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diff --git a/22510.txt b/22510.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..22c1dcb --- /dev/null +++ b/22510.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1463 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Documentary History of the Rio Grande Pueblos +of New Mexico; I. Bibliographic Introduction, by Adolph Francis Alphonse +Bandelier + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Documentary History of the Rio Grande Pueblos of New Mexico; I. Bibliographic Introduction + Papers of the School of American Archaeology, No. 13 + + +Author: Adolph Francis Alphonse Bandelier + + + +Release Date: September 4, 2007 [eBook #22510] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE RIO +GRANDE PUEBLOS OF NEW MEXICO; I. BIBLIOGRAPHIC INTRODUCTION*** + + +E-text prepared by Joe Longo and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed +Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from digital material generously +made available by Internet Archive/American Libraries +(http://www.archive.org/details/americana) + + + +Note: Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive/American Libraries. See + http://www.archive.org/details/documentaryhisto01bandiala + + + + + +Archaeological Institute of America + +Papers of the School of American Archaeology + +Number Thirteen + +DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE RIO GRANDE PUEBLOS OF NEW MEXICO + +I. BIBLIOGRAPHIC INTRODUCTION + +by + +ADOLPH F. BANDELIER + +1910 + + + + + + + +DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE RIO GRANDE +PUEBLOS OF NEW MEXICO + +BY ADOLPH F. BANDELIER + +I.--BIBLIOGRAPHIC INTRODUCTION + + +Seventeen years have elapsed since I was in the territory in which the +events in the early history of the Rio Grande Pueblos transpired, and +twenty-nine years since I first entered the field of research among +those Pueblos under the auspices of the Archaeological Institute of +America. I am now called upon by the Institute to do for the Indians of +the Rio Grande villages what I did nearly two decades ago for the Zuni +tribe, namely, to record their documentary history. + +I shall follow the method employed by me in the case of the documentary +history of Zuni, by giving the events with strict adherence to +documentary sources, so far as may be possible, and shall employ the +correlated information of other branches only when absolutely +indispensable to the elucidation of the documentary material. + +The geographical features of the region to be treated are too well known +to require mention. Neither can folklore and tradition, notwithstanding +their decisive importance in a great many cases, be touched upon except +when alluded to in the sources themselves. I am fully aware, as I stated +in presenting the history of the Zuni tribe, that a history based +exclusively on documents, whether printed or written, must necessarily +be imperfect because it is not impartial, since it summarizes the views +of those who saw and understood but one side of the question, and judged +it only from their own standpoint. This defect cannot be remedied, as it +underlies the very nature of the task, and the greater therefore is the +necessity of carefully studying the folklore of the Indians in order to +check and complete as well as to correct the picture presented by people +acquainted with the art of writing. + +In this Introduction I forego the employment of quotations, reserving +such for the main work. Quotations and footnotes are not, as it has been +imagined, a mere display of erudition--they are a duty towards the +source from which they are taken, and a duty to its author; moreover, +they are a duty towards the reader, who as far as possible should be +placed in a position himself to judge the value and nature of the +information presented, and, finally, they are a necessary indication of +the extent of the author's responsibility. If the sources are given +clearly and circumstantially, yet happen to be wrong, the author is +exonerated from blame for resting upon their authority, provided, as it +not infrequently happens, he has no way of correcting them by means of +other information. + +In entering the field of documentary research the first task is to +become thoroughly acquainted with the languages in which the documents +are recorded. To be able to read cursorily a language in its present +form is not sufficient. Spanish, for example, has changed comparatively +less than German since the sixteenth century, yet there are locutions as +well as words found in early documents pertaining to America that have +fallen into disuse and hence are not commonly understood. Provincialisms +abound, hence the history of the author and the environment in which he +was reared should be taken into account, for sometimes there are phrases +that are unintelligible without a knowledge of the writer's early +surroundings. Translations as a rule should be consulted only with +allowance, for to the best of them the Italian saying "Traduttore, +tradittore" is applicable. With the greatest sincerity and honesty on +the part of the translator, he is liable to an imperfect interpretation +of an original text. There are of course instances when the original has +disappeared and translations alone are available. Such is the case, for +instance, with the Life of Columbus, written by his son Fernando and +published in Italian in 1571; and the highly important report on the +voyage of Cabral to Brazil in 1500, written by his pilot Vas da Cominho +and others. These are known only through translations. + +Words from Indian languages are subject to very faulty rendering in the +older documents. In the first place, sound alone guided the writers, and +Indian pronunciation is frequently indistinct in the vowels and +variable according to the individual--hence the frequent interchange in +the Spanish sources of _a_ and _o_, _o_ and _u_, _e_ and _i_. For many +sounds even the alphabets of civilized speech have not adequate phonetic +signs. I may refer, as an example, to the Indian name in the Tigua +language for the pueblo of Sandia. The Spanish attempt to render it by +the word "Napeya" is utterly inadequate, and even by means of the +complicated alphabets for writing Indian tongues I would not attempt to +record the native term. In endeavoring to identify localities from names +given to them in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by European +authors, this difficulty should always be taken into account. No blame +can be attached to the writers for such defects; it should always be +remembered that they did not know, still less understand, the idioms +they heard. Still less should we be surprised if the same site is +sometimes mentioned under various names. Every Pueblo language has its +own geographical vocabulary, and when, as sometimes happened, several +tribes met in council with the whites, the latter heard and unwittingly +recorded several names for one and the same locality, thus apparently +increasing the number of villages. Moreover, interpreters were not +always at hand, and when they could be had both their competency and +their sincerity were open to question. + +It is not unusual to read in modern works that such and such a source is +the reliable one _par excellence_, and the principal basis upon which to +establish conclusions. No source, however seemingly insignificant, +should be neglected. A brief mention is sometimes very important, as it +may be a clue to new data, or may confirm or refute accepted information +and thus lead to further investigation. Some documents, of course, are +much more explicit than others, but this is no reason why the latter +should be neglected. The value of a source may be subject to +investigation from a number of points of view, but it is not always +possible to obtain the requisite information. Thus the biographies of +authors are an important requisite, but how seldom are they obtainable +with the necessary detail! + +The sources of the history of the Rio Grande Pueblos, both printed and +in manuscript, are numerous. The manuscript documents are as yet but +imperfectly known. Only that which remained at Santa Fe after the first +period of Anglo-American occupancy--a number of church books and +documents formerly scattered through the parishes of New