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diff --git a/23224-8.txt b/23224-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3ff5bdc --- /dev/null +++ b/23224-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5280 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Historical Introduction to Studies Among +the Sedentary Indians of New Mexico; Rep, by Adolphus Bandelier + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Historical Introduction to Studies Among the Sedentary Indians of New Mexico; Report on the Ruins of the Pueblo of Pecos + Papers Of The Archæological Institute Of America, American + Series, Vol. I + +Author: Adolphus Bandelier + +Release Date: October 27, 2007 [EBook #23224] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIANS OF NEW MEXICO *** + + + + +Produced by Joe Longo and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was +produced from scanned images of public domain material +from the Google Print project.) + + + + + + + + + +Papers of the Archæological Institute of America. + +_AMERICAN SERIES._ + +Volume I + +[Illustration: PLATE XI. MAPS OF COUNTRY NEAR SANTA FÉ.] + + + + +Papers of the Archæological Institute of America. + +_AMERICAN SERIES._ + +I. + + * * * * * + +1. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION TO STUDIES +AMONG THE SEDENTARY INDIANS OF +NEW MEXICO. + +2. REPORT ON THE RUINS OF THE PUEBLO +OF PECOS. + +BY +A. F. BANDELIER. + + +BOSTON: +PUBLISHED BY A. WILLIAMS AND CO. +LONDON: N. TRÜBNER AND CO. +1881. + + + + +UNIVERSITY PRESS: + +JOHN WILSON AND SON, CAMBRIDGE. + + + + +ARCHÆOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA. + + * * * * * + +Executive Committee, 1880-81. + + +CHARLES ELIOT NORTON, _President_. + +MARTIN BRIMMER, _Vice-President_. + +FRANCIS PARKMAN. + +W. W. GOODWIN. + +H. W. HAYNES. + +ALEXANDER AGASSIZ. + +WILLIAM R. WARE. + +O. W. PEABODY, _Treasurer_. + +E. H. GREENLEAF, _Secretary_. + + + + +I. + +HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION +TO +STUDIES AMONG THE SEDENTARY INDIANS +OF +NEW MEXICO. + +PART I. + +BY AD. F. BANDELIER. + + + + +I. + +HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. + + +Part I. + +The earliest knowledge of the existence of the sedentary +Indians in New Mexico and Arizona reached Europe +by way of Mexico proper; but it is very doubtful whether or +not the aborigines of Mexico had any _positive_ information to +impart about countries lying north of the present State of +Querétaro. The tribes to the north were, in the language of +the valley-confederates, "Chichimecas,"--a word yet undefined, +but apparently synonymous, in the conceptions of the +"Nahuatl"-speaking natives, with fierce savagery, and ultimately +adopted by them as a warlike title. + +Indistinct notions, indeed, of an original residence, during +some very remote period of time, at the distant north, have +been found among nearly all the tribes of Mexico which speak +the Nahuatl language. These notions even assume the form +of tradition in the tale of the _Seven Caves_,[1] whence the Mexicans +and the Tezcucans, as well as the Tlaxcaltecans, are said +to have emigrated to Mexico.[2] Perhaps the earliest mention +of this tradition may be found in the writings of Fray Toribio +de Paredes, surnamed Motolinia. It dates back to 1540 A.D.[3] +But it is not to be overlooked that ten years previously, in +1530, the story of the _Seven Cities_, which was the form in +which the first report concerning New Mexico and its sedentary +Indians came to the Spaniards, had already been told to +Nuño Beltran de Guzman in Sinaloa.[4] The parallelism between +the two stories is striking, although we are not authorized +to infer that the so-called seven _cities_ gave rise to what +appeared as an aboriginal myth of as many _caves_.[5] + +The tale of the Seven Caves, as the original home of the +Mexicans and their kindred, prevailed to such an extent that, +as early as 1562, in a collection of picture-sheets executed in +aboriginal style, the so-called "Codex Vaticanus," "Chicomoztoc," +and the migrations thence, were graphically represented. +All the important Indian writers of Mexico between +1560 and 1600, such as Duráro, Camargo, Tezozomoc, and +Ixtlilxochitl, refer to it as an ancient legend, and they locate +the site of the story, furthermore, very distinctly in New Mexico. +Even the "Popol-Vuh," in its earliest account of the +Quiché tribe of Guatemala, mentions "Tulan-Zuiva, the seven +caves or seven ravines."[6] + +While it is impossible as yet to determine whether or not +this legend exercised any direct influence on the extension +of Spanish power into Northern Mexico, another myth, well +known to eastern continents from a remote period, became +directly instrumental in the discovery of New Mexico. This +is the tale of the _Amazons_. + +About 1524 A.D., Cortes was informed by one of his officers +(then on an expedition about Michhuacan) that towards +the north there existed a region called Ciguatan ("Cihuatlan"--place +of women), near to which was an island inhabited +by warlike females exclusively.[7] The usual exaggerations +about metallic wealth were added to this report; and when, in +1529, Nuño de Guzman governed Mexico he set out northwards, +first to conquer the sedentary Indians of Michhuacan, +and then to search for the gold and jewels of the Amazons.[8] +It was while on this foray that he heard of the Seven Cities in +connection with Ciguatan. This latter place was reached; +and, while the fancies concerning it were speedily dispelled +by reality, those concerning the Seven Cities flitted further +north.[9] Guzman overran, laid waste, and finally colonized +Sinaloa. He sent parties into Sonora; but, after his recall, +slow colonization superseded military forays on a large scale, +at least for a few years. + +During this time, Pamfilo de Narvaez had undertaken the +colonization of Florida.[10] His scheme failed, and cost him +his life. Of the few survivors of his expedition, four only +remained in the American continent, wandering to and fro +among the tribes of the south-west. After nine years of untold +hardships, these four men finally reached Sonora, having +traversed the continent, from the Gulf of Mexico to the +coast of the Pacific. The name of the leader and subsequent +chronicler of their adventures was Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de +Vaca.[11] + +It is not possible to follow and to trace, geographically, +the erratic course of Cabeza de Vaca with any degree of certainty. +His own tale, however authentic, is so confused[12] that +it becomes utterly impossible to establish any details of location. +We only know that, in the year A.D. 1536, he and +his associates finally met with their own countrymen about +Culiacan.[13] + +They reported that, when their shiftings had cast them far +to the west of the sinister coast of what was then called "Florida," +settlements of Indians were reached which presented a +high degree of culture.[14] These settlements they described as +having a character of permanence, but we look in vain for any +accurate description of the buildings, or of the material of +which they were composed.[15] For such a report of important +settlements in the north, the mind of the Spanish conquerors +in Mexico was, as we have already intimated, well prepared. + +During their stay among the nondescript tribes of South-western +North America, Cabeza de Vaca and his companions +had tried to scatter the seeds of Christianity,--at least, they +claimed to have done so. The monks of the order of St. +Francis then represented the "working church" in Mexico. +One of their number, Fray Marcos de Nizza, who had joined +Pedro de Alvarado upon his return from his adventurous tour +to Quito in Ecuador, and who was well versed in Indian lore,[16] +at once entered upon a voyage of discovery, determining to +go much farther north than any previous expedition from the +colonies in Sinaloa. He took as his companion the negro +Estevanico, who had been with Cabeza de Vaca on his marvellous +journey. + +Leaving San Miguel de Culiacan on the 7th of March, +1539,[17] and traversing Petatlan, Father Marcos reached Vacapa.[18] +If we compare his statements about this place with +those contained in the diary of Mateo Mange,[19] who went +there with Father Kino in 1701, we are tempted to locate it +in Southern Arizona, somewhat west from Tucson, in the "Piméria +alta,"[20] at a place now inhabited by the Pima Indians, +whose language is also called "Cora" and "Nevome."[21] Vacapa +was then "a reasonable settlement" of Indians. Thence +he travelled in a northerly direction, probably parallel to the +coast at some distance from it. It is impossible to trace his +route with any degree of certainty: we cannot even determine +whether he crossed the Gila at all; since he does not mention +any considerable river in his report, and fails to give +even the direction in which he travelled, beyond stating at +the outset that he went northward. Still we may suppose, +from other testimony on the subject, that he went beyond +the Rio Gila,[22] and finally he came in sight of a great Indian +pueblo, "more considerable than Mexico,"--the houses +of stone and several stories high. The negro Estevanico had +been killed at this pueblo previous to the arrival of Fray Marcos, +so the latter only gazed at it from a safe distance, and +then hastily retired to Culiacan. While the date of his departure +is known, we are in the dark concerning the date of +his return, except that it occurred some time previous to the +2d of September, 1539.[23] + +To this great pueblo, "more considerable than Mexico," +Fray Marcos was induced to give the name of Cibola.[24] The +comparison with Mexico shows a lively imagination; still, we +must reflect that in 1539 Mexico was not a large town,[25] and +the startling appearance of the many-storied pueblo-houses +should also be taken into account.[26] + +With the report about Cibola came the news that the said +pueblo was only one of seven, and the "Seven Cities of Cibola" +became the next object of Spanish conquest. + +It is not our purpose here to describe the events of this +conquest, or rather series of conquests, beginning with the +expedition of Francisco Vasquez Coronado in 1540, and +ending in the final occupation of New Mexico by Juan de +Oñate in 1598. For the history of these enterprises, we refer +the reader to the attractive and trustworthy work of Mr. +W. W. H. Davis.[27] But the numerous reports and other documents +concerning the conquest enable us to form an idea +of the ethnography and linguistical distribution of the Indians +of New Mexico in the sixteenth century. Upon this +knowledge alone can a study of the present ethnography +and ethnology of New Mexico rest on a solid historical foundation. + +There can be no doubt that Cibola is to be looked for in +New Mexico. From the vague indications of Fray Marcos, +we are at least authorized to place it within the limits of New +Mexico or Arizona, and the subsequent expedition of Coronado +furnishes more positive information. + +Coronado marched--"leaving north slightly to the left"[28]--from +Culiacan on. In other words, he marched east of +north. Hence it is to be inferred that Cibola lay nearly north +of Culiacan in Sinaloa. Juan Jaramillo has left the best itinerary +of this expedition. We can easily identify the following +localities: Rio Cinaloa, upper course, Rio Yaquimi, and upper +course of the Rio Sonora.[29] Thence a mountain chain was +crossed called "Chichiltic-Calli,"[30] or "Red-house" (a Mexican +name), and a large ruined structure of the Indians was +found there. + +Within the last forty years at least, this "Red house" has +been repeatedly identified with the so-called "Casas Grandes," +lying to the south of the Rio Gila in Arizona.[31] It should not +be forgotten that from the upper course of the Rio Sonora +_two_ groups of Indian pueblos in ruins were within reach of +the Spaniards. One of these were the ruins on the Gila, the +other lay to the right, across the Sierra Madre, in the present +district of Bravos, State of Chihuahua, Mexico. Jaramillo +states that Coronado crossed the mountains to the _right_.[32] Now, +whether the "Nexpa," whose stream the expedition descended +for two days, is the Rio Santa Cruz or the Rio San Pedro, their +course after they once crossed the Sierra could certainly not +have led them to the "great houses" on the Rio Gila, but +much farther east. The query is therefore permitted, whether +Coronado did not perhaps descend into Chihuahua, and thence +move up due north into South-western New Mexico. In any +case,--whether he crossed the Gila and then turned north-eastward, +as Jaramillo intimates,[33] or whether he perhaps struck +the small "Rio de las Casas Grandes" in Chihuahua, and +then travelled due north to Cibola, according to Pedro de +Castañeda,[34]--the lines of march necessarily met the first sedentary +Indians living in houses of stone or adobe about the +region in which the pueblo of Zuñi exists. It is not to be +wondered at, therefore, if all the writers on New Mexico, from +Antonio de Espejo (1584) down to General J. H. Simpson +(1871), with very few exceptions, have identified Zuñi with +Cibola. + + +There are numerous other indications in favor of this assumption. + +1. Thus Castañeda says: "Twenty leagues to the north-west, +there is another province which contains seven villages. +The inhabitants have the same costumes, the same customs, +and the same religion as those of Cibola."[35] This district is the +one called "Tusayan" by the same author, who places it at +twenty-five leagues also; and "Tucayan" by Jaramillo, "to +the left of Cibola, distant about five days' march."[36] These +seven villages of "Tusayan" were visited by Pedro de Tobar. +West of them is a broad river, which the Spaniards called +"Rio del Tizon."[37] + +2. Five days' journey from Cibola to the east, says Castañeda, +there was a village called "Acuco," erected on a rock. "This +village is very strong, because there was but one path leading +to it. It rose upon a precipitous rock on all sides, etc."[38] +Jaramillo mentions, at one or two days' march from Cibola +to the east, "a village in a very strong situation on a precipitous +rock; it is called Tutahaco."[39] + +3. According to Jaramillo: "All the water-courses which +we met, whether they were streams or rivers, until that of +Cibola, and I even believe one or two journeyings beyond, +flow in the direction of the South Sea; further on they take +the direction of the Sea of the North."[40] + +4. The village called "Acuco," or "Tutahaco," lay between +Cibola and the streams running to the south-east, "entering +the Sea of the North."[41] + +It results from points 3 and 4, that the region of Cibola +lay at all events _west of the present grants to the pueblo of +Acoma_. There are watercourses in their north-western corner, +and through the western half thereof, which become +tributaries to the Rio Grande del Norte. The only settled +region, or rather the region containing the remains of large +settlements, lying west of the water-shed between the Colorado +of the West and the Rio Grande, is much farther north. +It is the so-called San Juan district, where extensive ruins are +still found, for the description of which we are indebted to +General Simpson, to Messrs. Jackson and Holmes, and to Mr. +Lewis H. Morgan. To reach this region, Coronado had to +pass either between Acoma and Zuñi, or between the Zuñi +and the Moqui towns. In either case he could not have +failed to notice one or the other of these pueblos; whereas +Nizza, as well as the reports of Coronado's march, particularly +insist upon the fact that Cibola lay on the borders of +a great uninhabited waste. + +Our choice is therefore limited between Zuñi and the +Moqui towns themselves; for there can be no doubt as to the +identity of the rock of Acuco or Tutahaco, east of Cibola, +with the pueblo of Acoma, whose remarkable situation, on +the top of a high, isolated rock, has made it the most conspicuous +object in New Mexico for nearly three centuries.[42] + +But there can be as little doubt, also, in regard to the identity +of the Moqui district with the "Tusayan" of Castañeda +and of Jaramillo. When the Moqui region first was made +known under that name ("Mohoce," "Mohace") in 1583, +by Antonio de Espejo, it lay westward from Cibola "four +journeys of seven leagues each." One of its pueblos was +called "Aguato" ("Aguatobi").[43] Fifteen years later (1598), +Juan de Oñate found the first pueblo of "Mohóce," twenty +leagues of the first one of "Juñi" ("Zuñi") to the westward.[44] +Besides, the "Rio del Tizon" was, at an early day, +distinctly identified with the Colorado River of the West.[45] + +Finally, we must notice here that the text of Hackluyt's +version of Espejo's report is in so far incorrect as it leads to +the inference that Espejo only admitted Cibola to be a +Spanish name for Zuñi, therefore making it doubtful whether +or not it was the original place ("y la llaman los Españoles +Cibola"). The original text of Espejo's report distinctly +says, however, "a province of six pueblos, called Zuñi, +and by another name, Cibola," thus positively identifying +the place.[46] + +We cannot, therefore, refuse to adopt the views of General +Simpson and of Mr. W. W. H. Davis, and to look to the +pueblo of Zuñi as occupying, if not the actual site, at least +one of the sites within the tribal area of the "Seven cities of +Cibola." Nor can we refuse to identify Tusayan with the +Moqui district, and Acuco with Acoma. + +This investigation has so far enabled us to locate, at the +time of their first discovery, _three_ of the principal pueblos or +groups of pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona. The pueblo +of Acoma appears to have occupied at that time the identical +striking position in which it is found to-day. The pueblo of +Zuñi, while it undoubtedly occupies the ground once claimed +by the cluster to which the name of Cibola was given, is but +the remaining one of six or seven villages then forming that +group, or a recent construction sheltering the remnants of +their former occupants. The Moqui towns appear to be the +same which the Spaniards found three hundred and forty +years ago, though additions from other tribes have, as we +shall subsequently establish, modified the character of their +dwellers. + +But the information to be derived from Coronado's march, +on the ethnography of New Mexico, is not confined to the +above. While at Cibola, Indians from a tribe or region called +"Cicuyé," which was said to be found far to the east, came to +see him. They brought with them buffalo-hides, prepared +and manufactured into shields and "helmets." Although +the Spaniards had heard of the buffalo before reaching Zuñi, +the animal itself had not been met with, and accordingly +Coronado sent Hernando de Alvarado to Cicuyé, and in quest +of the "buffalo country."[47] + +Cicuyé is the "Cicuique" of Juan Jaramillo, and the "Acuique" +of an anonymous relation of the year 1541: it lay to +the east of Acoma, through which the Spaniards passed.[48] +Between it and Acoma was the pueblo of "Tiguex," at a distance +of three days' march, while Cicuyé was five days from +Tiguex.[49] General Simpson identifies the latter with a point +on the Rio Grande del Norte, "at the foot of the Socorro +Mountains," and then places Cicuyé at "Pecos."[50] Between +Acoma and the Rio Grande there lies the Rio Puerco; and +on its banks other authorities, conspicuous among whom +is Mr. W. W. H. Davis, have located Tiguex, while Cicuyé, +according to them, was on the Rio Grande, somewhere +near the valley of Guadalupe.[51] Both conclusions have their +strong points; but both of them have also their weak sides. + +If it took five days of march from Zuñi to Acoma, three +days more, in a north-easterly direction, would have brought +the Spaniards to the Rio Grande, and certainly much beyond +the Rio Puerco; and then Pecos could easily be reached in +five days.[52] + +But we are unable to guess, even, at the length of each +journey. From Zuñi to Acoma the country was uninhabited; +therefore the length of each journey may have been great, +because there was nothing to attract the attention of the +Spaniards,--nothing to prevent them from hastening their +progress in order to reach their point of destination. From +Acoma on, the ethnographical character changed. The actual +distance to the Rio Grande may be shorter; but pueblos +sprung up at small intervals of space, which necessitated +greater caution, and therefore greater delay, in the movements +of the advancing party. Still, we have a guide of +great efficiency in another branch of information. The pueblo +of "Tiguex," mentioned as lying three days from Acoma, +indicates, seemingly, a settlement of _Tehua_-speaking Indians. +Now, the "Tehua" idiom is spoken in those pueblos which lie +directly north of Santa Fé. San Ildefonso, San Juan, Santa +Clara, Pohuaque, Nambé, and Tesuque. But it is quite apparent +that, considering the great distance of Santa Fé from +Acoma, the journeys, as indicated in Castañeda, would fall +very short of any of the pueblos mentioned.[53] + +The Tehua, like all the tribes along the Rio Grande, +suffered vicissitudes and consequent displacements; and +it might be advanced that one or the other of the Tehua +villages, formerly known as Tiguex, might now be destroyed. + +Fortunately, we need not resort to such hypotheses. It appears, +from documentary evidence of the year 1598, that there +was, distinct from the Tehua or Tegua, a tribe of "Chiguas," +or "Tiguas;"[54] and, from the notes of Father Juan Amando +Niel (written between 1703 and 1710), it results that their +settlements were near Bernalillo, on the Rio Grande; there +being at that time three villages, the most northern of which +was Santiago, the central one Puaray, near Bernalillo, and +the most southern one San Pedro.[55] The distance between the +first two pueblos, according to Fray Zarate Salmeron, in 1626, +was about one and a half leagues, or five and a half English +miles.[56] Tiguex, therefore, must be located on or near the +site of Bernalillo. The "Rio Tiguex" of Castañeda is the +Rio Grande del Norte, and the Indians of Tiguex belonged to +the stock of the "Tanos" language, now spoken still by a +few Indians at Galisteo, and by the inhabitants of the pueblos +of Sandia and Isleta.[57] Even the direction in which the Spaniards +moved from Acoma--that is, to the north-east--perfectly +agrees with that in which Bernalillo lies, whereas the +mouth of the Rio Puerco, below which General Simpson locates +Tiguex, lies south-east of the pueblo of Acoma. + +Having thus, as we believe, satisfactorily located Tiguex, it +is easy to locate Cicuyé. It can be nothing else than Pecos, +whose aboriginal Indian name, in the Jemez language, is +"Âgin," whereas Pecos is the "Paego" of the Qq'uêres idiom. +There is no other Indian pueblo answering to its description +and geographical location as given by the chroniclers of +Coronado. The fact that "when the army quitted Cicuyé to +go to Quivira, we entered the mountains, which it was necessary +to cross to reach the plains, and on the fourth day we +arrived at a great river, very deep, which passes also near +Cicuyé,"[58] does not at all militate against it. The easiest passage, +and the most accessible one from Pecos eastward, leads +directly to the slopes between the Rio Gallinas and the Rio +Pecos; and either of these two streams could be, and had to +be, met with very near to the confluence of both.[59] For other +proof, and very conclusive too, I refer to my detailed description +of the Ruins of the Pueblo de Pecos. + +I repeat, it is not to our purpose to describe the "faits et +gestes" of Coronado and of his men, but only to discuss the results +of his march for the Ethnography of New Mexico. I even +exclude Ethnology in as far as it does not include language. +The distribution of tribes and stocks of tribes designated by +idioms, as Coronado revealed it in 1540 to 1543, is to be the +final result of the discussion. Therefore, I leave the acts of the +Spaniards aside everywhere, when they are not essential to the +object, and do not even follow a strict chronological sequence. + +After Alvarado had left Cibola for Tiguex, Coronado himself +followed him; and, "taking the road to Tiguex," he crossed +a range of mountains where snow impeded his march,--and +during which march he and his men were once two and a half +days without water,--until finally he reached a pueblo called +"Tutahaco."[60] General Simpson has not paid any attention +to this place. Mr. Davis places it near Laguna.[61] This author +has forgotten that Tutahaco was further from Zuñi than +Tiguex itself, since it took Coronado more than eleven days +to reach it.[62] This could not have been the case, had he +passed _north_ of Acoma; he must consequently have passed +_south_ of it, and, while originally following the trail to Tiguex, +deviated in a direction from N.E. to E.S.E., crossing the +mountains, and then finally struck the "Tiguex" pueblos, +but in their southern limits, on the Rio Grande about "Isleta."[63] +Castañeda is very positive in regard to the fact that +"Tutahaco" was on the same river as "Tiguex," and that +from the former Coronado _ascended_ the stream to the latter.[64] +This river was the Rio Grande; and, consequently, "Tutahaco" +was south of "Puaray" or Bernalillo. There, he heard +of other pueblos further south still.[65] "Tutahaco" was "four +leagues to the south of Tiguex."[66] + +When Coronado reached "Tiguex" at last, it thereafter +became the centre of his operations. Castañeda very justly +remarks: "Tiguex is the central point;"[67] and a glance at the +map, substituting Bernalillo for it, will at once satisfy the reader +of the accuracy of this statement. + +From Tiguex an expedition was sent along the Rio Grande +and west of it. It discovered in succession: Quirix on the +river, with seven villages; Hemes with seven villages; Aguas +Calientes, three; Acha to the north-east; and, furthest in a +north-easterly direction, Braba. Four leagues west of the +river, Cia was met with; and, between Quirix and Cicuyé, +Ximera. Further north of Quirix, Yuque-Yunque was found +on the Rio Grande. An officer was also despatched to the +south beyond Tutahaco, and he indeed discovered "four villages" +at a great distance from the latter, and beyond these a +place where the Rio Grande "disappeared in the ground, like +the Guadiana in Estremadura."[68] + +Through our identifications of "Tiguex" with _Bernalillo_, +of "Cicuyé" with _Pecos_, and "Tutahaco" with _near Isleta_, it +becomes now extremely easy to locate all these pueblos in +the most satisfactory manner. "Quirix" is the _Queres_ district +Santo-Domingo, Cochití, etc.[69] "Hemes" and "Aguas +Calientes," together form the _Jemez_ and _San Diego_ clusters +of pueblos,[70] "Acha" is _Picuries_, "Braba," _Taos_.[71] The pueblo +of "Ximera" between Pecos and Queres is the _Tanos_ pueblo of +_San Cristóbal_.[72] "Yuque-Yunque" are the _Tehuas_, north of +Santa Fé,[73] and the four villages on the Rio Grande far south +of Isleta, naturally are found in the now deserted towns of +the "Piros" near Socorro, the most southerly and the least +known of the linguistical stocks of sedentary Indians in New +Mexico.[74] + +In sending the officers mentioned along the Rio Grande, as +far south as Mesilla probably, Coronado explored the territory +beyond the range of the pueblos, and he thus secured information +also concerning the roaming tribes. It is essential that +I should touch these here also, because the subsequent history +of the village Indians cannot be understood without connection +with their savage surroundings. I might as well state +here, that west of the Rio Grande and south of Zuñi, the entire +south-west corner of New Mexico, appears to have been uninhabited +in 1540. Stray hunting parties may have visited +it, though there was hardly any inducement, since the buffalo +was found east of the Rio Grande only, as far as New +Mexico is concerned.[75] + +The country visited along the Rio Grande, as far as Mesilla, +appears not to have given any occasion for its explorers, to +mention any wild tribes as its occupants. Still we know that, +east of Socorro and south-east, not forty years after Coronado, +the "Jumanas" Indians claimed the Eastern portions of +Valencia and Socorro counties; the regions of Abo, Quarac, +and Gran Quivira.[76] These savages, also called "Rayados" +("Striated" from their custom of painting or cutting their +faces and breasts for the sake of ornament), were reduced to +villages in 1629 only, by the Franciscans; and the ruins which +are now called Gran Quivira date from that time.[77] Dona +Ana county was (from later reports which I shall discuss in +a subsequent paper), roamed over, towards the Rio Grande, +by equally savage hordes, to which Antonio de Espejo and +others give the name of "Tobosas."[78] It is, of course, +impossible to assign boundaries to the Ranges of such +tribes. + +Very distinct ethnographic information, however, is given +by Coronado himself, as well as by Castañeda and by Jaramillo, +in regard to north-eastern New Mexico. This information +was secured in the year 1542, during his adventurous expedition +in search of Quivira. + +In regard to the route followed by him, I can but, in +a general way, heartily accept the conclusions of General +Simpson.[79] If, in some details, we may have some doubts +yet, I gladly bow to his superior knowledge of the country +and to his experience of travelling in the plains, in the +latter of which I am totally deficient. Coronado started +from Pecos, he crossed, probably, the Tecolote chain, threw +a bridge over the Rio Gallinas, and then moved on to the +north-east at an unknown distance. Although not as yet +satisfied that he reached as far north-east as General Simpson +states, and believing that he moved more in a _circle_ (as +men wandering astray in the plains are apt to do), there is +no doubt but that he went far into the "Indian territory," +and that Quivira--which, by the way, is plainly described +as an agglomeration of Indian "lodges" inhabited, not by +sedentary Indians of the pueblo type, but by a tribe exactly +similar in culture to the corn-raising aborigines of the Mississippi +valley[80]--was situated at all events somewhere between +the Indian territory and the State of Nebraska. This +is plainly confirmed by the reports of Juan de Oñate's fruitless +search of Quivira in 1599,[81] and principally by the +statements of the Indians of Quivira themselves, when +they visited that governor at Santa Fé thereafter.[82] They +told him that the direct route to Quivira was by the pueblo +of Taos. + +The Quivira of Coronado and of Oñate has therefore not +the slightest connection,--and never had, with the Gran +Quivira of this day, situated east of Alamillo, near the +boundaries of Socorro and Lincoln Counties, New Mexico, +and the ruins there;[83] which ruins are those of a Franciscan +mission founded after 1629, around whose church a village of +"Jumanas" and probably "Piros" Indians had been established +under direction of the fathers. + +The reports of Coronado, and others, reveal to us the east +and north-east of New Mexico as the "Buffalo Country," and +consequently as inhabited or roamed over by hunting savages. +Of these, two tribes were the immediate neighbors +of the Pueblos,--the "Teyas" to the north-east, and the +"Querechos" more to the east, south of the former probably. +The Ranges intermingled, and both tribes were at +war with each other. The "Teyas" were possibly Yutas,[84] +as these occupied the region latterly held by the Comanches. +About the "Querechos" I have, as yet, and at this distance +from all documentary evidence, not a trace of information. + +On the ethnographical map accompanying this sketch, I +have indicated the _Apaches_ as occupying _North-western New +Mexico_. In this locality they were found by Juan de Oñate +in 1598-99.