to be wrong, the author is
+exonerated from blame for resting upon their authority, provided, as it
+not infrequently happens, he has no way of correcting them by means of
+other information.
+
+In entering the field of documentary research the first task is to
+become thoroughly acquainted with the languages in which the documents
+are recorded. To be able to read cursorily a language in its present
+form is not sufficient. Spanish, for example, has changed comparatively
+less than German since the sixteenth century, yet there are locutions as
+well as words found in early documents pertaining to America that have
+fallen into disuse and hence are not commonly understood. Provincialisms
+abound, hence the history of the author and the environment in which he
+was reared should be taken into account, for sometimes there are phrases
+that are unintelligible without a knowledge of the writer's early
+surroundings. Translations as a rule should be consulted only with
+allowance, for to the best of them the Italian saying "Traduttore,
+tradittore" is applicable. With the greatest sincerity and honesty on
+the part of the translator, he is liable to an imperfect interpretation
+of an original text. There are of course instances when the original has
+disappeared and translations alone are available. Such is the case, for
+instance, with the Life of Columbus, written by his son Fernando and
+published in Italian in 1571; and the highly important report on the
+voyage of Cabral to Brazil in 1500, written by his pilot Vas da Cominho
+and others. These are known only through translations.
+
+Words from Indian languages are subject to very faulty rendering in the
+older documents. In the first place, sound alone guided the writers, and
+Indian pronunciation is frequently indistinct in the vowels and
+variable according to the individual--hence the frequent interchange in
+the Spanish sources of _a_ and _o_, _o_ and _u_, _e_ and _i_. For many
+sounds even the alphabets of civilized speech have not adequate phonetic
+signs. I may refer, as an example, to the Indian name in the Tigua
+language for the pueblo of Sandia. The Spanish attempt to render it by
+the word "Napeya" is utterly inadequate, and even by means of the
+complicated alphabets for writing Indian tongues I would not attempt to
+record the native term. In endeavoring to identify localities from names
+given to them in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by European
+authors, this difficulty should always be taken into account. No blame
+can be attached to the writers for such defects; it should always be
+remembered that they did not know, still less understand, the idioms
+they heard. Still less should we be surprised if the same site is
+sometimes mentioned under various names. Every Pueblo language has its
+own geographical vocabulary, and when, as sometimes happened, several
+tribes met in council with the whites, the latter heard and unwittingly
+recorded several names for one and the same locality, thus apparently
+increasing the number of villages. Moreover, interpreters were not
+always at hand, and when they could be had both their competency and
+their sincerity were open to question.
+
+It is not unusual to read in modern works that such and such a source is
+the reliable one _par excellence_, and the principal basis upon which to
+establish conclusions. No source, however seemingly insignificant,
+should be neglected. A brief mention is sometimes very important, as it
+may be a clue to new data, or may confirm or refute accepted information
+and thus lead to further investigation. Some documents, of course, are
+much more explicit than others, but this is no reason why the latter
+should be neglected. The value of a source may be subject to
+investigation from a number of points of view, but it is not always
+possible to obtain the requisite information. Thus the biographies of
+authors are an important requisite, but how seldom are they obtainable
+with the necessary detail!
+
+The sources of the history of the Rio Grande Pueblos, both printed and
+in manuscript, are numerous. The manuscript documents are as yet but
+imperfectly known. Only that which remained at Santa Fe after the first
+period of Anglo-American occupancy--a number of church books and
+documents formerly scattered through the parishes of New Mexico, and a
+very few documents held in private hands--have been accessible within
+the United States. In Mexico the parish and other official documents at
+El Paso del Norte (Juarez) up to the beginning of the eighteenth century
+have been examined by me to a certain extent, and at the City of Mexico
+the Archivo Nacional has yielded a number of important papers, though
+the research has been far from exhaustive, owing to the lack of time and
+support. Hence much still remains to be done in that field. Some
+destruction of papers of an official character appears to have taken
+place at Mexico also, yet with the present condition of the archives
+there is hope that much that appears to be lost will eventually be
+brought to light; in any event we still have recourse to the Spanish
+archives, principally at Sevilla. It was the rule during Spanish
+colonial domination to have every document of any importance executed in
+triplicate, one copy to remain at the seat of local government, another
+to be sent to the viceregal archives, and the third to the mother
+country. Hence there is always a hope that, if the first two were
+destroyed, the third might be preserved. So, for instance, the
+collection of royal decrees (_cedulas_) is imperfect at the City of
+Mexico. There are lacunae of several decades, and it is perhaps
+significant that the same gaps are repeated in the publication of the
+"Cedulas" by Aguiar and Montemayor. In regard to ecclesiastical
+documents the difficulty is greater still. The archives of the
+Franciscan Order, to which the missions on the Rio Grande were assigned
+almost until the middle of the nineteenth century, have become
+scattered; the destruction of the archives at the great Franciscan
+convent in the City of Mexico in 1857, though not complete, resulted in
+the dispersion of those which were not burned or torn, and the
+whereabouts of these remnants are but imperfectly known. The documentary
+history of the Rio Grande Pueblos, therefore, can be only tentative at
+present, but it is given in the hope that it will incite further
+activity with the view of increasing and correcting the data thus far
+obtained.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The report of Cabeza de Vaca, commonly designated as his "Naufragios,"
+is as yet the earliest printed source known with reference to the Rio
+Grande Pueblos, concerning whom it imparts some vague information. The
+briefness and vagueness of that information calls for no adverse
+criticism, for Cabeza de Vaca plainly states that he writes of these
+people from hearsay and that his information was obtained near the mouth
+of the Rio Pecos in western Texas. What he afterward learned in Sonora
+with respect to sedentary Indians in the north is hardly connected with
+the Rio Grande region. The same may be the case with the information
+obtained by Nuno de Guzman in 1530 and alluded to by Castaneda. That
+Nuno de Guzman had gained some information concerning the Pueblos seems
+certain, but everything points to the Zuni region as the one mentioned
+by his informant. The same is true of the reports of Fray Marcos de
+Nizza and Melchor Diaz, which clearly apply to the Zuni Pueblos, the
+most easterly settlement of sedentary Indians alluded to being the
+Queres pueblo of Acoma. It is to the chroniclers of the expedition of
+Coronado, therefore, that we must look for the earliest definite
+information concerning the Rio Grande valley and its inhabitants.
+
+It must be borne in mind that the expedition of Coronado was not a mere
+exploration. What was expected of its leader, and indeed peremptorily
+demanded, was a permanent settlement of the country. Coronado and his
+men were not to return to Mexico except in individual cases. The Viceroy
+Mendoza wanted to get rid of them. Whether Coronado was a party to the
+secret of this plan is doubtful; the indications are that he was not,
+whereas Fray Marcos of Nizza certainly was, and perhaps was its original
+promoter.