Mexico, and a +very few documents held in private hands--have been accessible within +the United States. In Mexico the parish and other official documents at +El Paso del Norte (Juarez) up to the beginning of the eighteenth century +have been examined by me to a certain extent, and at the City of Mexico +the Archivo Nacional has yielded a number of important papers, though +the research has been far from exhaustive, owing to the lack of time and +support. Hence much still remains to be done in that field. Some +destruction of papers of an official character appears to have taken +place at Mexico also, yet with the present condition of the archives +there is hope that much that appears to be lost will eventually be +brought to light; in any event we still have recourse to the Spanish +archives, principally at Sevilla. It was the rule during Spanish +colonial domination to have every document of any importance executed in +triplicate, one copy to remain at the seat of local government, another +to be sent to the viceregal archives, and the third to the mother +country. Hence there is always a hope that, if the first two were +destroyed, the third might be preserved. So, for instance, the +collection of royal decrees (_cedulas_) is imperfect at the City of +Mexico. There are lacunae of several decades, and it is perhaps +significant that the same gaps are repeated in the publication of the +"Cedulas" by Aguiar and Montemayor. In regard to ecclesiastical +documents the difficulty is greater still. The archives of the +Franciscan Order, to which the missions on the Rio Grande were assigned +almost until the middle of the nineteenth century, have become +scattered; the destruction of the archives at the great Franciscan +convent in the City of Mexico in 1857, though not complete, resulted in +the dispersion of those which were not burned or torn, and the +whereabouts of these remnants are but imperfectly known. The documentary +history of the Rio Grande Pueblos, therefore, can be only tentative at +present, but it is given in the hope that it will incite further +activity with the view of increasing and correcting the data thus far +obtained. + + * * * * * + +The report of Cabeza de Vaca, commonly designated as his "Naufragios," +is as yet the earliest printed source known with reference to the Rio +Grande Pueblos, concerning whom it imparts some vague information. The +briefness and vagueness of that information calls for no adverse +criticism, for Cabeza de Vaca plainly states that he writes of these +people from hearsay and that his information was obtained near the mouth +of the Rio Pecos in western Texas. What he afterward learned in Sonora +with respect to sedentary Indians in the north is hardly connected with +the Rio Grande region. The same may be the case with the information +obtained by Nuno de Guzman in 1530 and alluded to by Castaneda. That +Nuno de Guzman had gained some information concerning the Pueblos seems +certain, but everything points to the Zuni region as the one mentioned +by his informant. The same is true of the reports of Fray Marcos de +Nizza and Melchor Diaz, which clearly apply to the Zuni Pueblos, the +most easterly settlement of sedentary Indians alluded to being the +Queres pueblo of Acoma. It is to the chroniclers of the expedition of +Coronado, therefore, that we must look for the earliest definite +information concerning the Rio Grande valley and its inhabitants. + +It must be borne in mind that the expedition of Coronado was not a mere +exploration. What was expected of its leader, and indeed peremptorily +demanded, was a permanent settlement of the country. Coronado and his +men were not to return to Mexico except in individual cases. The Viceroy +Mendoza wanted to get rid of them. Whether Coronado was a party to the +secret of this plan is doubtful; the indications are that he was not, +whereas Fray Marcos of Nizza certainly was, and perhaps was its original +promoter. + +The printed sources on Coronado's march may be divided into two +chronologically distinct classes, the first of which comprises documents +written in New Mexico in the years from 1540 to 1543; these reflect all +the advantages and disadvantages of the writings of eye-witnesses. The +mere fact that one had been a participant in the events which he +describes is not a guaranty of absolute reliability: his sincerity and +truthfulness may be above reproach, but his field of vision is +necessarily limited, and the personal element controls his impressions, +even against his will, hence his statements. These earliest sources +regarding Coronado consist of the letters of Coronado himself (with the +related letter of Viceroy Mendoza), and several briefer documents +written in New Mexico but without indication of their authors. The last +two letters written by Coronado alone touch upon the Rio Grande +Pueblos--those of August 3, 1540, and October 20, 1541. + +As stated above, the expedition of Coronado was not designed as a mere +exploration, but rather for the purpose of establishing a permanent +settlement. Coronado's second letter, the first in which he touches upon +the Rio Grande Pueblos, appears to have been lost. His letter of October +20, 1541, although written near the site of the present Bernalillo, New +Mexico, contains very little in regard to the Rio Grande Pueblos. + +The briefer documents pertaining to Coronado's expedition, and written +while the Spaniards were still in New Mexico, with the exception of one +(the report of the reconnoissance made by Hernando de Alvarado, +accompanied by Fray Juan de Padilla to the east) concern Zuni almost +exclusively. The document respecting Alvarado's journey is contained in +the _Coleccion de Documentos_ from the archives of the Indies, but is +erroneously attributed to Hernando de Soto. The celebrated +historiographer of Spain, Juan Bautista Munoz, unacquainted with New +Mexico, its geography and ethnography, criticized it rather harshly; +nevertheless, the document is very reliable in its description of +country and people: it alludes to features which are nowhere else +noticed, and which were rediscovered by the late Frank Hamilton Cushing +and myself about twenty-eight years ago. The number of villages and +people in the Rio Grande region, of which the document gives a brief +description, are, as usual, exaggerated; and it could hardly have been +otherwise in view of a first and hasty visit, but it remains the +earliest document in which Acoma and a part of the Rio Grande valley are +treated from actual observation. The reconnoissance was made from August +to October, 1540. It may be that one of the villages briefly described +is Pecos, which lies of course some distance east of the Rio Grande, and +the document is possibly the first one in which the nomadic Indians of +eastern New Mexico are mentioned from actual observation. + +To these sources, which have both the merits and the defects of all +documents written under the impressions of first direct acquaintance +with the subject, must be added the "Relacion postrera de Sivola" +contained in a manuscript by father Toribio de Paredes, surnamed +Motolinia, and known as the _Libro de Oro_, etc., which is an augmented +and slightly modified version of that celebrated missionary's history of +the Mexicans. It is a condensed report that had reached Mexico after +Coronado had left for Quivira and before his return had become known. +Its allusion to the Rio Grande Pueblos and to Pecos is not without +value, although it adds little to what is contained in the sources +previously mentioned. On the Indians of the Plains it is, comparatively +speaking, more explicit. The general tone of the document is one of +sobriety. The "Relacion del Suceso," published in the _Documentos +Ineditos de Indias_ under the erroneous date of 1531, is similar to the +foregoing, but is more detailed in some respects and covers a longer +period of time. It manifestly was written in New Mexico by a member of +the expedition, but there is no clue as yet to the name of the author. +It is a useful corollary to the other contemporary sources. + +Although written more than two centuries after Coronado's march, the +references to it and to New Mexico contained in the _Historia de la +Nueva Galicia_, by the licentiate Matias de la Mota Padilla, find a +place here, since the author asserts that he derived