[85] + +Coronado's homeward march offering no new points of +interest, I shall, in conclusion, briefly survey the Ethnography +of New Mexico, as it is sketched on the map, and +as established by the preceding investigation of the years +1540-43. + +We find the sedentary Indians of New Mexico agglomerated +in the following clusters:-- + +1. Between the frontier of Arizona and the Rio Grande, +from west to east: _Zuñi_, _Acoma_, with possibly _Laguna_. + +2. Along the Rio Grande, from north to south, between +"Sangre de Cristo" and Mesilla: _Taos_, _Picuries_, _Tehua_, +_Queres_, _Tiguas_ (branch of the _Tanos_), _Piros_. + +3. West of the Rio Grande valley: _Jemez_, including _San +Diego_ and _Cia_. + +4. East of the Rio Grande: _Tanos_, _Pecos_. + +Around these "pueblos," then, ranged the following wild +tribes. + +1. In the north-west: _Apaches_. + +2. In the north-east: _Teyas_. + +3. North-east and east: _Querechos_. + +4. South-east and south: _Jumanas_, _Tobosas_. + +The south-west of the territory appears to have been completely +uninhabited, and also devoid of the buffalo. The +innumerable herds of this quadruped roamed over the plains +occupying the eastern third of New Mexico and extending +into Texas. + +The _Moqui_ of Arizona, clearly identified with Coronado's +"Tusayan" are not noticed on the map, of course. + +If now we compare these localities in 1540 with the present +sites of the pueblos of New Mexico, it is self-evident that the +Zuñi, Acoma, Tiguas, Queres, Jemez, Tehua, and Taos still +occupy (Acoma excepted), if not the identical houses, at +least the same tribal grounds. The Piros have removed +to the frontier of Mexico, the Pecos are extinct as a tribe; +of the Tanos and Picuries, a few remain on their ancient +soil. Their fate is not a matter of conjecture, but of historical +record. + +While this discussion has proved, we believe, the truthfulness +and reliability of the chroniclers of Coronado's expedition, +and their great importance for the history of American +aborigines, it establishes at the same time the superior +advantages of New Mexico as a field for archæological and +ethnological study. It is the only region on the whole continent +where the highest type of culture attained by its aborigines--the +village community in stone or adobe buildings--has +been preserved on the respective territories of the tribes. +These tribes have shrunk, the purity of their stock has been +affected, their customs and beliefs encroached upon by civilization. +Still enough is left to make of New Mexico the objective +point of serious, practical archæologists; for, besides the +living pueblo Indians, besides the numerous ruins of their +past, the very history of the changes they have undergone is +partly in existence, and begins three hundred and forty years +ago, with Coronado's adventurous march.[86] + +AD. F. BANDELIER. + +SANTA FÉ, N. M., Sept. 19, 1880. + + + + +NOTE. + +THE GRAND QUIVIRA. See p. 26. + +The following extract is from the "General Description" in the +field-notes of the survey in 1872 of the base line of the public surveys +in New Mexico by United States Deputy Surveyor Willison, taken from the +original notes on file at the United States Surveyor General's office at +Santa Fé:-- + + "The Gran Quivira, about which so much has been written and + so many attempts made to reconcile with the city of that + name spoken of by the early Spanish explorers, and which was + said by them to be the seat of immense wealth, is passed + through by the line in Sec. 34, range 8 East. The most + prominent building is the church, which, as well as all the + other buildings, is of limestone laid in mortar. The ground + plan presents the form of a cross. The dimensions of the + buildings are as follows:-- + + "Width of short arm of cross, 33 feet; width of long arm of + cross, 42 feet. Their axes are respectively 48 feet long and + 140.5 feet long, and their intersection 35 feet from the + head of the cross. The walls have a thickness of 6 feet, and + a height of about 30 feet. The main entrance has a height of + 11 feet, an outside width of 11 feet, and an inside width of + 16.5 feet. The church is situated due east and west, having + its front to the east. + + "Extending south from the church a distance of 160 feet, and + connected with it by a door in the short arm of the cross, + is a building containing a number of apartments. On the + window-frames of this building the mark of the carpenter's + scribe is still plainly visible, though doubtless exposed to + the action of the atmosphere for nearly two centuries. The + carved timbers in the church are still in a good state of + preservation; a portion of the roof still remains; some of + the timbers must have weighed 3,000 pounds at the time they + were brought to this place, and they could not have been + procured within a less distance than sixteen miles. + + "The site of the ruins is elevated about one hundred feet + above the surrounding country, and embraces an area of about + eighteen acres. The town has been well and compactly built, + and probably contained a population approaching five + thousand souls. Numerous excavations have been made by the + Mexicans in search of the treasures said to have been left + by the Jesuits when they were expelled by the Indians. In + one of these excavations I found a large quantity of human + bones, including a skull. From the formation of the latter, + and its thickness, it was undoubtedly that of an Indian. + + "The questions that arise in contemplating these ruins are, + how was it possible for such a number of people not only to + exist, but to build a town of such superior construction at + a point which is now entirely destitute of water, and to + which water cannot be brought from any present source, the + nearest water being fifteen miles distant? what was their + occupation? and what has become of them? + + "That this town was the abode of Jesuit [Franciscan?] + priests, and a tribe of Indians under their control, the + architecture of the buildings conclusively shows. + + "That they were there for agricultural and pastoral purposes + I consider certain, from the fact that there are no + evidences of mines, or any mineral indications of any kind + in the surrounding country, and that the country, with the + single exception of the absence of water, is well adapted to + the mode of cultivation pursued and crops raised by the + Indians. + + "That water was brought there from some distant point--and + distant it would have been--cannot be the case, as the face + of the country would have required the construction of + numerous aqueducts for its conveyance, remains of which + would be found at the present time; and why would a people + bring water a long distance for the purpose of working lands + no more valuable than such as could have been had at the + water? + + "Where, then, did the inhabitants get the water necessary + for their subsistence? There are two arroyos between the + ruins and the Mesa Jumanes, within a mile of the town, + having well-defined watercourses, which might have + contained permanent water at the time that the town was + inhabited. Even at the present time, the drainage from these + arroyos furnishes water for a laguna some five miles below + that lasts during about one half the year. Again, springs + may have existed around the rise upon which the town is + situated that, from natural causes, have become dry. + + "The phenomenon of the failures of water is no uncommon one + in this region, as is evidenced by the numerous vents where + the surrounding rocks show the action of running water. + + "A case directly supporting the assumption of the failure of + the water is furnished at a place about thirty-five miles + northerly from the Gran Quivira, known as 'La Cienega.' At + this point a stream of water, furnished by two springs, and + running to a distance of about a mile at all seasons of the + year, which has never been known to be dry within the memory + of the oldest inhabitant, has, within the last year, + entirely disappeared; and even digging to a considerable + depth in the bed of the late springs fails to find the + stream, or the channel by which it has so mysteriously + disappeared. + + "To those at all familiar with the cretaceous formation of + the south-eastern portion of New Mexico, and who have seen + the numerous rivers that flow hundreds of inches of water + within a few yards of where they make their first + appearance, and the total disappearance of these streams + within a few miles, who have seen the water flowing in caves + and subterraneous streams, and the fact that the whole + country is cavernous, can easily imagine the possibility of + a stream acting upon its cretaceous bed, and eventually + wearing a channel, to connect with some immense cavern, and + disappearing at once from the surface beyond all reach of + human power. + + "To the south of the Gran Quivira, at a distance of about + twenty miles, commences a _mal pais_, an immense bed of + lava, sixty miles in length from north to south, and + covering an area of five hundred square miles. To the + south-west of this commences a salt marsh, which has an area + of fifty square miles, and which is fed entirely by + subterranean streams from the Sacramento and White + Mountains, receiving without doubt by the same means the + drainage of this plain for a hundred miles to the north. The + above facts are, I think, sufficient to account for the + absence of water at the present time near Gran Quivira. + + "As to what became of the inhabitants of this place, as well + as those of Abo and Quarrá to the north-west,--towns that + are coeval with the Gran Quivira,--we can only conjecture. + The most reasonable conclusion that can be arrived at is + that they were exterminated by the Spaniards upon their + reoccupation of the country. Though history is silent as to + the complete operations of the Spaniards upon their return + to New Mexico, yet it is a fact established by documentary + evidence that a relentless war was waged against the + Indians, and a number of tribes are spoken of as being + engaged in certain battles, of which tribes we know nothing + at the present day; and in some instances it is stated that + some tribes sued for peace, and promised obedience to the + rule of the conquerors, for which they received grants of + lands that they at present occupy. The inhabitants of Gran + Quivira, Abo, and Quarro would be among the first that the + Spaniards would meet on their reoccupation of the country, + and there is every reason to believe that they were + exterminated by the incensed invaders." + + + + +[1] _Las siete cuevas_: in Nahuatl _Chicomoztoc_, from _chicome_, seven, +and _oztoc_, cave. Alonzo de Molina, _Vocabulario Mexicano_, 1571, parte +iia. pp. 20 and 78. Fray Juan de Tobar, _Codice Ramirez_, p. 18. + +[2] Fray Diego Durán, _Historia de las Yndias de Nueva-España, é Islas +de Tierra Firme_, cap. i. p. 8; _Codex Vaticanus_, Kingsborough, vols. +i., ii., vi.; _Anales de Cuauhtitlan: Anales del Museo Nacional de +México_, tom. i. entrega 7, p. 7 of 2d vol., but incorporated in the +first. "I acatl ipan quizque Chicomoztoc in Chichimeca omitoa moternuh +in imitoloca." + +[3] _Historia de los Indios de la Nueva-España, in Coleccion de +Documentos para la Historia de México_, by J. G. Icazbalceta, vol. i. p. +7. + +[4] _Segunda Relacion Anónima de la Jornada de Nuño de Guzman, in +Coleccion de Documentos_, etc., vol. ii. p. 303. + +[5] The early literature on this subject will only be fully known when +the remarkable collection called _Libro de Oro_ shall have been +published by Señor Icazbalceta, its meritorious owner. This valuable +collection of manuscripts dates from the sixteenth century, and +contains, besides a number of official reports on local matters of +Mexico and districts pertaining to it, the chronicles of the tezcucan +Juan Bautista Pomar, a copy of Motolinia, and a number of MSS. written +between 1529 and 1547 at the instance of the much-abused Bishop +Zumárraga. These MSS. contain the results of the earliest investigations +on Mexican history and tradition. + +The natives of Mexico appear to have had no knowledge, nay, not even the +most dim recollection, of the _fauna_ of South-western North America. +While their so-called calendar, in the graphic tokens used to designate +each one of the twenty days of their conventional "month," contains the +forms of all the larger quadrupeds roaming over Mexico and Central +America, the tapir excepted, we look in vain for the coyote, the bear, +the mountain-sheep, and the buffalo. + +[6] _Popol Vuh_, part iii. cap. iv. p. 216, cap. vi. pp. 226, 228, cap. +viii. p. 238, etc. + +[7] Hernando Cortés, _Carta Quarta_, dated Temixtitan, 15 October, 1524, +Vedia i. p. 102. Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdés, _Historia General +y Natural de las Indias_, lib. xxxiii. cap. xxxvi. vol. iii. p. 447, +lib. xxxiv. cap. viii. p. 576, Madrid, 1853. The information was derived +from Gonzalo de Sandoval. See Antonio de Herrera, _Historia General de +los Hechos de los Castellanos en las Islas y Tierra Firme del Mar +Oceano_, dec. iii. lib. iii. cap. xvii. p. 106, edition of 1726. + +[8] _Relacion de las Ceremonias y Ritos, Poblacion y Gobierno de los +Indios de la Provincia de Mechuacan_, p. 113, from the _Coleccion de +Documentos para la Historia de la España. Tercera Relacion Anónima de la +Jornada de Nuño de Guzman, Coleccion de Documentos_, Icazbalceta, ii. +pp. 443, 449, 451. _Matias de la Mota Padilla, Historia de la +Nueva-Galicia_, published 1870, cap. iii. p. 27. Oviedo, lib. vi. cap. +xxxiii. vol. i. pp. 222, 223. + +[9] _Quarta Relacion Anónima de la Jornada de Nuño de Guzman, Coleccion +de Documentos_, Icazbalceta, ii. p. 475. Oviedo, lib. vi. cap. xxxiii. +vol. i. p. 223. + +[10] In 1527, Herrera, dec. iv. lib. ii. cap. iv. pp. 26, 27. + +[11] He was treasurer of Narvaez' expedition, and subsequently, upon his +return, or rather in 1541, became _adelantado_ of Paraguay. + +[12] He wrote all from memory. The title of his work is _Naufragios de +Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca, y Relacion de la Jornada que hizo á la +Florida_. It was first printed in 1555, at Valladolid. My references are +to the reprint in Vedia's _Historiadores Primitivos de Indias_, vol. i. + +[13] Cabeza de Vaca, _Naufragios_, etc., cap. xxxvii. p. 548, xxxiv. p. +545. According to Herrera, dec. vi. lib. i. cap. vii. p. 11 and cap. +viii. p. 11, it might be either 1536 or 1534, "el año pasado de 1534." +Oviedo, lib. xxxv. cap. vi. p. 614, intimates as much as 1538. Fray +Antonio Tello, _Historia de la Nueva-Galicia_, fragment preserved in +_Coleccion de Documentos_, Icazbalceta, ii. cap. xii. p. 358, says +"habían llegado ese año de treinta y tres á aquellas tierras," 1533. + +[14] Cabeza de Vaca, cap. xxxi. pp. 542, 543. + +[15] Id., p. 543. + +[16] He was a native of Savoy, Italy, and was with Sebastian de +Belalcazar during the latter's conquest of Quito. Juan de Velasco, +_Histoire du royaume de Quito_, French translation by Ternaux-Compans, +Introd. p. viii. He wrote the following books: _Conquista de la +Provincia del Quito: Ritos y Ceremonias de los Indios_; _Las dos Lineas +de los Incas y de los Scyris en las Provincias del Perú y del Quito_; +_Cartas Informativas de lo Obrado en las Provincias del Perú y del +Cuzco_. These manuscripts may still exist. According to Fray Augustin de +Vetancurt (Menologio Franciscano, ed. of 1871, pp. 117, 118, 119), he +was born at Nizza, and in 1531 came to America, being in Peru in 1532. +Thence he went to Nicaragua and Mexico. He was provincial from 1540 to +1543, and died at Mexico, March 25, 1558. + +[17] Fray Marcos Nizza, _Descubrimiento de las Siete Ciudades_, p. 329. + +[18] Nizza, p. 332. Herrera, dec. vi. lib. vii. cap. vii. p. 156. + +[19] In _Documentos para la Historia de Méjico_, 1856, 4 série, vol. i. +p. 327. The diary has not even a title. Mentioned by Father Jacob +Sedelmair, S. J., _Relacion que hizo ... Misionero de Tubatama_, in +_Documentos para la Historia de Méjico_, 3a série, vol. ii. pp. 846, +848, 857, 859. + +[20] On the map of Father Eusebio Francisco Kino, in _Der neue +Weltbott_, by P. Joseph Stöcklein, vol. i. 2d edition, 1728, there +appears St. Ludov. de Bacapa. The diary of Mange, p. 327, is explicit. + +[21] Manuel Orozco y Berra, _Geografía de las Lenguas y Carta +Etnográfica de México_, part iii. cap. xxiii. pp. 345-353, etc. +Francisco Pimentel, _Cuadro Descriptivo y Comparativo de las Lenguas +Indígenas de México_, 1865, vol. ii. pp. 91, 92-116. + +[22] The fact that he became the guide of Coronado, and led him to +Cibola, indicates that Fray Marcos crossed the Gila, since otherwise the +Spaniards would have traversed the Sierra Madre, and entered New Mexico +from Chihuahua. It is true that the general direction of Coronado's +march from Culiacan was from south to north, inclining to the _east_. + +[23] The attest of D. Antonio de Mendoza, concerning Nizza's report, +bears the date, Mexico, 2 Sept., 1539. Consequently, Fray Marcos had +returned previously. See _Relation du Voyage de Cibola_, +Ternaux-Compans, Appendix, p. 282. + +[24] This word is said to be now found only in the dialect of the pueblo +of Isleta, south of Santa Fé, under the form _sibúlodá_, buffalo. Albert +S. Gatschet, _Zwölf Sprachen aus dem Südwesten Nord Amerika's_, Weimar, +1876, p. 106. + +[25] Herrera, _Descripcion de las Indias_, cap. ix. p. 17, says that +Mexico has 4,000 vecinos. This was in 1610, about. + +[26] Lewis H. Morgan, _On the Ruins of a Stone Pueblo on the Animas +River_, in _12th Annual Report of the Peabody Museum of American +Archæology_, etc., 1880, p. 550. + +[27] _The Spanish Conquest of New Mexico_, Doylestown, Pa., 1869. + +[28] Pedro de Castañeda y Nagera, _Relation du Voyage de Cibola_, +translation of Ternaux-Compans, Paris, 1838, part ii. cap. iii. p. 163. + +[29] Juan Jaramillo, _Relation du Voyage fait à la Nouvelle-Terre sous +les Ordres du Général Francisco Vasquez de Coronado_, in _Voyage de +Cibola_, Append. vi. pp. 365, 366, 367. + +[30] Castañeda, i. cap. ix. pp. 40, 41, ii. cap. iii. p. 162. The word +is composed of _chichiltic_, a red object, and _calli_, house. Molina, +ii. pp. 11, 19. + +[31] General Simpson locates the "Casas Grandes" on the Gila, in lat. +33° 4' 21" and lon. 111° 45' Greenwich. _Coronado's March_, p. 326. + +[32] _Relation_, etc., p. 365. "Nous souffrîmes quelques fatigues, +jusqu'à ce que nous eussions atteint une chaîne de montagnes dont +j'avais entendu parler à la Nouvelle-Espagne, à plus de trois-cents +lieues de là. Nous donnâmes à l'endroit où nous passâmes le nom de +Chichiltic-Calli, parce que nous avions su par des Indiens que nous +laissions derrière nous, qu'ils l'appelaient ainsi," etc. Id. "On nous +dit qu'elle se nommait Chichiltic-Calli. Après avoir franchi ces +montagnes." ... + +[33] Jaramillo, _Relation_, etc., p. 367. Simpson, p. 325. For +descriptions of the "Casas Grandes," I refer to Castañeda, i. cap. ix. +pp. 40, 41, ii. cap. iii. pp. 161, 162, to be compared with Mateo Mange, +_Documentos para la Historia de México_, série 4, vol. i. cap. v. p. +282, describing Father Kino's visit there in 1697, cap. x. pp. 362, 363. +Cristóbal Martin Bernal, Francisco de Acuña, Eusebio Francisco Kino, +etc., _Relacion_, in _Documentos_, 3 série, vol. ii. p. 884; this bears +date, 4 Dec., 1697. Fray Tomás Ignacio Lizazoin, _Informe sobre las +Provincias de Sonora y Nueva-Vizcaya, Documentos_, 3 série, ii. p. 698. +Segundo Media, _Rudo Ensayo Tentativo de una Prevencional Descripcion de +la Provincia de Sonora, sus Terminos y Confines_, written by a Jesuit +about 1761 or 1762, and published by Buckingham Smith at S. Augustine in +1863, cap. ii. sec. 3, p. 18. Padre Font, in _Relation de Cibola_, +Append, vii. pp. 383-386. Of more recent descriptions, I enumerate +Lieut. W. H. Emory, _Notes of a Military Reconnaissance, etc., Executive +Documents_, 41, pp. 80, 81; Capt. A. R. Johnston, _Journal_, etc., id. +pp. 582, 584, 596, 597; John R. Bartlett, _Personal Narrative of +Explorations and Incidents_, etc., vol. ii. cap. xxxii. pp. 265-280. +While we can easily identify the "Casas Grandes," seen in 1846-47 and +1852, with those described in 1697, 1761, and 1775, in regard to the +earliest description of "Chichilticalli," we are inclined to agree with +Mr. L. H. Morgan, _Seven Cities of Cibola_, that "there is no ruin on +the Gila at the present time that answers the above description." + +[34] _Relation de Cibola_, part ii. cap. iii. p. 163, and especially +part iii. cap. ix. p. 243. "On fit d'abord cent dix lieues vers l'ouest, +en partant de Mexico; Ton se dirigea ensuite vers le nord-est pendant +cent lieues; puis pendant six cent cinquante vers le nord, et l'on +n'était encore arrive qu'aux ravins des bisons. De sorte qu'après avoir +fait plus de huit cent cinquante lieues, on n'était pas en définitive à +plus de quatre cents de Mexico." + +The "Casas Grandes" in Chihuahua are on the river of the same name, +north-west of the city of Chihuahua, and nearly south of János. I have +been unable as yet to ascertain when they first came to notice. +According to Antonio de Oca Sarmiento, _Letter to the General Francisco +de Gorraez Beaumont_, dated 22 Sept., 1667, in _Mandamiento del Señor +Virey, Marques de Mancora, sobre las Doctrinas de Casas Grandes, que +estaban en las Yumas, Jurisdiccion de San Felipe del Parral_, in +_Documentos_, 4 série, vol. iii. p. 231, etc., the Padre Pedro de +Aparicio died there, and the General Francisco de Gorraez Beaumont, 1 +_Letter_, 25 Oct., 1667, p. 234, adds: "Que en este puesto de las Casas +Grandes era parimo de minéria y segun tradicion antigua y ruinas que se +veian que decian ser del tiempo de Moctezuma." A very good description +of the ruins has been given by José Agustin Escudero, _Noticias +Estadísticas del Estado de Chihuahua_, Mexico, 1834, cap. viii. pp. 234, +235, who visited them in 1819. Finally, Mr. J. R. Bartlett, _Personal +Narrative_, etc., vol. ii. cap. xxxv., has furnished excellent +descriptions and plates. + +It is hardly possible to determine if these ruins would better +correspond to "Chichilticalli" than those on the Gila. The fact that the +former presented, in 1819, the appearance of one solitary building, +whereas the latter, in 1697, composed a group of _eleven_, is +noteworthy, but far from being a critical point. + +[35] _Relation_, etc, ii. cap. iii. p. 165. + +[36] _Relation_, etc., p. 370. + +[37] Castañeda, i. cap. xi. pp. 58, 63, 64. + +[38] _Relation_, i. cap. xii., pp. 69, 70; ii. cap. iii. p. 166. + +[39] _Relation_, p. 370. Castañeda, i. cap. xiii. p. 76. + +[40] _Relation_, p. 370. + +[41] Jaramillo, pp. 370 and 371. + +[42] Acoma is always described with particular care by the older Spanish +authors. Antonio de Espejo, Carta, 23 April, 1584, in _Documentos +Inéditos del Archivo de Indias_, vol. xv. p. 179: "Y hallamos un pueblo +que se llama, Acoma, donde nos pareció, habria mas de seis mil ánimas, +el cual está asentado sobre una peña alta que tiene mas de cincuenta +estados en alto," etc. Juan de Oñate, _Discurso de las Jornadas que hizo +el Campo de Su Magestad desde la Nueva-España á la Provincia de la +Nueva-México, Documentos Inéditos_, vol. xvi. pp. 268, 270: "A quatro de +Diciembre [1598?], lo mataron en Acoma, los Indios de aquella fortaleza, +que es la mejor en sitio de toda la cristiandad ..." "dieron el primer +asalto al Peñol de Acóma ..." _Obediencia y Vassalaje á Su Magestad por +los Indios del Pueblo de Acóma, Documentos Inéditos_, xvi. p. 127: "Al +pié de una peña muy grande sobre la qual en lo alto délla está fundado y +poblado el Pueblo que llaman de Acóma, ..." dated 27 October, 1598. Fray +Agustin de Vetancurt, _Crónica de la Provincia del Santo Evangélio de +México_, trat. iii. cap. vi. p. 319. "Al Oriente del Pueblo de Zia está +el Peñol de Acoma, que tiene una legua en Circuito de treinta Estados de +alto." _Menologio Franciscano_, p. 247. Both references are taken from +the edition of 1871. Furthermore, in the anonymous _Relacion del Suceso +de la Jornada que Francisco Vazquez hizo en el Descubrimiento de +Cibola_, año de 1531 (should be 1541), in vol. xiv. of the _Documentos +del Archivo de Indias_, we find Acuco (_east_ of Cibola), "el cual ellos +llaman en su lengua _Acuco_, y el padre Márcos le llamaba _Hacús_:" now +Hacús forcibly recalls the proper name of Acoma, which by the Qq'uêres +Indians, to whose stock its inhabitants belong, is called "Âgo." + +[43] _Carta_, 23 April, 1584, _Documentos Inéditos_, vol. xv. p. 182. + +[44] _Discurso de las Jornadas, etc., Documentos Inéditos_, vol. xvi. p. +274. _Obediencia y Vassallaje á Su Magestad por los Indios del Pueblo de +San Joan Baptista_, id. vol. xv. p. 115. That the "Mohoces" were the +Moqui is evidenced by Padre Geronimo de Zarate Salmeron, _Relacion de +todas las Provincias que en el Nuevo-México se han visto y sabido así +por Mar como por Tierra, desde el Año de 1538, hasta el Año de 1626. +Documentos para la Historia de México_, série 3, vol. i. p. 30. + +[45] Castañeda, i. cap. x. pp. 49, 50. Melchor Diaz reached the Rio del +Tizon, starting from Culhuacan and Sonora. This river emptied into the +Gulf of California, and he found there traces of Fernando de Alarcon. +The latter went up the Rio Colorado, and learned many details about +Cibola from Indians living along the river. _Relation de la Navigation +et de la Découverte faite par le Capitaine Fernando Alarcon, Voyage de +Cibola_, Ternaux-Compans, Append, iv. cap. i. p. 302: "Nous y trouvâmes +un très grand fleuve dont le courant était si rapide, qu'à peine +pouvions nous nous y maintenir," cap. v. pp. 324-326; cap. vi. p. 331. +Herrera, dec. vi. lib. ix. cap. xi. p. 212. Fray Juan de Torquemada, +_Monarchia Indiana_, lib. v. cap. xi. p. 609, ed. of 1723. While Alarcon +was endeavoring to meet Coronado by sailing or boating up the Colorado +from its mouth, the latter sent Garci-Lopez de Cardenas to explore a +river which the Indians of "Tusayan" had mentioned to Pedro de Tobar; +and he reached this river after twenty days' march. It is described as +follows by Castañeda (i. cap. xi. p. 62): "After these twenty days' +marching, they indeed reached this river, whose shores are so high that +they thought themselves at least three or four leagues up in the air. +The country is covered with low and crippled pines; it is exposed to the +north, and the cold is so severe that, although it was summer, it could +hardly be supported. The Spaniards for three days marched along these +mountains, hoping to find a place where they could reach the river, +which, from above, appeared to be about one fathom in width, while the +Indians said it was wider than one-half league; but it was found to be +impossible," etc. This is a fair picture of the cañons of the Colorado +River of the West, the only one emptying into the head of the Gulf of +California; and Castañeda adds (p. 65): "This river was the del Tizon." + +[46] _Carta, Documentos Inéditos_, vol. xv. p. 180: "Una provincia, que +son seis pueblos, que la provincia llaman Zuñi, y por otro nombre +Cibola. Richard Hackluyt, _The Third and last Volume of the Voyages, +Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation_." _El +Viaie que hizo Antonio de Espeio en el Año de ochenta y tres_, pp. +457-464, has "dieron con una Provincia, que se nombra en lengua de los +naturales Zuny, y la llaman los Españoles Cibola, ay en ella cantidad de +Indios ..." + +[47] Castañeda, i. cap. xii. pp. 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73. + +[48] Jaramillo, pp. 370, 371. Castañeda, p. 69. + +[49] Castañeda, p. 71. + +[50] _Coronado's March_, pp. 333-336. + +[51] _The Spanish Conquest of New Mexico_, cap. xxiv. p. 185, note I; +cap. xxv. p. 198, note I; also p. 199. I attach particular importance to +the opinions of Mr. Davis. He visited New Mexico at a time when it was +still "undeveloped," and his writings on the country show thorough +knowledge, and much documentary information. It is to be regretted that +he fails absolutely to mention his sources in any satisfactory manner, a +defect which might deprive his valuable book of much of its +unquestionable reliability and importance. The attentive student, +however, finds, after going seriously through the mass of material still +on hand, that Mr. Davis has been so painstaking and honest, that he is +very much inclined to forgive the lack of citations. + +[52] From Bernalillo or Sandia, the easiest way, and the one which +Alvarado, by Coronado's order, must certainly have taken, is south of +Galisteo. This would have led him to Pecos, either by the Cañon de San +Cristóbal or, as I presume, to the lower valley, and thence up the river +to the Pueblo. Castañeda (ii. cap. v. p. 176) speaks of abandoned +villages along the route. There is a ruin at the place called "Pueblo," +one at San José, and another at Kingman; all along the line of the +"Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé Railroad." I presume, therefore, that he +took this route. At all events, he went _south_ of the Tanos, else he +would have struck the villages called later San Lázaro and San +Cristóbal, both then occupied. + +[53] The belief has been expressed to me at Santa Fé, by authority which +I have learned to respect, that on the site of the present city there +stood the old town of Tiguex. This belief has been strengthened by the +popular tale, that the old adobe house, of two low stories, adjoining +the ancient chapel of San Miguel, was an ancient Indian home. Personal +inspection has, however, satisfied me of the fact that this building, +while certainly very old, is certainly not one of an Indian "pueblo." It +forms a rectangle: _Met._ 20.71' from east to west, and 4.80' from north +to south. Its front has five doors, and the upper story as many windows. +It is entirely of adobe, and may indeed have been an Indian house, but +built after their old plan, when Santa Fé had already been founded. +There is no notice of any pueblo on this site. Besides, documentary +evidence regarding the establishment of Santa Fé absolutely ignores the +existence of any Indian settlement at that place in 1598. Juan de Oñate, +_Discurso de las Jornadas que hizo el Capitan de Su Magestad desde la +Nueva-España á la Provincia de la Nuevo-Mexico_, in _Coleccion de +Documentos del Archivo de Indias_, vol. xvi. pp. 263-266. _Obediencia y +Vasallaje á Su Magestad por los Indios de San Joan Baptista._ Id., Sept +9, 1598, pp. 115, 116: "Al Padre Fray Cristóbal de Salazar, la Provincia +de los Tepúas (_Tehuas_) con los pueblos de Triapé, Triáque el de Sant +Yldefonso y Santa Clara, y este pueblo de Sant Joan Batista y el de Sant +Gabriele el de Troomaxiaquino, Xiomato, Axol, Comitría, Quiotracó, y +mas, la Cibdad de Sant Francisco de los Españoles, que al presente se +Edifican." + +[54] _Obediencia y Vasallaje á Su Magestad por los Indios de +Santo-Domingo._ Id., p. 102. July 7, 1598. _Obediencia, etc., de S. Joan +Baptista_, pp. 112, 115, "los Chiguas ó Tiguas." + +[55] _Apuntamientos que sobre el Terreno hizo el Padre José Amando Niel, +Documentos para la Historia de México_, 3a série, vol. i. pp. 98, 99: +"Estan pobladas junto á la sierra de Puruai que toma el nombre del +principal pueblo que se llama así, y orilla del gran rio." There were +then three pueblos: San-Pedro, "rio abajo de Puruai;" Santiago, "rio +arriba." Puaray was destroyed and in ruins in 1711. It was here that +Father Augustin Ruiz was killed in 1581. Fray Gerónimo de Zarate +Salmeron, _Relacion_, etc., p. 10. Fray Agustin de Vetancurt, _Menologio +Franciscano_, pp. 412, 413. Jean Blaeu, _Douzième livre de la Géographie +Blaviane_, Amsterdam, 1667, p. 62, calls the Tiguas "Tebas," and says +they had "quinze bourgades." Vetancurt, _Menologio_, but principally +_Crónica de la provincia del Santo Evangelio de México_, gives the +Tiguas, before 1680, the following stations and pueblos: Isleta, +Alameda, Puray, and Sandia, pp. 310-313. + +[56] _Relacion_, etc., p. 10. + +[57] A. S. Gatschet, _Zwölf Sprachen aus dem Südwesten Nord-Amerika's_, +Weímar, 1876, p. 41. + +[58] Castañeda, i. cap. xix. p. 116. + +[59] Simpson, _Coronadó's March_, pp. 336. + +[60] Castañeda, i. cap. xiii. p. 76. + +[61] _Spanish Conquest_, cap. xxiii. p. 180, note 5, p. 181, note 6. + +[62] Castañeda, p. 76. + +[63] Isleta is probably a modern _pueblo_, that is one erected since +1598 and previous to 1680, and I shall treat it as such till I am better +informed. The description by Vetancurt ("_Crónica_," etc., trat. iii. +cap. v. pp. 310 and 311, as in the year 1680) is characteristic: +"Fórmase un rio de la nieve que se derrite, que con el rio Norte cercan +un campo de cinco leguas ... Es el paso para las provincias de Acoma, +Zunias, Moqui ..." In a straight line, the distance from Bernalillo is +about twenty-five miles. + +[64] p. 76. "Le général remonta ensuite la rivière, et visita toute la +province jusqu'à ce qu'il fut arrivé à Tiguex." + +[65] p. 76. "Ils apprirent qu'en descendant la rivière ils trouveraient +encore d'autres villages." + +[66] Castañeda, ii. cap. iv. p. 168. + +[67] Cap. vi. p. 182, part ii. In looking at the map, it will be seen +that Bernalillo is, indeed, a central point. Along the Rio Grande it is +almost at equal distances from Taos at the north, and Socorro at the +south, whereas it is little further (in an east-westerly line) from +Bernalillo to Zuñi, than from Bernalillo to the plains. The accuracy of +Castañeda becomes more and more wonderful, the closer his narrative is +studied and compared with the country itself. His distance exceeds the +bee-line regularly almost by one-third; a very natural fact, since he +computes the lengths from the routes taken. + +[68] These facts are taken from the following passages of Castañeda: i. +cap. xviii., ii. cap. vi., Quéres; i. cap. xxii, ii. cap. vi., Hemes and +Aguas Calientes; ii. cap. iv., Acha; i. cap. xxii., ii. cap. vi., Braba; +i. cap. xviii., Cia; ii. cap. v., Ximera; and i. cap. xxii., ii. cap. +vi., Yuque-Yunque, perhaps Cuyamunque. + +[69] Santo Domingo, Cochiti, San Felipe, Santa-Ana, and Cia are the +Quéres pueblos near the Rio Grande still remaining. They all then +existed in 1598. _Obediencia, etc., á S. Joan Baptista_, p. 113. + +[70] The Jemez or Emmes, in 1598, contained nine "pueblos," or rather +places of habitation. _Obediencia, etc., de Santo Domingo_, p. 102. +Niel, p. 99, mentions five. + +[71] Castañeda, i. cap. xxii. It is unmistakable. Compare Simpson, +_Coronado's March_, p. 339. Vetancurt, _Crónica_, etc., p. 319. "Este es +el último pueblo hácia el norte." Jean Blaeu, _Géographie_, etc., p. 62. + +[72] This is equally definite. Castañeda, ii. cap. v. p. 177. "Between +Cicuyé and the province of Quirix, there exists a small very well +fortified village which the Spaniards have named Ximera, and another one +which appears to have been very large." This shows that the Spaniards +went from Pecos by the San Cristóbal cañon. + +[73] To-day Tezuque, Nambé, Santa Clara, San Juan, San Ildefonso, +Pojuaque, and, besides, Cuyamunque in ruins. + +[74] The Piros were totally dispersed during the intertribal wars of +1680-89. Niel, p. 104. Senecu, near Mesilla, is a Piros pueblo, founded +by Fray Antonio de Arteaga in 1630. Fray Balthasar de Medina, _Chrónica +de la Provincia de S. Diego de México de Religiosos Descalzos de N. S. +P. S. Francisco de la Nueva-España_, México, 1682, lib. iv. cap. vii. +fol. 168. Vetancurt, _Crónica_, p. 309. It is therefore a Spanish +"colony," and not an original pueblo. + +[75] Castañeda, i. cap. ix., ii. cap. iii. iv. p. 183, vii. p. 188. Fray +Marcos de Niza, pp. 274-276, Jaramillo, pp. 368, 369. + +[76] Antonio Espejo, _Viaje_, etc. Vetancurt, _Crónica_, etc., pp. 302, +303. + +[77] Vetancurt, _Crónica_, etc., trat. iii. cap. iv. pp. 302, 303-305, +cap. vi. pp. 324, 325. + +[78] Espejo, _Viaje_, etc. + +[79] _Coronado's March_, pp. 336-339. Don José Cortes, _Memorias sobre +las Provincias del Norte de Nueva-España_, 1799. MSS. of the library of +Congress, fol. 87. + +[80] Coronado, Letter of Oct. 20, 1541, p. 354. Castañeda, ii. cap. +viii. p. 194, Jaramillo, pp. 376, 377. + +[81] He went from Santa Fé N.E. and E.N.E., and struck the +"Escansaques:" might they have been the "Kansas?" Gerónimo de Zarate +Salmeron, _Relacion_, etc., pp. 26, 27. + +[82] Zarate Salmeron, p. 29. + +[83] I append a valuable description of these ruins from the +Surveyor-General's office at Santa Fé, communicated to me by Mr. D. J. +Miller. (See p. 30.) + +[84] This is made probable through the statement of Father José Amando +Niel (p. 108), to the effect that the Yutas warred against the Pananas +and the Jumanas. The latter were about Socorro, therefore the Yutas must +have descended east to below Pecos. Their arrival east of the Sierra +Madre is placed, through the reports of the Pecos, about 1530. +Castañeda, ii. cap. v., p. 178. + +[85] _Obediencia, etc., de S. Joan Baptista_, p. 113, "todos los Apaches +desde la Sierra Nevada hacía la parte del Norte y Poniento," p. 114; +speaking of the Jemez, "y mas, todos los Apaches y cocoyes de sus +sierras y comarcas." + +[86] In a subsequent paper, I hope to continue this "Historical +Introduction," in the shape of a discussion of the various expeditions +into New Mexico, and from it to other points north-west and north-east, +up to the year 1605. + + + + +II. + +A VISIT TO THE ABORIGINAL RUINS IN THE VALLEY OF THE RIO PECOS. + + +About thirty miles to the south-east of the city of Santa Fé, and in the +western sections of the district of San Miguel (New Mexico), the upper +course of the Rio Pecos traverses a broad valley, extending in width +from east to west about six or eight miles, and in length from +north-west to south-east from twenty to twenty-five. Its boundaries +are,--on the north and north-east, the Sierra de Santa Fé, and the +Sierra de Santa Bárbara, or rather their southern spurs; on the west a +high _mesa_ or table land, extending nearly parallel to the river until +opposite or south of the peak of Bernal; on the east, the Sierra de +Tecolote. The altitude of this valley is on an average not less than six +thousand three hundred feet,[87] while the _mesa_ on the right bank of +the river rises abruptly to nearly two thousand feet higher; the +Tecolote chain is certainly not much lower, if any; and the summits of +the high Sierras in the north rise to over ten thousand feet at +least.