+
+The printed sources on Coronado's march may be divided into two
+chronologically distinct classes, the first of which comprises documents
+written in New Mexico in the years from 1540 to 1543; these reflect all
+the advantages and disadvantages of the writings of eye-witnesses. The
+mere fact that one had been a participant in the events which he
+describes is not a guaranty of absolute reliability: his sincerity and
+truthfulness may be above reproach, but his field of vision is
+necessarily limited, and the personal element controls his impressions,
+even against his will, hence his statements. These earliest sources
+regarding Coronado consist of the letters of Coronado himself (with the
+related letter of Viceroy Mendoza), and several briefer documents
+written in New Mexico but without indication of their authors. The last
+two letters written by Coronado alone touch upon the Rio Grande
+Pueblos--those of August 3, 1540, and October 20, 1541.
+
+As stated above, the expedition of Coronado was not designed as a mere
+exploration, but rather for the purpose of establishing a permanent
+settlement. Coronado's second letter, the first in which he touches upon
+the Rio Grande Pueblos, appears to have been lost. His letter of October
+20, 1541, although written near the site of the present Bernalillo, New
+Mexico, contains very little in regard to the Rio Grande Pueblos.
+
+The briefer documents pertaining to Coronado's expedition, and written
+while the Spaniards were still in New Mexico, with the exception of one
+(the report of the reconnoissance made by Hernando de Alvarado,
+accompanied by Fray Juan de Padilla to the east) concern Zuni almost
+exclusively. The document respecting Alvarado's journey is contained in
+the _Coleccion de Documentos_ from the archives of the Indies, but is
+erroneously attributed to Hernando de Soto. The celebrated
+historiographer of Spain, Juan Bautista Munoz, unacquainted with New
+Mexico, its geography and ethnography, criticized it rather harshly;
+nevertheless, the document is very reliable in its description of
+country and people: it alludes to features which are nowhere else
+noticed, and which were rediscovered by the late Frank Hamilton Cushing
+and myself about twenty-eight years ago. The number of villages and
+people in the Rio Grande region, of which the document gives a brief
+description, are, as usual, exaggerated; and it could hardly have been
+otherwise in view of a first and hasty visit, but it remains the
+earliest document in which Acoma and a part of the Rio Grande valley are
+treated from actual observation. The reconnoissance was made from August
+to October, 1540. It may be that one of the villages briefly described
+is Pecos, which lies of course some distance east of the Rio Grande, and
+the document is possibly the first one in which the nomadic Indians of
+eastern New Mexico are mentioned from actual observation.
+
+To these sources, which have both the merits and the defects of all
+documents written under the impressions of first direct acquaintance
+with the subject, must be added the "Relacion postrera de Sivola"
+contained in a manuscript by father Toribio de Paredes, surnamed
+Motolinia, and known as the _Libro de Oro_, etc., which is an augmented
+and slightly modified version of that celebrated missionary's history of
+the Mexicans. It is a condensed report that had reached Mexico after
+Coronado had left for Quivira and before his return had become known.
+Its allusion to the Rio Grande Pueblos and to Pecos is not without
+value, although it adds little to what is contained in the sources
+previously mentioned. On the Indians of the Plains it is, comparatively
+speaking, more explicit. The general tone of the document is one of
+sobriety. The "Relacion del Suceso," published in the _Documentos
+Ineditos de Indias_ under the erroneous date of 1531, is similar to the
+foregoing, but is more detailed in some respects and covers a longer
+period of time. It manifestly was written in New Mexico by a member of
+the expedition, but there is no clue as yet to the name of the author.
+It is a useful corollary to the other contemporary sources.
+
+Although written more than two centuries after Coronado's march, the
+references to it and to New Mexico contained in the _Historia de la
+Nueva Galicia_, by the licentiate Matias de la Mota Padilla, find a
+place here, since the author asserts that he derived much of his
+information from papers left by Pedro de Tovar, one of Coronado's chief
+lieutenants. Mota Padilla generally confirms the data furnished by the
+earlier documents, and adds some additional information. It is however
+quite impossible to determine what he gathered directly from the
+writings of Tovar and what he may have obtained through other and
+probably posterior sources. At all events the _Historia de la Nueva
+Galicia_ should never be neglected by students of the Pueblo Indians.
+
+We now come to the two chief chroniclers of Coronado's time--both
+participants in his undertakings and therefore eye-witnesses: Pedro de
+Castaneda de Naxera and Juan Jaramillo. The fact that they were
+eye-witnesses establishes their high rank as authorities, but there is a
+difference between the two in that Castaneda was a common soldier,
+whereas Jaramillo (a former companion and, to a certain extent, a
+friend of Cortes) was an officer. This fact alone establishes a
+difference in the opportunities for knowing and in the standpoint of
+judging what was seen, aside from the difference arising out of the
+character, facilities, and tendencies of the two individuals. Castaneda
+is much more detailed in his narration than Jaramillo. Discontent with
+the management and the final outcome of the enterprise is apparent in
+the tone of his writings, and while this may not have influenced very
+materially his description of the country and its people, they render
+more or less suspicious his statements in regard to the dealings with
+the aborigines. Both Castaneda and Jaramillo wrote a long time after the
+events had occurred, and probably from memory, hence the comparative
+accuracy of their descriptions is indeed remarkable. But that accuracy,
+however commendable, is relative rather than absolute, as both were
+liable to err, owing to the lapse of time and consequent failure to
+remember facts and events, and, especially with Castaneda, the influence
+of personal prejudice growing stronger with age. Jaramillo had less
+occasion to fall into error resulting from such weakness, but he is much
+less detailed than Castaneda. We might compare the two narrations by
+stating that that of Jaramillo embodies the reminiscences of one who
+stood officially on a higher plane and viewed his subject from a more
+general standpoint, whereas Castaneda saw more of the inferior details
+but was more susceptible of confounding, hence to misstate, the mass of
+data which his memory retained. Both reports will always remain the
+chief sources on the subject of which they treat, subject of course to
+close comparison and checking with correlated sources, archaeological,
+ethnological, and geographical investigation, and Indian tradition.
+
+Before proceeding further in the discussion of the documents it must be
+stated that all references to distances in leagues must be taken with
+many allowances. According to Las Casas there were in use among the
+Spaniards in the sixteenth century, two kinds of leagues: the maritime
+league (_legua maritima_) and the terrestrial league (_legua
+terrestre_). The former, established by Alfonso XI in the twelfth
+century, consisted of four miles (_millas_) of four thousand paces, each
+pace being equal to three Castilian feet. The length of the Castilian
+foot at that time cannot be established with absolute minuteness. The
+terrestrial league consisted of three thousand paces each, so that while
+it contained nine thousand Castilian feet, the maritime league was
+composed of twelve thousand. The latter was used for distances at sea
+and occasionally also for distances on land, therefore where an
+indication of the league employed is not positively given, a computation
+of distances with even approximate accuracy is of course impossible.