much of his +information from papers left by Pedro de Tovar, one of Coronado's chief +lieutenants. Mota Padilla generally confirms the data furnished by the +earlier documents, and adds some additional information. It is however +quite impossible to determine what he gathered directly from the +writings of Tovar and what he may have obtained through other and +probably posterior sources. At all events the _Historia de la Nueva +Galicia_ should never be neglected by students of the Pueblo Indians. + +We now come to the two chief chroniclers of Coronado's time--both +participants in his undertakings and therefore eye-witnesses: Pedro de +Castaneda de Naxera and Juan Jaramillo. The fact that they were +eye-witnesses establishes their high rank as authorities, but there is a +difference between the two in that Castaneda was a common soldier, +whereas Jaramillo (a former companion and, to a certain extent, a +friend of Cortes) was an officer. This fact alone establishes a +difference in the opportunities for knowing and in the standpoint of +judging what was seen, aside from the difference arising out of the +character, facilities, and tendencies of the two individuals. Castaneda +is much more detailed in his narration than Jaramillo. Discontent with +the management and the final outcome of the enterprise is apparent in +the tone of his writings, and while this may not have influenced very +materially his description of the country and its people, they render +more or less suspicious his statements in regard to the dealings with +the aborigines. Both Castaneda and Jaramillo wrote a long time after the +events had occurred, and probably from memory, hence the comparative +accuracy of their descriptions is indeed remarkable. But that accuracy, +however commendable, is relative rather than absolute, as both were +liable to err, owing to the lapse of time and consequent failure to +remember facts and events, and, especially with Castaneda, the influence +of personal prejudice growing stronger with age. Jaramillo had less +occasion to fall into error resulting from such weakness, but he is much +less detailed than Castaneda. We might compare the two narrations by +stating that that of Jaramillo embodies the reminiscences of one who +stood officially on a higher plane and viewed his subject from a more +general standpoint, whereas Castaneda saw more of the inferior details +but was more susceptible of confounding, hence to misstate, the mass of +data which his memory retained. Both reports will always remain the +chief sources on the subject of which they treat, subject of course to +close comparison and checking with correlated sources, archaeological, +ethnological, and geographical investigation, and Indian tradition. + +Before proceeding further in the discussion of the documents it must be +stated that all references to distances in leagues must be taken with +many allowances. According to Las Casas there were in use among the +Spaniards in the sixteenth century, two kinds of leagues: the maritime +league (_legua maritima_) and the terrestrial league (_legua +terrestre_). The former, established by Alfonso XI in the twelfth +century, consisted of four miles (_millas_) of four thousand paces, each +pace being equal to three Castilian feet. The length of the Castilian +foot at that time cannot be established with absolute minuteness. The +terrestrial league consisted of three thousand paces each, so that while +it contained nine thousand Castilian feet, the maritime league was +composed of twelve thousand. The latter was used for distances at sea +and occasionally also for distances on land, therefore where an +indication of the league employed is not positively given, a computation +of distances with even approximate accuracy is of course impossible. + +The result of Coronado's failure was so discouraging, and the reports on +the country had been so unfavorable that for nearly forty years no +further attempt was made to reach the North from New Spain. In fact +Coronado and his achievements had become practically forgotten, and only +when the southern part of the present state of Chihuahua in Mexico +became the object of Spanish enterprise for mining purposes was +attention again drawn to New Mexico, when the Church opened the way +thither from the direction of the Atlantic slope. This naturally led the +explorers first to the Rio Grande Pueblos. + +The brief report of the eight companions of Francisco Sanchez Chamuscado +who in 1580 accompanied the Franciscan missionaries as far as +Bernalillo, the site of which was then occupied by Tigua villages, and +who went thence as far as Zuni, is important, although it presents +merely the sketch of a rather hasty reconnoissance. Following, as the +Spaniards did, the course of the Rio Grande from the south, they fixed, +at least approximately, the limit of the Pueblo region in that +direction. Some of the names of Pueblos preserved in the document are +valuable in so far as they inform us of the designations of villages in +a language that was not the idiom of their inhabitants. Chamuscado +having died on the return journey, the document is not signed by him, +but by his men. The document had been lost sight of until I called +attention to it nearly thirty years ago, the subsequent exploration by +Antonio de Espejo having monopolized the attention of those interested +in the early exploration of New Mexico. + +The report of Antonio de Espejo on his long and thorough reconnoissance +in 1582-1583 attracted so much attention that for a time and in some +circles his expedition was looked upon as resulting in the original +discovery of New Mexico. This name was also given by Espejo to the +country, and it thereafter remained. While the documents relating to +Coronado slumbered unnoticed and almost forgotten, the report of Espejo +was published within less than three years after it had been written. It +must be stated here that there are two manuscripts of the report of +Espejo, one dated 1583 and bearing his autograph signature and official +(notarial) certificates, the other in 1584 which is a distorted copy of +the original and with so many errors in names and descriptions that, as +the late Woodbury Lowery very justly observed, it is little else than +spurious. I had already called attention to the unreliability of the +latter version, and yet it is the one that alone was consulted for more +than three centuries because it had become accessible through +publication in the Voiages of Hakluyt, together with an English +translation even more faulty, if possible, than its Spanish original. +The authentic document, with several others relating to Espejo's brief +career, was not published in full until 1871, and even then attracted +little attention because it was not translated and because the +_Coleccion de Documentos del Archivo de Indias_ is not accessible to +every one. But the publication of 1871 was by no means the first printed +version of Espejo's relations. Even prior to 1586 a somewhat condensed +narration of his exploration had been published, being embodied in the +_History of China_ by Father Gonzalez Mendoza. This account is based on +the authentic report in some of the various editions, on the spurious +document in others. The book of Father Mendoza was soon translated into +French. It is not surprising that Espejo's narrative should appear first +in print in a work on the Chinese Empire by a Franciscan missionary. +That ecclesiastic was impressed by some of Espejo's observations on +Pueblo customs which he thought resembled those of the Chinese. The +discoveries of Espejo were then the most recent ones that had been made +by Spaniards, and as New Mexico was fancied to lie nearer the Pacific +than it really does, and facing the eastern coast of China, a lurking +desire to find a possible connection between the inhabitants of both +continents on that side is readily explicable. But Father Mendoza had +still another motive. The three monks which Chamuscado had left in New +Mexico had sacrificed their lives in an attempt to convert the natives. +They were martyrs of their faith, hence glories of their order, and the +Franciscan author could not refrain from commemorating their deeds and +their faith. The spurious text was not taken from Mendoza, but +manifestly was copied from the transcript by a bungling scribe +imperfectly