[88] + +The Rio Pecos (which empties into the Rio Grande fully five degrees +more to the south, in the State of Texas) hugs, in the upper part of the +valley, closely to the mountains of Tecolote, and thence runs almost +directly north and south. The high _mesa_ opposite, known as the Mesa de +Pecos, sweeps around in huge semicircles, but in a general direction +from north-west to south-east. The upper part of the valley, therefore, +forms a triangle, whose apex, at the south, would be near San José: +whereas its base-line at the north might be indicated as from the Plaza +de Pecos to Baughl's Sidings; or rather from the Rio Pecos, east of the +town, to the foot of the _mesa_ on the west, a length of over six miles. +Nearly in the centre of this triangle, two miles west of the river, and +one and a half miles from Baughl's, there rises a narrow, semicircular +cliff or _mesilla_, over the bed of a stream known as the Arroyo de +Pecos.[89] The southern end of this tabular cliff (its highest point as +well as its most sunny slope) is covered with very extensive ruins, +representing, as I shall hereafter explain, _three distinct kinds of +occupation of the place by man_. These ruins are known under the name of +the Old Pueblo of Pecos. + +The tourist who, in order to reach Santa Fé from the north, takes the +Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé Railroad at La Junta, Colorado,--fascinated +as he becomes by the beauty as well as by the novelty of the landscape, +while running parallel with the great Sierra Madre, after he has +traversed the Ratonis at daybreak,--enters a still more weird country in +the afternoon. The Rio Pecos is crossed just beyond Bernal, and thence +on he speeds towards the west and north: to the left, the towering Mesa +de Pecos, dark pines clambering up its steep sides; to the right, the +broad valley, scooped out, so to say, between the _mesa_ and the +Tecolote ridge. It is dotted with green patches and black clusters of +cedar and pine shooting out of the red and rocky soil. Scarcely a house +is visible, for the _casitas_ of adobe and wood nestle mostly in +sheltered nooks. Beyond Baughl's, the ruins first strike his view; the +red walls of the church stand boldly out on the barren _mesilla_; and to +the north of it there are two low brown ridges, the remnants of the +Indian houses. The bleak summits of the high northern chain seem to rise +in height as he advances; even the distant Trout mountains (Sierra de la +Trucha) loom up solemnly towards the head-waters of the Pecos. About +Glorieta the vale disappears, and through the shaggy crests of the Cañon +del Apache, which overlooks the track in awful proximity, he sallies out +upon the central plain of northern New Mexico, six thousand eight +hundred feet above the sea-level. To the south-west the picturesque +Sandia mountains;[90] to the west, far off, the Heights of Jemez and the +Sierra del Valle, bound the level and apparently barren table-land. An +hour more of fearfully rapid transit with astonishing curves, and, at +sunset, he lands at La Villa Real de Santa-Fé. + +Starting back from Santa Fé towards Pecos on a dry, sandy wagon-road, we +lose sight of the table-land and its environing mountain-chain, when +turning into the ridges east of Manzanares. Vegetation, which has been +remarkably stunted until now, improves in appearance. However rocky the +slopes are, tall pines grow on them sparsely: the Encina appears in +thickets; _Opuntia arborescens_ bristles dangerously as a large shrub; +mammillary cactuses hide in the sand; even an occasional patch of Indian +corn is found in the valleys. It is stunted in growth,[91] flowering as +late as the last days of the month of August, and poorly cultivated. The +few adobe buildings are mostly recent. Over a high granitic ridge, grown +over with _piñon_ (all the trees inclined towards the north-east by the +fierce winds that blow along its summit), and from which the Sierra de +Sandia for the last time appears, we plunge into a deep valley, emptying +into the Cañoncito, and thence follow the railroad track again through a +deep gorge and pleasant bottom, overgrown with pines and cedars, past +Glorieta to Baughl's.[92] It required all the skill and firmness of my +friend and companion, Mr. J. D. C. Thurston, of the Indian Bureau at +Santa Fé, to pilot our vehicle over the steep and rocky ledges. From +Baughl's, where I took quarters at the temporary boarding-house of Mrs. +Root (to whose kindness and motherly solicitude I owe a tribute of +sincere gratitude), a good road leads to the east and south-east along +the Arroyo de Pecos. In a direct line the distance to the ruins is +but a mile and a half; but after nearing the banks of the stream (which +there are grassy levels), one is kept at a distance from it by deep +parallel gulches. So we have to follow the _arroyo_ downwards, keeping +about a quarter of a mile to the west of it, till, south of the old +church itself, the road at last crosses the wide and gravelly bed, in +which a fillet of clear water is running. Then we ascend a gradual slope +of sandy and micaceous soil, thinly covered by tufts of _grama_; a wide, +circular depression strikes our eye; beyond it flat mounds of scarcely +0.50 m.--20 in.--elevation are covered extensively with scattered and +broken stones. Further on distinct foundations appear, rectangles +enclosed by, or founded originally upon, thick walls of stone, sunk into +the ground and much worn,--sometimes divided into small compartments, +again forming large enclosures. To the south a conspicuous, though +small, mound is visible. Immediately before us, due north, are distinct +though broken walls of stones; and above them, on a broad terrace of red +earth, completely shutting off the _mesilla_ or tabulated cliff, on +which the Indian houses stand, there arises the massive former Catholic +temple of Pecos. + +[Illustration: PLATE VI +VIEW OF CHURCH, FROM THE SOUTH.] + +The building forms a rectangle, about 46 m.--150 ft.--long, from east to +west, and 18 m.--60 ft.--from north to south. The entrance was to the +west, the eastern wall being still solid and standing. Plate I., Fig. 2, +gives an idea of its form: _á_ _a_ are gateways, each capped by a heavy +lintel of hewn cedar; _b_, carved beam of wood across. + +The roof of the building is gone, and on the south side a part of the +walls themselves are reduced to a few metres elevation. The church may +originally have been not less than 10 m.--33 ft.--perhaps higher. It +had, according to tradition, but one belfry and a single bell,--a very +large one at that. The Indians carried it off, it is said, to the top of +the _mesa_, where it broke. It is certain that a very large bell, of +which I saw one fragment, now in possession of Mr. E. K. Walters, of +Pecos, was found on the western slope of the Mesa de Pecos, about three +miles from its eastern rim, in a _cañada_ of the Ojo de Vacas stream, +towards San Cristóbal. Mr. Thomas Munn, of Baughl's, took the pains of +piloting me a whole day (6th of September) through the wilderness of the +_mesa_, and showing me the place where this interesting relic was +finally deposited. I shall return to this by and by. + +Mrs. Kozlowski (wife of a Polish gentleman, living two miles south on +the _arroyo_) informed me that in 1858, when she came to her present +home with her husband, the roof of the church was still in existence. +Her husband tore it down, and used it for building out-houses; he also +attempted to dig out the corner-stone, but failed. In general, the +vandalism committed in this venerable relic of antiquity defies all +description. It is only equalled by the foolishness of such as, having +no other means to secure immortality, have cut out the ornaments from +the sculptured beams in order to obtain a surface suitable to carve +their euphonious names. All the beams of the old structure are quaintly, +but still not tastelessly, carved; there was, as is shown in Plate VII., +much scroll-work terminating them. Most of this was taken away, chipped +into uncouth boxes, and sold, to be scattered everywhere. Not content +with this, treasure-hunters, inconsiderate amateurs, have recklessly and +ruthlessly disturbed the abodes of the dead. "After becoming +Christians," said to me Sr. Mariano Ruiz, the only remaining 'son of the +tribe' of Pecos, still settled near to its site, "they buried their dead +within the church." These dead have been dug out regardless of their +position relative to the walls of the building, and their remains have +been scattered over the surface, to become the prey of relic-hunters. +The Roman Catholic Archbishop of New Mexico has finally stopped such +abuses by asserting his title of ownership; but it was far too late. It +cannot be denied, besides, that his concession to Kozlowski to use some +of the timber for his own purposes was subsequently interpreted by +others in a manner highly prejudicial to the preservation of the +structure. + +[Illustration: PLATE VIII +INTERIOR OF BUILDING A, FROM THE SOUTH.] + +What alone has saved the old church of Pecos from utter ruin has been +its solid mode of construction. Entirely of adobe, its walls have an +average thickness of 1.5 m.--5 ft. The adobe is made like that now used, +wheat-straw entering into it occasionally; but it also contains small +fragments of obsidian,--minute chips of that material and broken +pottery. This makes it evident that the soil for its construction must +have been gathered somewhere near the _mesilla_; and the suspicion is +very strong on my part that it was the right bank of the _arroyo_ which +furnished the material.[93] It is self-evident that the grounds which +were used for that purpose must have antedated, in point of occupation, +the date of the construction of the church by a very long period. I have +measured all the adobe bricks of the church that are within easy reach, +at various places, and found them alike. They all measure .55 m. × .28 +m.--22 in. × 11 in.--and .08 m.--3 in.--in thickness. They are laid as +shown in Plate I., Fig. 4. + +The mortar is, as the specimen sent by me will prove, of the same +composition as the brick itself. + +The regularity with which these courses are laid is very striking. The +timbers, besides, are all well squared; the ornaments, scrolls, and +friezes are quaint, but not uncouth; there is a deficiency in +workmanship, but great purity in outline and in design. + +To the south of the old church, at a distance of 4 m.--13 ft.--there is +another adobe wall, rising in places a few metres above the soil; which +wall, with that of the church, seems to have formed a covered +passage-way. Adjoining it is a rectangular terrace of red earth, +extending out to the west as far as the church front. A valuable record +of the manner in which this terrace was occupied is preserved to us in +the drawing of the Pecos church given by Lieutenant W. H. Emory in 1846. +It appears that south of the church there was a convent;[94] and this is +stated also by Sr. Ruiz. In fact, the walls, whether enclosures or +buildings, which appear to have adjoined the church, extend south from +it 74 m.--250 ft. Plate I., Fig. 2, gives an idea of their relative +position, etc.: _c_ is 4 m.--13 ft.--wide; _d_ is 21 m. × 46 m.--70 ft. +× 156 ft.; _e_ is 25 m. × 46 m.--82 ft. × 150 ft.; _f_ is 24 m. × 46 +m.--78 ft. × 150 ft. + +The divisions are not strictly marked, and I forbear giving any lengths, +since there is great uncertainty about them. + +The foundation walls, where visible, are generally about 0.60 m. to 0.75 +m.--23 in. to 30 in.--wide, and composed of three rows of stones, set +lengthwise, selected for size, and probably broken to fit.[95] + +[Illustration: PLATE I +GENERAL PLAN OF RUINS OF PECOS.] + +Looking northward from the church, a wall of broken stones, similar to +the one we already noticed at the south, meets the eye. The _mesilla_ +itself terminates east and west in rocky ledges of inconsiderable +height, and the wall stretches across its entire width of 39 m.--129 ft. +Its distance from the church is 10 m.--33 ft.; and it thus forms, with +the northern church wall, a trapezium of 10 m.--33 ft. This enclosure is +said to have been the church-yard.[96] Beyond it the mesilla and its +ruined structures appear in full view; and from the church to the +northern end, which is also its highest point, it has exactly the form +of an elongated pear or parsnip. Hence the name given to it by Spanish +authors of the eighteenth century, "el Navon de los Pecos."[97] This +fruit-like shape is not limited to the outline: it also extends to the +profile. Starting from the church, there is a curved neck, convex to the +east, and retreating in a semicircle from the stream on the west. At the +end of this neck, about 200 m.--660 ft.--north of the church, there is a +slight depression, terminating in a dry stream-bed emptying into the +bottom of the Arroyo de Pecos south-westward; and beyond this depression +the rocks bulge up to an oblong mound, nearly 280 m.--920 ft.--long from +north to south, and at its greatest width 160 m.--520 ft.--from east to +west. At the northern termination of this mound the _mesilla_ curves to +the north-east, and finally terminates in a long ledge of tumbled rocks, +high and abrupt, which gradually merges into the ridges of sandy soil +towards the little town of Pecos.[98] Pl. I., Fig. 5, gives a tolerably +fair view of the _mesilla_. Pl. I., Fig. 1, is designed to exhibit its +appearance as seen from below, the highest elevation above the stream +being nearly 30 m.--95 ft. + +The rock of the _mesilla_ is a compact, brownish-gray limestone. It is +crystalline, but yet fossiliferous, very hard, and not deteriorating +much on exposure. Its strata dip perceptibly to the south-west; +consequently the western rim is comparatively less jagged and rocky than +the eastern, and the slope towards the stream more gentle, except at the +north-western corner, where the rocks appear broken and tumbled down +over the slopes in huge masses. + +From the church-yard wall, all along the edge of the _mesilla_, +descending into the depression mentioned, and again rounding the highest +northern point, then crossing over transversely from west to east and +running back south along the opposite edge, there extends a wall of +circumvallation, constructed, as far as may be seen, of rubble and +broken stones, with occasional earth flung in between the blocks. This +wall has, along its periphery, a total length of 983 m.--3,220 +ft.--according to Mr. Thurston's measurement.[99] It was, as far as can +be seen, 2 m.--6 ft. 6 in.--high on an average, and about 0.50 m.--20 +in.--thick. There is but one entrance to it visible, on the west side, +at its lowest level, where the depression already mentioned runs down +the slope to the south-west as the bed of a rocky streamlet. There a +gateway of 4 m.--13 ft.--in width is left open; the wall itself thickens +on each side to a round tower built of stones, mixed with earthy +fillings. These towers, considerably ruined, are still 2 m.--6 ft. 6 +in.--high, and appear to have been at least 4m.--13 ft.--in diameter; at +all events the northern one. At the gateway itself the walls curve +outward,[100] and appear to have terminated in a short passage of +entering and re-entering lines, between which there was a passage, as +well for man as for the waters from the _mesilla_ into the bottom and +the stream below. But these lines can only be surmised from the streaks +of gravel and stones extending beyond the gateway, as no definite +foundations are extant. Pl. I., Fig. 3, is a tolerably correct diagram +of this gateway. + +[Illustration: PLATE IX +VIEW OF GATEWAY OF CIRCUMVALLATION, FROM THE EAST.] + +The face of the wall at each side of the gate is 1.3 m.--4 ft.--wide. +Whether there was any contrivance to close it or not it is now +impossible to determine; but there are in the northern wall of the gate +pieces of decayed wood embedded in and protruding from the stone-work. +For what purpose they were placed there it is not permitted even to +conjecture. + + * * * * * + +Having thus sketched, as far as I am able, the topography of the +_mesilla_, and described its great wall of circumvallation, I now turn +to the ruins which cover its upper surface, starting for their survey +from the transverse wall of the old church-yard, 10 m.--33 ft.--north of +the church, and proceeding thence northward along the top of the +tabulated bluff.[101] + +Sixty-one metres--200 ft.--north of our point of departure we strike +stone foundations running about due east and west and resting almost +directly on the rock, since the soil along the entire plateau which I +have termed the neck is scarce, and has nowhere more than 1 m.--39 +in.--in depth. The eastern corner of this wall, as far as it can be made +out, is 12 m.--39 ft.--from the eastern wall of circumvallation. From +this point on there extends one continuous body of ruins, one half of +which at least (the southern half), if not two-thirds, as the ground +plan will show, exhibits nothing else but foundations of small chambers +indicated by shapeless stone-heaps and depressions. The northern part is +in a better state of preservation; a number of chambers are more or less +perfect, the roofs excepted,[102] and we can easily detect several +stories retreating from east to west. About 9 m.--30 ft.--from its +northern limits a double wall intersects the pile for one half of its +width. The ruins beyond it, or rather the addition, is in a state of +decay equal to that of the southern extremity. The western side is, +generally, in a better state of preservation than the eastern, +especially the north-western corner. Along the eastern side upright +posts of wood, protruding from stone-heaps, often are the only +indications for the outline of the structure. Along the north-west, +however, such posts are enclosed in standing walls of stone, at +distances not quite regularly distributed, but still showing plainly +that here, at least, the outer wall presented an appearance similar to +Pl. II., Fig. 4. + +At the place where I measured, the upright posts stood at about 1.39 +m.--4 ft. 6 in.--from each other; the projecting wall was 2 m.--6 ft. 6 +in.--long, and 0.63 m.--2 ft.--thick; the retreating wall 1.40 m.--4 ft. +6 in.--long, and 0.33 m.--13 in.--thick. The posts themselves were +sometimes, but not always, backed, or even encased in adobe sheaths, +built up like little chimneys in the wall itself. This mode of +construction was possibly peculiar to the western side alone, and gives +it a slight appearance of ornamentation, as well as more strength, the +projecting walls acting like buttresses. + +The whole structure, taking the sides of the _débris_ as they are now +scattered, extends nearly north and south 140 m.--460 ft.--and east and +west about 16 m. to 26 m.--50 ft. to 80 ft.--thus forming a rectangle of +140 m. × 20 m.--460 ft. × 65 ft. To determine the exact size of the +building I proceeded to measure each compartment for itself, judging +that the total number of these apartments, adding to their sizes the +thicknesses of the walls, would finally give, within a few decimetres, +the exact length and width of the house. On the ground plan I have +numbered this building B.[103] + +Beginning at the north-west corner, I ran my line almost due east to +within 10 m.--33 ft.--of the circumvallation, where I found the +north-east corner indicated by a broken post of wood. Along this line I +met the following sections from west to east: 2.92 m.--9 ft. 6 in.; then +a gangway, 1.55 m.--5 ft.; chamber, 3.22 m.--11 ft.; gangway, 1.21 m.--4 +ft.; and three chambers, 2.09 m., 2.72 m., and 2.72 m.--7 ft., 9 ft., +and 9 ft.--respectively, thus giving, adding to it eight walls of a +uniform thickness of 0.33 m.--13 in.,--a total width of 19.07 m.--63 ft. +Its length was easily found to be 8.56 m.--28 ft.; the northern +appendix, therefore, forming a rectangle of 8.5 m. × 19 m.--28 ft. × 63 +ft.,--and containing, as the ground-plan shows, ten rooms and two +corridors, the latter running through the structure from north to south. +It will also be noticed that the two middle rooms are the largest, +measuring each 4.28 m. × 3.22 m.--14 ft. × 10 ft. I must also advert, +here, to the fact that this structure is extremely ruined, and that the +east part of it exposes the surveyor to dangerous errors. + +The line _a b_, and its continuation eastwardly to _c_, appears to form +the main northern wall of the whole structure. Here the annex, just +described, terminates. This wall is of unequal thickness. In the +north-westerly projection from _a_ to _b_, a length of 8 m.--26 +ft.,--its thickness is 0.63 m.--2 ft.; from _b_ to _c_, on the eastern +line, it is only 0.33 m.--13 in.--thick. This inequality indicates also +a division of the structure to the southward, as far as the line _d d +d_, into two longitudinal sections. The western one, whose four corners +are respectively _a_ _b_ _d_ _d_ in the diagram, contains eighteen rooms +of equal size, measuring each 3.71 m. × 2.25 m.--12 ft. × 7 ft.; it is +consequently, inclusive of the rear wall and the sides, 24.24 m. × 8.08 +m.--80 ft. × 27 ft. The eastern division, comprised within the area _b_ +_c_ _d_ _d_, has fifteen rooms, or five longitudinal rows of three, +whereas the western has six rows of three. The rooms east must therefore +be larger than those west, and we see that they measure from east to +west respectively, 2.25 m., 2.28 m., and 2.28 m.--7 ft., 7 ft. 6 in., +and 7 ft. 6 in.: from north to south, 3.60 m., 5.07 m., 4.43 m., 4.13 +m., and 3.43 m.--12 ft., 17 ft., 15 ft., 14 ft., and 11 ft. It is a +rectangle, or rather trapezium, 22.31 m. × 7.81 m.--70 ft. × 25 +ft.,--consequently the width of the building _B_ is somewhat less on the +line _d d d_ than on the line _a b c_. The cause of this singular +contraction I have found, and shall afterwards indicate. + +Then follows a transverse section (_d d d e e_), containing two rows of +six rooms each, or twelve in all, of very unequal sizes, as the +ground-plans show. This entire section appears to be trapezoidal. The +line _d d d_ is 15.89 m.--52 ft.--long; the line _e e_ 16.33 m.--53 ft.; +_d e_ measures 7.42 m.--24 ft.--along the west, and 8.04 m.--27 +ft.--along the east. Rooms marked _II_ and _III_ are particularly +irregular, having, as the diagram shows, not less than six corners. + +From _e e_ to _f f_, another transverse section, this time of four rows +of six each, or twenty-four cells in all, those of each row being of +equal length, to wit 3.65 m.--12 ft.; and in width from east to west, +respectively: 2.25 m., 2.78 m., 3.18 m., 2.63 m., and 4.40 m.--7 ft., 9 +ft., 10 ft., 9 ft., and 14 ft. (the last measure being the aggregate of +the two eastern compartments, the longitudinal partition being nearly +obliterated). To the south of _f f_ a further slight change occurs, +inasmuch as the three eastern rooms, instead of being respectively 2.68 +m., 2.20 m., and 2.20 m.--9 ft., 7 ft., and 7 ft.,--now become 2.25 m., +2.33 m., and 2.32 m.--7 ft., 8 ft., and 8 ft. From _f f_ to _g g_, the +southern limits of the structure, the whole structure is badly ruined; +and while the rooms can be counted, measurements are possible only in a +few places. Still I am satisfied that no great error lies in the +assumption that they were, taken longitudinally, all equal to the six +rooms contained in the transverse row south of the line _f f_, that is, +3.65 m.--12 ft.--from north to south; and in width, counting the cells +from west to east, respectively, 2.25 m., 2.78 m., 3.18 m., 2.25 m., +2.33 m., and 2.32 m.--7 ft., 9 ft., 10 ft., 7 ft., 8 ft., and 8 ft. The +section, _f f g g_, which forms the southern and largest portion of the +house (_B_), contains, therefore, twenty-two transverse rows of six +chambers each, or one hundred and thirty-two apartments on the +ground-plan; and it forms a rectangle running from north to south and +east to west respectively of 80.30 m. × 15.11 m.--260 ft. × 50 ft. + +The general dimensions of this building (_B_), therefore appear as +follows:-- + +Length from north to south, east side 133.81 m.--440 ft. + " " west side 134.92 m.--442 ft. +Width of northern appendix 19.07 m.-- 63 ft. +Width along line _a b c_ 19.07 m.-- 63 ft. + " " _d d d_ 15.89 m.-- 52 ft. + " " _e e_ 16.33 m.-- 53 ft. + " " _f f_ 15.24 m.-- 50 ft. +Width of line _g g_, approximated 15.70 m.-- 51 ft. + +From the appearance of the ground-plan, as I have been compelled to give +it, it would result that the "first floor" contained two hundred and +eleven cells, or rooms. Such is, however, not the case. The builders of +this extensive fabric had not the means of preparing the hard rock +foundation by removing it wherever it protruded over an average level. +While giving a uniform height to their structure, they accommodated its +ground-plan to the sinuosities of the rock. Out of this accommodation +the irregularities noticed in the construction have mainly arisen. Pl. +II., Figs. 1, 2, 3, will illustrate this statement. + +Pl. II., Fig. 1.--Cross-section of _B_ along the line a b c, north end; +_a b_, actually visible top-line; _c d e f g h_, rock; _i k_, top of +probable highest story, now destroyed. + +I have every reason to assume that this cross-section holds good for the +entire division (_a b c d d_). From _d d_ on to _f f_ the distance +between the rim of the _mesilla_ to the east and the house is greatest; +the top-rock bends also to the west about _e e_, and there the +irregularities noticed on the diagram about the chambers (_II_ and +_III_) come in. They evidently result from an effort to conform the +general plan to both the lateral and vertical deviations of its base. +About the line _f f_, while the same number of chambers (six) remains in +every transverse row, there is but one story below the general surface +to the east. I may safely assume that south of the line _f f_ all the +rooms of the first floor were on the same level. Pl. II., Figs. 2 and 3 +will illustrate this point. As far as I could detect, the line _e e_ can +be admitted as the one where one of the two lower stories disappears, +and but one remains on the east side lower than the rest. + +[Illustration: PLATE II +PLAN OF SECTIONS OF BUILDING B.] + +I have everywhere assumed _four_ stories. It is at least certain that +there were not less than four. When Coronado visited the pueblo in 1540, +he found "the houses with four stories."[104] Sr. Mariano Ruiz told +me that "they all were of three stories;" but then he mentioned, below, +the "casas de comodidad," thus indicating that the lowest story was used +for store-rooms. It is very apparent from the ruins that, as I have +indicated in the cross-sections, the western wall was unbroken, whereas +from the east the stories rose in four retreating terraces. The western +wall already mentioned was given additional strength, by means of the +buttresses, of which I have given a small outline. The winds blow very +fiercely over the _mesilla_, especially from the north-west; there is no +tree to be seen on or about it, not even a cedar-bush, higher than a +couple of feet at most. Against such blasts the solid wall was +necessary, while the many intersecting partitions inside gave additional +strength. It was a very solid structure as against winds, +notwithstanding the comparative thinness of the walls,--0.63 m.--2 +ft.--being their greatest width, and 0.33 m.--13 in.--their average. + +With reference to the cross-sections, it now becomes possible to +approximate the total number of chambers, apartments, or cells, +contained in the entire building; a point impossible even to estimate +from the ground-plan alone. + +Leaving aside the northern appendix, about whose elevation I have not +even means of conjecture, it becomes evident that the section whose four +corners are marked respectively _a_, _c_, _d_, _d_, had the following +number of compartments, starting with the lowest story, and remembering +that, as above stated, one longitudinal row had six, and the other five, +rooms:-- + + Lowest story 5 + Second story 5 + Third story 3 × 6 + 5 23 + Fourth story 3 × 6 18 + --- + Total 51 rooms. + +_Brought forward_ 51 rooms. + + The section _d d e e_ had probably the same + arrangement, and therefore, there being but two + transverse rows, it contained in all 18 + + Section _e e f f_ contained on lower story 4 + Second Story. 5 × 4 20 + Third story. 4 × 4 16 + Fourth story. 3 × 4 12 + -- 52 + + Section _f f g g_:-- + Lower story. 22 × 6 132 + Second story. 22 × 5 110 + Third story. 22 × 4 88 + Fourth story. 22 × 3 66 + -- 396 + ---- + Total number of rooms contained in building _B_ 517 + +These rooms are very nearly of equal size, the largest one being _III._ +2.85 m. × 4.78 m.--9 ft. × 16 ft.--on one side, and 3.71 m.--12 ft-on +the other, with an entering angle; the smallest room adjoining to it +measuring 2.25 m. × 2.70 m.--7 ft. × 9 ft. The entire structure, +therefore, presents the appearance of a honeycomb, or rather of a +bee-hive, and perfectly illustrates, among the lower degrees of culture +of mankind, the prevailing principle of communism in living, which finds +its parallel in the lower classes of animals. Tradition, historical +relation, and analogy, tell us that this house was used as a +dwelling,[105] and that consequently it was, to all intents and +purposes, a communal house. + +The height of the various stories it is almost impossible to determine. +I have measured walls which appeared to be perfect, and they gave me an +average of 2.28 m.--7 ft. 6 in.