+
+The result of Coronado's failure was so discouraging, and the reports on
+the country had been so unfavorable that for nearly forty years no
+further attempt was made to reach the North from New Spain. In fact
+Coronado and his achievements had become practically forgotten, and only
+when the southern part of the present state of Chihuahua in Mexico
+became the object of Spanish enterprise for mining purposes was
+attention again drawn to New Mexico, when the Church opened the way
+thither from the direction of the Atlantic slope. This naturally led the
+explorers first to the Rio Grande Pueblos.
+
+The brief report of the eight companions of Francisco Sanchez Chamuscado
+who in 1580 accompanied the Franciscan missionaries as far as
+Bernalillo, the site of which was then occupied by Tigua villages, and
+who went thence as far as Zuni, is important, although it presents
+merely the sketch of a rather hasty reconnoissance. Following, as the
+Spaniards did, the course of the Rio Grande from the south, they fixed,
+at least approximately, the limit of the Pueblo region in that
+direction. Some of the names of Pueblos preserved in the document are
+valuable in so far as they inform us of the designations of villages in
+a language that was not the idiom of their inhabitants. Chamuscado
+having died on the return journey, the document is not signed by him,
+but by his men. The document had been lost sight of until I called
+attention to it nearly thirty years ago, the subsequent exploration by
+Antonio de Espejo having monopolized the attention of those interested
+in the early exploration of New Mexico.
+
+The report of Antonio de Espejo on his long and thorough reconnoissance
+in 1582-1583 attracted so much attention that for a time and in some
+circles his expedition was looked upon as resulting in the original
+discovery of New Mexico. This name was also given by Espejo to the
+country, and it thereafter remained. While the documents relating to
+Coronado slumbered unnoticed and almost forgotten, the report of Espejo
+was published within less than three years after it had been written. It
+must be stated here that there are two manuscripts of the report of
+Espejo, one dated 1583 and bearing his autograph signature and official
+(notarial) certificates, the other in 1584 which is a distorted copy of
+the original and with so many errors in names and descriptions that, as
+the late Woodbury Lowery very justly observed, it is little else than
+spurious. I had already called attention to the unreliability of the
+latter version, and yet it is the one that alone was consulted for more
+than three centuries because it had become accessible through
+publication in the Voiages of Hakluyt, together with an English
+translation even more faulty, if possible, than its Spanish original.
+The authentic document, with several others relating to Espejo's brief
+career, was not published in full until 1871, and even then attracted
+little attention because it was not translated and because the
+_Coleccion de Documentos del Archivo de Indias_ is not accessible to
+every one. But the publication of 1871 was by no means the first printed
+version of Espejo's relations. Even prior to 1586 a somewhat condensed
+narration of his exploration had been published, being embodied in the
+_History of China_ by Father Gonzalez Mendoza. This account is based on
+the authentic report in some of the various editions, on the spurious
+document in others. The book of Father Mendoza was soon translated into
+French. It is not surprising that Espejo's narrative should appear first
+in print in a work on the Chinese Empire by a Franciscan missionary.
+That ecclesiastic was impressed by some of Espejo's observations on
+Pueblo customs which he thought resembled those of the Chinese. The
+discoveries of Espejo were then the most recent ones that had been made
+by Spaniards, and as New Mexico was fancied to lie nearer the Pacific
+than it really does, and facing the eastern coast of China, a lurking
+desire to find a possible connection between the inhabitants of both
+continents on that side is readily explicable. But Father Mendoza had
+still another motive. The three monks which Chamuscado had left in New
+Mexico had sacrificed their lives in an attempt to convert the natives.
+They were martyrs of their faith, hence glories of their order, and the
+Franciscan author could not refrain from commemorating their deeds and
+their faith. The spurious text was not taken from Mendoza, but
+manifestly was copied from the transcript by a bungling scribe
+imperfectly acquainted with the Spanish tongue.
+
+The value of Espejo's narration is undoubtedly great. The author was a
+close practical observer and a sincere reporter. The more is it
+surprising that his statements in regard to the population of the
+Pueblos are so manifestly exaggerated; yet, as I have elsewhere stated,
+this may be explained. A tendency to enhance somewhat the importance of
+discoveries is inherent in almost every discoverer, but in the case of
+Espejo he was exposed to another danger. As he proceeded from village to
+village the natives gathered at every point from other places out of
+curiosity, fear, or perhaps with hostile intent, so that the number of
+the people which the explorer met was each time much larger than the
+actual number of inhabitants. On the question of population Espejo could
+have no knowledge, since he had no means of communicating with the
+people by speech. Furthermore, it is well known that a crowd always
+appears more numerous than it would prove to be after an actual count;
+besides, even if he could have counted the Indians present, he would
+have fallen into the error of recording the same individual several
+times.
+
+During the comparatively short time which Espejo had to explore the
+country as far as the Hopi or Moqui, he collected interesting
+ethnological data. Customs that appeared new as late as the second half
+of the last century were noted by him; and while his nomenclature of the
+Pueblos agrees in many points with that of the Coronado expedition,
+terms were added that have since been definitely adopted. Espejo's
+return to Mexico was to be followed by a definite occupancy of the Rio
+Grande country, but his untimely death prevented it, and the subsequent
+plan of colonization, framed and proposed by Juan Bautista de Lomas
+Colmenares, led to no practical results, as likewise did the ill-fated
+expedition of Humana, Bonilla, and Leyva, the disastrous end of which in
+the plains became known only through a few vestiges of information and
+by hearsay.
+
+Seven years after Espejo's journey, Gaspar Castano de Sosa penetrated
+to the Rio Grande near the present village of Santo Domingo. The report
+thereon is explicit and sober, and in it we find the first mention of
+the Spanish names by which some of the Pueblos have since become known.
+From this report it is easy to follow the route taken by Castano and his
+followers, but the account is incomplete, terminating abruptly at Santo
+Domingo, whither Castano had been followed by Captain Juan de Morlete,
+who was sent after him by the governor of what is now Coahuila, without
+whose permission Castano had undertaken the journey. I have no knowledge
+as yet of any document giving an account of the return of the
+expedition.
+
+Seven years more elapsed ere the permanent occupancy of New Mexico was
+effected under the leadership of Juan de Onate. Thenceforward events in
+that province became the subject of uninterrupted documentary record.