acquainted with the Spanish tongue. + +The value of Espejo's narration is undoubtedly great. The author was a +close practical observer and a sincere reporter. The more is it +surprising that his statements in regard to the population of the +Pueblos are so manifestly exaggerated; yet, as I have elsewhere stated, +this may be explained. A tendency to enhance somewhat the importance of +discoveries is inherent in almost every discoverer, but in the case of +Espejo he was exposed to another danger. As he proceeded from village to +village the natives gathered at every point from other places out of +curiosity, fear, or perhaps with hostile intent, so that the number of +the people which the explorer met was each time much larger than the +actual number of inhabitants. On the question of population Espejo could +have no knowledge, since he had no means of communicating with the +people by speech. Furthermore, it is well known that a crowd always +appears more numerous than it would prove to be after an actual count; +besides, even if he could have counted the Indians present, he would +have fallen into the error of recording the same individual several +times. + +During the comparatively short time which Espejo had to explore the +country as far as the Hopi or Moqui, he collected interesting +ethnological data. Customs that appeared new as late as the second half +of the last century were noted by him; and while his nomenclature of the +Pueblos agrees in many points with that of the Coronado expedition, +terms were added that have since been definitely adopted. Espejo's +return to Mexico was to be followed by a definite occupancy of the Rio +Grande country, but his untimely death prevented it, and the subsequent +plan of colonization, framed and proposed by Juan Bautista de Lomas +Colmenares, led to no practical results, as likewise did the ill-fated +expedition of Humana, Bonilla, and Leyva, the disastrous end of which in +the plains became known only through a few vestiges of information and +by hearsay. + +Seven years after Espejo's journey, Gaspar Castano de Sosa penetrated +to the Rio Grande near the present village of Santo Domingo. The report +thereon is explicit and sober, and in it we find the first mention of +the Spanish names by which some of the Pueblos have since become known. +From this report it is easy to follow the route taken by Castano and his +followers, but the account is incomplete, terminating abruptly at Santo +Domingo, whither Castano had been followed by Captain Juan de Morlete, +who was sent after him by the governor of what is now Coahuila, without +whose permission Castano had undertaken the journey. I have no knowledge +as yet of any document giving an account of the return of the +expedition. + +Seven years more elapsed ere the permanent occupancy of New Mexico was +effected under the leadership of Juan de Onate. Thenceforward events in +that province became the subject of uninterrupted documentary record. + +The very wise and detailed ordinances regulating the discovery and +annexation to Spain of new territory, promulgated by Philip II, declared +that every exploration or conquest (the term "conquest" was subsequently +eliminated from Spanish official terminology and that of "pacification" +substituted) should be recorded as a journal or diary. Royal decrees +operated very slowly in distant colonies. Neither Chamuscado nor Espejo +kept journals, but Castano de Sosa, and especially Onate, did. His +_diario_ (which is accessible through its publication in the _Documentos +del Archivo de Indias_, although there are traces of an earlier +publication) was copied for printing by someone manifestly unacquainted +with New Mexico or with its Indian nomenclature, hence its numerous +names for sites and tribes are often very difficult to identify. But the +document itself is a sober, matter-of-fact record of occurrences and +geographical details, interspersed with observations of more or less +ethnological value. As Onate followed the course of the Rio Grande +upward from below El Paso del Norte, and afterward branched off to +almost every sedentary settlement in New Mexico and Arizona, the +comparison of his diary with previous reports (those of the Coronado +expedition included) is highly valuable, indeed indispensable. The +_diario_ forms the beginning of accurate knowledge of the region under +consideration. Perhaps more important still are the Acts of Obedience +and Homage (_Obediencia y Vasallaje_) executed at various villages +during the course of the years 1598 and 1599. At first sight, and to one +unacquainted with Pueblo idioms, they present an unintelligible list of +partly recognizable names. But the confusion becomes somewhat reduced +through closer scrutiny and by taking into consideration the +circumstances under which each official document was framed. Onate +already enjoyed the advantage of interpreters in at least one New +Mexican Indian tongue, but the meetings or councils during which the +"acts of obedience" were written were not always at places where his +interpreters understood the language of the people they were among. +These scribes faithfully recorded the names of pueblos as they heard +them, and sometimes several names, each in a different language for the +same village, hence the number of pueblos recorded is considerably +larger than it actually was. Again the inevitable misunderstanding of +Indian pronunciation by the Spaniards caused them to write the same word +in different forms according as the sounds were uttered and caught by +the ear. An accurate copy of these documents of Onate's time made by one +versed in Pueblo nomenclature and somewhat acquainted with Pueblo +languages would be highly desirable. Onate is not given to fulness in +ethnological details. His journal is a dry record of what happened +during his march and occupancy of the country. Customs are only +incidentally and briefly alluded to. + +One of Onate's officers, however, Captain Gaspar Perez de Villagra, or +Villagran, published in 1610 a _Historia de la Nueva Mexico_ in verse. +As an eye-witness of the events he describes, Villagran has the merits +and defects of all such authors, and the fact that he wrote in rhyme +called poetry does not enhance the historical merit of his book. +Nevertheless we find in it many data regarding the Pueblos not elsewhere +recorded, and study of the book is very necessary. We must allow for the +temptation to indulge in so-called poetical license, although Villagran +employs less of it than most Spanish chroniclers of the period that +wrote in verse. The use of such form and style of writing was regarded +in Spain as an accomplishment at the time, and not many attempted it, +which is just as well. Some of the details and descriptions of actions +and events by Villagran have been impeached as improbable; but even if +such were the case, they would not detract from the merits of his book +as an attempt at an honest and sincere narration and a reasonably +faithful description. + +The minor documents connected with Onate's enterprise and subsequent +administration of the New Mexican colony, so far as known, are of +comparatively small importance to the history of the Rio Grande Pueblos. +During the first years of the seventeenth century the attention of Onate +was directed chiefly toward explorations in western Arizona and the Gulf +of California. While he was absent on his memorable journey, quarrels +arose in New Mexico between the temporal and ecclesiastical authorities, +which disturbed the colony for many years and form the main theme of the +documentary material still accessible. Even the manuscripts relating to +these troubles contain, here and there, references to the ethnological +condition of the Pueblos. Charges and counter-charges of abuses +committed by church and state could not fail to involve, incidentally, +the points touching upon the Indians, and the documentary material of +that period, still in manuscript but accessible through the copies made +by me and now in the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, should not be +neglected by serious investigators. To enter into details regarding the +tenor of these documents would be beyond the scope of this Introduction, +but I would call attention in a general way to the value and importance +of church records, which consist chiefly of