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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wampum, by Ashbel Woodward
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wampum
+       A Paper Presented to the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society
+       of Philadelphia
+
+Author: Ashbel Woodward
+
+Release Date: November 26, 2007 [EBook #23635]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAMPUM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                 WAMPUM,
+
+          A PAPER PRESENTED TO
+
+ THE NUMISMATIC AND ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY
+
+            OF PHILADELPHIA.
+
+
+                   BY
+
+         ASHBEL WOODWARD, M.D.,
+
+           OF FRANKLIN, CONN.,
+
+          CORRESPONDING MEMBER.
+
+
+             ALBANY, N. Y.:
+          J. MUNSELL, PRINTER.
+                  1878.
+
+
+
+
+ Entered according to act of Congress in the year 1878,
+ by ASHBEL WOODWARD,
+ in the Library of Congress.
+
+
+
+
+At a Stated Meeting of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of
+Philadelphia, held January 2, 1868, the following resolutions were
+unanimously adopted:
+
+_Resolved_, That the thanks of this Society are due and are hereby
+tendered to Ashbel Woodward, M.D., of Franklin, Conn., for his very able
+and interesting research upon "Wampum" this evening read before the
+Society.
+
+_Resolved_, That said paper be referred to the Publication Committee.
+
+                                Attest,
+                                          HENRY PHILLIPS, JR.,
+                                            _Corresponding Secretary._
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+
+The following pages constitute an Essay read before the Numismatic and
+Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia in January 1868. It was intended for
+publication in the second volume of the Transactions of the Society, but
+as the appearance of this volume has been unexpectedly delayed, it has
+been thought best to allow the Essay to appear separately.
+
+_Franklin, Conn._, January, 1878.
+
+
+
+
+WAMPUM.
+
+
+When Columbus, on his second voyage to the New World, landed upon Cape
+Cabron, Cuba, the cacique of the adjacent country meeting him upon the
+shore offered him a string of beads made of the hard parts of shells as
+an assurance of welcome. Similar gifts were often made to the great
+discoverer, whenever the natives sought to win his favor or wished to
+assure him of their own good will. These shell beads were afterwards
+found to be in general use among the tribes of the Atlantic coast. At
+the close of the sixteenth century the English colonists found them in
+Virginia, as did the Dutch at the commencement of the following century
+in New York, the English in New England and the French in Canada. The
+pre-historic inhabitants of the Mississippi valley were also evidently
+acquainted with their manufacture, as remains of shell beads have been
+found in many of the mounds which survive as the only memorials of that
+mysterious people.
+
+These Indian beads were known under a variety of names among the early
+colonists, and were called, _wampum_, _wampom-peage_, or _wampeage_,
+frequently _peage_ or _peake_ only, and in some localities _sewan_ or
+_zewand_. But generally sewan prevailed among the Dutch, and wampum
+among the English. These names were applied without distinction to all
+varieties of beads. This confusion arose naturally enough from the
+scanty acquaintance of the whites with the Indian language. The word
+wampum [wompam],[1] which has since become a general term, was
+restricted by the Indians to the white beads. It was derived from
+_wompi_, "white." The other or dark beads were called _suckáuhock_, a
+name compounded of _súcki_, "dark colored," and _hock_, "shell." The
+name _Mowhakes_, compounded of _mowi_, "black," and _hock_, "shell," was
+also sometimes applied to the dark beads. It thus appears that the
+Indians divided their beads into two general classes, the _wompam_, or
+white beads, and _suckáuhock_, or dark beads. Both white and black
+consisted of highly polished, testaceous cylinders, about one-eighth of
+an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch long, drilled length-wise
+and strung upon fibres of hemp or the tendons of wild beasts.
+_Suckáuhock_ was made from the stem of the _Venus mercenaria_, or common
+round clam, popularly known as the quauhaug; _wampum_ from the column
+and inner whorls of the _Pyrula carica_ and _Pyrula caniculata_[2]
+[Lam.], species known as Winkles or Periwinkles among fishermen, and the
+largest convoluted shells of our New England coast.[3] These shells
+were found in great abundance along the sea shore, lying either upon the
+mud, or just beneath the surface, and were wrought in the following
+manner. The desirable portions of the shells were first broken out into
+small pieces of the form of a parallelopiped; these were then drilled
+and afterwards ground and polished. Possessing no better tools, the
+Indians made shift to bore them with stone drills,[4] implements which
+hardly correspond with the delicacy and exactness exhibited by the
+specimens of original wampum that have come down to us. The process of
+polishing and shaping was equally painful and laborious, for rubbing
+with the hand over a smooth stony surface, was the only method which the
+rudeness of the Aborigines could devise. Yet the finished beads, whether
+attached in thick masses to garments, or strung in long flexible rows,
+were very comely and without a trace of the tawdriness, which is so
+characteristic of uncivilized peoples. The suckáuhock with its varying
+shades of purple was particularly beautiful. Its value was double that
+of the white and the darker its color, the more highly it was prized.