--elevation. Should such be the rule, the +western wall of the building, at its greatest height south, would have +risen about 11 m.--36 ft. + +The northern appendix I have ignored in the above computation, because +its whole appearance gives no ground for definitive statements. It seems +really to be an annex, and in fact the whole building seems to have +progressed, in its construction, from south to north, in point of date +and time. + +The southern portion of the building--the one which appears to have been +erected on a plane surface--was, in all probability, the one first +built. The northern portions were added to it gradually as occasion +required. This is further shown by the fact that in these northern +sections, along the line _a, b, c_, parts of the third story wall are +patched with regular adobe bricks, about half as large as those in the +church, but still made by the same process.[106] The rest of the +structure is exclusively composed of stone. + +It is to all intents and purposes a stone house. Two kinds of rocks +predominate among the material; a slaty, gray and red, +sandstone,--highly tabular, easily broken into plates of any size,--and +a sandstone conglomerate, containing small pebbles from the size of a +pea up to that of a small hazel-nut,--the whole rock of a gray color. +When freshly broken or wetted, this conglomerate becomes very friable, +and so soft that goats have left the impression of their feet on +scattered fragments. When dry it becomes hard, and is always very heavy. +Both kind of rocks are found in the vicinity of the _mesilla_. Besides +these, loose pieces of stone from the bluff itself, boulders from the +creek, of convenient size, enter into the composition of the walls. +Sometimes the latter consist exclusively of slabs of sandstone +superposed; again there are polygonal fragments of rocks piled upon one +another, with courses of tabular sandstone, forming, so to say, the +basis for further piling; the foundations are usually boulders and the +hardest rocks, also of greater width. There are no walls of dressed +stone, but the rocks are broken to a suitable size, as may be done with +any stone maul or sledge, or even by smashing with the hand and another +rock. In fact the whole stone-work must be termed, not masonry, but +simply judicious and careful piling.[107] In performing it, great +attention has been paid to having the vertical surfaces as nearly as +possible vertical; but this end could be reached without the use of the +plumb-line, and with the aid of mere ordinary eyesight, for the rooms +are so small, and the partitions so thin, that anything not "true" +could, and can yet be, "shoved" into position by a mere steady, slow +push; carefully watched on the opposite side. The same applies to the +angles, although they are tolerably accurate. As a general thing, the +transverse walls appear to be continuous, and the longitudinal +partitions to have been added afterwards, but there are also instances +of the contrary. In this respect the sinuosities of the rocky foundation +seem to have determined the mode of action. To fill up the gaps between +the stones, and to coat them with a smooth surface within the chambers +what appears to be earth from the surrounding bottoms has been flung +into the crevices, thus forming a natural mortar, and at the same time a +"first coat" of plaster of varying thickness. This in turn is covered +with a thin white layer (now of course turning into gray, yellow, and +flesh-red) much resembling our plaster, but whose composition I am +unable to determine. (Specimens of the mud, containing small gravel and +minute particles of mica, are sent with the other collections, also +fragments of the white coating for analysis.[108]) + +The woodwork proper appears not to have had any connection with the +strength or support of the walls, but simply to have been erected within +and among the walls as a scaffold for the ceilings, which are also the +floors of the higher stories. Upright posts of cedar and pine, stripped +of their bark, but not squared, are, as I have already shown, set inside +of the stone wall, at more or less even distances. As far as I could +ascertain, these distances are regulated by the size of the rooms. These +posts are coarsely hacked off at the upper end, and over them other +similar beams are laid longitudinally, sometimes fitted over the posts +with chips wedged in. Such is the case in a room in the northern wing of +the building marked _A_, of which I shall hereafter speak.[109] + +On these longitudinal beams other ones rest, laid transversely, and +imbedded in the wall on the opposite side. On these again longitudinal +poles are placed, also at intervals varying according to the dimensions +of the chambers, and on them transversely, a layer of brush, or +splinters of wood, closely overlapping each other; and the whole is +capped by about .20 m.--8 in.--of common clay or soil. Pl. III., Fig. 1, +is a front view of the wooden scaffold in a lower story room, and of the +ceiling which it supports. + +_a_, clay and lower seam of brush or splinters. + +_b_, transverse poles or beams, in case the beams are lacking. + +_c_, longitudinal beam. + +_d_, upright posts. + +In most cases, however, the beams are transverse and the poles +longitudinal, and this is where the beam (_c_) is lacking, as in the +interior apartments, where the ceiling appears as in Pl. III., Fig. 2: +_a_, clay; _b_, brush or splinters; _c_, poles; _d_, beams; _e_, +wall.[110] + +The diameter of the upright posts is, on an average, 0.28 m.--11 +in.,--but even sometimes as great as 0.33 m.--13 in.,--the longitudinal +and transverse beams are scarcely less thick, whereas the poles are +about 0.05 m.--2 in.--across. The splinters seem to have been +obtained by splitting a middle-sized tree, and tearing out thin +segments. + +[Illustration: PLATE III +SECTIONS OF BUILDING B.] + +Pl. III., Fig. 4, is a ground plan of the floor of room marked _I_ on +the diagram. This room is on the eastern row of the third floor, +therefore an outer room. + +_c_, longitudinal poles. + +_d_, the end of the transverse beams projecting from the other room. + +_e_, the transverse beams, resting in the wall on both sides. + +On the latter rested a thin layer of brush and a compact mass of clay, +0.20 m.--8 in.--thick. The clay, or rather soil, is very hard and was +probably stamped or pounded. + +As far as I have been able to detect, the upright posts are not found +inside of the house, except, perhaps, on the rear wall of the outer +chamber, as in one room of building _A_, to which I shall hereafter +refer. If this is the room, then the skeleton of the wood-work (upright +and transverse posts and beams) would present nearly the appearance +shown in Pl. III., Fig. 3, when viewed from the side, and admitting the +house to be four stories high. + +_a_, horizontal beams. + +_b_, upright posts, along the western wall, and in the three upper +stories. These posts are hypothetical, and therefore only indicated by +dotted lines. (It may be also that every cell had its front and its rear +posts, but I have not been able to detect any except in the outer +rooms.) + +With the exception of one chamber in building _A_, I nowhere met +anything like a roof. This one appears to be nothing else than a +ceiling-floor, but of nearly 0.75 m.--2 ft. 6 in.--in thickness. It is, +as Pl. VIII. shows, much covered by fallen stones, and its original +height may have been increased by _débris_; but at all events it was +thoroughly impermeable, and such as would be required in a climate +where, indeed, it seldom rains, but "whenever it rains it pours." + +There is a certain air of sameness cast over the entire structure which +has strongly impressed me with the thought that not only was it used as +a dwelling for a large number (as the reports, indeed, establish), but +also that all its inhabitants lived on an equal footing,--as far as +accommodations for living were concerned. There are no special quarters, +no spacious halls. The few rooms of somewhat larger size are naturally +explained by the mode of construction, adapting the house to the +configuration of the rock, and not conversely as we do. It was, +therefore, a large joint-tenement structure, harboring, perhaps, when +fully occupied, several hundreds of families. + +In regard to ingress and egress, not only have I found no doors in any +fragments of exterior walls, but the many persons I have asked have +always assured me that there had been none, that the house was entered +by means of ladders, ascending to the top of each story in succession, +and descending into the rooms also by ladders and through trap-doors in +the roofs. They have also assured me that each room of each story +communicated with the one above and below, also by means of trap-doors +and ladders. It is quite certain that there are no staircases nor steps, +and that consequently ladders were used, in the same manner as they are +still used by the Indians of the pueblos of Zuñi, Moqui, Acoma, Taos, +and others. Ingress and egress, therefore, must have taken place, not +horizontally "in and out," but vertically "up and down." I have not been +able to identify any one of the trap-doors referred to, but I should not +be surprised to hear that they have been subsequently found in the +north-west corner of each room. By referring to the diagram of the floor +(Pl. III., Fig. 4), it will be seen that the rectangular spaces between +the beams and overlying poles are almost everywhere large enough, if +the superstructure of splinters (or brush) and clay is removed, to give +passage to any man. The ladders themselves have completely disappeared. + +On one and the same floor, I found in the side walls at a few places, +the remains of low and narrow openings through which a man might pass in +a stooping position and "sidling." Nowhere could I see the full height +of these small doorways, so that I do not know whether there was a +lintel, or whether they terminated in an open angle, like the doorways +of Yucatan. I have seen openings showing the peculiar so-called +"aboriginal arch" of Yucatan on a small scale, and I also have seen that +an accidental "knocking-out" of one or two stones from the walls +produced a hole or gap very similar in shape to the doorways at Uxmal +and other pueblos of Southern Mexico, though of course on a small scale. +It is self-evident that, the coincidence being accidental, I do not +place any stress upon it in view of "tracing relationships." The +coincidence is of ethnological, and not of ethnographical, value. As far +as I could ascertain, they were certainly 1 m.--3 ft. 3 in.--high, +whereas their average width may have been 0.45 m.--18 in. (Those I +measured averaged between 0.42 m. and 0.48 m.--16 in. and 19 in.) Their +appearance is shown in Pl. II., Fig. 5. + +_a_ is what might be termed a door-sill, a smooth oval stone, evidently +from the drift, probably dioritic, at all events a dark-green hornblende +rock. In the present instance one was not long enough to fill the gap +left between the walls, and two were superposed. I saw no traces of +wooden lintels or sills. These doorways appeared to be generally about +0.50 m.--20 in.--above the floor, but if we deduct 0.20 m.--8 in.--for +the clay (measure having been taken from the timbers), 0.30 m.--12 +in.--will remain as their approximate height over the chambers. + +The few doors that I could observe are all in the longitudinal walls, +and none of them in the transverse; that is, they all open from east to +west. But not all the longitudinal partitions have doorways. It cannot, +therefore, be admitted that every transverse row was occupied by one +family, still less that the family apartments were arranged +longitudinally. I rather suspect that this arrangement was vertical, or +perhaps vertical and transverse. This surmise is given, however, for +what it may be worth. Windows I could not find, although small apertures +undoubtedly existed in all the outer walls, both for light and for air. + +The chambers being all very much ruined, the lower ones filled with the +stones and decayed ruins of the superposed stories,--of these stories +themselves but part of the walls, denuded and often twisted, +remaining,--I have not been able, with one single exception, to secure +or even see any of what we would call the "furniture." Small fragments +of grinding-stones (_metates_) are sparsely scattered over the entire +ruins, otherwise the only object of daily use as articles of furniture +met with by me has been a hearth, which I found or dug out _in situ_, in +room _I_, and which, complete, forms part of the collections sent by me +to Cambridge. + +The place where this hearth was situated is marked on the diagram in +room _I_. It stood on the floor against the north wall, and is composed +of three plates of stone, originally ground and polished (as the +specimen found in building A will show, which is a fragment only), and, +judging from new fragments found, of diorite or other hornblende rock. +There are three plates,--a basal one, 40 m.--16 in.--long and 20 m.--8 +in.--wide, and two sides, placed vertically east and west of the +base,--all three resting against the north wall of the room. Pl. III., +Fig. 4, is a diagram of the room, the floor timbers, and the hearth. + +The basal plate was covered with 0.10 m.--4 in.--of very white ashes, +which I have also secured, and the rear of the hearth, which is formed +by the original "first coat" of earth daubed over the wall, is +thoroughly baked by the heat produced in front of it, as the samples +sent will show.[111] + +Of course, I looked at once for an opening where the smoke arising from +the hearth, etc., could have escaped. I am sorry to say, however, that I +utterly failed in finding anything like a chimney,--not only in _B_, but +in all the other buildings. Still, in the ruined condition of the place, +this is no proof of their non-existence.[112] + +I will refer to subsequent pages to such articles of mechanical use and +of wearing apparel which I was fortunate enough to meet. I shall also +return hereafter to the almost omnipresent pieces of painted pottery, of +two distinct kinds, and to the very numerous chips of obsidian, +jet-black on the face, but transparent as smoky glass; of black lava; +and to the flint, jasper, and moss-agates, broken mechanically by man, +and scattered over the premises. These premises have been thoroughly +ransacked by visitors, and every striking object has already been +carried off. I had heard mentioned, among such samples, flint, agate, +and obsidian arrow-heads, stone hatchets and hammers, and copper (not +brass or iron) rings used for ornamental purposes,[113] but my luck it +was not to find any. Therefore the harvest is perhaps slim in that +respect. It is beyond all doubt that judicious digging among the lower +stories of the structures will reveal treasures,--not money, as the tale +current among the inhabitants has it, but things of archæological and +ethnological value. For such an undertaking I was, as the Institute well +knows, not prepared. I attempted to dig, indeed, though quite alone, but +soon came to the conclusion that the time consumed in excavating one +metre of decayed and crumbling stones and earth would be more +satisfactorily employed in other directions; paving the way for the +exhaustive labors of better situated archæologists. + +I have been very lengthy in my _exposé_ of facts and data regarding this +particular house _B_, for the simple reason that, as far as the +principles of architecture, based upon a knowledge and want of "how to +live," are concerned, it is typical of the rest. Many details become +therefore unnecessary in subsequent descriptions. + +To return to the structure itself, its general plan and its mode of +construction in detail more and more forcibly remind me of an +extraordinarily large honeycomb. The various walls, a few of the outer +walls excepted, have little strength in themselves (as the rapid decay +shows), but combined altogether they oppose to any outside pressure an +immense amount of "inertia." There is not in the whole building one +single evidence of any great progress in mechanics. Everything done and +built within it can be built and made with the use of a good or fair +eyesight only, and the implements and arts of what was formerly called +the "stone age." This does not exclude the possibility that they had +made a certain advance in mechanical agencies. They may have had the +plummet, or even the square; but such expedients, applied to their +system of building, might at most have hastened the rapidity of +construction. Necessary they were not at all, still less indispensable. +As the bee builds one cell alongside of the other and above the +other,--the norm of one and the "habitat" impelling the norm of those +above and alongside,--so the Indians of Pecos aggregated their cells +according to their wants and the increase of their numbers; their inside +accommodations, the wood-work, bearing the last trace of the frail +"lodge" of a former shifting condition. + +Leaving _B_ for the present, I turn to the other ruins on the so-called +"neck" of the _mesilla_. + +4 m.--13 ft.--west of the N.W. corner of the northern annex, I struck +stone foundations indicating a structure (whether enclosure or building +I do not venture to tell) 10.21 m.--33 ft.--from E. to W., and 6.60 +m.--22 ft.--from N. to S.[114], 49 m.--160 ft.--to the north-west of its +north-easterly angle there is a mound about 2 m. or 6 ft. in diameter, +thence 20 m.--65 ft.--further N.W. or N.N.W. the southern ruins of the +east wing of _A_ are reached. + +Parallel to _B_, longitudinally, and at an average distance of 28 m.--90 +ft--to the west from it, there is a row of detached buildings or +structures, of which only the foundations and shapeless stone heaps +indicating the corners remain. Pl. I., Fig. 8, conveys an idea of their +position and size. The walls are reduced to mere foundations, or to +heaps in the corners; but these remnants indicate that the rocks used +were similar in kind and shape to those composing the walls of all the +other kinds of construction in the _mesilla_ north of the church. + +For what purpose these buildings were erected, and in what relation they +stood to _B_, I am unable to determine. Some of them appeared to have +doors opening to the east.[115] Beyond _f_ the ground rises suddenly. +The floor of those structures is, in some instances, formed of a black +or red loam. I excavated one of those, or, rather, dug into it, to the +depth of one metre. The surface had shown traces of a fire built in the +centre, and I found also, at the depth of nearly two feet, that the dark +soil was traversed by a band of charcoal, fragments of burnt and +blackened pottery, and some splinters of bone. Below it the soil was +dark red. Whether there was a buried hearth at that depth, or whether +the traces of fire were due to an original destruction of woodwork +through combustion, the _débris_ subsequently covering them with clay, I +am unable to judge.[116] In all of them, of course, pottery and obsidian +were found. + +I have already stated that the _mesilla_ dips to the south-west; that +there is a depression along the northern end of its "neck;" and that +from _f_ the rocks bulge upwards again. All this contributes to +concentrate the drainage of the entire cliff-top, as far north of the +church as it was inhabited, in the hollow where the gate of the general +enclosure is placed. This gate was therefore not only a passage-way, but +also the water-gap or channel through which the _mesilla_ was finally +drained into the bottoms of the Arroyo de Pecos. + +[Illustration: PLATE IV +PLAN OF BUILDING A.] + +20 m.--65 ft.--to the N.N.W. of the mound i, there rises before us the +huge pile of ruins which, on the plat as well as on the diagram, I have +designated by _A_. It crowns the highest point of the entire _mesilla_, +and covers the greatest portion of its top. In ruins like _B_, its +general aspect is yet somewhat different Instead of forming, like the +latter, a narrow, solid rectangle of 140 m. × 20 m.--460 ft. × 65 ft.--, +the building _A_ is (taking, of course, the outlines of the entire +_débris_) a broad hollow rectangle of 150 m. × 75 m.--490 ft. × 245 ft. +Its interior is occupied by a vast court or square, containing three +circular depressions, and surrounded on all four sides by the broad +ruined heaps of the former dwellings. On the east side, between the +circumvallation and the eastern line of the structure, there are two +more circular depressions similar to those within the court. The latter +is entered by four passageways,--one on the S.E. corner, 4 m.--13 +ft.--wide and about 12 m.--40 ft.--long from S. to N.; one through the +eastern wing, 3.40 m.--11 ft.--wide and about 14 m.--46 ft.--long from +E. to W.; one in the N.W. corner and another from the S.W., both 2 m.--6 +ft. 6 in.--across. I have designated these four gateways respectively as +_R_, _E_, _G_, and _N_. _R_ and _E_ enter straight through the wall; _G_ +forms a semicircle almost from W. through N. to S.; _N_ describes a +right angle from S. by N. to E. The distribution of decay in this house +is the same as in _B_,--the southern parts are on all sides almost +totally obliterated; the N.W. corner is very nearly perfect; the +northern and western walls are tolerably fairly preserved; but the +eastern outline of the east wing, the southern outline of the south +wing, and the southern ends of both east and west have almost completely +disappeared under hills of rubbish, a few posts alone assisting the +explorer. The path of destruction has in both buildings lain in the same +direction,--from S.S.E. to N.N.W.,--and across both its effects have +decreased from south to north. Still, while the similarity in that +respect is astonishing, and while there are apparently more walls in _A_ +standing than in _B_, there is, owing to the very uneven surface of the +rock upon which it is built, much more confusion among the ruins of the +former than among those of the latter. _B_ is built on a gradual slope +or ridge; _A_ caps a generally convex surface, scooped out in the +middle, and sloping eastward.[117] Hence comes the division of the whole +structure into four separate and distinct buildings, and hence, also, +the complicated manner in which the whole or each part is ruined, even +walls still standing being twisted out of shape and out of position. +Actual measurements were much less efficacious here than in _B_; and, +although I have worked with not less zeal and conscientiousness, the +result in neatness and precision is certainly less satisfactory. This +explanation will, I hope, induce subsequent explorers to look up my +inaccuracies and correct them. + +It is needless, of course, to detail the methods of work. They are on a +larger scale, and in more tedious ways, a repetition of the proceedings +in the case of _B_. The results are as follows, starting from the line +_f f_ northwards: The space comprised between the corners (_e_, _e_, +_f_, _f_) forms a rectangle, containing 18 longitudinal rows of 6 rooms +each. These rows are all on the same level, except the most easterly +one, which lies on the slope. The cells, as far as measured and still +measurable, appear to be of the same size in length, namely, 2.87 m.--9 +ft. 6 in.,--and their widths are respectively from W. to E., or 2.83 m., +2.00 m., 3.14 m., 2.70 m., 2.53 m., and 2.53 m.--9 ft., 6 ft. 6 in., 10 +ft., 9 ft., 8 ft., and 8 ft. The whole area is therefore 51.66 m. × +15.73 m.--170 ft. × 51 ft. Still, I believe that a sensible narrowing +(possibly of nearly 2.0 m.--6 ft. 6 in.--) may have taken place up to +_ee_; but this is compensated by the strengthening of the corners, +which there are rounded outwards, so that the line _e e_ presents about +the same length as _f f_. Thereupon follows the open passage _E_, which +is 3.40 m.--11 ft. wide, and north of it a rectangle of 3 longitudinal +rows of 3 apartments, _two_ of which rows are on the eastern slope. The +width of the rooms appears to be the same as that in the former section, +whereas their length from N. to S. is respectively 6.10 m., 4.27 m., and +5.44 m.--20 ft., 14 ft., and 18 ft. It is therefore a rectangle of 15.81 +m. × 15.73 m.--51 ft. × 51 ft. North of it is an open space marked C, +3.13 m.--10 ft.--wide, in which I could detect no longitudinal +partition, except one closing its western outlet towards the court. I +have therefore left it an open question, and marked it as an alley or +corridor. It may yet prove to have contained six rooms on the ground; +but, as this is uncertain, the rooms that may have existed are not +included in the computation of cells. North of the line _b b_ begins the +section _a B b b_, which is very badly ruined. This forms also the +north-east angle of the whole building, and whose northern line (_a B_) +shows the partitions of six chambers, each 2 m.--6 ft. 6 in. wide, each +one indicating a longitudinal row of 4 rooms, respectively 2.83 m.--9 +ft.--each from N. to S. It would indicate a rectangle of 11.32 m. × +12.00 m.--37 ft. × 40 ft. Of its six rows of rooms, three are on the +slope. + +From _a_ to A extends the main northern wall of the structure. It is +very strong, .78 m.--2 ft. 6 in.--wide, and constructed as follows, Pl. +V., Fig. IX.:-- + +_a_, the outer wall, is 0.33 m.--13 in.--wide. + +_b_, filling of mud, is 0.17 m.--6 in.--wide (this filling is both earth +and gravel). + +_c_, inner wall, is 0.28 m.--11 in.--wide. + +The width of the inner wall being the average thickness of all the other +walls in the whole house, the suggestion is not improbable that it was +built first, and the outer one, which is made of larger stones, added +subsequently for additional strength, and the interstice filled up as +the work rose. + +The line _a A_ is 17.28 m.--56 ft.--long. From _A_ it runs down to the +south for 8.10 m.--27 ft.--, thence east, 17.28 m.--56 ft.--, to connect +with the north-east corner of the eastern wing. It thus forms an aisle, +and at the same time closes the court to the north. A rectangle of 8.10 +m. × 17.28--27 ft. × 56 ft.--consists of 4 longitudinal sections of 3 +rooms each, which, while their length is uniformly 2.70 m.--9 ft.--(from +N. to S.), have widths from W. to E. of 5.46 m., 3.18 m., and 3.62 +m.--18 ft., 10 ft., and 12 ft. All the rooms are on the same level, and +they are the largest and best preserved of any in the entire area of +ruins. Room _I_ has even an unimpaired roof. + +The north wall of _a A_ stands out boldly on the highest crest of the +_mesilla_. Below it northwards, a small hill of stones, from which +timbers occasionally protrude, forms a tumbled and confused slope of +inextricable ruin; and beyond this slope there extend the foundations of +walls on the level _mesilla_ up to 10 m.--33 ft.--from the northern +transverse part of the general circumvallation, which there is 45 +m.--148 ft.--from _a A_, and 30 m.--100 ft.--long from W. to E. It thus +appears that the building _A_ had its northern annex as well as the +house _B_. To this annex I shall hereafter return. + +West of line _A n_ there runs alongside of it the interesting gateway +_G_, 2 m.--6 ft. 6 in.--wide, its bottom somewhat higher than the floor +of the adjoining rooms,[118] and forming, as before stated, the +north-westerly entrance to the great inner court. It is perfectly +straight on the east as far as _r_; but then a heavy bank of stones and +gravel starts out like a lower continuation of the wall _a A_, and winds +down, curving, till close to the western circumvallation on the edge of +the _mesilla_. It thus forms a northern embankment to the gateway. +Almost parallel to it, on the opposite side of _n r_, the conical +mound or tower H constitutes the western and southern wall of the +passage _G_. This passage is therefore nearly semicircular. It is level +from _n_ to _r_, and thence descends steeply towards the edge of the +_mesilla_. + +[Illustration: PLATE X +VIEW OF PASSAGE G, BUILDING A, FROM THE NORTH.] + +The mound _H_ describes about two-thirds of a circle. Its base at the +south is 6 m.--20 ft.--from E. to W.; its diameter, 6.85 m.--23 ft; its +actual height, about 1.5 m.--5 ft. It is conical, and appears to be a +round heap of earth and rocks encased with neat and judicious piling of +well-selected stones. This naturally gave the stone-work a slanting +surface; the higher it reaches, however, the more it becomes vertical, +until at last it juts out above the surface of the mound like a circular +breastwork, or a hollow round tower on a conical base. I refer to Pl. X. +for an excellent view of its vertical aspect and structure. This mound, +or tower, while it commands an extensive view to the west, north, and +even north-east, is also the most northerly "spur" of the western wing +of the great house _A_. This wing extends in an unbroken length of 62 +m.--203 ft.--from the base line of _H_ to the entrance _N_, and is +divided into 3 transverse sections, all connected, and all having 3 +longitudinal rows of rooms or cells. The width of each cell is the same +in every section, to wit, from E. to W. 2.58 m., 2.58 m., and 3.22 m.--8 +ft. 6 in., 8 ft. 6 in., and 10 ft. 6 in., respectively. + +Section _k l l m_ has 3 × 5 apartments; in length from N. to S., 2.51 +m., 3.86 m., 2.35 m., 3.71 m., and 3.72 m.--8 ft., 13 ft., 8 ft., 12 +ft., and 12 ft. It was therefore 16.15 m. × 8.38 m.--53 ft. × 27 ft. +Probably all the ground-floor cells were on the same level. + +Section _l l h h_ has 3 × 12 apartments, each 2.53 m.--8 ft.--long. +Consequently, it was a rectangle of 30.36 m. x 8.38 m.--100 ft. × 27 ft. +The eastern row of chambers was on the slope. + +Section _h h N_ 3 × 4 long, respectively 2.77 m.--9 ft. each, therefore +10.98 m. × 8.38 m.--36 ft. × 27 ft. There were two eastern rows on the +slope. + +This entire wing (forming a rectangle of 62 m. × 8.38 m.--203 ft. × 27 +ft., if we add to the spaces given the thicknesses of the transverse +partitions, this time not included in the measures) has given me more +trouble than the rest of _A_ and _B_ combined. Nowhere are the walls so +twisted and out of range as here. Besides, there is an unfinished air +about it that is almost bewildering. The height of the stories does not +agree with that of the other sections,--the western wing would be one +story lower. Furthermore, it contains in several places squared beams of +wood inserted in the stone-work lengthwise. These beams (of which there +is also one in the opposite wing similarly embedded) are identical and +apparently of the same age with the (not sculptured) beams still found +in and about the old church. Entire walls of chambers, or rather sides, +appear to be new; the mud or adobe is fresh, whereas almost everywhere +else it has disappeared, out of the crevices even; the stones are almost +laid in courses. As I shall hereafter relate, there are at several +places adobe walls, the adobe containing wheat-straw! And all this right +among chambers showing sides as uncouth and old as any of the pueblo, +though still as high as their more recent and better preserved +neighbors. Here there is evidently patchwork of later date, and +patchwork executed with material unknown to the Indians previous to the +advent of the Spaniards. I am even convinced that it was done after +1680; for the beams evidently came from the church or the convent, which +buildings we know were sacked and fired by the Indians in the month of +August of that year. If this conclusion be correct, the south-western +part of _A_, its entire westerly wall, was somehow destroyed after 1680, +and partly rebuilt with materials unknown to the Indians at the time +when Pecos was first erected. + +I say partly, because there is evidence that the western wing, from _H_ +to _N_, was originally much broader. As it now appears, the wall _m h_ +presents itself as the western line of the structure. But there are, +still further out, although distinctly connected with it, remains of +buildings which were at least attached to it. These are the ruined +enclosures designated on the ground-plan by _I_, _K_, and _L_. + +Nothing besides foundations, heaps of stones defining corners, and +upright posts protruding along the western limits of _L_ and _K_ inside, +remain of these structures. _L L_ are of the size of the ordinary +chambers; _K K_ are four times larger. Their interior shows no partition +whatever: the soil is level, somewhat depressed in the centre of each +apartment; and on the whole they present very much the same appearance +as those structures on the "neck," which lie to the west of B, but are +not connected with the latter. Besides, the enclosures are on a lower +level than the two rows of rooms immediately east of the wall _m N_. +This wall itself is a double wall, each single one being of the size of +the ordinary partition; the total width is therefore 0.56 m.