registers of baptisms, +marriages, and deaths. These for the greater part were kept with +considerable scrupulosity, although there are periods during which the +same degree of care was not exercised. They are valuable ethnologically +by reason of the data which they afford with respect to intermarriages +between members of distant tribes, through the numerous Indian personal +names that they contain, and on account of the many records of events +which the priests deemed it desirable to preserve. Examples will be +given in the text of the Documentary History to follow. + +The _Libros de Fabrica_, in which are recorded items bearing on the +economic side of church administration, are usually less important; +still they contain data that should not be neglected, for very often +minor points deserve as much attention as salient ones. Unfortunately +the church records of the period prior to 1680 have well-nigh +disappeared from New Mexico, but some still exist at El Paso del Norte +(Juarez), Chihuahua, that date back to the middle of the seventeenth +century. The absence of these records may be somewhat overcome by +another class of ecclesiastical documents, much more numerous and more +laborious to consult. In fact I am the only one who thus far has +attempted to penetrate the mass of material which they contain, although +my researches have been far from exhaustive, owing to lack of support in +my work. These documents, commonly called "Diligencias Matrimoniales," +are the results of official investigations into the status of persons +desiring to marry. From their nature these investigations always cover a +considerable period, sometimes more than a generation, and frequently +disclose historical facts that otherwise might remain unknown. These +church papers also, though not frequently, include fragments of +correspondence and copies of edicts and decrees that deserve attention. + +The destruction of the archives and of writings of all kinds in New +Mexico during the Indian revolt of 1680 and in succeeding years has left +the documentary history of the province during the seventeenth century +almost a blank. Publications are very few in number. There is no doubt +that the archives of Spain and even those of Mexico will yet reveal a +number of sources as yet unknown; but in the meantime, until these +treasures are brought to light, we must remain more or less in the dark +as to the conditions and the details of events prior to 1692. A number +of letters emanating from Franciscan sources have been published lately +in Mexico by Luis Garcia y Pimentel, and these throw sidelights on New +Mexico as it was in the seventeenth century that are not without value. +In the manuscripts from the archives at Santa Fe that survived the +Pueblo revolt, now chiefly in the Library of Congress at Washington, +occasional references to events anterior to the uprising may be found; +and the church books of El Paso del Norte (Juarez) contain some few data +that should not be neglected. + +In 1602 there was published at Rome, under the title of _Relacion del +Descubrimiento del Nuevo Mexico_, a small booklet by the Dean of +Santiago, Father Montoya, which purports to give a letter from Onate on +his occupancy of New Mexico and journey to the Colorado river of the +West, thus covering the period between 1597 and 1605. It is preceded by +a notice of Espejo's exploration, but it is entirely too brief to afford +much information. The little book is exceedingly rare; but three copies +of it exist in the United States, so far as I am aware. + +Of greater importance are the notices, of about the same period, +preserved by Fray Juan de Torquemada in the first volume of his +_Monarchia Indiana_ (1615). In this work we find the first mention of +some Pueblo fetishes, with their names, as understood at the time. The +letter of Fray Francisco de San Miguel, first priest of Pecos, given in +print by Torquemada, is of considerable interest. Torquemada himself was +never in New Mexico, but he stood high in the Franciscan Order and had +full access to the correspondence and to all other papers submitted from +outside missions during his time. It is much to be regretted that the +three manuscript pamphlets by Fray Roque Figueredo, bearing the titles +_Relacion del Viage al Nuevo Mexico_, _Libro de las Fundaciones del +Nuevo Mexico_, and _Vidas de los Varones Ilustres_, etc., appear to be +lost. Their author was first in New Mexico while Onate governed that +province, and his writings were at the great convent of Mexico. Whether +they disappeared during the ruthless dispersion of its archives in 1857 +or were lost at an earlier date is not known. + +After the recall of Onate from New Mexico, not only the colony but also +the missions in that distant land began to decline, owing to the bitter +contentions between the political and the ecclesiastical authorities. +The Franciscan Order, desirous of inspiring an interest in New Mexican +missions, fostered the literary efforts of its missionaries in order to +promote a propaganda for conversions. It also sent a special visitor to +New Mexico in the person of Fray Estevan de Perea, who gave expression +to what he saw and ascertained, in two brief printed but excessively +rare documents, a facsimile copy of which is owned by my friend Mr F. W. +Hodge, of the Bureau of American Ethnology. A third letter which I have +not been able to see is mentioned by Ternaux-Compans, also a "Relacion +de la Conversion de los Jumanos" by the same and dated 1640. + +Much more extended than the brief pamphlets by Fray Perea is the +_Relaciones de todas las cosas acaecidas en el Nuevo Mexico hasta el Ano +de 1626_ (I abbreviate the very long title), by Fray Geronimo de Zarate +Salmeron, which was published in the third series of the first +_Coleccion de Documentos para la Historia de Mexico_, and also by Mr +Charles F. Lummis in _The Land of Sunshine_, with an English +translation. This work, while embodying chiefly a narrative most +valuable to the ethnography of western Arizona and eastern California, +of the journey of Onate to the Colorado river of the West, followed by +an extended report on De Soto's expedition to the Mississippi river, +contains data on the Rio Grande Pueblos and on those of Jemez that are +of permanent value. The author gives the numbers of Pueblo Indians +officially converted during his time. + +We come now to a book which, though small in compass, has had perhaps +greater circulation in languages other than Spanish, with the exception +of the _Destruycion de las Indias_ by the notorious Las Casas, than any +other. This is the work of Fray Alonso de Benavides, on New Mexico, +first published in 1630 under the misleading title of _Memorial que Fray +Juan de Santander de la Orden de San Francisco, Comisario General de +Indias, presenta a la Magestad Catolica del Rey don Felipe cuarto +nuestro Senor_, etc., Madrid, 1630. Benavides was custodian of the +Franciscan province of New Mexico for some time, and therefore had good +opportunity of knowing both the country and its natives. He gives a very +precise and clear enumeration of the groups of Pueblo Indians, locating +them where they had been found by Coronado ninety years before and +adding those which the latter had not visited, as well as giving the +number of villages of each group and the approximate number of people +therein contained. No writer on New Mexico up to this time had given +such a clear idea of its ethnography, so far as the location and the +distribution of the stocks are concerned. While somewhat brief on +manners and customs, Benavides is fuller and more explicit than any of +his predecessors, and informs us of features of importance which no +other author in earlier times mentioned. In short, his book is more +valuable for New Mexican ethnography than any other thus far known, and +it is not a matter of surprise, therefore, that it was translated into +several European languages. That the Rio Grande Pueblos receive an +abundant share of attention from Benavides is natural. We also obtain +from him some data, not elsewhere found, concerning the establishment +and fate of the missions, and the true relations of the Spaniards and +the natives are particularly well portrayed. Both the Apaches and the +Navajos also receive some attention, Benavides giving, among others, the +true reason for