+But the laborious method of production imparted no trivial value to both
+varieties.
+
+It seems almost incredible that the Indian could produce so clever an
+article with his rude implements. Some have conjectured that the
+specimens produced before the natives obtained awl blades from the
+colonists were very inferior to their later productions. One writer[5]
+even goes so far as to suggest, that, before the advent of Europeans,
+Indian beads consisted mostly of small pieces of wood, stained white or
+black. The fact is, however, that the manufacture of wampum dates back
+at least to the time of the mound builders, for quantities of beads
+similar in form to the more modern article, and proved by chemical
+tests and structural peculiarities to be similar in material, have been
+exhumed from the ancient mounds of the west.[6]
+
+Other species besides the wampum and suckáuhock crept into local use
+among the different tribes. The Iroquois in their civil and religious
+ceremonies employed a variety named _otekóa_, and made from spiral fresh
+water shells of the genus _unio_. This as may be inferred from its uses
+was held in the highest esteem, and no other could be employed in the
+different stages of the ceremonial.[7] In New England and perhaps
+elsewhere, an inferior kind made evidently from shells too small and
+thin to be wrought into the cylindrical beads, circulated to a limited
+extent. The separate pieces were round and flat, about an eighth of an
+inch broad and a sixteenth of an inch thick, white and black were strung
+alternately, but the strings, though arranged with considerable nicety,
+lacked wholly the finish and flexibility of the regular article. In
+Virginia _roenoke_ was current. This consisted of small rough fragments
+of cockle shells, which were drilled and strung. The last two varieties
+were only used to a limited extent, even in the region of their
+manufacture. Here, as elsewhere, the cylindrical wampum was the
+standard, and the dearest to the Indian of all his treasures. Indeed
+such was the value set upon it, that attempts were often made to
+counterfeit it, an unallowed shell being fraudulently used in the
+manufacture of the white, while the black was imitated from a kind of
+stone. Yet the habitual caution and keenness of the Indian made it
+difficult to palm off the spurious article upon him.
+
+As wampum was made from marine shells,[8] it was naturally manufactured
+by the sea shore tribes, and in localities determined by the abundance
+of raw material. Here the shells were stored up in some convenient spot
+during summer, to be worked out in winter when the rigors of the season
+should deter the men from their ordinary out door pursuits.[9] Probably
+but little was produced north of the Narragansetts [Rhode Island], as
+the necessary shells were scarce beyond Cape Cod. The Narragansetts were
+themselves great producers, and tradition claimed for their tribe the
+honor of the invention of wampum. But the Long Island Indians were by
+far the greatest producers along our northern coast. Their sandy flats
+and marshes teemed with sea life, and, when the Dutch first came to New
+Amsterdam, their island went by the name of _sewan hacky_, or the "land
+of the sewan shell," so numerous were the sewan manufactories upon it.
+Without doubt production was stimulated beyond its natural limits by the
+demand from powerful tribes from the main land, who found it easier to
+exact wampum as tribute from their weak neighbors, than personally to
+engage in its laborious coinage. Hazard, in his collection of state
+papers, states, that the Narragansetts frequently compelled large
+tributes in wampum from the Long Island Indians. The Pequots also for
+many years prior to 1637, exacted large annual contributions from the
+same tribes while they were still further subject to the levies of the
+imperious Mohawks. Thus the mint of wealth at their very doors became to
+its possessors the source of untold misery. Constant fear kept them
+toiling at the mines, while the scanty proceeds of their labor only
+quickened the greed of their savage masters. The number and extent of
+the sewan manufactories upon Long Island may be inferred from the
+frequent and immense shell heaps left by the Indians in all of which
+scarcely a whole shell is to be found. Occasionally the whole shells
+were carried over to the main land and there wrought. From Sewan-Hacky
+down the Atlantic coast and along the gulf, the shaded covers and quiet
+banks were doubtless dotted with wampum manufactories, for there was a
+great demand constantly to be met.