--22 +in.,--as proven by actual measurement. The idea is therefore +suggested--very naturally--that the entire western wing of the building +_A_ was originally a double house,[119] terraced both towards the east +and the west. In sketching the cross-sections, I have taken due notice +of this very probable, if not positive, fact. + +The double wall _m N_ shows no trace of lateral passages. It therefore +divides the whole structure from _H_ to _N_ into two longitudinal +sections. The western one, from _o_ to _p_, consisted of but one row of +5 rooms; from _p_ to _N_ it had two rows of 16 chambers each. The +ground slopes still further to the S. and S.W. outside of the +trapezoidal enclosures, _I I_, and is covered with _débris_; so that I +presume that, from _ll_ to _N_, there was an additional row of 3 rooms +on the outside. The entire division was at one time very completely +razed to the ground, so that its owners never attempted to rebuild it +after the original plan. + +The western division was also badly damaged in its southern half, but +the damage was subsequently repaired with the aid of material and +mechanical arts postdating the Spanish conquest of New Mexico. Pl. V., +Fig. 3, gives a view of the western end, along the line _h h_. + +I would recall here the fact already noticed, that the northern part of +building _B_ is also mended in places with adobes of the same make as +those used in repairing the western wing of _A_, and that, while the +squared beams are wanting, the stone-work there in places appears also +of a more recent date. The suggestion may therefore not be uncalled for, +that the same destroying power which spent its main force on _A_, +distinct from the general decay, and moving in a direction from S.W. to +N. E., reflected or glanced off upon the northern portions of _B_. This +question will, however, be discussed hereafter. + +The annexes _I I_ are trapezoidal enclosures of stone-work as high as a +man's breast, and respectively of the sizes indicated on the +ground-plan. The northern one is divided lengthwise into two +compartments; the southern is open to the south. Both appear to be new +and unfinished. From the centre of the last one protrude two +well-squared heavy timbers. These timbers are in a singularly unfit +position; they cannot be accounted for, and convey the impression that +they were carried hither from some other totally different construction. +They look almost forlorn. Whence they came, and for what purpose they +were brought,--what was the object in erecting the enclosures _I I_,--I +do not intend to speculate upon, unless they are recently constructed +store-rooms ("Almacenas"). + +Across the passage-way _N_, both southward from the line _g g_ and +eastward from _I_, fitting into it to the east and barring access to the +great court from the "neck," lies the south wing of _A_,--a rectangle of +27.25 m.--90 ft.--from W. to E., and 13 m.--43 ft.--from N. to S., +including the walls. It is much decayed and overturned; the northern +side is far less so than the southern; nowhere are there any signs of +repairs. Here the rows of rooms must be taken transversely (from W. to +E.). There are 5, each with 7 chambers, measuring in succession from N. +to S. 2.00 m., 2.00 m., 3.09 m., 2.40 m., and 2.00 m.--6 ft. 6 in., 6 +ft. 6 in., 10 ft., 8 ft., and 6 ft. 6 in; and from W. to E. 3.61 m.--12 +ft. each. Two of these transverse rows appear to be on the southern +slope, and three on the upper level towards the court. + +Here I have again reached the passage-way _R_, my original point of +departure. Before entering into an examination of the other particulars +of the building, as well as of its annexes and surroundings, I shall +make once more a rapid circuit, to give an idea of its size, and also +attempt a rude computation of the number of rooms it contained. + +Lengths of the eastern +wing from _f_ to +_B_ (E. side N. and +S.) 51.66 m.--170 ft. + 3.40 m.-- 12 ft. + 15.81 m.-- 52 ft. + 3.13 m.-- 10 ft. + 11.32 m.-- 37 ft. + 7.84 m.-- 25 ft. + ----------------- +Adding 28 walls à 0.28 +m.--11 in., total 93.16 m.--306 ft. + +_Brought forward_ 93.16 m.--306 ft. + +Lengths of the north +side from _B_ to _a_ 12.00 m.-- 40 ft. +from _a_ to _A_ 17.28 m.-- 57 ft. +6 transverse walls à .28 +m.--11 in. 1.68 m.-- 6 ft. + ---------------- + 30.96 m.--102 ft. + +Length from _A_ to _n_ 8.10 m.-- 27 ft. +_n_ to _m_ 8.38 m.-- 27 ft. +_m_ to _o_ 2.51 m.-- 8 ft. +_o_ to W. corner of _L_ +(estimated) 5.00 m.-- 16 ft. +W. corner of _L_. to _p_ 16.17 m.-- 53 ft. +_p_ to _y_ 2.10 m.-- 7 ft. +_y_, southward, to line +_g g_ 33.44 m.--110 ft. +passage-way N .00 m.-- 6 ft. 6 in. + +Width of western section +of W. wing +(about) 7.48 m.-- 25 ft. +Length of south wing 13.00 m.-- 43 ft. +28 transverse walls à +.28 m.--11 in. 7.84 m.-- 26 ft. + ---------------- + 106.02 m.--348 ft. 6 in. + +Width of S. wing 27.25 m.-- 90 ft. +Passage _R_ 4.00 m.-- 13 ft. +From _R_ to _f_ (about) 4.00 m.-- 13 ft. +Line _f f_ 15.73 m.-- 52 ft. +8 longitudinal walls à +.28 m.--11 in. 2.24 m.-- 7 ft. + ---------------- +Total length to _f_, my +point of departure 53.22 m.--175 ft. + ------------------ +Entire length of circuit +of building _A_ 283.36 m.--928 ft. + +Adding to this 15 m.--49 ft.--for the probable periphery of mound _H_, +and 64 m.--210 ft.--for the perimeter of a southern annex to the south +wing, which I have not yet described, we reach a perimeter of 362 +m.--1,190 ft.--in all. Comparing these figures with those given about +the great ruins of the Rio Chaco by Dr. W. H. Jackson,[120] and of the +pueblo of Las Animas River by my friend the Hon. L. H. Morgan,[121] it +will be seen that this building, _A_, at Pecos is probably the largest +aboriginal structure of stone within the United States so far described, +and that it will even bear comparison with many of the aboriginal ruins +of Mexico and Central America.[122] + +The size of the interior court can now be easily determined. It is 64 +m.--210 ft.--from N. to S., and 19.28 m.--63 ft.--from E. to W. Its area +covers therefore 1,235 sq. m.--13,230 sq. ft.,--or about one fourth of +an acre; whereas the entire _débris_, measured as well as possible, +scatter over more than two acres of ground. + +For the computation of the number of rooms in the whole pile, +cross-sections are necessary. (Pl. V., Figs. 1-8.) The height of each +story is about the same as in _B_, to wit, 2.28 m.--7 ft. 6 in. + +Fig. 1, section of west wing about _l l_, from west to east. + +Fig. 2, lines _b b_ and _a B_. + +Fig. 3, section of west wing along _h h_. + +Fig. 4, line _d d_, north, up to south line of _C_. + +Fig. 5, section of west wing along line _g g_. + +Fig. 6, line _f f_, southern boundary of east wing, and for the +entire rectangle up to _E_. + +Fig. 7, cross-section of north wing, line _A n_, from north to +south. + +Fig. 8, south wing, from north to south. + +It is possible that the second row, from S. to N., had two superposed +chambers, but I am not positive of it, and therefore do not include it +in the computation of rooms which will follow. + +[Illustration: PLATE V +SECTIONS OF BUILDING A.] + +It will be seen that, according to the ground plan and sections, the +east wing had five stories, the north wing two, the west wing +successively two, three, and four, and the south wing four. Looking at +the buildings from the great court, the south presented an unbroken +front of a two-story wall, the east successively walls of four, +three, and two stories; the north side formed two, and the west side, +from north to south, in succession, two, three, and four terraces. In +this manner, not only was the building remarkably well accommodated to +the great irregularities of the surface, but even a tolerably uniform +height was attained, well agreeing, therefore, with the description of +"Cicuyé," as Castañeda saw it in 1540. "The houses have four stories, +terraced roofs all of the same height, along which one can make the +circuit of the entire village without meeting any street to intercept +the passage.[123] Here we must remember that the widest gateway is 4 +m.--13 ft.--wide,--an expanse easily spanned by common beams used by the +Indians in their house architecture. + +An attempt to compute the number of rooms in _A_ results as follows:-- + +Rectangle _f f e e_, 18 longitudinal rows of 6 rooms and 5 stories. + 1st story 18 + 2d story 5 × 18 90 + 3d story 4 × 18 72 + 4th story 3 × 18 54 + 5th story 2 × 18 36 + --- 270 rooms. + +(_d d c c_) 1st story and 2d story on the slope, +and 3 rooms per row. + 1st story 3 + 2d story 3 + 3d story 4 × 3 12 + 4th story 3 × 3 9 + 5th story 2 × 3 6 + -- 33 " + --------- +_Carried forward_ 303 rooms. + +_Brought forward_ 303 rooms. + +(_b b a B_) 6 rows of 4 rooms, and 3 stories on +the slope. + 1st, 2d, and 3d story, each 4 12 + 4th story 3 × 4 12 + 5th story 2 × 4 8 + -- 32 " + +(North wing) 2 stories, easily computed as 20 " +(_k m l l_) 1st story 5 × 4 20 + 2d story 5 × 2 10 + -- 30 " + +(_l l h h K_) Lowest story 12 + 2d story 12 × 4 48 + 3d story 12 × 2 24 + -- 84 " + +(_h h K g g I_) Lowest story 4 + 2d story 4 + 3d story 4 × 4 16 + 4th story 4 × 2 8 + -- 32 " + +(South wing) From E. to W. + Lowest story 7 + 2d story 7 + 3d story 7 × 3 21 + 4th story 7 × 2 14 + -- 49 " +Adding for the southern annex a probable number of 35 " + --------- +Building _A_ contained in all not less than 585 cells. + +Turning now to the inside of the building itself, I am compelled to +acknowledge here an important omission in my survey of _B_. It relates +to the vertical connection of the walls. They are all, with few +exceptions, as far as their dilapidated condition admits of observation, +continuous from bottom to top; that is, the sides were everywhere +carried up above the ceiling (or floor), and then, after the beams had +been embedded in the stones, another wall was piled up on it as +straight as possible. In this manner it became possible to add each +cell separately. + +There are several doors visible in _A_, as marked on the ground-plan. +Those in the eastern and western wings open from east to west, those in +the northern wing from north to south; therefore transversely to the +length of each structure. But I have also seen longitudinal walls +without passages. The tops of the doors are all gone; the rest is +everywhere similar to the sample found in _B_, and already figured. In +some cases even the sills are gone. Windows I could not find, nor +trap-doors or ladders; there was no trace of steps, and, unfortunately, +no clew to any chimney or vent. Of furniture I secured pieces of new +hearth-stones; of other articles, broken "metates," part of a fine maul +of stone, flint chips, celts, stone skin-scrapers, and, of course, +painted pottery and obsidian. But not one specimen is entire; every +striking implement, etc., has been carried off by amateurs, of whose +presence besides broken beer bottles, with the inscription +"Anheuser-Busch Brewing Co., St. Louis, Mo.," give occasional notice. + +Room _I_, in the S.W. corner of the north wing is very well preserved: +so well, indeed, that it is nearly certain that there was no entrance to +it from above. On the contrary, the entrance appears to have been from +the front, as shown in Pl. VIII., where this room stands in full view. +It is perfectly plain inside; eight posts of wood, round, and stripped +of all bark, support the ceiling and roof, whose composition I have +elsewhere described. These posts (which are also shown in Pl. VIII.) are +so distributed as to have one in each corner, and two between, on each +longer side of the room. In the S.E. quarter of the ceiling the +splinters covering the rafters or poles are removed, and fresh straw (or +rather very well preserved) protrudes, as having formed a layer with the +brush. I was at first inclined to take it for wheat-straw, but other +parties insisted that it was mountain grass. For the latter it appears +to be very long, and it has a marked head. I have not, as yet, seen any +wheat-plants grown at these elevations.[124] + +Otherwise this chamber appears nearly perfect. In the middle of the +north wall a hole is knocked out, but the two coats of plaster (dark and +white) are almost everywhere preserved. Great interest attaches to this +apartment, from the fact that, according to Sr. Mariano Ruiz, the sacred +embers ("braza") were kept here until 1840, in which year the five last +remaining families of Pecos Indians removed to their cognates at Jemez, +and the "sacred fire" disappeared with them. Sr. Ruiz is good authority +on that point, since, as a member of the tribe[125] ("hijo del pueblo"), +he was asked to perform his duty by attending to the embers one year. He +refused, for reasons which I shall hereafter state. The facts--that the +fire was kept in a sort of closed oven, and that the front opening +existed--made it unnecessary to search for any other conduit for smoke +and ventilation. The fire was kept covered, and not permitted to flame. + +I now come to one of the most interesting features of the court,--the +three circular depressions marked _P_ on the diagram. Two of them are in +the N. E. corner,--the northern one close to the northern wing, and the +other 2.65 m.--9 ft.--to the S. S. E. of it. Both are perfect circles, +and each has a diameter of 7.70 m.--25 ft. In the S.W. corner, near to +the passage _N_, is the third, with a diameter of only 6 m.--20 ft. They +look like shallow basins, encased by a rim of stone-work piled up in the +usual way, and forming a wall of nearly 0.35 m.--14 in.--in thickness. +This wall is sunk into the ground, but at the northern basin it +certainly, as former excavations plainly show, did not reach the depth +of 1 metre; and it appears that at about that depth there were flat +stones laid, like a rough stone floor. These basins were the "Estufas," +or council chambers, where, as late as 1840, the meetings of the poor +remnants of the tribe were still held. Although an adopted son of Pecos, +Sr. Ruiz was never permitted to enter the Estufa. Across the northern +one a very large and very old tree, nearly 0.75 m.--2 ft. 6 in.--in +diameter, is lying obliquely. Its thick end is towards the N.E. wall. It +looks as if uprooted and fallen upon the ruins. But how could a tree of +such dimensions ever have grown there? Again, for what purpose, and how, +could the Indians of Pecos have carried it hither? + +Outside of the building _A_, the narrow ledge separating its rubbish +from the eastern wall of circumvallation, a rim 150 m.--192 ft.--long by +32 m.--105 ft.--wide at the south, and 12 m.--40 ft.--at the north, +shows the basins _D_ and _F_, respectively 10 m.--33 ft.--and 8 m.--26 +ft.--in diameter. They hug the rock of the _mesilla_ very closely, and +look completely like the estufas in the court. These buildings, +according to Sr. Epifanio Vigil, of Santa Fé, were barns or store-houses +(round towers 10 to 11 feet high), in which the Indians preserved their +gathered crops, forage, etc. Still, it is not unlikely that they were +tanks, built for collecting rain-water. + +On the south side of the eastern wing, and so close to it that the heaps +of rubbish touch, are two circular depressions surrounded by large +masses of stones. They are marked S S on the plan. Their shape and size +cannot be accurately determined, and their object is unknown. + +[Illustration: PLATE VIII +INTERIOR OF BUILDING A, FROM THE SOUTH.] + +Nearly the same must be said of a rectangular space, dotted +and intersected with foundations and upright beams marked _T T_, and +lying out in front of the south wing on the denuded and thinly soiled +apron forming the southern spur of the "body" of the _mesilla_. Its +eastern line, a double stone wall sunk 0.50 m.--20 in.--into the soil, +is 8 m.--26 ft.--long from N. to S. From its southern extremity similar +foundations run to the west 37 m.--120 ft.,--thence 8 m.--26 ft.--north, +and 37 m.--120 ft.--east back to the first line. Thus a rectangle of 8 +m. × 37 m.--26 ft. × 120 ft.--is formed, within whose area, especially +in the western portion, upright beams start up in something like a +semicircle, which would indicate that the structure was once a building. +A metre and a half to the north, a foundation wall runs about 20 m.--66 +ft.--E. and W.; and at both of its extremities a corridor ascends +towards the south wing of _A_. The nature and object of these fabrics +are equally a mystery to me. + +Attached to the S.W. corner of the south wing is the annex of which I +have already spoken. It is an elevated rectangle of 24 m. × 9 m.--80 ft. +× 30 ft., and is clearly divided into compartments of 3-1/2 m. × 3 +m.--12 ft. × 11 ft. The whole is not much more than a stone mound of +oblong shape, but it contained on its ground-plan 21 chambers. I +presume, from the mass of _débris_, that it had an upper story. Its +eastern row of cells is a direct continuation of the most westerly row +of the S. wing. Due south of this annex, and almost touching it, there +are two structures marked _O O_ which are very remarkable. They are +octagonal. The most easterly one is best preserved, and appears to be +the largest. Its two lateral walls are each 4 m.--13 ft.--long, the +transverse 5.34 m.--18 ft.,--and the corners are cut off sharply by +intersections of 0.86 m.--3 ft.--in length, so as to give the whole +eight sides. The walls are well defined; the corners sharp and still one +metre high. They are of the usual thickness. The other structure is so +ruined that it appears round. These buildings, according to Sr. Vigil, +were store-houses also; and they favor the suspicion that those marked +_S S_ south of the east wing had the same shape. As they now appear, +they look like the ruins of octagonal towers. The stone-work is like +that of the estufas, but they are erected exclusively above the ground, +and still cannot have been very high. + +I have now reached the utmost south-westerly point of ruins on the +"body," where its drainage leads us into the often-mentioned depression +and to the broad gateway of the circumvallation. From this gate the +enclosure-wall creeps up along the edge of the _mesilla_ N.W. and N., in +all 104 m.--340 ft.,--to a point 44 m.--144 ft.--due west of the S. W. +corner of the annex; and here we find a distinct stone enclosure 27 +m.--89 ft.--long from N. to S., and 15 m.--50 ft.--wide, with an +entrance of 3 m.--10 ft. wide, and terminating at the circumvallation. +North-east of this, and about 28 m.--92 ft.--west of i on the middle +wall of western wing, another enclosure begins 20 m. × 8 m.--66 ft. × 26 +ft.; and 3 m.--10 ft.--south of this a small ruin 10 m. × 8 m.--33 ft. x +26 ft. Adjacent to _L L_, etc., around from o to y, a curved enclosure +of stone extends, 42 m.--140 ft.--long, and thence east 6 m.--20 +ft.--back to the N.W. corner of K. It appears like a garden, or corral, +and shows no partitions. These are, as far as I could see, all the +remains west of the building _A_. The edge of the _mesilla_ rounds into +the north-western corner of the latter, almost closing up with it; the +slope is very steep and covered with huge rocks, broken and tumbled down +along the declivity. + +The small northern plateau between the transverse circumvallation and +the top-wall of _A_ is therefore nearly shut out from communication to +the S.W. This plateau is a trapezium 45 m.--148 ft.--long from N. to +S.,--50 m.--164 ft.--wide on the S., and 30 m.--98 ft.--on the N. It +holds but few ruins; but, among these, a valuable find was made a short +time ago by Mr. Harry Dent, of Baughls. + +These ruins, in the main, can be described as follows: The slope +descending from the top-wall is a heap of rubbish with shrivelled posts +of wood, impossible to disentangle without excavations. North of this +_débris_, and 29 m.--95 ft.--from _A a B_, stands a knoll, or mound, +covered with stones. Looking south from this, I thought I noticed that +it stood in the line of the second row of chambers of the east wing of +_A_, counting from E. to W.; and retracing my steps in that direction I +found, indeed, traces of stone foundations disappearing under the great +_débris_, which indicated a corridor, or perhaps series of rooms, about +2 m.--6 ft. 6 in.--wide. It therefore looked like a northern annex to A. +From the mound, which I have designated by _V_ (Pl. I., Fig. 5), other +foundations radiate to the W. and N.W. Those west soon disappear, but to +the N.W. they are plainly visible for 14 m.--46 ft.--to another mound, +or knoll _T_, similar to the first, whence another line of foundations +vanishes to the west also. This appears to be the utmost limit of +structures north, except the wall of enclosure, from which to T on the +south is about 10 m.--33 ft. About the N.W. corner of A large heaps of +rubbish descend in shapeless terraces outside and merge into the slope +of the _mesilla_. They are, like the entire slope itself, covered with +fragmentary pottery. About their eastern declivity, also, I thought I +saw foundations, but could not be sure whether or not they connected +with those extending westward from the two mounds just mentioned. + +In the eastern section of mound _V_, Mr. Dent has, as I was informed and +saw, dug down one metre into the dark loamy clay and stones of which the +knoll is composed, and has thus exposed a small stone chamber, or flue, +walled in to the north, west, and south in the ordinary manner, and +closed with earth, etc., at the east. Whether there was any stone top +other than rocks heaped up above the hillock I could not learn; neither +did I, in digging down further, find any floor. This chimney-like +structure is 1.32 m.--3 ft. 8 in.--wide from E. to W., and 0.70 m.--2 +ft. 3 in.--from N. to S. It is therefore too large for a chimney, or +flue, and too small for a room. Out of it Mr. Dent, whom I could not +find personally, as he was absent at the time, extracted a human +skeleton and much fairly preserved pottery. Of course, I was unable to +see what he carried off (among which was the skull), but I saw and dug +further in the same excavation, removing out of it bone splinters and +the best preserved pottery piece of the entire collection. They are, in +part, very similar to the yellow bowls still made by the Indian pueblo +of Nambé (a Tehua tribe); but many of them have been so charred and +blackened that it is impossible to make out their color. The pottery is +all thin. Among it were also bits of charcoal and of rotten wood. The +structure therefore appears to have been a grave, in which the body was +placed in a sitting posture with its face to the east. Subsequent +information and discovery have fully confirmed this view. I shall return +to this on a subsequent page, and only state here that my efforts to +find another skeleton in the same location failed. + +The aboriginal remains encircled by the great wall of circumvallation +and north of the old church are now exhausted, so far as my work among +them goes, and the surroundings of the _mesilla_ shall therefore become +the subject of report. + +The slope towards the east and south-east is rocky on the top, covered +with sandy soil growing _grama_ and very few cedar bushes, studded with +ant-hills, and devoid of all remains of human structures so far as I +could see. Pottery and obsidian are ever present, but become perceptibly +less and almost disappear further east. The rills which drain the +eastern slope carry much of this broken stuff into a small arroyo that +winds to the left of the _mesilla_. About one quarter of a mile east of +the building _A_, on a bare sunny and grassy level, are, quite alone, +the foundations of a singular ruin. They run N. and S., consist of three +rows of stones laid aside of each other longitudinally, and have the +shape shown in Pl. V., Fig. 10. + +Its length from N. to S. is 25 m.--82 ft.,--and its width about 10 +m.--33 ft. From its form I suspect it to have been a Christian chapel, +erected, or perhaps only in process of erection, before 1680. Not only +is it completely razed, but even the material of the superstructure +seems to have been carried off. Stones are scattered about the premises, +but I found neither obsidian nor pottery. It stands protected from the +north by the extremely rocky ledge terminating the _mesilla_ towards the +east, and appears without the least connection with the Indian pueblo +proper. + +It is the almost circular bottom on the west of the _mesilla_, +encompassed by the north rock of _A_ to the north, by the whole length +of the _mesilla_ to the east, by the gradual expanse below the church on +the south, and by the Arroyo de Pecos on the west, that contains the +aboriginal remains. Much better than a description, a diagram will +illustrate their extent and shape. Pl. I., Fig. 5. + +The distances are not very correctly given, and the shape of _F_ is +slightly exaggerated in irregularity. + +_A_ and _B_ being the respective large buildings, _C_ the church, _D_ +the great gate of the circumvallation; _E_ is a stone or rubble wall of +undeterminable length running along the foot of the mesilla in a slight +curve till near the "wash-out" sallying from the gate, and _F_ is an +irregular lozenge, or trapeze, enclosed by a heavy low stone or rubble +wall which might in some places be called an embankment. The corner _l_ +is 50 m.--165 ft.--from the border of the creek-bottom, which there is +cut off abruptly from 1 m. to 3 m.--3 ft. 3 in. to 10 ft.,--presenting a +section of red clay and gravel with pottery fragments. The line _l r m_ +runs W.N.W. to E.S.E., and is 138 m.--452 ft.--long; the line _m s n_ +measures 121 m.--398 ft.,--_n o p_ 146 m.--480 ft., and _p l_ 100 +m.--330 ft. From _r_ to _s_ an embankment of earth and stone runs almost +in a circle, and the whole triangle _r m s_ forms a slightly elevated +platform, in the centre of which is a pond (_estanque_) _t_, which, even +at the present time, is filled with water. Viewed through the gate from +above, this pond appears, with a part of the enclosure, as seen in Pl. +IX. Several gullies (_barrancas_) have cut through the western and +southern parts of the enclosure. + +This enclosed area, now covered with tufts of grama, occasional +cactuses, knolls and scattered drift and pottery, was according to Sr. +Ruiz, the former _huerto del pueblo_; that is, the fields of the +inhabitants of the pueblo, where they planted and raised Indian corn, +beans, calabashes, squash, and, after the advent of the Spaniards, also +wheat, melons, and perhaps other fruit. Not a vestige of former +cultivation is left; but the platform _r m s_, with a pond in the +centre, at once explains their mode of securing the water for +irrigation. Through the gateway _D_ the drainage of the _mesilla_ was +conducted directly to the platform _r m s_, where the pond _t_ acted as +a reservoir, out of which the fields themselves could be very easily and +equitably supplied with moisture. Whether this was done by channels +radiating from below the curve _r s_ over the area _F_, or by carrying +the water, I cannot tell, neither my informants nor the appearance of +the area giving any clew. But I could not escape being forcibly struck +by this plain and still very forcible illustration of communal living. +Not only did the Pecos Indians live together, and build their houses +together, but they raised their crops in one common field (though +divided into individual or rather family plots, according to Ruiz), +irrigated from one common water source which gathered its contents of +moisture from the inhabited surface of the pueblo grounds. "The lands," +said Mariano Ruiz, "belong to the tribe, but each man can sell his own +crops." ("Las tierras son del pueblo, pero cada uno puede vender sus +cosechas.") It forcibly recalls the system of "distribution and tenure +of lands" among the ancient Mexicans. + +I now cross the Arroyo de Pecos, and on its western bank, in the +triangle formed by the creek with the military road to Santa Fé, nearly +opposite the site of the old church, I met with a ruined enclosure and +with remains of structures whose purposes are yet unexplained to me. + +The distance from _M_ to the arroyo is 40 m.--130 ft. Its E. line is 75 +m.--246 ft.,--the S. line 70 m.--230 ft.,--the W., up to where the curve +begins, 55 m.--180 ft. The distance from _M_ to _N_ is 15 m.--50 ft. At +the north end of _N_ is a mound of stone and _débris_, like a conical +tower, 5 m.--16 ft.--in diameter; the other lines are distinct +foundations only. Both _M_ and _N_ are scattered over with broken +pottery, chips of obsidian and flint, and I also found a fragment of a +stone implement. + +Mariano Ruiz told me that the enclosure _M_ was the corral of the +pueblo; that is, the enclosure where they kept whatever herds they +possessed. It was at all events but an enclosure, and no building. +Still, why were their herds, their most valuable property, kept on the +opposite side of the creek, so far from the dwellings themselves? + +There are other ruins yet further south on the western bank of the +arroyo, which, however, I shall not mention here. They are so important +as to deserve special discussion in a later portion of this report. I +therefore cross the creek back again to its eastern shore, and thence to +the south side of the old church, proceeding thence southwards. From the +church a grassy slope, very gentle and with almost imperceptible +undulations, extends to the road which runs almost due W. and E. from +the creek towards the Rio Pecos. The distance is about 300 m.--1,000 +ft.,--of which 74 m.--240 ft.--are taken up by the embankments, walls, +and foundation lines already described as pertaining to the church +building. Plate I. shows the position of this section, its northern +limit being about 34 m.--112 ft.--N. of the southern lines of the church +annexes (or 42 m.--138 ft.--S. of the temple itself) the southern limit +being the road itself, while on the west the creek-bed forms the +boundary. + +_H_, Corral-like structure, very plain, about 50 m. × 20 m., or 163 ft. +× 65 ft. I understood Sr. Ruiz to say that it was the garden of the +church ("la huerta de la iglesia"), but believe that he probably meant +_G_, not having my field-notes with me at the time. + +_I_, rectangle of foundation lines 30 m.--98 ft.--from _A_; 30 m. × 31 +m.--98 ft. × 100 ft.--divided into 2 compartments, the western one 9 m. +× 30 m.--30 ft. × 98 ft. + +_J_, trapezium, with mound at S.W. corner 18 m. × 21 m., or 60 ft. × 70 +ft. + +_K_, rectangle 25 m. × 36 m.--82 ft × 118 ft.--open to the west, and +only recognizable from the semicircular mound of not 0.50 m.--20 +in.--elevation, dotted out as leaving a depression in the centre. + +_L_, circular depression 36 m.--118 ft.--in diameter; ground always wet. + +_O_, circular mound 10 m.--33 ft.--in diameter, 1.5 m.--5 ft.--high. + +_k_, shapeless mound, possibly part of a hollow rectangle. + +In many cases the foundations (which are the only remains visible) are +themselves obliterated,--or at least overgrown. They are sometimes of +0.27 m.--10 in.--in width; again, two rows, even three rows, of stones +compose them longitudinally. The mound is regular, but the soil is +everywhere so hard and gravelly that I desisted from excavating. The +basin _L_ looks much like an estufa: there are few scattered stones on +its surface, and this surface is moist; but I did not notice any trace +of stone encasement. In general, there is no rubbish at all over the +area. Stones are scattered about, and evidently they were once used for +building purposes; but they nowhere form heaps. Then there is not the +slightest trace of pottery or obsidian. In this respect the area just +described forms a remarkable exception. All around it in every direction +the painted fragments cover the soil; this particular locality, as far +as I could find, has none. It only reappears in _I_, opposite the church +annexes, and also in the enclosure _H_, whereas the church grounds are +again strewn with handsome pieces, and some of the finest obsidian +flakes were found on them. + +Across the road to the south, the ground becomes covered with shrubs of +cedar, and the eastern slope hugs the creek-bed. Upon reaching the +creek, the road divides,--one branch crossing over directly to the west, +and the other proceeding along the arroyo about 200 m.--630 ft.--to the +south ere it turns across. The main military line of travel intersects +there-about the one to the Pecos River, and thence, striking almost due +south, forms a very acute angle with the creek. In this angle ledges of +rock protrude, sheltered by a fine group of cedar-shrubs; and here, in +what may be termed a snug little corner, the rocks bear some Indian +carvings. + +Expecting daily a supply of paper for "squeezes," I have until now +deferred taking any exact copies of these vestiges. Therefore this +report contains but superficial notice of them. It would have been +useless labor to make sketches and take measurements when I knew that, +within the period of time I shall spend in New Mexico, I should +certainly be able to secure fac-similes. The carvings are certainly old; +they are much worn, and represent mainly so-called footprints (of adults +as well as of children), turkey tracks, a human form, and a circle +formed by small cup-shaped holes, of the patterns about which I hope +that my friend Professor C. C. Rau, of Washington, will by this time +have finished his elaborate and very interesting work. The human figure +is as rude and childlike an effort as any represented on the plates +accompanying the reports of General Simpson and of my friend Mr. W. H. +Holmes; the footmarks are fair, and the circle is rather perfect. +Something like a "diamond" appears within its periphery, but I am not +yet quite certain whether it is a carving or the result of decay. Some +of the tracks seem to point to the high mesa, others to the north.