the hostility which the Apaches displayed since that +time against the Spanish settlements. It is a book without which the +study of the Pueblo Indians could not be satisfactory. + +Where there is strong light there must of necessity be some shadow. In +the case of Benavides the shadow is found in the exaggerated number of +inhabitants attributed to the New Mexican Pueblos, exaggerations as +gross and as glaring as those of Espejo. The number of villages of some +of the Pueblo groups is also somewhat suspicious. It is not difficult to +explain these probably intentional deviations from the truth in an +otherwise sincere and highly valuable work. As already indicated, the +publications emanating from the Franciscan Order, which exclusively +controlled the New Mexican missions, had a special purpose distinct from +that of mere information: they were designed to promote a propaganda not +simply for the conversion of the Indians in general, but especially for +the conversions made or to be made by the Order. New Mexico was in a +state of neglect, spiritually and politically; the political authorities +had been denouncing the Franciscans in every possible way, and there was +danger, if this critical condition continued, that the Order might lose +its hold upon the northern territories and its mission be turned over to +the Jesuits, who were then successfully at work in the Mexican northwest +and approaching New Mexico from that direction. To prevent such a loss +it was deemed necessary to present to the faithful as alluring a picture +of the field as possible, exploiting the large number of neophytes as a +result already accomplished and hinting at many more as subjects for +conversion. Hence the exaggerated number of Indians in general +attributed by Benavides to what then comprised the religious province of +New Mexico. In this respect, and in this alone, the _Memorial_ of +Benavides may be regarded as a "campaign document," but this does not +impair its general value and degree of reliability. + +For the period between 1630 and the uprising of 1680 there is a lack of +printed documents concerning New Mexico that is poorly compensated by +the known manuscripts which I have already mentioned as existing in New +Mexico and Mexico. Still there appeared in 1654 a little book by Juan +Diez de la Calle, entitled _Memorial y Resumen breve de Noticias de las +Indias Occidentales_, in which the disturbances that culminated in the +assassination of Governor Luis de Rosas in 1642 are alluded to. The +national archives at the City of Mexico contain a still fuller report of +that event, in a royal decree of 1643 and other papers concerning the +deed, all of which are yet unpublished. The archives of Spain have as +yet been only meagerly investigated. The publication of the report of +Father Nicolas de Freytas, Portuguese, on the expedition attributed to +Diego de Penalosa Brizeno into what is now Kansas or Nebraska, is of no +importance in the study of the Rio Grande Pueblos. The authenticity of +the document has been strongly doubted, though probably without just +cause. Equally unimportant to the subject of the Documentary History to +follow is the letter of Captain Juan Dominguez de Mendoza, published in +the appendix to the criticism of Cesareo Fernandez Duro on the report of +Father Freytas. The otherwise very interesting letter on New Mexico, +written by Fray Alonso de Posadas, also printed in the work of Duro, is +meager in its allusions to the Rio Grande. + +Sixty-eight years after Benavides' time the _Teatro Mexicano_ of the +Franciscan Fray Agustin de Vetancurt was published. The third and fourth +parts of this important work, namely, the _Cronica de la Provincia del +Santo Evangelio de Mexico_ and the _Menologio Franciscano_, are of the +highest value to the history of the Rio Grande Pueblos and of New Mexico +generally. Although printed eighteen years after the New Mexican +missions had been destroyed by the Pueblo Indians, the _Cronica_ +contains a terse description of the missions and Indian villages as they +had been previous to 1680, and gives data in regard to the population +that are commendable in their sobriety and probability. The work of +Vetancurt is in this respect a great improvement upon Benavides, and it +is interesting to note how his approximate census approaches the figures +given by Zarate Salmeron seventy years before. Vetancurt had at his +disposal much more precise data than Benavides. During the seven +decades separating the three authors much information had been +accumulated, and with greater chances of accuracy than before. Vetancurt +made good use of this accumulation of material, and his books are in +fact the most reliable sources from which to ascertain the status of the +Pueblos at the time the insurrection commenced. The historical data +given by Vetancurt in regard to New Mexico during earlier times are not +of great value, but the _Menologio_, as well as the _Cronica_, contains +a number of details on the missions and on the lives and achievements of +the missionaries that become important to an understanding of the Indian +himself. That such references are overburdened with details of a purely +religious character does not at all impair their ethnologic value: they +are pictures of the times according to the nature of which circumstances +and events can alone be judged properly. + +We have now arrived at a period marking a great temporary change in the +condition of all the Pueblo Indians, and of those of the Rio Grande +especially. This is the insurrection, successful for a time, of the +Pueblos in 1680, against the Spanish domination. The material on this +eventful epoch is still largely in manuscript, the nearest approach to a +documentary presentation in full being the incomplete paraphrase +furnished by W. W. H. Davis in his _Spanish Conquest of New Mexico_, +published in 1869. No blame should be attached to the author for the +insufficiency of his data. He made the best possible use of his +materials with the help of my late friends David Miller and Samuel +Ellison of Santa Fe, but the archives of Santa Fe had already been +depleted through neglect and criminal waste, and what was and is left +(as I know from having handled it frequently and thoroughly) is a mass +of fragments, sometimes long, sometimes short, often disconnected and +therefore unsatisfactory. I shall refer to this material later. Of the +manuscript materials preceding and foreshadowing the insurrection, an +important letter by the Franciscan Fray Francisco de Ayeta, a copy of +which is in the national archives of Mexico, deserves to be specially +mentioned. To this indefatigable monk, whose timely warnings were too +lightly regarded by the Spanish authorities, are also due the data +concerning the lives and the awful fate of the Franciscan priests at +the hands of the Pueblo Indians on August 10, 1680. The original of +this tragic list is in manuscript in the national archives of Mexico, +where Vetancurt made use of it in his _Teatro_. The memorial sermon +preached and published in Mexico in 1681 (a copy of which exceedingly +rare print was procured by my friend the Honorable L. Bradford Prince of +Santa Fe) rests for its information upon the obituaries preserved by +Father Ayeta. That these obituaries are of direct value to the history +of the Rio Grande Pueblos is apparent. + +The sermon alluded to is the earliest print, so far as known, concerning +the great Indian uprising of 1680. Next in date comes a publication +touching the various attempts made by the Spaniards to reconquer New +Mexico prior to 1693. In that year Carlos de Sigueenza y Gongora +published in the City of Mexico a kind of irregular newspaper bearing +the title _El Mercurio Volante_, in which appears a concise and +tolerably reliable sketch of the insurrection and the various attempts +to reconquer the territory, including the successful one in 1692 by +Diego de Vargas. Sigueenza is brief, but reasonably accurate. Part of the +documents concerning the Indian uprising were published in the +nineteenth century in the Third Series of the _Coleccion de Documentos +para la Historia de Mexico_, but no complete print of the voluminous +papers concerning those events has yet appeared, and indeed the most +important documents still remain in manuscript. In 1701 Villagutierre y +Sotomayor published