+
+The inland tribes were of course unable to produce their own wampum, and
+depended for their supply upon the coast tribes. A brisk trade thus
+arose between the coast and interior. Hides and furs were brought down
+to clothe the denser population of the shore, and wampum carried back
+in exchange.[10] Often, however, the inland tribes were able to pounce
+down and wring this precious material from its carriers in the form of
+tribute.
+
+Wampum is often spoken of as "Indian money." This expression if
+referring to colonial times is perfectly proper, but must be received
+with caution in the consideration of ante-colonial days. The barbarian,
+dwelling in independent isolation, satisfies the majority of his wants
+by direct effort and not by an interchange of services, nor till
+civilization has considerably advanced can we look for any general
+system of exchanges with the mutual dependence and mutual benefits which
+such a system involves. So attractive an article as wampum was doubtless
+eagerly sought in barter, and would readily procure for its possessor
+whatever else he might desire. Indeed we know that it was the means of
+an extensive trade between the coast and the interior, the inland
+Indians bringing down hides and furs to be exchanged for the wampum of
+the shore. All this, however, was in the way of barter, and we cannot
+hence infer that the idea of a medium or money crept into the limited
+circle of the redman's wants and satisfactions. His circumstances did
+not demand and would not therefore suggest it. Wampum was the gold of
+the aborigine. But he had yet to learn that the value of gold resides
+not alone in its glitter. The ancient Peruvians dwelt amid mountains of
+gold, but the idea of a circulating medium never dawned upon them. In
+like manner, the Indian had never learned that use of his golden wampum
+which was the first to suggest itself to the white man. He made and
+valued it for other purposes.
+
+A fondness for personal display and decoration are characteristic of
+uncivilized life, and wampum was well adapted to satisfy this weakness
+of the Indian. It was every where used for adornment of the person. The
+humblest proudly wore his trifle, while the more favored ones were wont
+to decorate themselves in countless gay and fantastic ways. It was
+oftenest worn about the neck in strings of the length of a rosary, the
+number of strings being determined by the means or social position of
+the wearer.[11] Bracelets and necklaces were other forms in which it was
+frequently displayed. With the females, head-dresses, consisting of
+bands of wampum twined about the head and gathering up their abundant
+tresses, were an especial delight. A border of beads greatly enhanced
+the value of any garment, and outer clothing was usually thus
+ornamented. Indeed the wealthy and powerful wore cloaks, as also aprons
+and caps, thickly studded with wampum wrought into various fantastic
+forms and figures. Says that old voyager, John Josselyn, "Prince
+Phillip, a little before I came to England [1671], coming to Boston, had
+on a coat and buskins thick set with these beads in pleasant wild
+works." The moccasin was also, as at the present day, the recipient of
+much taste and skill.
+
+More of a luxury and confined mostly to sachems and sagamores was the
+wampum belt, alternate white and purple strings attached in rows to a
+deerskin base, and worn as a belt about the waist, or thrown over the
+shoulders like a scarf. Ordinary belts consisted of twelve rows of one
+hundred and eighty beads each, but they increased in length and breadth
+with the social importance of the wearer. As many as ten thousand beads
+are known to have been wrought into a single war belt four inches wide.
+The regular alternation of white and purple rows was not always adopted,
+but birds and beasts and such other rustic fantasies as suited the
+owner's taste, were often interwoven with the different colors. One of
+King Philip's belts surrendered by the Sagamore Annawon to Capt. Church,
+was nine inches wide, of sufficient length when placed about Capt.
+Church's shoulders to reach to his ancles, and curiously inwrought with
+figures of birds, beasts and flowers. From another belt of no less
+exquisite workmanship and designed to be worn about the head, two flags
+fell in graceful folds upon the shoulders. A third and smaller one had a
+star embroidered upon its end, and was to be worn upon the breast. The
+haughty old chief was wont to adorn his person with these insignia when
+he sat in state among his subjects. They symbolized, by striking
+emblems, his might and prowess, and kindled in beholders feelings and
+emotions that royal pomp and purple could not awake. The idea of
+gaudiness is apt to associate itself in our minds with Indian trappings,
+but we must confess that the simple grace and force of these rustic
+adornments would put to shame many a glittering article of more modern
+wear.