+
+The very wise and detailed ordinances regulating the discovery and
+annexation to Spain of new territory, promulgated by Philip II, declared
+that every exploration or conquest (the term "conquest" was subsequently
+eliminated from Spanish official terminology and that of "pacification"
+substituted) should be recorded as a journal or diary. Royal decrees
+operated very slowly in distant colonies. Neither Chamuscado nor Espejo
+kept journals, but Castano de Sosa, and especially Onate, did. His
+_diario_ (which is accessible through its publication in the _Documentos
+del Archivo de Indias_, although there are traces of an earlier
+publication) was copied for printing by someone manifestly unacquainted
+with New Mexico or with its Indian nomenclature, hence its numerous
+names for sites and tribes are often very difficult to identify. But the
+document itself is a sober, matter-of-fact record of occurrences and
+geographical details, interspersed with observations of more or less
+ethnological value. As Onate followed the course of the Rio Grande
+upward from below El Paso del Norte, and afterward branched off to
+almost every sedentary settlement in New Mexico and Arizona, the
+comparison of his diary with previous reports (those of the Coronado
+expedition included) is highly valuable, indeed indispensable. The
+_diario_ forms the beginning of accurate knowledge of the region under
+consideration. Perhaps more important still are the Acts of Obedience
+and Homage (_Obediencia y Vasallaje_) executed at various villages
+during the course of the years 1598 and 1599. At first sight, and to one
+unacquainted with Pueblo idioms, they present an unintelligible list of
+partly recognizable names. But the confusion becomes somewhat reduced
+through closer scrutiny and by taking into consideration the
+circumstances under which each official document was framed. Onate
+already enjoyed the advantage of interpreters in at least one New
+Mexican Indian tongue, but the meetings or councils during which the
+"acts of obedience" were written were not always at places where his
+interpreters understood the language of the people they were among.
+These scribes faithfully recorded the names of pueblos as they heard
+them, and sometimes several names, each in a different language for the
+same village, hence the number of pueblos recorded is considerably
+larger than it actually was. Again the inevitable misunderstanding of
+Indian pronunciation by the Spaniards caused them to write the same word
+in different forms according as the sounds were uttered and caught by
+the ear. An accurate copy of these documents of Onate's time made by one
+versed in Pueblo nomenclature and somewhat acquainted with Pueblo
+languages would be highly desirable. Onate is not given to fulness in
+ethnological details. His journal is a dry record of what happened
+during his march and occupancy of the country. Customs are only
+incidentally and briefly alluded to.
+
+One of Onate's officers, however, Captain Gaspar Perez de Villagra, or
+Villagran, published in 1610 a _Historia de la Nueva Mexico_ in verse.
+As an eye-witness of the events he describes, Villagran has the merits
+and defects of all such authors, and the fact that he wrote in rhyme
+called poetry does not enhance the historical merit of his book.
+Nevertheless we find in it many data regarding the Pueblos not elsewhere
+recorded, and study of the book is very necessary. We must allow for the
+temptation to indulge in so-called poetical license, although Villagran
+employs less of it than most Spanish chroniclers of the period that
+wrote in verse. The use of such form and style of writing was regarded
+in Spain as an accomplishment at the time, and not many attempted it,
+which is just as well. Some of the details and descriptions of actions
+and events by Villagran have been impeached as improbable; but even if
+such were the case, they would not detract from the merits of his book
+as an attempt at an honest and sincere narration and a reasonably
+faithful description.
+
+The minor documents connected with Onate's enterprise and subsequent
+administration of the New Mexican colony, so far as known, are of
+comparatively small importance to the history of the Rio Grande Pueblos.
+During the first years of the seventeenth century the attention of Onate
+was directed chiefly toward explorations in western Arizona and the Gulf
+of California. While he was absent on his memorable journey, quarrels
+arose in New Mexico between the temporal and ecclesiastical authorities,
+which disturbed the colony for many years and form the main theme of the
+documentary material still accessible. Even the manuscripts relating to
+these troubles contain, here and there, references to the ethnological
+condition of the Pueblos. Charges and counter-charges of abuses
+committed by church and state could not fail to involve, incidentally,
+the points touching upon the Indians, and the documentary material of
+that period, still in manuscript but accessible through the copies made
+by me and now in the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, should not be
+neglected by serious investigators. To enter into details regarding the
+tenor of these documents would be beyond the scope of this Introduction,
+but I would call attention in a general way to the value and importance
+of church records, which consist chiefly of registers of baptisms,
+marriages, and deaths. These for the greater part were kept with
+considerable scrupulosity, although there are periods during which the
+same degree of care was not exercised. They are valuable ethnologically
+by reason of the data which they afford with respect to intermarriages
+between members of distant tribes, through the numerous Indian personal
+names that they contain, and on account of the many records of events
+which the priests deemed it desirable to preserve. Examples will be
+given in the text of the Documentary History to follow.
+
+The _Libros de Fabrica_, in which are recorded items bearing on the
+economic side of church administration, are usually less important;
+still they contain data that should not be neglected, for very often
+minor points deserve as much attention as salient ones. Unfortunately
+the church records of the period prior to 1680 have well-nigh
+disappeared from New Mexico, but some still exist at El Paso del Norte
+(Juarez), Chihuahua, that date back to the middle of the seventeenth
+century. The absence of these records may be somewhat overcome by
+another class of ecclesiastical documents, much more numerous and more
+laborious to consult. In fact I am the only one who thus far has
+attempted to penetrate the mass of material which they contain, although
+my researches have been far from exhaustive, owing to lack of support in
+my work. These documents, commonly called "Diligencias Matrimoniales,"
+are the results of official investigations into the status of persons
+desiring to marry. From their nature these investigations always cover a
+considerable period, sometimes more than a generation, and frequently
+disclose historical facts that otherwise might remain unknown. These
+church papers also, though not frequently, include fragments of
+correspondence and copies of edicts and decrees that deserve attention.
+
+The destruction of the archives and of writings of all kinds in New
+Mexico during the Indian revolt of 1680 and in succeeding years has left
+the documentary history of the province during the seventeenth century
+almost a blank. Publications are very few in number. There is no doubt
+that the archives of Spain and even those of Mexico will yet reveal a
+number of sources as yet unknown; but in the meantime, until these
+treasures are brought to light, we must remain more or less in the dark
+as to the conditions and the details of events prior to 1692. A number
+of letters emanating from Franciscan sources have been published lately
+in Mexico by Luis Garcia y Pimentel, and these throw sidelights on New
+Mexico as it was in the seventeenth century that are not without value.