his voluminous _Historia de la Conquistay +Reducciones de los Itzaes y Lacandones en la America Septentrional_, in +which appears a brief description of the Indian uprising in New Mexico. +His data are of course gathered at second hand, although from +contemporary sources. + +I know of no other publications concerning the Indian uprising, so often +mentioned, between the close of the seventeenth century and the +beginning of the eighteenth. The manuscript material, which has been +much scattered, may be divided locally into three groups. The one, +originally at Santa Fe, New Mexico, is now in the Library of Congress at +Washington; it had been much neglected, hence for the greater part +seriously reduced, in former times, but it still contains most valuable +information on the condition of the Rio Grande Pueblos immediately after +the uprising and during the time the Pueblos were left to themselves, +attempting to return to their primitive condition. This information, +embodied in interrogatories of Indians subsequent to 1680, I made the +subject of a closing chapter to my _Documentary History of the Zuni +Tribe_, but it was withheld from publication for some cause unknown to +me. The military reports on the expeditions of Diego de Vargas and the +final reconquest of New Mexico are reduced to disconnected but still +bulky fragments. Almost unique of their kind are the so-called "Pueblo +grants" emanating from Governor Domingo Gironza Petros de Cruzate in +1688. The term "grant" is a misnomer, since it refers in fact to a +limitation to the innate tendency of the Indians to arbitrarily expand +their tribal range. These documents have become the legal basis of +landholding by the Pueblos and the first step toward eventual single +tenure. + +The second group of manuscripts, in the national archives in the City of +Mexico, is more complete than the first. It contains information on the +beginnings of the rebellion and on later events that are of great +importance. + +The third group, and by far the most complete, is in Spain, but in +regard to it I am unable to give any precise information, since every +opportunity of completing my investigations concerning the Southwest by +studying the Spanish archives, notwithstanding repeated promises, has +been withheld. + +For the eighteenth century documentary materials pertaining to New +Mexico remain, it may be said, almost exclusively in manuscript. A +connecting link between the printed sources of the seventeenth and +eighteenth centuries are the _Apuntamientos que sobre el Terreno hizo el +Padre Jose Amando Niel_, in the early part of the eighteenth century, +published in the Third Series of the _Documentos para la Historia de +Mexico_. Father Niel was a Jesuit who visited New Mexico shortly after +the reconquest. His observations are of comparatively mediocre value, +yet his writings should not be overlooked. The journal of the Brigadier +Pedro de Rivera, in 1736, of his military march to Santa Fe, is a dry, +matter-of-fact account, but is nevertheless valuable owing to his +concise and utterly unembellished description of the Rio Grande valley +and of what he saw therein. The book is very rare, and therefore +correspondingly unnoticed. + +A brief but important contribution to the history of New Mexico is the +letter of Fray Silvestre Velez de Escalante, published in the Third +Series of the _Documentos para la Historia de Mexico_. About the same +time, in the second half of the eighteenth century, the Brigadier Jose +Cortes wrote an extended report on the territory, but it concerns more +the relations with the constantly hostile roaming tribes than the +condition of the Pueblos. It also is printed in the _Documentos_. + +The otherwise very important diary of the journey of Fray Francisco +Garces to northern Arizona, published first in the above-mentioned +_Coleccion de Documentos_, and more recently (with highly valuable +notes) by the late Dr Elliott Coues, touches only incidentally on the +Rio Grande region. In 1746 Joseph Antonio de Villa-Senor y Sanchez +embodied in his _Theatro Americano_ a description of New Mexico, +condensed chiefly from the journal of the Brigadier Rivera, mentioned +above. The _Diccionario Geografico_ by Murillo is also a source that +should not be neglected. + +A great amount of documentary manuscript material, mostly of a local +character, is contained in the church books of the eighteenth century +formerly at the pueblo of Santa Clara and now preserved at Santa Fe +through the efforts of the late Archbishop J. B. Salpointe. There are +also the "Informaciones Matrimoniales," which contain data of great +importance. Through them we are informed of the tragic fate of the last +expedition of the Spaniards to the northwest, with its horrifying +incidents. The story of woe and disaster that pictures the life of the +Indian Pueblos and Spanish settlers during the eighteenth century is +contained in fragments in the plain, matter-of-fact church registers, +and it requires painstaking investigation to collect it. The greatest +part of this information concerns the Rio Grande Pueblos. A careful +investigation of the matrimonial and baptismal registers will yield data +concerning the clans and indications of the primitive rules of marriage, +while the "Libros de Fabrica" contain interesting data on the churches +of the Rio Grande valley. Great labor and the utmost scrutiny are +required in sifting these time-worn papers for desirable data, and +especially is a considerable knowledge of conditions and events +necessary; but the result of thorough investigation, especially through +literal copying by the student, will amply repay the time and labor +bestowed. + +What I have stated in regard to the church archives applies, in a still +greater degree, to the state and private papers that may be accessible. +Of the former the archives of Santa Fe contain a great number, though +many of them are only fragmentary. Valuable documents exist also in the +archives of the Surveyor General at Santa Fe; these are valuable chiefly +for historical data covering the first half of the eighteenth century. +The national archives in the City of Mexico are much more complete than +those of New Mexico, while in Spain we may expect to find an almost +complete set of government documents, preserved with much greater care +and with more system than in any early Spanish possessions in America. +The city of Sevilla would be the first place in which research in this +direction should be conducted. + +Before closing this bibliographic sketch with a glance at the earliest +literature of the nineteenth century, I must mention two ponderous books +of the eighteenth century which, while based on second-hand information +and not very valuable in detail, refer occasionally to facts and data +not elsewhere found. These are the two volumes of the _Cronica +Apostolica y Serafica de la Propaganda Fide de Queretaro_. The first +volume, written by Fray Isidro Felis Espinosa and published in 1746, is +interesting especially on account of its reference to the fate of the +first Frenchmen brought into New Mexico, and one of whom, Juan de +Archibeque, played an important role in the first two decades of the +eighteenth century. The second volume, the author of which was Fray +Domingo de Arricivita, was published in 1792, and is the chief source +concerning the still problematical expedition to the north attributed to +two Franciscan friars in 1538. Both of these works are of relatively +minor importance, and I mention them here only for the sake of +completeness and in order to warn against attaching undue importance to +them so far as the Pueblos are concerned. + +It is of course understood that I omit from the above account a number +of publications containing more or less brief and casual references to +New Mexico. Most of them are geographical, and but few allude to +historical facts. In the notes to the Documentary History proper I may +refer to some of them. + +Perhaps the last book published on New Mexico in the Spanish language is +the little book of Pino, which, however, has little more than a +bibliographic value except in so far as it touches the condition of New +Mexico at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The documents in the +New Mexican and Mexican archives up to the date of the American +occupancy present features