[126] +By the side of these original efforts there are recent additions, +destined, perhaps, to become at some future time as successful +archæological frauds as many of the most interesting products of +excavation in the States of Ohio and Iowa. About the sculptured stones I +again met with fragments of painted pottery. Still further down, on the +east bank of the Arroyo de Pecos, about a mile from the church in a +southerly direction, and on a low promontory of red clay jutting out +into the creek-bed, there are vestiges of other ruins,--a low, flat +mound covered with stones. I saw no pottery about it. + +Directly opposite the sculptured rocks, on the other bank of the arroyo +to the west, the cliffs of clay bordering it form a huge cauldron, out +of which the contents seem to have been originally removed, leaving a +semicircle of vertical bluffs of clay and drift about 3 m.--10 +ft.--high. It is out of this locality that I suggested the clay for the +adobe of the church might have been secured. The faces of the slope +cannot have been washed out, for the creek runs straight far to the +east, hugging closely that side of its banks; there is no trace of an +old stream-bed winding to the westward, neither is there any sufficient +drainage from the west in the shape of gulches or branches. It appears +as if there had been an original start, at least, given to the present +basin by a removal of earth in a curve, subsequent wearing and weakening +enlarging the cauldron to its actual form and size. This size is +constantly increased by decay and by the work of diggers; for this bluff +has been of late a favorite resort for them, from the fact that in its +face human bones--nay, complete graves--have been found. + +I consequently started to examine the bluff, and finally noticed a plain +wall jutting out at about one fourth of the length of the western curve +from N. to S. This wall seemed at first to be a corner. It is well made, +and its stone-work is much like that figured by Mr. Holmes from the +cliff-dwellings on the Rio Mancos in South-western Colorado. Still the +stones are not hewn, but only were carefully broken, the rock itself +having a tabular cleavage. The surface is true. I am unable to say +whether it was a corner or not; the thickness of the side (east) is 0.65 +m.--2 ft.,--and it looks like a strong outside line running almost due +N. and S., perhaps a little to the E. + +The height of the wall is 0.94 m.--3 ft.; its depth beneath the surface, +0.52 m.--21 in. The sod (covered with grama) looks undisturbed; it is +hard and coarsely sandy on the top, but beneath the clay is softer and +loamy. Under the wall there is red clay to the bottom of the bluff with +bands of drift. Clambering along the cliff to the northward, I soon +perceived, at a depth nearly agreeing with the base of the wall, a layer +of white ashes, similar to those found over the hearthstone in building +_B_, mixed with charcoal and charred pottery. This layer was continuous +along the exposure of the bluff; it formed a regular seam, intersected +horizontally by bands of charcoal, and, at the lower end, a continuous +stratum of pottery totally different from that found hitherto, except +one fragment in the drift of the creek and another one among the adobe +rubbish of the church. Instead of being painted, it was corrugated and +indented, and identical with the corrugated and indented ware from the +Rio Mancos and from South-eastern Utah, so beautifully figured by Mr. W. +H. Holmes. There were also a very few pieces of painted pottery: but +these, which became more numerous towards the top of the bluff, or +cliff, appeared to have been washed in; whereas the corrugated fragments +were a distinct, continuous band, most of the convex surfaces being +downwards; and this band, except where ledges of the cliff projected far +out into the bottom, or where the clay had tumbled down recently in +front of the exposure, was visible from 50 m.--165 ft.--N. of the wall +to 62 m.--203 ft.--S. of it on a line of 110 m.--360 ft. It was +everywhere accompanied by the ashes and charcoal. + +_A_, little barranca, exposing ashes, etc., which contained corncobs, +and, in the upper parts of the clay, human bones. + +_a_, grave found by Mr. E. K. Walters, of Pecos; obliterated now. + +_B_, wall. + +_b_, place where skeleton of child was partly secured, five metres S. of +_B_. + +_C_, southern barranca; no remains found. + +_c_, last sign south of pottery, ashes, and charcoal. + +_W_, rock carvings on west bank of the arroyo. + +The following are sections at four different places:-- + +[Illustration: Clay Pit Area] + +Specimens of every section have been sent with the collection. It has +struck me that the stratum of ashes, charcoal, and pottery, while +visible always inside,--that is, to the west of a supposed lateral +extension of the wall from _B_,--still appears to run below it. The +human remains, however, protrude about at heights where the wall, if in +existence, might have been in front of them. There were bones lying on +rubbish in front of _C_,--there were also bones within the ashes, even +at _A_; but the action of wear and washing being everywhere visible and +very complicated, I do not venture any surmise in these cases beyond +expressing the conviction that the human remains originally rested above +the layers of charcoal, ashes, corncobs, and corrugated pottery. + +While at Sr. Ruiz's, I had diligently inquired of the old gentleman +about the graves of the Pecos Indians. He finally replied (after he had +for a time insisted upon it that they were at the church) that before +they became Christians ("antes que fuéron cristianos") they buried their +dead on the right bank of the Arroyo de Pecos, where he had often seen +the skeletons (las calaveras, the corpses) washed out of the cliffs and +strewn about. At Mrs. Kozlowski's, this also appeared to be a known +fact; but an examination of the creek banks showed no trace of bones, +and showed no other structures except the mound already mentioned on the +left shore. In the cliffs of the basin which I have now described I met +with the first sign of what Sr. Ruiz called "El Campo-Santo de los +Indios, antes que fuéron Cristianos." Still it is not at all positive, +because the surface of the level west of the bluff shows extensive but +flat and low mounds, covered with stones used for building, and with +painted pottery, showing that at least adjoining the human remains a +very large building, if not several, had stood at some very remote time. +The wall would then stand towards that ancient structure in the same +relation as the mound or chamber _V_ stands towards the ruin _A_ on the +_mesilla_; and it would indicate the custom on the part of their +inhabitants of burying their dead around their houses, or at least in +sight of the rising sun, and in little chambers of stone. This view is +corroborated by the statement of Mr. E. K. Walters, of Pecos, that at a +place which I have marked _a_ (therefore to the north of the wall) he +dug out, very near the edge of the bluff, a stone grave, and with it a +human skeleton. The grave was a rectangle, walled up on four sides, with +stones on the top and no floor. The western side was rounded, so as to +present the following plan:-- + +[Illustration: Grave] + +In it lay the skeleton, two feet below the soil, the feet pointing +eastward. The length of the chamber was about one third of a large man's +body; the head lay at the west end, amongst the bones of the chest. It +had therefore been buried in a sitting posture facing the rising +sun.[127] Along with the body arrow-heads were found, and pieces of +tanned deerskin, such as are still worn by the Indians. Of course, all +traces of the skull, etc., have since disappeared. + +While this conversation was taking place, the partner of Mr. Walters, +Sr. Juan Basa y Salazar, came in, and the question of the great bell +(which I have already mentioned) came up for discussion. All the parties +assured me that this bell formerly belonged to the church of Pecos, and +that after the outbreak of 1680 the Indians carried it up into their +winter pueblo, on the top of the high mesa, where it broke and they left +it. The positive assertion that the winter pueblo of the Pecos tribe was +about 2,000 feet higher than the great ruins on the _mesilla_--that +these ruins themselves were but their summer houses--was very startling. +It appeared incredible that the Indians should have left their +comfortable quarters in the coldest season to look for shelter in the +highest and coldest places of the whole region. Still, my informants +being old residents and candid men, with certainly no intention to +deceive me, and there being besides confused reports of the existence of +ruins on the mesa current among the people of the valley, I resolved to +devote my last day to a rapid reconnoissance of the elevated plateau. +Therefore, after a visit to the Plaza de Pecos, on the 5th of September, +where the Rev. Father Léon Mailluchet confirmed the reports about the +winter houses on the mesa, I set out (always on foot) on the morning of +the 6th, Mr. Thomas Munn having volunteered to be my guide. + +We followed the railroad track downwards, and about a mile and a half +south of Baughl's, east of the track, met a tolerably large mound. At +the station of Kingman, four miles from Baughl's, there is also a ruined +stone house, rectangular, but smaller than any one of those on the +_mesilla_.[128] I had no time to make any survey. We went along the +railroad for one mile farther, then struck to the S. W. across a +recently cultivated but abandoned field, and finally reached the apron +of gravelly clay and locas skirting the high mesa. Here Mr. Munn assured +me were the remains of stone structures all along for miles, and +especially stone graves. Of the latter he had seen "hundreds." He +described them exactly as Mr. Walters had, and as I had found the pit in +mound V, and described the position of the skeleton also as if sitting +with the face to the east. We soon came to a walled ruin 6 m. × 6 m. or +20 ft. × 20 ft., the walls composed of sandstone,--a range of rubble +blocks very much ruined,--a _piñon_ having a diameter of 0.45 m.--18 +in.--shooting up from the interior. 50 m.--165 ft.--further north a +clearly defined estufa is seen, 4 m.--13 ft.--across, with stone walls 1 +m.--3 ft. 3 in.--in width. The apron of the mesa is overgrown with fine +pines. Thence, following a tie-shoot, we ascended very nearly +vertically, about 1,000 feet at least, to the top. Here already the view +to the E. and S. was magnificent; but the air was light and chilly. +Thunder-clouds were hovering N. and E., rain-streaks pouring down on the +Sierra de Tecolote, and soon a heavy cloud formed south of us, while +others were slowly nearing from the N.E. The mesa dips or slants +decidedly to the W. and S.W.; the strata on its surface are tilted up to +a high pitch, and appear to be almost vertical. The ground is very +rocky, covered with high _piñon_. + +Notwithstanding the steadily nearing thunder, we plunged to the S.W., +past the tie-camp of Mr. Keno, and soon struck the source of an arroyo +in a rocky, desolate hollow, pines shooting up in and around it. There, +on its left bank, were the foundations of a stone structure 11 m. × 3 +m.--36 ft. × 10 ft. About three miles from the edge of the mesa, in a +still wilder _cañada_, where there is no space nor site for any abode +around, the bell was found. There is no trace of any "winter house" +here,--not even on the entire mesa; and the bell was left there, not +because its carriers there remained, but because it dropped there and +broke. Who these carriers were I shall discuss further on; at all +events, they were not the Indians of Pecos. This _cañada_ is the +entrance to a gorge descending directly towards the pueblo of +Galisteo.[129] Meanwhile the clouds had accumulated over our heads, +sharp thunder-claps and icy blasts preceding the storm. It was of short +duration, but as the hail fell thickly we were thoroughly pelted and wet +before again reaching the camp, glad to enjoy the hospitality and hot +coffee of its inmates. At one P.M. the sun shone again, and we started +(this time to the north) along the border of the mesa. Vegetation is +here more exuberant than in the valley of Pecos. Not only do tall pines +grow everywhere, but there is a thick undergrowth of _encina_; the Yucca +is large and green, mountain sage covers the soil, and grassy levels are +dotted with flowers. Animal life, also, is more vigorous and more +varied. Whereas in the valley crows and turkey-buzzards alone enliven +the air, and there are scarcely any beetles; up here there is deer and +turkey, and the gray wolf; jays and magpies flutter through the +thickets, and the horned lizard is met with occasionally. The pith of +the pine-trees attracts a large species of buprestis, and lepidopteræ +are quite common. But there is not the least vestige of former human +dwellings, so far as I could see: the top of the mesa of Pecos is, and +was, a wilderness. It may have been the hunting-grounds of the tribe +even in winter, but as for their exchanging their large pueblo at the +bottom for a residence on the top it is very much as if the good people +of New York City should spend Christmas week on the Catskill Range, or +the Bostonians take winter quarters on Mount Monadnock. We followed the +crest of the mesa for nearly four miles, ascending two of its highest +tops. They are steep, denuded, and craggy. Beneath them vertical ledges +descend in amphitheatres. From the highest point the horizon to the +south appears unbounded. Like a small cone, the peak of Bernal seems to +guard the lowest end of the Valley of Pecos. Over this vale rain-clouds +still cast their shadows, and distant thunder muttered behind the Owl +Mountains and the high Sierras in the north. To the west and south-west +are almost unlimited expanses of slope, dark green pineries, and grassy +spots. The bold outline of the Sandia Mountains looms up stately beyond +it. Even the distant Sierra de Jemez protrudes. Between it and the +northern limits of the mesa lies, far off yet, the city of Santa Fé. + +The mesa is mostly yellow sandstone, but its highest points are capped +with red; therefore the name of "Cerro amarillo" often applied to it. +Through a gorge worn in the rock, and on an almost perpendicular +"burro-trail," we finally descended to the apron of the plateau, +surrounded during our descent by scenery as weird and wild as any of the +lower Alps of Switzerland. On the lower edge of the apron, a mile and a +half north of Kingman, and half a mile from the railroad track, we +struck again several ruins. They were partitioned rectangles, very +similar in size and in condition to the foundations seen south of the +old church of Pecos, and, like those, utterly devoid of fragments of +pottery. Along their eastern line, and inside of the walls, there +appeared little square heaps of stones. These were the graves of which +my guide had spoken, and their position is exactly similar to that of +those near and at the pueblo itself.[130] + +My time was up, however, and I could not stop to explore them. I +therefore returned to Baughl's, and thence to Santa Fé, with the firm +determination to revisit Pecos at a future day, and then do what I was +compelled reluctantly to leave undone this time. Should, in the mean +time, some archæologist explore the same locality, correct my errors, +and unravel the mysteries hovering about the place, I heartily wish him +as much pleasure and quiet enjoyment as I have had during my ten days' +work, in which the dream of a life has at last begun its realization. +Before, however, turning to the close of my report, which will embody +scraps of history gathered about the place, remarks on the customs and +arts of its former inhabitants, and general reflections, I must express +my thanks here to a few gentlemen not yet named in this "personal +narrative." Besides Mr. J. D. C. Thurston, who kindly assisted me for +the first two days, Mr. G. C. Bennet, the skilful photographer, of whose +ability his work is telling, has been for two days a pleasant and +welcome companion. Last, but certainly not least, I thank Mr. John D. +McRae, not only for his assistance free of expense to the Institute in +many important mechanical matters, but especially for the solicitude +with which he has watched my work and looked to my comforts, and for the +great store of information I have gathered from his conversation. + + +HISTORY. + +My survey of the grounds occupied by the aboriginal ruins in the valley +of the Pecos indicates, as I have already stated, three epochs, +successive probably in time, in which they have been occupied by man; +that is, I have noticed these, and beyond these I have not been able to +go as yet. Subsequent explorers may be more fortunate. This distinction, +or rather classification, is very imperfect in the two earlier stages, +and even arbitrary; but between the second and the last there is a +marked break,--not in time, but in ethnological development. I shall +term the three epochs as follows:-- + +1. Pre-traditional. (Indicated by the presence of the corrugated and +indented pottery as its most conspicuous "land-mark.") + +2. Traditional and documentary. (Documents in the sense of written +records.) + +3. Documentary period. + + +THE PRE-TRADITIONAL PERIOD. + +I have not been able to detect as yet among the confused traditions +current about the pueblo of Pecos any tale concerning occupation of +their grounds by human beings prior to the settlement of which the ruins +now bear testimony. It is true that the proper traditions of the tribe +of Pecos are now preserved only at the pueblo of Jemez, about eighty +miles N.W. of Pecos and fifty miles W. of Santa Fé, and that I have not +as yet visited that place.[131] But it must be remembered that I now +report "up to date," and that subsequent information will, or at least +should, come in time. + +My reason for admitting a pre-traditional period is, then, simply that I +have found human remains at Pecos older than those of the present ruins +and different in kind. These remains, as it may already have been +inferred from the "personal narrative," are those found on the west side +of the arroyo, in the basin (or rather the bank encircling it) opposite +the rock carvings. + +One fact is certain, the human bones, the walls protruding from the +banks, and the grave found by Mr. E. K. Walters, are all above the layer +of white ashes, charcoal, corncobs, and corrugated pottery found as a +continuous seam along an extent of over 100 m.--327 ft.--from N. to S. +Consequently, the walls and graves must have been built over these +remains of a people which appears to have made indented and corrugated +pottery alone, and consequently also the latter must be older in time +than the former. It does not appear that the sedentary Indians of New +Mexico ever made, within traditional and documentary times, any other +than the painted pottery in greater or less degree of perfection. Even +Gaspar Castaño de la Sosa, when he made his inroad into New Mexico in +1590, mentions at the first pueblo which he conquered: "They have much +pottery,--red, figured, and black,--platters, caskets, salters, +bowls.... Some of the pottery was glazed."[132] The corrugated and +indented pottery, as I am assured by Sr. Vigil, is rarely met with over +New Mexico, except at old ruined pueblos, and only when digging (en +cavando).[133] I feel, therefore, justified in assuming it to have been +the manufactured ware of a people distinct from the Pecos tribe or the +pueblo Indians of New Mexico in general, and their predecessors in point +of time. This pottery, however, is frequently met with among the cliff +dwellings of the Rio Mancos and in Utah.[134] Its relation, then, to the +painted pottery has, as far as I know, not yet been investigated. + +But what could have been the purpose in covering originally a space of +over 100 m.--327 ft.--in length with the products of combustion and +fragments of one and the same industry in such a manner as to form an +uninterrupted layer of 0.45 m.--18 in.--at least in thickness? Those who +subsequently buried their dead over the seam certainly did not collect +these ashes and spread them there as a floor on which they rested their +structures afterwards. The combustion of a large wooden building would +not have given the same uniformity on such a large scale. Sr. Vigil has +suggested to me the following very plausible explanation: In order to +burn or bake their pottery, the present pueblo Indians of New Mexico +build large but low hearths on the ground of small wood, sticks, and +other inflammable rubbish and refuse, on which they place the newly +formed articles, and then set the floor on fire, until the whole is +thoroughly burnt. Fragments of broken objects, etc., are not removed. +The combustible material is thus reduced to ashes, and the broken pieces +remain within them; their convex surfaces, of course, falling outwards, +and thus resting on the floor. In this manner a thick layer of ashes +and charcoal, with pottery, is easily formed. These "hogueras" are still +from 20 to 40 feet in diameter; but, as they accommodate themselves to +the size of the pueblo, it is certain that they were formerly much +larger. The analogy between such a "potters'-field" and the layer in +question is very striking, and the inference appears likely that the +people who made this corrugated and indented pottery made it in the same +manner as the pueblo Indians now make their painted ware, and as they +made it at the time of the conquest. + +These very old manufacturers of indented ceramics were also a +horticultural people, for they raised Indian corn. The cob found in the +ashes, or rather cut out with the knife at some distance inside the +bluff, is charred and small. To what variety of Zea it belongs the +specialist must decide. + +I hold it to be utterly useless, and even improper, on my part to +speculate any further on these "pre-traditional" people. Perhaps I have +already said too much. Excavations alone can throw further light on the +subject. + + +THE TRADITIONAL AND DOCUMENTARY PERIOD. + +The term "traditional" is applied to this period, because the people +occupying the site of Old Pecos have left some traditions behind them, +and not because we know when it commenced. In fact, I am much inclined +to divide it, for the sake of convenience, into two periods again, one +of which includes the occupation of the area within the circumvallation +and its necessary annexes (field, etc.), whereas the other includes the +area without. Of the former, we have definite knowledge in regard to its +inhabitants; of the latter, we have none whatever. It is therefore also +pre-traditional as yet. Nevertheless, I have included it in the second +epoch, as its ruins indicate that its people possessed arts identical +with those of the present pueblo Indians. Their pottery, wherever +exposed, was painted, figured, and vitrified in places; its +ornamentation is exactly similar to that of the pottery of the interior +area, and different from that of Zuñi. They used flint, but no trace of +obsidian is found. This may be purely accidental; still, why should it +occur at three places so totally different in regard to erosion and +abrasion as the slope south of the church, the west bank of the creek +directly opposite, and, if thorough examination should confirm the +results of my cursory observations, the apron of the high mesa? The +graves, wherever found, are identical with those of the _mesilla_; the +plan of building, and consequently of living,[135] appears similar to +that exhibited in houses _A_ and _B_; the material used is the same, but +the walls are more ruinous, and apparently of a much older date. The +inference is therefore not unreasonable, that the inhabitants of the +three areas named, as outside of the great circumvallation, were of the +kind now called "pueblo Indians," who preceded the tribe of Pecos proper +in point of time. It is not improbable that one or the other of these +ruins may have been erected by the Pecos themselves before they settled +on the mesilla. Still, there is neither proof nor disproval of this +surmise extant. + +There appears to be also a slight difference between the different ruins +of this period themselves. The ruins south of the church and those along +the mesa are similar, in that they are more ruined, and not covered with +_débris_, and in that their surfaces are also devoid of pottery. The +space west of the creek has pottery and also heaps of rubbish, and I +therefore conclude that it was the most recent of the three +locations,--or at least the one last abandoned. To it must be added the +small mound or promontory found further south on the east bank of the +arroyo. One fact is certain: all these places were deserted, and perhaps +as badly ruined as now, at the time when Coronado first visited +Pecos.[136] (The partial removal of the surface material may have been +effected by the Pecos Indians themselves in order to build their own +houses.) + +Referring now to the inhabitants of the two houses, whose ruins are +situated on the mesilla, north of the church, it is a thoroughly +well-authenticated fact that they spoke the same language as the Indians +of the pueblo of Jemez. Jemez lies 80 miles N.W. of Pecos, beyond the +Rio Grande. It is possible that the Pecos Indians came to the valley +from that direction. But it is singular that, while there are no other +settlements speaking this same idiom but Jemez and Pecos, these two +pueblos should be separated, as early as at Coronado's time (1540), by +three distinct linguistical stocks, different from theirs and lying +across, intervening between them. Directly W. of Pecos the Queres, S.W. +the Tanos, N.W. the Tehuas--all at war with the Jemez and the Pecos, and +often with each other--lay like a barrier between the latter two. The +point is an interesting one, as the pueblo of Pecos defines (together +with Taos at the north) the utmost easterly limit to which the pueblo +Indians seem to have penetrated. + +Who were first in the valley of the Rio Grande? Did the Queres, Tanos, +Tehuas, etc., drive out the Pecos, then already settled to the S.W., +into the Sierra, or did the Pecos, migrating from Jemez, force their +passage through the other tribes? I conjecture that the Jemez, etc., +were the first; that they migrated down the Rio Grande, and on the same +area, between Sandía to the S. and Santa Fé, were gradually displaced by +the others successively coming in,--one branch, the Jemez, recoiling +into the mountains towards San Diego;[137] the other, the Pecos, driven +up the cañon of San Cristóbal,[138] and finally, when the Tanos moved up +into that valley, crossing over to the valley of Pecos. + +This is to a great extent conjecture; still there are other singular +indications. I give them with due reserve, however, formally protesting +against any imputation that they are intended for anything else than to +suggest problems for future study. + +According to my friend Mr. A. S. Gatchet, of Washington, D. C., an +excellent linguist, the Tanos and the inhabitants of Isleta, the most +southerly pueblo on the Rio Grande still occupied, speak the same +language.[139] The same is asserted here, as a known fact, to be the +case with the Taos and the Picuries in the north, and the Isletas at the +south. If this be true, then the supposition that the Queres and Tehuas +are the latest intrusive stock would become a certainty. More than that: +the Tanos prior to 1680, had their chief pueblo at San Cristóbal, N. E. +of Galisteo, on the slope of the mesa of Pecos. They also had become +dispossessed of the Rio Grande valley, and divided into (originally) +two branches,--the Picuries and Taos north, and the Tanos, of Galisteo, +east. Isleta itself is a later agglomeration.[140] There being no pueblo +E. and S. E. of Pecos, then it appears that the Jemez, or rather Emmes, +were the first migration, the Tanos the second, and the Queres and +Tehuas the last. + +The earliest traditions of the Pecos are preserved to us by Pedro de +Castañeda, one of the eye-witnesses and chroniclers of Coronado's +"march" in 1540. They told him that, five or six years (?) before the +arrival of the Spaniards, a roaming tribe called the "Teyas" (Yutas) had +ravaged the surroundings of their pueblo, and even, though fruitlessly, +attempted to capture it.[141] This tribe was afterwards met by Coronado +in the plains to the N.E. and E.[142] + +Another tradition, very well known,--so well, indeed, that it has given +to the name of the unlucky "capitan de la guerra" of the ancient +Mexicans the honorific title of an aboriginal "cultus-hero,"--is that of +Montezuma. + +I hope, at some future time, to be able to give some further information +on this Spanish-Mexican importation. Suffice it to say for the present, +that not a single one of the numerous chronicles and reports about New +Mexico, up to the year 1680, mentions the Montezuma story! The word +itself, Mon-te-zuma, is a corruption of the Mexican word +"Mo-tecu-zoma,"--literally, "my wrathy chief,"--which corruption that +eminently "reliable gentleman," Bernal Diez de Castillo, is to be +thanked for. He wrote in 1568.[143] + +What the Indians themselves say of this tale I have not as yet +ascertained; but the people of the valley all assert that the people of +the pueblo believe in it,--that they even affirmed that Montezuma was +born at Pecos; that he wore golden shoes, and left for Mexico, where, +for the sake of these valuable brogans, he was ruthlessly slaughtered. +They further say that, when he left Pecos, he commanded that the holy +fire should be kept burning till his return, in testimony whereof the +sacred embers were kept aglow till 1840, and then transferred to Jemez. + +There is one serious point in the whole story, and that is the +illustration how an evident mixture of a name with the Christian faith +in a personal redeemer, and dim recollections of Coronado's presence and +promise to return,[144] could finally take the form of a mythological +personage. In this respect, for the study of mythology in general, it is +of great importance. That the sacred fire had, originally, nothing at +all to do with the Montezuma legend is amply proven by the earliest +reports. + +It will also become interesting to ascertain in the future how many +pueblos, and which, concede to Pecos the honor of being the birthplace +of that famed individual, and how many, as is the case with other great +folks in more civilized communities, claim the same honor for +themselves. + +I cannot, therefore, attach to the Montezuma tale any historical +importance whatever,--not even a traditional value. + +Of course, Castañeda reports the story which every Indian tribe tells +of themselves; namely, that the Pecos Indians were the bravest and the +most warlike of the pueblos, and that in every encounter they were +always victorious.[145] + +Historical data, founded upon positive written records, begin for Pecos +towards the fall of the year 1540, when Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, +then at Zuñi or Cibola, sent the Captain Hernando de Alvarado with +twenty men to visit a village called "Cicuyé."[146] Indians from that +village, "situated seventy leagues towards the east"[147] from Zuñi, had +visited the latter town, and offered to the Spanish leader "tanned +hides, shields, and helmets." The hides were buffalo-robes, for the +woolly hair was still on them.[148] Alvarado reached Cicuyé, passing, as +I have elsewhere stated, through Acoma and Bernalillo. I have already +identified Cicuyé with Pecos. Besides the proofs already given, a few +descriptive abstracts from the report of Castañeda will add to the +strength of the evidence:-- + +(p. 71.) "Five days' journeys further, Alvarado reached Cicuyé, a +well-fortified village, whose houses are four stories high." + +(p. 176.) "It is built on the summit of a rock. It forms a great square, +in the centre of which are the _estufas_." (Compare general description +and diagrams.) + +(p. 177) "The village is surrounded besides by a stone wall of rather +low height. There is a spring which might be cut off." + +In regard to the wall, I refer to the plans and descriptions; as for the +spring, it trickles out beneath a massive ledge of rocks on the west +side of the arroyo, nearly opposite to the field. Its water, slightly +alkaline, is still limpid and cool, and a great source of comfort. The +sketch upon the next page will give an idea of its appearance. + +[Illustration: Spring] + +There is no trace of work about it. At sunset of the 3d of September, +Mr. Bennet and I saw a herd of many hundred sheep and goats driven to +this spring by Mexicans for water, although the creek still had a fillet +of clear water running, and the pond in the old field was filled nearly +to its brim; they still preferred the old source. + +Finally, it must be borne in mind, that the name of Pecos, in the +language of its former inhabitants and of those of Jemez, is "Âqiu," and +that, in an anonymous report of the expedition of Coronado from the year +1541, Cicuyé is spelt Acuique.