+In the manuscripts from the archives at Santa Fe that survived the
+Pueblo revolt, now chiefly in the Library of Congress at Washington,
+occasional references to events anterior to the uprising may be found;
+and the church books of El Paso del Norte (Juarez) contain some few data
+that should not be neglected.
+
+In 1602 there was published at Rome, under the title of _Relacion del
+Descubrimiento del Nuevo Mexico_, a small booklet by the Dean of
+Santiago, Father Montoya, which purports to give a letter from Onate on
+his occupancy of New Mexico and journey to the Colorado river of the
+West, thus covering the period between 1597 and 1605. It is preceded by
+a notice of Espejo's exploration, but it is entirely too brief to afford
+much information. The little book is exceedingly rare; but three copies
+of it exist in the United States, so far as I am aware.
+
+Of greater importance are the notices, of about the same period,
+preserved by Fray Juan de Torquemada in the first volume of his
+_Monarchia Indiana_ (1615). In this work we find the first mention of
+some Pueblo fetishes, with their names, as understood at the time. The
+letter of Fray Francisco de San Miguel, first priest of Pecos, given in
+print by Torquemada, is of considerable interest. Torquemada himself was
+never in New Mexico, but he stood high in the Franciscan Order and had
+full access to the correspondence and to all other papers submitted from
+outside missions during his time. It is much to be regretted that the
+three manuscript pamphlets by Fray Roque Figueredo, bearing the titles
+_Relacion del Viage al Nuevo Mexico_, _Libro de las Fundaciones del
+Nuevo Mexico_, and _Vidas de los Varones Ilustres_, etc., appear to be
+lost. Their author was first in New Mexico while Onate governed that
+province, and his writings were at the great convent of Mexico. Whether
+they disappeared during the ruthless dispersion of its archives in 1857
+or were lost at an earlier date is not known.
+
+After the recall of Onate from New Mexico, not only the colony but also
+the missions in that distant land began to decline, owing to the bitter
+contentions between the political and the ecclesiastical authorities.
+The Franciscan Order, desirous of inspiring an interest in New Mexican
+missions, fostered the literary efforts of its missionaries in order to
+promote a propaganda for conversions. It also sent a special visitor to
+New Mexico in the person of Fray Estevan de Perea, who gave expression
+to what he saw and ascertained, in two brief printed but excessively
+rare documents, a facsimile copy of which is owned by my friend Mr F. W.
+Hodge, of the Bureau of American Ethnology. A third letter which I have
+not been able to see is mentioned by Ternaux-Compans, also a "Relacion
+de la Conversion de los Jumanos" by the same and dated 1640.
+
+Much more extended than the brief pamphlets by Fray Perea is the
+_Relaciones de todas las cosas acaecidas en el Nuevo Mexico hasta el Ano
+de 1626_ (I abbreviate the very long title), by Fray Geronimo de Zarate
+Salmeron, which was published in the third series of the first
+_Coleccion de Documentos para la Historia de Mexico_, and also by Mr
+Charles F. Lummis in _The Land of Sunshine_, with an English
+translation. This work, while embodying chiefly a narrative most
+valuable to the ethnography of western Arizona and eastern California,
+of the journey of Onate to the Colorado river of the West, followed by
+an extended report on De Soto's expedition to the Mississippi river,
+contains data on the Rio Grande Pueblos and on those of Jemez that are
+of permanent value. The author gives the numbers of Pueblo Indians
+officially converted during his time.
+
+We come now to a book which, though small in compass, has had perhaps
+greater circulation in languages other than Spanish, with the exception
+of the _Destruycion de las Indias_ by the notorious Las Casas, than any
+other. This is the work of Fray Alonso de Benavides, on New Mexico,
+first published in 1630 under the misleading title of _Memorial que Fray
+Juan de Santander de la Orden de San Francisco, Comisario General de
+Indias, presenta a la Magestad Catolica del Rey don Felipe cuarto
+nuestro Senor_, etc., Madrid, 1630. Benavides was custodian of the
+Franciscan province of New Mexico for some time, and therefore had good
+opportunity of knowing both the country and its natives. He gives a very
+precise and clear enumeration of the groups of Pueblo Indians, locating
+them where they had been found by Coronado ninety years before and
+adding those which the latter had not visited, as well as giving the
+number of villages of each group and the approximate number of people
+therein contained. No writer on New Mexico up to this time had given
+such a clear idea of its ethnography, so far as the location and the
+distribution of the stocks are concerned. While somewhat brief on
+manners and customs, Benavides is fuller and more explicit than any of
+his predecessors, and informs us of features of importance which no
+other author in earlier times mentioned. In short, his book is more
+valuable for New Mexican ethnography than any other thus far known, and
+it is not a matter of surprise, therefore, that it was translated into
+several European languages. That the Rio Grande Pueblos receive an
+abundant share of attention from Benavides is natural. We also obtain
+from him some data, not elsewhere found, concerning the establishment
+and fate of the missions, and the true relations of the Spaniards and
+the natives are particularly well portrayed. Both the Apaches and the
+Navajos also receive some attention, Benavides giving, among others, the
+true reason for the hostility which the Apaches displayed since that
+time against the Spanish settlements. It is a book without which the
+study of the Pueblo Indians could not be satisfactory.
+
+Where there is strong light there must of necessity be some shadow. In
+the case of Benavides the shadow is found in the exaggerated number of
+inhabitants attributed to the New Mexican Pueblos, exaggerations as
+gross and as glaring as those of Espejo. The number of villages of some
+of the Pueblo groups is also somewhat suspicious. It is not difficult to
+explain these probably intentional deviations from the truth in an
+otherwise sincere and highly valuable work. As already indicated, the
+publications emanating from the Franciscan Order, which exclusively
+controlled the New Mexican missions, had a special purpose distinct from
+that of mere information: they were designed to promote a propaganda not
+simply for the conversion of the Indians in general, but especially for
+the conversions made or to be made by the Order. New Mexico was in a
+state of neglect, spiritually and politically; the political authorities
+had been denouncing the Franciscans in every possible way, and there was
+danger, if this critical condition continued, that the Order might lose
+its hold upon the northern territories and its mission be turned over to
+the Jesuits, who were then successfully at work in the Mexican northwest
+and approaching New Mexico from that direction. To prevent such a loss
+it was deemed necessary to present to the faithful as alluring a picture
+of the field as possible, exploiting the large number of neophytes as a
+result already accomplished and hinting at many more as subjects for
+conversion. Hence the exaggerated number of Indians in general
+attributed by Benavides to what then comprised the religious province of
+New Mexico. In this respect, and in this alone, the _Memorial_ of
+Benavides may be regarded as a "campaign document," but this does not
+impair its general value and degree of reliability.