similar to those that characterize the +Spanish documents of the eighteenth century. It would be too tedious to +refer to them in detail, and I therefore dismiss them for the present +with this brief mention. If I do not mention here the literature on New +Mexico in the English language it is not due to carelessness or to +ignorance of it, but because of its much greater wealth in number and +contents, its more ready accessibility, and because in matters +respecting the history of early times the authors of these works have +all been obliged to glean their information from at least some of the +sources that I have above enumerated and discussed. + +It may surprise students of New Mexican history that I have thus far +omitted the very earliest sources in print in which New Mexico is +mentioned, namely, the work of Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes, and +that of Gomara. The former was published in part in the first half of +the sixteenth century, the entire work appearing at Madrid not earlier +than 1850 and 1851. Its title, as is well known, is _Historia General y +Natural de las Indias_. The work of Francisco Lopez de Gomara bears the +title _Historia de las Indias_, and is in two parts. Gomara is more +explicit than Oviedo, who gives only a brief and preliminary mention; +but even Gomara, while more detailed, and basing his work evidently on +the earliest data then accessible in regard to the expedition of +Coronado, cannot be compared with the later reports of those attached to +the expedition. The value of these books is comparatively slight, so far +as New Mexico is concerned. Much more important is the _Historia +General_, etc., by Antonio de Herrera (1601-1615). What authorities +Herrera had at his command cannot be readily determined. He may have had +access to the report of Jaramillo, and he was certainly acquainted with +the letters of Coronado. Perhaps the letter of Coronado which I have as +yet been unable to find was consulted by him. In any event Herrera's +information is all second-hand, and while by no means devoid of merit, +his work cannot rank with sources written by men who saw the country and +took part in the events of the earliest explorations. The map +accompanying the first volume of Herrera, while scarcely more than an +outline, is still in advance of the charts published during the +sixteenth century. + +Here I may be permitted to refer to the older cartography of New Mexico +in general. Until the beginning of the seventeenth century these maps +are very defective and incomplete. It is almost as if the Ptolemy of +1548 had served as a basis for them. Even the large and beautiful globe +constructed at St. Gall in Switzerland in 1595, and now in the Swiss +National Museum at Zuerich, places Tiguex near the Pacific coast. It is +through the work of Benavides that more correct ideas of New Mexican +geography were gained and a somewhat more accurate and detailed +nomenclature was introduced, since the _Geografie Blaviane_ of 1667 by +the Dutch cartographer Jean Blaeuw contains a map of the region far +superior to any hitherto published. The number of early maps of New +Mexico is larger than is generally supposed, and there are to-day +unpublished maps (for instance in the National Archives of Mexico for +the eighteenth century) that indicate, as existing, Indian pueblos and +missions that were abandoned nearly a century before the maps were made. + +I must state that in this Introduction I have abbreviated as much as +practicable the titles of books and manuscripts. These are often very +long, and it is unnecessary to burden the present text with them, as I +shall have to give the full titles in the notes to the Documentary +History proper. + +It may not be out of place to add to the above a brief review of the +distribution and location of the various Pueblo groups at the beginning +of the sixteenth century, but strictly according to documentary +information alone. The location of different villages must be reserved +for later treatment, hence as the ranges of the various linguistic +groups had no definite boundaries, only the relative position and +approximate extent can be given here. + +Following the course of the Rio Grande to the north from northern +Chihuahua, the Mansos were first met, in the vicinity of the present +Juarez, Mexico. This was in 1598. Nearly one hundred and forty years +later Brigadier Don Pedro de Rivera met them farther north, not far +from Las Cruces and Dona Ana, New Mexico. To-day they are again at El +Paso del Norte. About San Marcial on the Rio Grande began the villages +of the Piros, at present reduced to one small village on the right bank +of the Rio Grande below El Paso. The Piros extended in the sixteenth +century as far north in the Rio Grande valley as Alamillo at least, and +a branch of them had established themselves on the borders of the great +eastern plains of New Mexico, southeast of the Manzano. That branch, +which has left well-known ruins at Abo, Gran Quivira (Tabira), and other +sites in the vicinity, abandoned its home in the seventeenth century, +forming the Piro settlement below El Paso, already mentioned. North of +the Piros, between a line drawn south of Isleta and the Mesa del +Canjelon, the Tiguas occupied a number of villages, mostly on the +western bank of the river, and a few Tigua settlements existed also on +the margin of the eastern plains beyond the Sierra del Manzano. These +outlying Tigua settlements also were abandoned in the seventeenth +century, their inhabitants fleeing from the Apaches and retiring to form +the Pueblo of Isleta del Sur on the left bank of the Rio Grande in +Texas. + +North of the Tiguas the Queres had their homes on both sides of the +river as far as the great canyon south of San Ildefonso, and an outlying +pueblo of the Queres, isolated and quite remote to the west, was Acoma. +The most northerly villages on the Rio Grande were those of the Tehuas. +Still beyond, but some distance east of the Rio Grande, lay the Pueblos +of Taos and Picuris, the inhabitants of which spoke a dialectic +variation of the Tigua language of the south. The Tehuas also approached +the Rio Grande quite near, at what is called La Bajada; and in about the +same latitude, including the former village at Santa Fe, began that +branch of the Tehuas known as Tanos, whose settlements ranged from north +of Santa Fe as far as the eastern plains and southward to Tajique, where +their territory bordered that of the eastern Tiguas. + +The Rio Grande Queres extended also as far west as the Jemez river; and +north of them, on the same stream, another linguistic group, the Jemez, +had established themselves and built several villages of considerable +size. East of the Rio Grande and southwest-ward from Santa Fe another +branch of the Jemez occupied the northern valley of the Rio Pecos. + +The main interest in this distribution of the Rio Grande Pueblos lies in +the fact that it establishes a disruption and division of some of these +groups prior to the sixteenth century, but of the cause and the manner +thereof there is as yet no documentary information. Thus the Tigua +Indians of Taos and Picuris are separated from their southern relatives +on the Rio Grande by two distinct linguistic groups, the Tehuas and the +Queres; the Jemez and the Pecos were divided from each other by the +Queres and the Tanos. That the Piros and the Tiguas should have +separated from the main stock might be accounted for by the attraction +of the great salt deposits about the Manzano and greater accessibility +to the buffalo plains, but that in the Rio Grande valley itself foreign +linguistic groups should have interposed themselves between the northern +and southern Tiguas and the Jemez and Pecos constitutes a problem which +only diligent research in traditions, legends, and the native languages +may satisfactorily solve. + + NEW YORK CITY, + March, 1910. + + + + * * * * * * + + + +Transcriber's Note. + + Several words purposely occur in accented and non-accented forms. The + differing occurrences are retained. + + Page 20: Misspelling of Sante Fe corrected to Santa Fe. + Page 23: The title "Coleccion de Documentos" modified to + "Coleccion de Documentos". + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE RIO +GRANDE PUEBLOS OF NEW MEXICO; I. 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