[149] + +Castañeda gives some few details concerning the mode of life and the +customs of the inhabitants. Aside from those which I have already +mentioned, he notices the ladders (p. 176); that at night the +inhabitants kept watch on the walls, the guard calling each other by +means of "trumpets" (p. 179); that the unmarried females went naked +until their marriage (p. 177); that the pueblo could muster 500 warriors +(p. 176); and finally, that it was situated in a narrow valley in the +midst of mountains covered with pines, and traversed by a small river +where excellent trout is caught; very large otters, bears, and good +hawks are found there (p. 179). The inhabitants received Alvarado with +the sound of "drums and flutes, similar to fifes, which they use often." +They presented to him a great quantity of cloth and turquoises, which +are common in this province (p. 72). I must here add that the turquoise +mines of "Serrillos" are, in a direct line, only about twenty miles +nearly west of Pecos, in a country between the former pueblos of the +Tanos and those of the Tehuas. I have seen splendid specimens of the +mineral from that locality, and Mr. Thurston found and I have sent on a +perforated bead of bluish color which he picked up among the rubbish of +the house _B_. + +When, in 1543, Coronado left Nuevo México with his whole army to return +to Mexico, two ecclesiastics remained there,--Fray Juan de Padilla, who +was subsequently killed by the Indians near Gran Quivira,[150] and a lay +brother called Luis, who took up his abode at Pecos. Before Coronado +left Bernalillo ("Tiguex"), he sent to brother Luis the remainder of the +sheep. He was then of good cheer, but still expected to be killed some +day by the old men of the tribe, who hated him, although the people were +friendly to him in general.[151] Nothing was afterward heard of him. +Thus Pecos was the first "mission" in New Mexico; perhaps, also, the +first place where domestic quadrupeds became introduced. + +Forty years elapse before we again hear of Pecos. The unfortunate +father, Augustin Ruiz, who, in 1581, attempted to convert the pueblos, +did not reach further north than Puaray, where the Tiguas killed him, +with his two companions.[152] But Antonio de Espejo, who, with fourteen +soldiers, explored New Mexico in 1582 and 1583, visited Pecos. There can +be no doubt but that the pueblos of the "Hubates"--two journeyings of +six leagues to the east of the "Quires"--are the Pecos and the "Tamos," +the Tanos.[153] Espejo is very liberal in his estimates: he gives to the +"Hubates" five towns with 25,000 inhabitants, and to the "Tamos" even +40,000 souls. He says they had cotton cloth; he also says there was much +good pine and cedar in their country, and that their houses were four +and five stories high. His visit to the pueblo was of very short +duration. + +In 1590, Gaspar Castaño de la Sosa, "being then Lieutenant-Governor and +Captain-General of the kingdom of New Leon," made a raid into New +Mexico. It is possible that the pueblo which he came to on the 11th +January, 1591, may have been Pecos.[154] + +The "Spanish conquest of New Mexico" proper took place in the years 1597 +and 1598, under Don Juan de Oñate. He met with little opposition, and +his conquest amounted to little else than a military occupation, +followed by the foundation of Santa Fé. On the 25th of July, 1598, he +went to "the great pueblo of Pecos,"[155] and on the 9th of September, +1598, in the "principal _estufa_" of the pueblo of San Juan, the Pecos +pledged fidelity to the crown of Spain. On the same occasion, Fray +Francisco de San Miguel became the first regular priest of the +pueblo.[156] Here terminates the second period of the second epoch; and +the last one begins where the history of the Pecos tribe, whatever is +left of it, becomes almost exclusively documentary.[157] + +Before, however, leaving this period, I must recall here two facts +elicited by the reports of the forays and travels above mentioned. One +is, that the Pecos Indians, however warlike they may have been towards +outsiders, still were of an orderly, gentle disposition in every-day +intercourse. This is a natural consequence of their organization and +degree of development. The other and more important one is, that Pecos +was the most easterly pueblo in existence in 1540, and that even at that +time it was quite alone. + +Castañeda says (p. 188): "In order to understand how the country is +inhabited in the centre of the mountains, we must remember that from +Chichilticah, where they begin, there are eighty leagues; thence to +Cicuyé, which is the last village, they reckon seventy leagues, and +thirty from Cicuyé to the beginning of the plains." + +Juan Jaramillo, another eye-witness of "Coronado's march," intimates a +similar fact.[158] + +In regard to Pecos being "quite alone," Castañeda is positive; so is +Juan de Oñate, who received and registered its submission. It is true, +however, that Castañeda mentions a small pueblo as subject to Cicuyé, +which pueblo, however, he says was half destroyed at his time. He +locates it "between the road and the Sierra Nevada."[159] This may have +been the small ruin noticed near Kingman. + +These facts are very interesting in their bearings upon the older ruins +of Pecos. It goes far towards furnishing additional proof that they were +indeed abandoned and decayed already in 1540. In regard to building _B_, +it is ignored in the reports, _A_, with its vast court and its +_estufas_, claiming exclusive attention. Still there is no room left for +doubt that _B_ was occupied during this period. But it is evident, from +the statements of the eye-witnesses, that _A_ was the principal abode of +the Pecos tribe in 1540 and afterwards. + + +THE DOCUMENTARY PERIOD, + +commencing in 1598, and running up to the present time. Here we should +be entitled to find, of course, ample and detailed documentary evidence. +Two unfortunate occurrences, however, have contributed to destroy the +records of the territory of New Mexico. + +In the month of August, 1680, when the pueblo Indians rose in successful +revolt against the Spanish rule, and captured the "villa" of Santa Fé, +they brought the archives, ecclesiastical and civil, into the plaza, and +made a bonfire of the entire pile. This was an act of barbarous warfare. +But few papers escaped the general destruction; these were saved by +Governor Don Antonio de Otermin, and sent to El Paso del Norte, where +they are still supposed to remain. We are, therefore, as far as the +period of 1598-1680 is concerned, almost exclusively reduced to general +works like the "Teatro Mexicano" of Fray Augustin de Vetancurt, and to +the collections of documents published at Mexico and at Madrid. That, +nevertheless, some documents were saved, and subsequently carried back +to Santa Fé, is proved by the fact that Mr. Louis Felsenthal, of this +city, has recovered one, a copy of which it is hoped will appear in the +Journal of the Institute in time. + +Subsequent to the return of the Spaniards, the archives of Santa Fé +were kept in good order by its administrators, the last revision thereof +being made by Governor Donaciano Vigil. In 1870, however, the man who +then acted as Governor of the Territory, although otherwise of +irreproachable character, permitted an act of vandalism almost without +its parallel. The archives had accumulated in the palace to a vast +extent: the original good order in which they were kept had been totally +neglected during and since the war of secession; there was not even a +custodian for them. So the head of the executive of this territory +suffered its archives to be sold as waste paper, even sometimes used as +kindling in the offices. Of the entire carefully nursed documentary +treasures, the accumulation of 190 years, the Hon. Samuel Ellison, of +this city (notwithstanding his feeble health), has been able to register +about fifty bundles (_legajos_), whereas wagon-loads were scattered or +sold for wrapping. + +Many of the intelligent inhabitants attempted to save what they could, +and there are some who succeeded to a limited extent; but of what yet +remained in the palace, reduced to a sufficiently small bulk as not to +be "in the way" any longer, even the valuable journals of Otermin and +Vargas were considerably reduced through further decay. + +This has been, in times of profound peace and in the nineteenth century, +the fate of the archives of New Mexico. + +Ever since, the legislature of the territory has been, in fact, utterly +neglectful of its public documents. Each and every reminder in the shape +of a petition has been disregarded, and only Governor L. Wallace has at +last succeeded in having them overhauled. Hon. W. G. Ritch effected +their removal to a suitable place, and it is to the acts of these +gentlemen, and to the labor of love of Mr. Ellison, that we owe the +preservation of what now remains. + +What little documentary evidence has, therefore, been left at my +disposal, contains, as might be supposed, meagre information concerning +the pueblo of Pecos. The older church annals I have not been able to +find, for those at the Plaza de Pecos date back only to 1862. Whither +they have gone I am unable to tell, except that they are not at Santa +Fé. + +About the year 1628, through the action of Fray Francisco de +Apodaca,[160] then Commissary-General of the Franciscan order in Mexico, +religious life in this territory obtained a new impulse. Until then the +work performed had been almost exclusively missionary work; the priests +had (and still have) enormous districts to visit. Thus: that of the +first priest of Pecos embraced from N. to S. a country of over 60 miles +long, and 30 to 50 wide from E. to W. However, after Fray Gerónimo de +Zarate Salmeron had addressed to his superior at Mexico his remarkable +report in the year 1626,[161] a new life began. It is therefore after +1629 that the large church at Pecos was erected, but I am as yet unable +to give the exact dates. This church and the "convent" were both built +by Indians, whom the fathers had taught to square timbers, to ornament +them with simple friezes and scroll-work, and to make adobe in the +manner now practised, namely, mixing straw with the clay and moulding it +in boxes. They were also taught to grow wheat and oats, and their flocks +increased. In addition to being a horticultural people they became +herders, and the pueblo was prosperous. Its church was renowned as the +finest in New Mexico.[162] Whereas Santa Fé, in 1667, had but 250 +inhabitants,[163] Pecos, as late as 1680, sheltered 2,000 Indians.[164] + +Still, during this very time of comparative prosperity, a storm was +brewing in New Mexico, from whose effects its sedentary Indians never +recovered. This was the great rebellion of 1680. The Indians of Pecos +claim to have remained neutral during that bloody massacre, and I am +inclined to believe their statements. Nevertheless, it is a positive +fact that, on the 10th of August of the aforesaid year, their priest, +Fray Fernando de Velasco, was murdered and their church sacked.[165] By +whom, then, was it done? The reply is intimated by the place where the +great bell was found, and by the events intervening between 1680 and +1692, when Diego de Vargas recaptured Santa Fé. It will be remembered +that the bell was left on the slope of the high mesa towards the S.W., +in the rocky and desolate gorge descending towards the pueblo San +Cristóbal, the old home of the Tanos tribe.[166] Father José Amanda Niel +writes, about twenty-five or thirty years after the rebellion, that the +Tanos secured the greatest part of the booty, among which were bells +(_campanas_).[167] That this bell was not carried to the high _mesa_ by +the Pecos I believe I have proved; its proximity to the Tanos village, +and its actual position in the _cañada_ leading towards the latter, +shows that it was either to be carried down to it or carried up from it. +If it is (as current report has it) the bell of Pecos, then it was a +trophy which the Tanos secured when they, on the 10th of August, 1680, +committed the atrocities at the pueblo of Pecos; and this would make it +extremely probable, also, that the slaughter of Father Velasco was +accompanied by that partial destruction of the buildings _A_ and B_,_ +which I have described, and which appears to have been partly repaired +by means of material taken from the church, and of adobe containing +wheat-straw. This is rendered more likely by the events subsequent to +the driving out of the Spaniards, and it does not appear that the Pecos +Indians took any part even in their expulsion. + +After the victorious aborigines had returned from their pursuit of +Otermin, dissensions arose among them, and intertribal warfare, in +conformity with their pristine condition, set in. The Pecos, aided by +the Queres, made a violent onslaught on the Tanos, compelling them to +abandon San Cristóbal and San Lázaro.[168] This looks very much like an +act of retaliation. During that time the Spaniards were not idle. In +1682, Governor Otermin penetrated as far as Cochiti,[169] but appears to +have taken no notice of Pecos. In 1689, however, Don Domingo Gironza +Petroz de Cruzate made a successful raid into New Mexico, in which raid +the warriors of Pecos assisted him against the other tribes. In reward +of their services he, on the 25th of September, 1689, after his return +to El Paso del Norte, executed there the document a copy of which is +hereto appended, and for which I am indebted to the kindness of my +friend David J. Miller, Esq., chief clerk of the Surveyor General's +Office at Santa Fé. It is a grant to the tribe of Pecos of all the lands +one league north, south, east, and west from their pueblo ("una legua en +cuadro"), therefore four square leagues, or 18,763-33/100 acres, to be +therefore their joint and common property. When, therefore, in the +afternoon of the 17th of October, 1692, Diego de Vargas Zapata, having +recaptured Santa Fé from the Tanos who then held its ruins,[170] moved +upon Pecos, he was received by the whole tribe with demonstrations of +joy,[171] and the "capitan de la guerra" of the pueblo afterwards +assisted him in subduing a second outbreak in 1694.[172] + +The result for the pueblos of the great revolt in New Mexico was a +gradual diminution in the numbers of their inhabitants. It was the +beginning of decline. The Tanos had been in some places nearly +exterminated, and all the others more or less weakened.[173] The distant +Moqui, far off in Arizona, were the sole gainers by the occurrence, +receiving accessions from fugitives of New Mexico.[174] But it would be +incorrect to attribute this weakening of the pueblos during that time to +the warfare with the Spaniards, or to the latter's retaliatory measures +after final triumph. Vargas was energetic in action, but not cruel. A +few of those who had committed peculiar atrocities were executed, but +the remnants of the pueblos were reestablished in their franchises and +privileges as autonomous communities. It is the intertribal warfare, +which commenced again as soon as the aborigines were left to themselves, +and drouth accompanying the bitter and bloody feuds, which destroyed the +pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley.[175] The Pecos, isolated and therefore +less exposed, suffered proportionately less; still, their time was come +also, though in a different way.[176] + +I have already stated that, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, +the Utes introduced near the pueblo of Taos another branch of the great +Shoshone stock,--the _Comanches_. This tribe soon expelled the +Apaches,[177] who had not been exceedingly troublesome to the pueblos, +and, a vigorous northern stock, became that fearful scourge of all the +surrounding settlements, which they have continued to be for 150 years. +Their efforts were mainly directed against the pueblo of Pecos, as the +most south-easterly village exposed to their attacks. On one occasion +the Comanches slaughtered all the "young men" of Pecos but one,--a blow +from which the tribe never recovered. Thus, when the Indians of the Rio +Grande rose in arms against the Mexicans in 1837, as has been so ably +described by Mr. D. J. Miller,[178] the Pecos did not take any part, for +there were only eighteen adults left, huddled together in the northern +wing of the huge building _A_, and watching the sacred embers in the +face of slow, inevitable destruction. + +Then, in the following year, 1838, an event took place which, simple and +natural as it is, still illustrates forcibly the powerful link which the +bond of language creates between distant Indian communities. The pueblos +of Pecos and Jemez had been almost without intercourse for centuries; +but in the year 1838, says Mariano Ruiz, the principal men of Jemez +appeared in person on the site of Pecos and held a talk with its +occupants. They had heard of the weakness of their brethren, of their +forlorn condition, and now came to offer them a new home within the +walls of their own pueblo. The Pecos took the proposal under +consideration, but were loth to leave the home where they had lived for +so many centuries. In the following year "mountain fever" broke out +among them, and only five adults remained alive. These, by joint +indentures, sold the majority of the lands granted to them in 1689 by +Cruzate.[179] Another portion was left to Ruiz as "son of the tribe." In +1840 these five men, named respectively Antonio (_gobernador_, and still +living at Jemez), Gregorio, Goya, Juan Domingo, and Francisco, appeared +before Don Manuel Armijo, then Mexican governor of the territory, and +declared to him their intention to abandon their home and to seek refuge +among their kindred at Jemez. Soon after, the _gobernador_, the _capitan +de la guerra_ and the _cacique_ of Jemez, with several other Indians of +that tribe, appeared at Pecos. The sacred embers disappeared, tradition +being, according to the Hon. W. G. Ritch, Secretary of the Territory, +that they were returned to Montezuma.[180] The remnants of the tribe +moved on with their chattels, and guided by their friends, to Jemez, +where, in a few months, I hope to visit "the last of the Pecos." + + +MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. + +About the mythology of the Pecos Indians, aside from the Montezuma story +and the sacred embers, the tale of the _Great Snake_ ("la vívora +grande") appears to be widely circulated. It is positively asserted[181] +that the Pecos adored, and the Jemez and Taos still adore, an enormous +rattlesnake, which they keep alive in some inaccessible and hidden +mountain recess. It is even dimly hinted at that human sacrifices might +be associated with this already sufficiently hideous cult. I give these +facts as they were given to me, and shall not believe them until I am +compelled. It has always been the natural tendency in everything which +(like the idolatrous practices still existing among the pueblos, of +which there is no doubt) we do not positively know, to make bad look +worse and good better than it actually is. The prospect of securing a +knowledge of it is, however, not very good. The Indians themselves +appear to deny it, and are generally very reticent about their +aboriginal beliefs. + +I have previously mentioned that Ruiz had been called upon by the +Indians of Pecos to do his duty by attending to the sacred fire for one +year, and that he refused. The reason for his refusal appears to have +been that there was a belief to the effect that any one who had ever +attended to the embers would, if he left the tribe, die without fail, +and he did not wish to expose himself to such a fate. + +About the social organization of the Pecos Indians, it has not been +possible, of course, to ascertain anything as yet. That they lived on +the communal plan is plainly shown by the construction of their houses. +That they were originally, at least, organized into clans or _gentes_, +can be inferred; but here I must remark that it may be difficult to +trace those clusters among the Rio Grande pueblos, on account of their +weakness in numbers, and of the intermixture of the Tehua, Tanos, and +Queres stocks resulting from the convulsion of 1680. It may be possible, +however, to find them at Jemez. They exist at Laguna and among the +Moquis, according to Mr. Morgan, and I do not doubt but that Mr. +Cushing, who is so thoroughly studying the Zuñi Indians, has by this +time settled the question for that tribe. One fact, however, I consider +to be ascertained; namely, that there were neither castes nor classes +among the pueblos, therefore not at Pecos. At the head of their communal +government were the usual three officers,--the _gobernador_, the +_capitan de la guerra_, and the _cacique_. I am not quite clear yet as +to the proper functions of each, except that the first two are both +warriors ("ambos son guerreros," Ruiz); that the _capitan_ has also the +supervision of the lands of the tribe; and that the _cacique_ is more or +less a religious functionary. Mr. D. J. Miller states that the latter +very seldom leaves the pueblo. It was therefore an unusual act when the +_cacique_ of Jemez came to Pecos in 1840, and I presume it was brought +about through his connection with the holy fire. I asked Sr. Ruiz very +distinctly as to whether these three officers were elective or not, and +he promptly affirmed that they were ("son elegidos por el pueblo"). I +then inquired if the sons succeeded to the fathers in office, and his +reply was that there was no objection to their being elected thereto if +they were qualified ("si son buenos"). This disposes of the question of +heredity in office, rank, and title, and it is almost identical with the +customs found by Alonzo de Zuevita among the Indians of Mexico in the +middle of the sixteenth century. How the presumable "gentes" of the +Pecos might have localized for dwelling in the great communal houses I +am, of course, unable to conjecture. + +In regard to their marriage customs, their mode of naming children, +etc., I have not been able to gather much information as yet. The old +marriage customs are supplanted by those of the church. Still, they may +be traced up eventually. Every Pecos Indian had, besides his Spanish +name, an Indian name; and there is, according to Mr. Ritch, still a +Pecos Indian at Jemez whose aboriginal appellation is "Huaja-toya" +(Spanish pronunciation). I heard of him this morning (Sept. 17) through +an Indian of Jemez. What I know of their burials is already stated. + +Of their agriculture, or rather horticulture, I have also spoken; the +modes of cultivation have not been explained to me as yet. Irrigation is +therefore the only part of their tillage system upon which I have been +able to gather any information. In addition to what the preceding pages +may contain, Sr. Vigil has assured me that they also irrigated their +_huerta_ from the _arroyo_. This thin fillet of clear water, now +scarcely 0.50 m.--20 in.--in width, fills at times its entire gravelly +bed, 100 m. to 150 m.--327 ft. to 490 ft.--from bank to bank. This does +not occur annually, but at irregular intervals. Sr. Ruiz said that while +the Pecos Indians were living at their pueblo the streams were filled +with water ("en ese tiempo, corrieron los arroyos con agua, muy +abundante"). It is further said that the tribe worked other "gardens" +besides, on the banks of the river Pecos, two miles to the east. + +For their arts and industry I must refer to the collections, however +meagre and unsatisfactory they are; a condition for which I have already +apologized. Nowhere did I find a trace of iron nor of copper, although +they used the latter for ornaments (bracelets, etc.), and there can be +no doubt that they had the former metal also,--after the Spanish +conquest, of course. The squaring of timbers, the scroll-work and +friezes in the church, could only be done with instruments of iron. But +all traces of these implements have disappeared from the ruins, as far +as the surface is concerned. I cannot refrain, however, from dwelling +at greater length upon two products of industry, so common among the +ruins as hardly to attract the attention of curiosity-hunters any more. +These are the flakes of obsidian and lava and the painted pottery. + +I have called these flakes a product of industry; while the material +itself is of course a mineral, the fragments scattered about are +undoubted products of skill. They are chips and splinters. There is +neither lava nor obsidian cropping out in or about the valley,[182] but +highly volcanic formations are abundantly found to the north, within +fifty miles from Pecos, in the high Sierra de Mora; perhaps, also, +nearer yet. At all events, the mineral has been brought to the pueblo +and chipped there. The same is the case with the flint flakes, agates, +jaspers, and moss-agates, with the difference, however, that, in the +case of these, water has done a great part of the carrying, if not all; +whereas the drift of the _arroyo_ contains no obsidian nor lava, except +such as has clearly been washed into it from the ruins. Among the flakes +there will be noticed several which may have been used for knives, +whereas still others approximate to the arrow-head. A small perfect +arrow-head was found and transmitted by me to the Institute,--the only +one I met with on the premises.[183] + +The fact that several localities at Pecos are completely devoid of +obsidian has already been mentioned. These are the oldest ruins. In the +case of the ruins along the mesa and those south of the church, I can +only speak of the surface; but where the corrugated pottery was found +the whole section of the bluff was exposed for more than 100 m.--327 +ft.,--and still not a trace of the mineral appeared, while flint, agate, +and jasper were rather conspicuous.[184] This may be accidental, but it +is certainly suspicious and suggestive. + +The painted pottery is scattered in wagon-loads of fragments over the +ruins. There are two places, however, where, as already stated, the +surface is utterly devoid of them. Whether or not this deficiency +extends to the soil, I cannot tell. I doubt it, however. These +localities are, again, the apron along the _mesa_ and the ruins south of +the church. For the rest, it is very equally distributed everywhere. +Still there are two distinct kinds at least. One is exactly similar to +the kind now made and sold: it is coarse, soft; the ground is painted +gray or yellow; the ornaments show, in few instances, traces of animal +shapes (they are either black or brown); and the vessels must have been +thick, and with a thicker coarse rim. Out of the grave in the mound _V_, +the pottery was more perfect. There are pieces of a _tinaja_ (bowl) with +a vertical rim, yellow outside, white inside, with black geometrical +ornamentation, not vitrified. This kind of pottery is still made by the +Indians of Nambé, of Tezuque, and of Cochiti. (The former two are +Tehuas, the latter is Queres.) But there I also found fragments of a +plain black pottery, of dark red, and of dark red with black ornaments, +which are thinner and much superior in "ring," and therefore in quality, +to any now made. This pottery is older in date, and appears to be almost +a lost art. There was, however, no distinction in distribution. Both +kinds have one point in common, namely, the varnishing of the +ornamental surfaces. I say varnishing,[185] and not "glazing;" for, +although I believe the glassy appearance of the painted lines to be due +to some admixture of the coloring material, and not to a separate glossy +exterior coating, I do not as yet find a reason for admitting that the +Indians knew the process of vitrification. + +Of the military manufactures of the Pecos, a small arrow-head of +obsidian found near the church is the only trace. It is even too small +for a war-arrow. They had stone hatchets, and may have had the dart, +and, later on, the spear. Pebbles convenient for hurling are +promiscuously observed on the _mesilla_, but they are not numerous; and +nowhere along the circumvallation did I notice any trace of heaps.[186] +The military constructions, however, become very interesting through +their connection with the system of drainage and a comparison with the +ancient Mexicans. Around the ancient pueblo of Mexico ("Tenuchtitlan") +the water formed the protective circumvallation; at Pecos, the defensive +wall collected the water and conducted it where it was needed for +subsistence for the irrigation of crops. + +That this great circumvallation, 983 m.--3,225 ft.--in circuit, was a +wall for protection also there is no doubt, although the main strength +of the pueblo lay in the construction of its houses, where the +inhabitants could simply shut themselves in and await quietly until the +enemy was tired of prowling around it. By Indians it could only be +carried by surprise or treachery.[187] Hence it was customary for the +young men to leave the pueblo at times in a body, abandoning it to the +old men and women, etc., without concern.[188] As long as these kept +good watch they were safe, even if the Comanches should appear. Roaming +Indians cannot break open a pueblo house if well guarded. For that +purpose alone the mounds near the great gate, and the mound _H_, Pl. +IV., were erected. They were watch-towers for special purposes, for +particular sections, where the lookouts from the wall-tops were not +sufficient.[189] These two mounds--one on each side of the +gateway--overlooked the fields and the creek-bank: in the morning, when +the people went out to work, or to carry drinking water from the spring +opposite; during the day, while they attended to their simple labor of +tillage. + +The mound and tower _H_ performed a similar office towards the steep +ledge of rocks there descending, among whose fragments Indians could +hide for hours from the scouts on the house tops. Thus the great +enclosure with its details served a triple purpose. It was the reservoir +which held and conducted the waters precipitated on the _mesilla_ to the +useful purpose of irrigation. It was a preliminary defensive line,--a +first obstruction to a storming foe, and a shelter for its defenders. +But it was also in places an admirable post of observation. It formed +the necessary complement to the houses themselves,[190] and both +together composed a system of defences which, inadequate against the +military science of civilization, was still wonderfully adapted for +protection against the stealthy, lurking approach, the impetuous but +"short-winded" dash, of Indian warfare. + +In conclusion of this lengthy report, I may be permitted to add a few +lines concerning the great houses themselves. Their mode and manner of +construction and occupation I have already discussed; it is their +abandonment and decay to which I wish to refer. This decay is the same +in both houses; the path of ruin from S.S.E. to N.N.W. indicates its +progress. It shows clearly that, as section after section had been +originally added as the tribe increased in number, so cell after cell +(or section after section) was successively vacated and left to ruin as +their numbers waned, till at last the northern end of the building alone +sheltered the poor survivors. They receded from south to north; for the +church, despoiled and partly destroyed in 1680, was no protection to +them. Its own ruin kept pace with that of the tribe.[191] The northern +extremity of the pueblo was their best stronghold, and thither they +retired step by step in the face of inevitable doom. + +A. F. BANDELIER. + +SANTA FÉ, Sept. 17, 1880. + +To PROFESSOR C. E. NORTON, _President of the Archæological Institute of +America, Cambridge, Mass._ + + + + +GRANT OF 1689 TO THE PUEBLO OF PECOS. + + * * * * * + +The following is a literal copy of the original grant, now (Sept. 25, +1880) on file at the United States Surveyor-General's office at Santa +Fé, made to the inhabitants of the Indian pueblo of Pecos in New Mexico. +The language of the document is not altogether clear, but the essential +terms are distinct:-- + +[Sidenote: Año de 1689] + +[Sidenote: MERCED CONCEDIDA Á PECOS.] + +En el Pueblo de nu. S.^a de Guadalupe del Paso del Rio del Norte en +veinte y cinco dias del mes de Sep.^te de mil seiscientos y ochenta y +nueve años el Señor Gov.^or y Cap.^n Gen.^l D.^a Domingo Jironza Petroz +de Cruzate dijo que por quanto en el alcanze que se dio en los de la +Nueva Mex.^co de los Yndios Queres y los Apostatas y los Teguas y de la +nacion Thanos y despues de haber peleado con todos los demas Yndios de +todos Pueblos un Yndio del Pueblo de Zia llamado Bartolomé de Ojeda que +fue el que mas se señaló en la vatalla acudiendo á todas partes se +rindio viendose herido de un balazo y un flechaso lo cual como dicho es +mando que debajo de juram.^to declare como se halla el Pu.^o de Pecos +aunque queda muy metido á donde el sol sale y fueron unos Yndios +Apostatas de aquel Reyno de la Nueva Mexico. + +Preguntado que si este Pu.^o volverá en algun tiempo como ha sido +constumbre en ellos y dice el confesante que no que ya está muy metido +en terror que aunque estaban abilantados con lo que les habia susedido á +los de el Pu.^o de Zia el año pasado juzgaba que era un imposible que +dejaran de dar la obediencia; por lo cual se concedieron por el Señor +Governador y Capitan General D.