+
+For the period between 1630 and the uprising of 1680 there is a lack of
+printed documents concerning New Mexico that is poorly compensated by
+the known manuscripts which I have already mentioned as existing in New
+Mexico and Mexico. Still there appeared in 1654 a little book by Juan
+Diez de la Calle, entitled _Memorial y Resumen breve de Noticias de las
+Indias Occidentales_, in which the disturbances that culminated in the
+assassination of Governor Luis de Rosas in 1642 are alluded to. The
+national archives at the City of Mexico contain a still fuller report of
+that event, in a royal decree of 1643 and other papers concerning the
+deed, all of which are yet unpublished. The archives of Spain have as
+yet been only meagerly investigated. The publication of the report of
+Father Nicolas de Freytas, Portuguese, on the expedition attributed to
+Diego de Penalosa Brizeno into what is now Kansas or Nebraska, is of no
+importance in the study of the Rio Grande Pueblos. The authenticity of
+the document has been strongly doubted, though probably without just
+cause. Equally unimportant to the subject of the Documentary History to
+follow is the letter of Captain Juan Dominguez de Mendoza, published in
+the appendix to the criticism of Cesareo Fernandez Duro on the report of
+Father Freytas. The otherwise very interesting letter on New Mexico,
+written by Fray Alonso de Posadas, also printed in the work of Duro, is
+meager in its allusions to the Rio Grande.
+
+Sixty-eight years after Benavides' time the _Teatro Mexicano_ of the
+Franciscan Fray Agustin de Vetancurt was published. The third and fourth
+parts of this important work, namely, the _Cronica de la Provincia del
+Santo Evangelio de Mexico_ and the _Menologio Franciscano_, are of the
+highest value to the history of the Rio Grande Pueblos and of New Mexico
+generally. Although printed eighteen years after the New Mexican
+missions had been destroyed by the Pueblo Indians, the _Cronica_
+contains a terse description of the missions and Indian villages as they
+had been previous to 1680, and gives data in regard to the population
+that are commendable in their sobriety and probability. The work of
+Vetancurt is in this respect a great improvement upon Benavides, and it
+is interesting to note how his approximate census approaches the figures
+given by Zarate Salmeron seventy years before. Vetancurt had at his
+disposal much more precise data than Benavides. During the seven
+decades separating the three authors much information had been
+accumulated, and with greater chances of accuracy than before. Vetancurt
+made good use of this accumulation of material, and his books are in
+fact the most reliable sources from which to ascertain the status of the
+Pueblos at the time the insurrection commenced. The historical data
+given by Vetancurt in regard to New Mexico during earlier times are not
+of great value, but the _Menologio_, as well as the _Cronica_, contains
+a number of details on the missions and on the lives and achievements of
+the missionaries that become important to an understanding of the Indian
+himself. That such references are overburdened with details of a purely
+religious character does not at all impair their ethnologic value: they
+are pictures of the times according to the nature of which circumstances
+and events can alone be judged properly.
+
+We have now arrived at a period marking a great temporary change in the
+condition of all the Pueblo Indians, and of those of the Rio Grande
+especially. This is the insurrection, successful for a time, of the
+Pueblos in 1680, against the Spanish domination. The material on this
+eventful epoch is still largely in manuscript, the nearest approach to a
+documentary presentation in full being the incomplete paraphrase
+furnished by W. W. H. Davis in his _Spanish Conquest of New Mexico_,
+published in 1869. No blame should be attached to the author for the
+insufficiency of his data. He made the best possible use of his
+materials with the help of my late friends David Miller and Samuel
+Ellison of Santa Fe, but the archives of Santa Fe had already been
+depleted through neglect and criminal waste, and what was and is left
+(as I know from having handled it frequently and thoroughly) is a mass
+of fragments, sometimes long, sometimes short, often disconnected and
+therefore unsatisfactory. I shall refer to this material later. Of the
+manuscript materials preceding and foreshadowing the insurrection, an
+important letter by the Franciscan Fray Francisco de Ayeta, a copy of
+which is in the national archives of Mexico, deserves to be specially
+mentioned. To this indefatigable monk, whose timely warnings were too
+lightly regarded by the Spanish authorities, are also due the data
+concerning the lives and the awful fate of the Franciscan priests at
+the hands of the Pueblo Indians on August 10, 1680. The original of
+this tragic list is in manuscript in the national archives of Mexico,
+where Vetancurt made use of it in his _Teatro_. The memorial sermon
+preached and published in Mexico in 1681 (a copy of which exceedingly
+rare print was procured by my friend the Honorable L. Bradford Prince of
+Santa Fe) rests for its information upon the obituaries preserved by
+Father Ayeta. That these obituaries are of direct value to the history
+of the Rio Grande Pueblos is apparent.
+
+The sermon alluded to is the earliest print, so far as known, concerning
+the great Indian uprising of 1680. Next in date comes a publication
+touching the various attempts made by the Spaniards to reconquer New
+Mexico prior to 1693. In that year Carlos de Sigueenza y Gongora
+published in the City of Mexico a kind of irregular newspaper bearing
+the title _El Mercurio Volante_, in which appears a concise and
+tolerably reliable sketch of the insurrection and the various attempts
+to reconquer the territory, including the successful one in 1692 by
+Diego de Vargas. Sigueenza is brief, but reasonably accurate. Part of the
+documents concerning the Indian uprising were published in the
+nineteenth century in the Third Series of the _Coleccion de Documentos
+para la Historia de Mexico_, but no complete print of the voluminous
+papers concerning those events has yet appeared, and indeed the most
+important documents still remain in manuscript. In 1701 Villagutierre y
+Sotomayor published his voluminous _Historia de la Conquistay
+Reducciones de los Itzaes y Lacandones en la America Septentrional_, in
+which appears a brief description of the Indian uprising in New Mexico.
+His data are of course gathered at second hand, although from
+contemporary sources.
+
+I know of no other publications concerning the Indian uprising, so often
+mentioned, between the close of the seventeenth century and the
+beginning of the eighteenth. The manuscript material, which has been
+much scattered, may be divided locally into three groups. The one,
+originally at Santa Fe, New Mexico, is now in the Library of Congress at
+Washington; it had been much neglected, hence for the greater part
+seriously reduced, in former times, but it still contains most valuable
+information on the condition of the Rio Grande Pueblos immediately after
+the uprising and during the time the Pueblos were left to themselves,
+attempting to return to their primitive condition. This information,
+embodied in interrogatories of Indians subsequent to 1680, I made the
+subject of a closing chapter to my _Documentary History of the Zuni
+Tribe_, but it was withheld from publication for some cause unknown to
+me. The military reports on the expeditions of Diego de Vargas and the
+final reconquest of New Mexico are reduced to disconnected but still
+bulky fragments. Almost unique of their kind are the so-called "Pueblo
+grants" emanating from Governor Domingo Gironza Petros de Cruzate in
+1688. The term "grant" is a misnomer, since it refers in fact to a
+limitation to the innate tendency of the Indians to arbitrarily expand
+their tribal range. These documents have become the legal basis of
+landholding by the Pueblos and the first step toward eventual single
+tenure.
+
+The second group of manuscripts, in the national archives in the City of
+Mexico, is more complete than the first. It contains information on the
+beginnings of the rebellion and on later events that are of great
+importance.
+
+The third group, and by far the most complete, is in Spain, but in
+regard to it I am unable to give any precise information, since every
+opportunity of completing my investigations concerning the Southwest by
+studying the Spanish archives, notwithstanding repeated promises, has
+been withheld.
+
+For the eighteenth century documentary materials pertaining to New
+Mexico remain, it may be said, almost exclusively in manuscript. A
+connecting link between the printed sources of the seventeenth and
+eighteenth centuries are the _Apuntamientos que sobre el Terreno hizo el
+Padre Jose Amando Niel_, in the early part of the eighteenth century,
+published in the Third Series of the _Documentos para la Historia de
+Mexico_. Father Niel was a Jesuit who visited New Mexico shortly after
+the reconquest. His observations are of comparatively mediocre value,
+yet his writings should not be overlooked. The journal of the Brigadier
+Pedro de Rivera, in 1736, of his military march to Santa Fe, is a dry,
+matter-of-fact account, but is nevertheless valuable owing to his
+concise and utterly unembellished description of the Rio Grande valley
+and of what he saw therein. The book is very rare, and therefore
+correspondingly unnoticed.
+
+A brief but important contribution to the history of New Mexico is the
+letter of Fray Silvestre Velez de Escalante, published in the Third
+Series of the _Documentos para la Historia de Mexico_. About the same
+time, in the second half of the eighteenth century, the Brigadier Jose
+Cortes wrote an extended report on the territory, but it concerns more
+the relations with the constantly hostile roaming tribes than the
+condition of the Pueblos. It also is printed in the _Documentos_.
+
+The otherwise very important diary of the journey of Fray Francisco
+Garces to northern Arizona, published first in the above-mentioned
+_Coleccion de Documentos_, and more recently (with highly valuable
+notes) by the late Dr Elliott Coues, touches only incidentally on the
+Rio Grande region. In 1746 Joseph Antonio de Villa-Senor y Sanchez
+embodied in his _Theatro Americano_ a description of New Mexico,
+condensed chiefly from the journal of the Brigadier Rivera, mentioned
+above. The _Diccionario Geografico_ by Murillo is also a source that
+should not be neglected.
+
+A great amount of documentary manuscript material, mostly of a local
+character, is contained in the church books of the eighteenth century
+formerly at the pueblo of Santa Clara and now preserved at Santa Fe
+through the efforts of the late Archbishop J. B. Salpointe. There are
+also the "Informaciones Matrimoniales," which contain data of great
+importance. Through them we are informed of the tragic fate of the last
+expedition of the Spaniards to the northwest, with its horrifying
+incidents. The story of woe and disaster that pictures the life of the
+Indian Pueblos and Spanish settlers during the eighteenth century is
+contained in fragments in the plain, matter-of-fact church registers,
+and it requires painstaking investigation to collect it. The greatest
+part of this information concerns the Rio Grande Pueblos. A careful
+investigation of the matrimonial and baptismal registers will yield data
+concerning the clans and indications of the primitive rules of marriage,
+while the "Libros de Fabrica" contain interesting data on the churches
+of the Rio Grande valley. Great labor and the utmost scrutiny are
+required in sifting these time-worn papers for desirable data, and
+especially is a considerable knowledge of conditions and events
+necessary; but the result of thorough investigation, especially through
+literal copying by the student, will amply repay the time and labor
+bestowed.
+
+What I have stated in regard to the church archives applies, in a still
+greater degree, to the state and private papers that may be accessible.
+Of the former the archives of Santa Fe contain a great number, though
+many of them are only fragmentary. Valuable documents exist also in the
+archives of the Surveyor General at Santa Fe; these are valuable chiefly
+for historical data covering the first half of the eighteenth century.
+The national archives in the City of Mexico are much more complete than
+those of New Mexico, while in Spain we may expect to find an almost
+complete set of government documents, preserved with much greater care
+and with more system than in any early Spanish possessions in America.
+The city of Sevilla would be the first place in which research in this
+direction should be conducted.
+
+Before closing this bibliographic sketch with a glance at the earliest
+literature of the nineteenth century, I must mention two ponderous books
+of the eighteenth century which, while based on second-hand information
+and not very valuable in detail, refer occasionally to facts and data
+not elsewhere found. These are the two volumes of the _Cronica
+Apostolica y Serafica de la Propaganda Fide de Queretaro_. The first
+volume, written by Fray Isidro Felis Espinosa and published in 1746, is
+interesting especially on account of its reference to the fate of the
+first Frenchmen brought into New Mexico, and one of whom, Juan de
+Archibeque, played an important role in the first two decades of the
+eighteenth century. The second volume, the author of which was Fray
+Domingo de Arricivita, was published in 1792, and is the chief source
+concerning the still problematical expedition to the north attributed to
+two Franciscan friars in 1538. Both of these works are of relatively
+minor importance, and I mention them here only for the sake of
+completeness and in order to warn against attaching undue importance to
+them so far as the Pueblos are concerned.
+
+It is of course understood that I omit from the above account a number
+of publications containing more or less brief and casual references to
+New Mexico. Most of them are geographical, and but few allude to
+historical facts. In the notes to the Documentary History proper I may
+refer to some of them.
+
+Perhaps the last book published on New Mexico in the Spanish language is
+the little book of Pino, which, however, has little more than a
+bibliographic value except in so far as it touches the condition of New
+Mexico at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The documents in the
+New Mexican and Mexican archives up to the date of the American
+occupancy present features similar to those that characterize the
+Spanish documents of the eighteenth century. It would be too tedious to
+refer to them in detail, and I therefore dismiss them for the present
+with this brief mention. If I do not mention here the literature on New
+Mexico in the English language it is not due to carelessness or to
+ignorance of it, but because of its much greater wealth in number and
+contents, its more ready accessibility, and because in matters
+respecting the history of early times the authors of these works have
+all been obliged to glean their information from at least some of the
+sources that I have above enumerated and discussed.