^a Domingo Jironza Petroz de Cruzate los +linderos que aqui anoto; para el. Norte una legua; y para el Oriente una +legua; y para el Poniente una legua; y para el Sur una legua; y medidas +estas cuatro lineas de las cuatro esquinas del Pu.^o dejando á salvo el +templo que queda al medio dia del Pu.^o y asi lo proveyo mando y firmo +susc^a [?] á mi el presente Secretario de Gov.^on y Guerra que de ello +doy fé. + + D.^a Domingo Jironza + Petroz de Cruzate. + +Ante mi + Don Pedro Ladron de Guitara + Sc.^o de G.^n y Gu.^a + +[TRANSLATION.] + +[Sidenote: In the year 1689.] + +[Sidenote: GRANT GIVEN TO PECOS.] + +In the Pueblo of Our Lady of Guadalupe of El Paso del Rio del Norte, on +the twenty-fifth day of the month of September, in the year sixteen +hundred and eighty nine, the Governor and Captain-General, Don Domingo +Jironza Petroz de Cruzate, said that inasmuch as during the pursuit of +the men of New Mexico, [namely], of the Queres Indians, and the +Renegades, and the Teguas, and those of the Thanos nation, and after the +fight with all the rest of the Indians of all the Pueblos--an Indian of +the Pueblo of Zia, named Bartholomé de Ojeda, who had greatly +distinguished himself in the fight, assisting at every point, +surrendered, having been wounded by a bullet and by an arrow; he [the +Governor] ordered that he should declare, under oath, how the Pueblo of +Pecos is disposed, although it lies far off toward the sunrise, and [its +people] are renegade Indians of that kingdom of New Mexico. + +Being asked whether [the inhabitants of] this Pueblo will ever return to +their old ways, he, the deponent, says that they will not, since they +are now in great terror, and though they were very much emboldened by +what had happened to those of the Pueblo of Zia the year before, he +thought it was impossible that they should fail to give in their +submission. Wherefore there were granted by the Governor and +Captain-General, Don Domingo Jironza Petroz de Cruzate, the boundaries +here noted: to the north a league, and to the east a league, and to the +west a league, and to the south a league; and these four lines measured +from the four corners of the Pueblo, reserving the temple, which lies to +the south of the Pueblo; and thus did his Excellency provide, command, +and sign before me, the present Secretary of the Interior and of War, +who attest it. + + DON DOMINGO JIRONZA + PETROZ DE CRUZATE. + +Before me, + Don Pedro Ladron de Guitara, + Secretary of the Interior and of War. + + + + +[87] Lieut.-Col. W. H. Emory, _Notes of a Military Reconnoissance from +Fort Leavenworth, in Missouri, to San Diego, in California, Executive +Document_ 41, Washington, 1848. _Meteorological Observations_, p. 163. +Camp 44, half-mile south of the Pecos, Aug. 17, 1846, altitude six +thousand three hundred and forty-six feet. Camp 45, on the Pecos, near +Pecos village, August 18, six thousand three hundred and sixty-six feet. + +[88] This is the lowest height of the peaks seen from the valley. Some +of the other tops are much higher yet. The altitude of Santa Fé Baldy, +for instance, exceeds twelve thousand feet. + +[89] Not to be confounded with the Rio de Pecos proper. The _arroyo_ is +not found on most of the maps. Its width is about 100 m.--330 ft.--but +there is scarcely ever more than a mere fillet of very clear, limpid +water in it. + +[90] This is, however, only accidental, and exclusively due to nine +months of consecutive drouth. Generally the strips of bottom-land have a +rich soil, and grow fine corn, wheat, and oats. + +[91] They are very picturesque objects, and stand out boldly, appearing +to rise directly from the plain. Their height is stated to be about +thirteen thousand feet. In this vicinity are the Placitas, now famous +for mineral wealth (gold and silver), and the Cerrillos, also rich in +ore, and containing beautiful green and blue turquoises, of which I saw +excellent specimens in possession of His Excellency Governor L. Wallace. + +[92] Baughl's Sidings is a switch and large storing-place for ties. Even +the Spaniards call it La Switcha. It is about 800 m.--2,620 ft.--from +the foot of the _mesa_, in a belt of fine large pine timber, very high, +and gives glimpses of splendid views over the valley of Pecos to the +Sierras beyond. Climate fine, but nights very cold. The buildings are as +yet nearly all temporary; it is more a camp than a place as is it now. I +spent ten very happy days here, from the 28th of August to the 6th of +September,--or rather nights, since the days were, with two exceptions +(5th and 6th of September, when I visited Pecos town and explored the +high _mesa_), devoted to the study of the ruins. I shall always +gratefully remember the uniform kindness and attention with which its +inhabitants and transient guests have treated me, and assisted me in my +work. Aside of those whom I shall have occasion to name in the body of +my report, I take occasion to express my thanks here to Messrs. +McPherson & Co., and to their obliging manager, Mr. Wright; also to the +station agent. + +[93] On the right side of the Arroyo de Pecos, there is a wide +amphitheatre bottom, which was filled with red clay, like that of which +the adobe at the church is made, and which appears to have been partly +dug out. The place is to the right of the road also, which there crosses +the creek. The only objection to the surmise is in the fact that along +this entire bottom I found not the slightest trace of obsidian. Pottery, +however, is scattered everywhere. On the left side of the creek, unless +more than a mile below, there is no place where the soil is sufficiently +thick or sufficiently free from ruins and scattered stones, to permit +the enormous quantity of clay needed for the church to be secured. + +[94] Lieut.-Col. Emory, _Notes of a Military Reconnoissance_, p. 30, and +two plates. + +[95] The walls, or foundations rather, appear as follows:--The +interstices are often filled with tufts of _grama_, and the stones +themselves look very old and worn, covered with lichens and moss. + +[Illustration: Stone Wall] + +[96] According to Mariano Ruiz and to Mrs. Kozlowski. The former has +lived in Pecos since 1837. But few, if any, of the dead are buried +there; the majority were entombed within the church itself. + +[97] P. José Amando Niel, _Apuntamientos que sobre el Terreno hizo el +... Annotations to the history of_ Fray Géronimo Zarate Salmeron, in +_Documentos para la Historia de México_, 3 series, vol. i. p. 99. + +[98] Called by the Spaniards Plaza de Pecos. It is a comparatively new +place, the only church-book still in possession of Rev. Father Léon +Mailluchet, the present priest, commences in 1862. Including the +scattered _casitas_ several miles around, its population is not over +five hundred souls. It is situated in a narrow vale or hollow, not far +west from the Rio Pecos itself, and has a modest but clean and tidy +church, with a small belfry. All the houses are of adobe. +Lieutenant-Colonel Emory (_Notes, Executive Document_ 41, p. 30) speaks +of it in 1846 as "the modern village of Pecos, ... with a very +inconsiderable population." As yet there are but very few Americans in +the plaza. My recollections of Pecos are highly pleasant (5th +September), owing to the friendly reception tendered me by Mr. E. K. +Walters, Sr. Juan Bacay Salazar, and Father L. Mailluchet. According to +Colonel Emory, its altitude is nearly 6,366 ft. (p. 163). Lat. about 35° +30' N. + +[99] See Plate I. + +[100] See Plate IX. + +[101] See Plate I., Fig. 5. + +[102] When Mr. Louis Felsenthal of Santa-Fé came to New Mexico in 1855, +and still later, in 1858, the time of the arrival of Mrs. Kozlowski, the +roofs were still perfect in part. + +[103] Pl. II., Fig. 6. + +[104] Pedro de Castañeda de Nagera, _Relation du Voyage de Cibola_, +French translation, by Ternaux-Compans, 1838. Original written about +1560. Introduction, p. ix; part ii. cap. v. p. 176. + +[105] Castañeda, _Relation_, i. cap. xii. p. 71; ii. cap. v. p. 176. +Juan Jaramillo, _Relation du Voyage fait à la Nouvelle Terre_, app. vi. +to _Voyage de Cibola_, p. 371. Fray Agustin de Vetancurt, _Crónica de la +Provincia del Santo Evangelio de México_ (edition of 1871), p. 323. +Gaspar Castaño de la Sosa, _Memoria del Descubrimiento que ... hizo en +el Nuevo México, siendo teniente del Gobernador y Capitan General del +Nuevo-Reino de Leon_, July 27, 1590, in vol. xv. of _Documentos Inéditos +de los Archivos de Indias_, p. 244. The latter though, as well as +Castañeda and Jaramillo, mentions evidently building _A_, but there +cannot be the slightest doubt that _B_ was erected for the same purpose; +to wit, as a dwelling. + +[106] They are evidently moulded. Their size is about 0.28 m. × 15 +m.--11 in. × 6 in.--and straw is mixed with the soil. The appearance is +very much as if the adobe had been put in as a "mending;" and I am +decidedly of the opinion that the northern section is the latest, and +erected after 1540. + +[107] It is very much like the stone-work of the Moqui Pueblos in +Arizona, according to the photographs in possession of the Bureau of +Ethnology at Washington, D. C.; and in some respects to the walls of the +great house described by the Hon. L. H. Morgan, _On the Ruins of an +Ancient Stone Pueblo on the Animas River, Eleventh and Twelfth Reports +of the Peabody Museum of Archæology_, etc.; also to those figured by Dr. +William H. Jackson, _Tenth Annual Report of the United States Geological +and Geographical Survey of the Territories_, 1878, plate lxii. fig. 1, +from the Ruins of the Rio Chaco. Compare photograph No. 6. I am led to +suspect that the greater or less regularity of the courses was entirely +dependent upon the kind of stone on hand, and not upon the mechanical +skill employed. + +[108] I am just (Sept. 9) informed by Governor Wallace, that the Sierra +de Tecolote, east of the ruins, contains probably gypsum, even in the +form of alabaster. It is certain that nothing like lime-kilns or places +where lime might have been burnt are found at any moderate distance from +the ruins. The surrounding rocks, up to head of the valley and to the +_mesa_, contain deposits of white, yellow, and red carbonates of lead, +often copper-stained, and very impure, therefore proportionately light +in weight. However, we have very positive information as to how they +made their plaster, etc., in Castañeda, _Voyage de Cibola_, ii. cap. iv. +pp. 168, 169. He says: "They have no lime, but make a mixture of ashes, +soil, and of charcoal, which replace it very well; for although they +raise their houses to four stories, the walls have not more than half an +ell in width. They form great heaps of pine [thym] and reeds, and set +fire to them; whenever this mass is reduced to ashes and charcoal, they +throw over it a large quantity of soil and water, and mix it all +together. They knead it into round blocks, which they dry, and of which +they make use in lieu of stones, coating the whole with the same +mixture." Substituting for the "round blocks" the stones found at Pecos, +we have the whole process thoroughly explained, for indeed the mud +contains bits of charcoal, as the specimens sent prove. The white coat, +however, is not explained. I must state here, however, that I found the +latter only in such parts of _A_, as well as of _B_, as appeared to be +most recent in occupation and in construction. Further investigations at +other pueblos may yet solve the mystery. + +[109] See Plate VIII. + +[110] Compare, in regard to the outer (western) wall of B, and also in +regard to the inner wall, Lieut. James H. Simpson, _Journal of a +Military Reconnoissance from Santa Fé, New-Mexico, to the Navajo +Country, Executive Document 64_, 31st Congress, 1st section, 1850; plate +41, no. 5. Also, L. H. Morgan, _On an Ancient Stone Pueblo on the Animas +River, Peabody Museum Reports_, 1880. The latter is particularly +suggestive. + +[111] Compare Castañeda, _Voyage de Cibola_, ii. cap. iv. pp. 171, 172. +"There is a piece reserved for the kitchen, and another one for to grind +the corn. This last one is apart; in it is found an oven and three +stones sealed in masonry." Simpson, _Journal_, etc, p. 62, description +of a fireplace. + +[112] Simpson, p. 62, _Fireplace and Smoke-escape at the Pueblo of Santo +Domingo_. The vent was directly over the hearth. I expect to visit Santo +Domingo shortly. + +[113] Mr. Thomas Munn found about the church a stone hatchet, a fragment +of a stone pipe (?), and many arrow-heads. These he kindly promised to +me, even authorizing me to get them at the place where he had deposited +them, and which lay on the line of my daily tramp to the ruins. +Unfortunately, when I reached the place, the objects were already gone. + +Mrs. Kozlowski informed me that copper rings (bracelets) were of very +common occurrence among the ruins. Her statement was fully confirmed by +Sr. Baca and others. She also spoke of "the heads of little idols" +having been plentiful at one time. Gaspar Castaño de la Sosa, _Memoria +del Descubrimiento_, etc., _Documentos Inéditos_, vol. xv. p. 244, +speaking of a pueblo which is evidently Pecos, says: "Porque tiene +muchos ídolos que atras nos olvidaba de declarar." Antonio de Espejo, +_El Viaje que hizo_ ... in Hackluyt's _Voyages, Navigations, and +Discoveries of the English Nation_, 1600 A.D., pp. 457-464. A somewhat +abbreviated and frequently unreliable copy of Espejo's letter, dated +"Sant Salvador de la Nueva-España, 23 April, 1584," mentions a district +two days east from Bernalillo, inhabited by pueblo Indians: "Los quales +tienen y adoran ídolos." + +[114] On first sight this building appears circular, but I soon became +satisfied that it was a rectangle. + +[115] They may have been the "almacenas", or granaries (storage-rooms), +of which I speak further on. "Outhouses" are referred to by Castañeda. +(Part ii. cap. iv. p. 172.) + +[116] One or the other may also have been an Estufa, for I saw no round +structures about _B_. Castañeda (part ii. cap. iv. p. 169) says: "There +are square and round ones." It is true that the Estufas are usually in +the courts; but when there was no court, as in this case, there could be +no Estufa inside. + +[117] Pl. I., Fig. 5, shows cross-sections of the "body" of the +_mesilla_ on which _A_ stands, along the lines indicated. The surface of +_A_ was therefore very irregular and difficult to build upon for people +who could not remove and fit the hard rock. + +[118] This may have been caused, in part, by filling with rubbish from +the surrounding walls. + +[119] Such double houses are mentioned by Castañeda (part ii. cap. v. p. +177). Speaking of "Cicuyé," he says: "Those houses fronting outwards +('du coté de la campagne') are backed up ('adossées') against those +which stand towards the court." + +[120] The dimensions given by Gen. J. H. Simpson, _Reconnoissance_, +etc., pp. 79-82, of the pueblos--"Pintado," "Bonito," and "Peñasca +blanca"--on the Rio Chaco vary, as far as the circuit is concerned, +between 1,200 and 1,700 feet, "about." Dr. W. H. Jackson, _Geographical +Survey_, etc., 1876, has measured these ruins, and gives the following +dimensions: "Pueblo Bonito," 544 × 314; "Peñasca blanca," 499 × 363 +(only 3 sides of the rectangle being built up); "Pueblo Pintado" (2 +sides), 238 × 174; "Pueblo Alto" (3 wings), 360 × 200 and 170. "Pueblo +Bonito" therefore alone comes up to the standard of Pecos. The latter, +however, is larger still, as, by adding to the perimeter given that of +the northern annex (about 90 m.--295 ft.), we obtain a total of 450 +metres, or 1,480 feet. The difference, if any, is not considerable; and +I merely advert to the fact to show that the old ruins of New Mexico, +comparatively neglected, are fully as important in size as any of those +further north, besides being completely identical in plan, structure, +and material. Furthermore, the pottery is identical. This was already +recognized in 1776 by Father Silvestre Velez Escalante, _Diario y +Derrotero de los Nuevos Descubrimientos de Tierras á Rumbos N. N. Oe. +Oe. del Nuevo México_, MSS. at the Library of Congress, fol. 118, on the +San Buenaventura (Green River), and in his letter, dated Santa Fé, 2 +April, 1778, _Documentos para la Historia de México_, 3a série, vol. i. +p. 124. + +[121] _On the Ruins of an Ancient Stone Pueblo on the Animas River_, +Peabody Reports, 11 and 12. + +[122] I must here call attention to a singular coincidence. Among the +ruins of Uxmal in Yucatan there are, aside from the "Teocalli," or +medicine mound, two general forms of structure,--one narrow rectangle +like _B_, and hollow rectangles like _A_. The "Casa del Gobernador" +would correspond to the former, and the "Casa de las Monjas" to the +latter. Of course, there is dissimilarity between the house of the +"Governor" and _B_, in so far as the former contains halls and the +latter but cells. Still the fact is interesting that, whereas the great +northern pueblos have each but one house alone, here, for the south, we +have already two buildings within one and the same enclosure, similar in +form and size to those of Central America. I call attention to this +fact, though well remembering at the same time the friendly advice of +Major J. W. Powell, the distinguished chief of the Bureau of Ethnology +at Washington, "not to attempt to trace relationships." + +[123] _Relation du Voyage de Cibola_, ii. cap. v. p. 176. + +[124] I am informed by Governor Wallace, and have permission to quote +him, that these elevated plateaux grow exceedingly tall wheat, rye, and +oats. He has seen oats whose stalks were 6 feet long and 1-3/4 inches in +diameter. The heads were proportionally large. + +[125] He became adopted, as I am told, from being, as a boy, assistant +to the sacristan of the church of Pecos. + +[126] It was Mr. John D. McRae who, together with Mr. Thomas Munn, led +me to this spot. Subsequently the former, who has been for nearly twenty +years among the northern Indians (in Canada and Oregon), gave me some +valuable information in regard to their sign-language. He affirms that +it is very highly developed and extensively practised by them; that +tribes of entirely different stock-languages can converse with each +other freely; and that he was himself present at one time when the Crees +and the Blackfeet arranged for a pitched fight on the day to follow, the +parley consisting almost exclusively of signs. Thus, killing is +indicated by the spanning of a bow and the motion of throwing down; +walking, by shoving both hands forwards successively, etc.; the time of +day is very correctly given by describing an arc from E. to W. (facing +S.) up to the point where the sun stands at the specified hour. These +signs are not new to my distinguished friend, Lieutenant-Colonel G. +Mallery, to whom science owes the gift of this new branch of inquiry, +but still they are interesting to those who may be less familiar with +it. In regard to connection of this "sign-language" and Indian +"pictography," Mr. McRae has told me the following: Whenever an Indian +breaks up his camp, and wishes to leave behind him information in what +direction and how far he is going, he plants into the ground near the +fire a twig or stick, and breaks it so that it forms an acute angle, +planting the other end in the ground also in the direction in which he +intends to camp the following evening. The following would very well +give the appearance of this little mark, assuming the Indian to travel +from N. to S.:-- + +[Illustration] + +If he intends to go S. for three days it will look thus:-- + +[Illustration] + +Fractional days are indicated by corresponding shorter limbs. If his +direction is first S. and then E., this would be a top view of the bent +twig, assuming that he travels two days S. and three days W.:-- + +[Illustration] + +The connection between this expedient and sign-language, knowing that, +as Dr. W. J. Hoffmann, of Washington City, has informed me, the sign for +"lodge" is an imitation of the tent,--that is, holding both hands up and +the tips of the fingers together at a steep angle,--becomes very +apparent. Through it pictography is easily reached. + +[127] Sr. E. Vigil has just informed me that the notion is current that +all the Indians of the New Mexican pueblos buried their dead in this +manner. Among the Mexicans and the Christianized Indians it is the rule +to bury the dead around the church or in sight of it. + +[128] There is still another ruin much farther down the railroad, near +to a place called "El Pueblo." I was informed of its existence, but have +not as yet been able to visit it. + +[129] Or rather towards the pueblo of San Cristóval. The latter was the +chief place of the Tanos Indians, of which stock there are still a few +left at the town of Galisteo. + +[130] The following is an approximate sketch of these structures. This +sketch is made without reference to size or plan, merely in order to +show the relative position of the graves (_a_, _a_, _a_, _a_). It will +be seen that the analogy with the grave of mound _V_, building _A_, is +very striking; also with the grave discovered by Mr. Walters, and the +wall above the corrugated pottery west of the Arroyo de Pecos. + +[Illustration: Graves] + +[131] To judge from the report of General Simpson (p. 68), these early +traditions must be very meagre. His informant, the celebrated +"Hoosta-Nazlé," is now dead. Of the Pecos adults then living at Santo +Domingo, a daughter is still alive, and married to an Indian of the +latter pueblo. General (then lieutenant) Simpson was at Jemez in 1849. + +[132] _Memoria del Descubrimiento_, etc., p. 238. "Tienen mucha loza de +los colorados y pintadas y negras, platos, caxetes, saleros, almoficos, +xicaras muy galanas, alguna de la loza esta vidriada." + +[133] W. H. Holmes, _Geographical Survey_, part iii., p. 404, plate +xliv. "This plate is intended to illustrate the corrugated and indented +ware. Heretofore specimens of this class have been quite rare, as it is +not made by any of the modern tribes." + +[134] Holmes, pp. 404, 405. + +[135] Even the _estufa_ and the _almacena_ are found. The round +depression near the road to the Rio Pecos (marked _L_ on the general +plan) is evidently an Estufa, while the circular ruin which I met upon +the apron of the mesa during my ascent appears very much like a +storehouse. + +[136] House _A_ alone appears in these reports; but from the statement +that the tribe mustered 500 warriors, it seems probable that _B_ was +also inhabited. 2,500 souls could hardly have found room in the 585 +cells of _A_, The number of warriors given is doubtless a loose +estimate. + +[137] San Diego, now in ruins, about 13 miles N. of the pueblo Jemez, +was the old pueblo of that tribe. It was the scene of a bloody struggle +in 1692, according to the story of Hoosta-Nazlé, given to General +Simpson in 1849. _Reconnoissance_, etc., p. 68. Diego de Vargas +(_Carta_, Oct. 16, 1692), _Documentos para la Historia de México_, 3a +séries, i. p. 131. "Los Gemex y los de Santo-Domingo se hallaban en otro +tambien nuevo, dentro de la Sierra, á tres leguas del pueblo antiguo de +Gemex." Nearly all the pueblos, upon the approach of the Spaniards, fled +to steep and high mesas. + +[138] This is the same cañon whose source on the "Mesa de Pecos" I have +visited, and where the great bell was found. It is the natural pathway, +from the W. and S. W., up to the heights overlooking the valley of +Pecos. + +[139] A. S. Gatchet, _Zwölf Sprachen aus dem Südwesten Nord-Amerika's_, +Weimar, 1876, p. 41. + +[140] I infer it from the fact that it is not noticed previous to 1680. +Agustin de Vetancurt, _Crónica de la Provincia del Santo Evangelio en +México_, edition of 1871, pp. 310, 311. It then contained 2,000 +"Tiguas;" but the church dedicated to San Antonio de Padua had just been +brought under cover when the rebellion broke out. + +[141] Castañeda, ii. cap. v. pp. 178, 179. + +[142] Castañeda, pp. 189, 190. Jaramillo, pp. 372-382. Francisco Vasquez +de Coronado, _Letter to Charles V._, dated Tigues, Oct. 20, 1541. +Appendix to _Voyage de Cibola_, pp. 356-359. + +[143] _Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de Nueva España_. Very +valuable, but much influenced by personal views and prejudice. + +[144] Fray Luis Descalona, a lay brother, who remained at Pecos in 1543, +may have had a hand in this report. Castañeda, iii. cap. iv. pp. 214, +215. Jaramillo, p. 380. + +[145] Castañeda, pp. 176, 177. + +[146] Id., xii. p. 68. + +[147] Id., i. p. 68; ii. cap. vii. p. 188. + +[148] Id., i. p. 69. + +[149] _Relation del Suceso de la Jornada que Francisco Vazquez hizo en +el Descubrimiento de Cibola_, in vol. xiv. of the Documentos del Archivo +de Indias, p. 325. "De unos Indios que se hallaron en este pueblo de +Acuique" This would make it very important to consult the original +manuscript of Castañeda in order to ascertain if "Cicuyé" is not really +"Acuyé." The latter word would be identical almost with "Âqiu." The name +Pecos itself belongs to the Qq'uêres language of New Mexico, and is +pronounced "Pae-qo." It is applied to the inhabitants of the pueblo, the +place itself being called "Pae-yoq'ona." The first mention of it under +the name of Pecos is found in the documents of the year 1598, after the +general meeting of Juan de Oñate with the pueblo Indians in the _estufa_ +of Santo Domingo (a Qq'uêres village). + +[150] Castañeda, ii. cap. viii. pp. 194, 195; iii. cap. iv. p. 214. +Jaramillo, p. 380. Vetancurt, _Menologio Franciscano_, Nov. 30, p. 386. +Juan de Torquemada, _Monarchia Indiana_, first edition, 1614, lib. xxi. +p. 689. + +[151] Castañeda, ii. pp. 194, 195. + +[152] Vetancurt, _Menologio_, pp. 412-422. He calls him Rodriguez. +Espejo, _Viaje_, etc., Hackluyt, iii. Gerónimo de Zarate Salmeron, p. 9. + +[153] This is plain from the description, although Juan de Oñate +(_Discurso de la Jornada que hizo el Capitan de su Magestad desde la +Nueva-España á la Provincia de la Nueva-México, Archivos de Indias_, +vol. xvi. p. 258) says of the "gran pueblo de los Peccos, y es el que +Espejo llama la provincia de Tamos." + +[154] Castaño, _Descubrimiento_, etc., p. 244. The "vigas grandes," in +the _estufa_, recalls the great tree across the northern _estufa_ in the +court of A. + +[155] Oñate, _Jornada_, p. 244. + +[156] _Obediencia_, etc., _Archivos_, xvi. p. 113. + +[157] pp. 371, 372. + +[158] pp. 371, 372. + +[159] p. 179. + +[160] Fray Francisco de Apodaca, native of Cantabria, was commissary +from 1627 till 1633. Vetancurt, _Menologio_, p. 464. Davis, _Conquest of +New Mexico_, cap. xxxv. p. 278. + +[161] Published in vol. i. of 3a séries of _Documentos para la Historia +de México_. In consequence of it, Fray Estiban de Perea came to New +Mexico with thirty priests. Vetancurt, _Crónica_, p. 300. "Con cuyo +ejemplo y enseñanza se poblaron treinta y siete casas de diferentes +naciones," among which the Pecos. + +[162] Jean Blaeu, _Douzième Volume de la Géographie Blaviane, contenant +l'Amérique_, etc., Amsterdam, 1667, p. 62. He says Picuries, but it must +be Pecos. "Avec un seul bourg, mais grandement peuplé, où il y a un +temple somptueux." Vetancurt, Crónica, etc., p. 323. "Tenia á nuestra +Señora de los Angeles de Porciúncula un templo magnífico, con seis +torres, tres de cada lado, adornado; las paredes tan anchas que en sus +concavidades estaban hechas oficinas." There are still, in the church of +the plaza of Pecos, three paintings out of that church,--one on +buffalo-hide, representing Nra. Sra. de Guadalupe, and two on cloth, +with Our Lady of the Angels painted on it. The last two are very good. + +[163] Blaeu, p. 62. + +[164] Vetancurt, _Crónica_, p. 323. + +[165] Ibid. + +[166] Oñate, p. 258. + +[167] _Apuntamientos_, etc., p. 104. + +[168] "Este Cuaderno se cree ser de un Religioso de la Provincia del +Santo Evangelio" (_Anonymous Report on New Mexico_), Documentos, 3a +série, vol. i. p. 127. + +[169] Davis, cap. xlii. p. 329. + +[170] Escalante, _Letter_, p. 123. Diego de Vargas, _Carta á S. E._, +etc., p. 129. + +[171] Davis, cap. xlv. pp. 348, 349. + +[172] Davis, cap. l. p. 396; cap. li. p. 402. + +[173] Niel, p. 104. Escalante, p. 123. + +[174] Niel, pp. 104-106. Escalante, p. 122. Gobierno de Don Francisco +Cubero y Valdes, _Documentos_, 3a série, vol. i. p. 194. + +[175] Gobierno de Don Francisco Cubero y Valdes, p. 195. In 1712 the +pueblo of Pojuaque (north of Santa Fé) contained but seventy-nine +inhabitants,--all Tehuas. + +[176] Niel, p. 104. "De los Pecos quedaron mas." + +[177] The Apaches were in intercourse with Taos until 1700 A.D. _Sesto +Cuaderno, Documentos_, 3a série, i. p. 180. + +[178] _Historical Sketch of Santa Fé_, pp. 22, 23, in the pamphlet on +_Centennial Celebration_, 1876. It is the only printed report in +existence, except a very short one by Judge K. Benedict, on the revolt +of 1837. + +[179] I have not as yet been able to consult the archives of San Miguel +County, at Las Vegas, in regard to the different "Deeds" then executed. +Therefore I forbear mentioning even the names of the grantees of which I +was informed. + +[180] The Hon. W. G. Ritch is in possession of a number of highly +interesting data gathered from the Indians in relation to the sacred +fire. All of these he has, in the kindest manner, placed at my disposal. +I, however, defer their mention for a future report, in connection, as I +hope, with the pueblo of Jemez. I shall but refer here to a single one. +There were, formerly, several fires burning. One of these, that of the +_cacique_, was never permitted to go out, so that, in case one of the +others should accidentally become extinguished, it could always be +rekindled from the "extra-holy" one. + +[181] Even Ruiz affirmed that the tale, as far as the Pecos were +concerned, was certainly true. He never could get to see the reptile, +however. It is a rattlesnake (_cascabel_). + +[182] I am informed by Mr. Miller that blocks or "chunks" of obsidian, +as large as a fist or larger, are found in the Arroyo de Taos. This +would be about 60 miles north of Santa Fé. + +[183] In regard to the regular indentation of arrow-heads, I was +informed by Mr. Debrant, then incidentally at Baughl's (on the 4th of +September), that these were produced by contact with fire. Applying a +glowing coal (the end of a burning stick) to the edge of the flint, and +blowing on it steadily, after a few seconds a speck of the mineral will +fly off, leaving a groove or indentation proportionate in size to the +coal used and to the length of time applied. Thus, an arrow-head may be +indented in a very short time, which would be impossible by chipping. + +[184] Moss-agate is also found, but rarely. + +[185] Compare W. H. Holmes, _U. S. Geographical Survey_, 1876, p. 404. + +[186] That stones were used, both in offensive as well as in defensive +warfare, is proven by Castañeda, ii. cap. v. p. 178; i. cap. xii. p. 69. +It is possible that the pebbles used were kept on the roofs, as was the +custom among the ancient Mexicans. + +[187] Thus the probability of the destruction of a part of Pecos by the +Tanos, on the 10th of August, 1680, is still further increased. + +[188] Therefore the massacre of all their available men by the +Comanches, already mentioned. I could not as yet find the date of the +event. It is a well-known tradition, however. It occurred in the _moro_. + +[189] That constant guard was kept on the housetops is stated by +Castañeda, ii. p. 179. + +[190] The defensive constructions of the pueblos, as late as 1540, were +the houses. The wall of Pecos is an exception. Castañeda says (i. cap. +xiv. p. 80): "As these villages have no streets, that all the houses are +of the same height and common to all the inhabitants, these large houses +must be captured first, because they are the points of defence." + +[191] The church of Pecos, although it had lost all its former splendor, +still was used till about 1840. Afterwards it was abandoned. + + ++--------------------------------------------------------------------+ +| Transcriber's Note | +| Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as | +| possible, including obsolete and variant spellings and other | +| inconsistencies. | +| | +| Minor punctuation and printing errors have been corrected. | +| | +| The Google Print source suffers from numerous gaps in the text. | +| A copy of the original text obtained from the library at the | +| College of Santa Fe (New Mexico) enabled the transcriber to include| +| all omitted pages and plates for this complete transcription. | +| | +| Footnotes occurring on each page of the original text are grouped | +| at the end of the two major sections of the transcribed text, | +| | +| Hyphen use in directional terms is now consistent throughout the | +| author's text. For example, occurrences of 'northeast' are now | +| 'north-east', matching the predominant usage in the text. | ++--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Historical Introduction to Studies +Among the Sedentary Indians of New, by Adolphus Bandelier + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIANS OF NEW MEXICO *** + +***** This file should be named 23224-8.txt or 23224-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/3/2/2/23224/ + +Produced by Joe Longo and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was +produced from scanned images of public domain material +from the Google Print project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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