+
+It may surprise students of New Mexican history that I have thus far
+omitted the very earliest sources in print in which New Mexico is
+mentioned, namely, the work of Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes, and
+that of Gomara. The former was published in part in the first half of
+the sixteenth century, the entire work appearing at Madrid not earlier
+than 1850 and 1851. Its title, as is well known, is _Historia General y
+Natural de las Indias_. The work of Francisco Lopez de Gomara bears the
+title _Historia de las Indias_, and is in two parts. Gomara is more
+explicit than Oviedo, who gives only a brief and preliminary mention;
+but even Gomara, while more detailed, and basing his work evidently on
+the earliest data then accessible in regard to the expedition of
+Coronado, cannot be compared with the later reports of those attached to
+the expedition. The value of these books is comparatively slight, so far
+as New Mexico is concerned. Much more important is the _Historia
+General_, etc., by Antonio de Herrera (1601-1615). What authorities
+Herrera had at his command cannot be readily determined. He may have had
+access to the report of Jaramillo, and he was certainly acquainted with
+the letters of Coronado. Perhaps the letter of Coronado which I have as
+yet been unable to find was consulted by him. In any event Herrera's
+information is all second-hand, and while by no means devoid of merit,
+his work cannot rank with sources written by men who saw the country and
+took part in the events of the earliest explorations. The map
+accompanying the first volume of Herrera, while scarcely more than an
+outline, is still in advance of the charts published during the
+sixteenth century.
+
+Here I may be permitted to refer to the older cartography of New Mexico
+in general. Until the beginning of the seventeenth century these maps
+are very defective and incomplete. It is almost as if the Ptolemy of
+1548 had served as a basis for them. Even the large and beautiful globe
+constructed at St. Gall in Switzerland in 1595, and now in the Swiss
+National Museum at Zuerich, places Tiguex near the Pacific coast. It is
+through the work of Benavides that more correct ideas of New Mexican
+geography were gained and a somewhat more accurate and detailed
+nomenclature was introduced, since the _Geografie Blaviane_ of 1667 by
+the Dutch cartographer Jean Blaeuw contains a map of the region far
+superior to any hitherto published. The number of early maps of New
+Mexico is larger than is generally supposed, and there are to-day
+unpublished maps (for instance in the National Archives of Mexico for
+the eighteenth century) that indicate, as existing, Indian pueblos and
+missions that were abandoned nearly a century before the maps were made.
+
+I must state that in this Introduction I have abbreviated as much as
+practicable the titles of books and manuscripts. These are often very
+long, and it is unnecessary to burden the present text with them, as I
+shall have to give the full titles in the notes to the Documentary
+History proper.
+
+It may not be out of place to add to the above a brief review of the
+distribution and location of the various Pueblo groups at the beginning
+of the sixteenth century, but strictly according to documentary
+information alone. The location of different villages must be reserved
+for later treatment, hence as the ranges of the various linguistic
+groups had no definite boundaries, only the relative position and
+approximate extent can be given here.
+
+Following the course of the Rio Grande to the north from northern
+Chihuahua, the Mansos were first met, in the vicinity of the present
+Juarez, Mexico. This was in 1598. Nearly one hundred and forty years
+later Brigadier Don Pedro de Rivera met them farther north, not far
+from Las Cruces and Dona Ana, New Mexico. To-day they are again at El
+Paso del Norte. About San Marcial on the Rio Grande began the villages
+of the Piros, at present reduced to one small village on the right bank
+of the Rio Grande below El Paso. The Piros extended in the sixteenth
+century as far north in the Rio Grande valley as Alamillo at least, and
+a branch of them had established themselves on the borders of the great
+eastern plains of New Mexico, southeast of the Manzano. That branch,
+which has left well-known ruins at Abo, Gran Quivira (Tabira), and other
+sites in the vicinity, abandoned its home in the seventeenth century,
+forming the Piro settlement below El Paso, already mentioned. North of
+the Piros, between a line drawn south of Isleta and the Mesa del
+Canjelon, the Tiguas occupied a number of villages, mostly on the
+western bank of the river, and a few Tigua settlements existed also on
+the margin of the eastern plains beyond the Sierra del Manzano. These
+outlying Tigua settlements also were abandoned in the seventeenth
+century, their inhabitants fleeing from the Apaches and retiring to form
+the Pueblo of Isleta del Sur on the left bank of the Rio Grande in
+Texas.
+
+North of the Tiguas the Queres had their homes on both sides of the
+river as far as the great canyon south of San Ildefonso, and an outlying
+pueblo of the Queres, isolated and quite remote to the west, was Acoma.
+The most northerly villages on the Rio Grande were those of the Tehuas.
+Still beyond, but some distance east of the Rio Grande, lay the Pueblos
+of Taos and Picuris, the inhabitants of which spoke a dialectic
+variation of the Tigua language of the south. The Tehuas also approached
+the Rio Grande quite near, at what is called La Bajada; and in about the
+same latitude, including the former village at Santa Fe, began that
+branch of the Tehuas known as Tanos, whose settlements ranged from north
+of Santa Fe as far as the eastern plains and southward to Tajique, where
+their territory bordered that of the eastern Tiguas.
+
+The Rio Grande Queres extended also as far west as the Jemez river; and
+north of them, on the same stream, another linguistic group, the Jemez,
+had established themselves and built several villages of considerable
+size. East of the Rio Grande and southwest-ward from Santa Fe another
+branch of the Jemez occupied the northern valley of the Rio Pecos.
+
+The main interest in this distribution of the Rio Grande Pueblos lies in
+the fact that it establishes a disruption and division of some of these
+groups prior to the sixteenth century, but of the cause and the manner
+thereof there is as yet no documentary information. Thus the Tigua
+Indians of Taos and Picuris are separated from their southern relatives
+on the Rio Grande by two distinct linguistic groups, the Tehuas and the
+Queres; the Jemez and the Pecos were divided from each other by the
+Queres and the Tanos. That the Piros and the Tiguas should have
+separated from the main stock might be accounted for by the attraction
+of the great salt deposits about the Manzano and greater accessibility
+to the buffalo plains, but that in the Rio Grande valley itself foreign
+linguistic groups should have interposed themselves between the northern
+and southern Tiguas and the Jemez and Pecos constitutes a problem which
+only diligent research in traditions, legends, and the native languages
+may satisfactorily solve.
+
+  NEW YORK CITY,
+    March, 1910.
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note.
+
+  Several words purposely occur in accented and non-accented forms. The
+  differing occurrences are retained.
+
+  Page 20: Misspelling of Sante Fe corrected to Santa Fe.
+  Page 23: The title "Coleccion de Documentos" modified to
+           "Coleccion de Documentos".
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE RIO
+GRANDE PUEBLOS OF NEW MEXICO; I. BIBLIOGRAPHIC INTRODUCTION***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 22510.txt or 22510.zip *******
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