+
+But wampum strings and belts subserved other equally important uses.
+They were among the Indian race the universal bonds of nations and
+individuals, the inviolable and sacred pledges of word and deed. No
+promise was binding unless confirmed by gifts of wampum. The young
+warrior declared his passion for his Indian maid, by presenting wampum
+chains and belts, and her acceptance of the proffered present sealed the
+marriage compact.[12] Like tokens accompanied every weighty message,
+and little reliance was put upon the messenger who brought not with him
+such assurances of good faith.[13] They cemented friendships, confirmed
+alliances, sealed treaties, and effectually effaced the memory of
+injuries.[14] A curious ceremonial had grown up in their presentation on
+state occasions. When ambassadors set out for another nation, they bore
+before them the calumet, or pipe of peace, in evidence of their pacific
+purpose and to secure protection for their journey, and also belts of
+wampum to be submitted in confirmation of their proposals, or, if their
+people had been worsted in battle to atone for injuries and purchase
+peace. In the great council assembled to receive them, the orator of the
+embassy rose and unfolded the object of their visit, corroborating each
+important statement and proposal at its close by laying down wampum
+belts. If his words were pleasing, and the presents taken from the
+ground in evidence thereof, similar presents were given in return, and
+the contract sealed with the smoking of the calumet and the burial of
+the hatchet in the midst. Among the Six Nations, whenever the council
+failed to adjust the difficulty or when for any other reason peace was
+to be interrupted, war was proclaimed by striking a tomahawk painted red
+and ornamented with black wampum, into the war post in each village of
+the league.[15]
+
+To illustrate what we have said, we subjoin the following account of an
+interview between Sir William Johnson, the noted Indian agent and the
+Six Nations, among whom this ceremony survived even after their decline.
+"At a meeting of the Six Nations and their allies at Fort Johnson, Feb.
+18, 1756, Sir William Johnson said:
+
+
+    _Brethren of the Six Nations_,
+
+    I have heard with great concern that a war party of the Senecas, the
+    most remote nation of the confederacy, have had a considerable
+    misunderstanding with their brethren the English to the southward,
+    which has been fatal to some of that nation. I am extremely unable
+    to express my sorrow for that unhappy affair, and as the hatchet
+    remains fixed in your heads, I do with the greatest tenderness and
+    affection remove it thence.
+
+                                                               A belt.
+
+
+    _Brethren_,
+
+    With this belt I cleanse and purify the beds of those who fell in
+    that unfortunate affair from the defilement they have contracted.
+
+                                                               A belt.
+
+
+    _Brethren_,
+
+    I am informed that on that occasion you lost three of your powerful
+    warriors. I do with this belt cover their dead bodies that they may
+    not offend our sight any more and bury the whole affair in oblivion.
+
+                                                               A belt.
+
+
+    ANSWER OF THE SIX NATIONS AND THEIR ALLIES.
+
+    _Brother Warraghiyagey_,
+
+    We the sachems and warriors of the Seneca nation return to you our
+    sincere thanks for your great affection in drying our tears and
+    driving sorrow from our hearts, and we in return perform the same
+    ceremony to you with the like hearty affection.
+
+                                                   A string of wampum.
+
+
+    _Brother Warraghiyagey_,
+
+    We are sensible of your goodness expressed to us in removing the
+    cause of our grief and tenderly taking the axe out of our heads.
+
+                                                               A belt.
+
+
+    After several more speeches and presentations by the Senecas, the
+    other nations in turn presented belts. In 1748, the general had
+    given them a large belt upon which was an emblem of the Six Nations
+    joined hand in hand with the English. This the speaker then took and
+    said:
+
+
+    _Brother Warraghiyagey_,
+
+    Look with all attention on this belt and remember the solemn and
+    mutual engagements we entered into when you first took upon you the
+    management of our affairs. Be assured we look upon them as sound and
+    shall on our part punctually perform them as long as we remain a
+    people.
+
+                                              A prodigious large belt.
+
+
+    Taking up another large belt formerly given them by the governor of
+    New York, he said:
+
+
+    _Brother Warraghiyagey_,
+
+    We hope our brethren, the English, will seriously remember the
+    promises made us by this belt and exactly perform them, and we
+    promise to do the same though we have no record but our memories.
+
+                                               A very large belt."[16]
+
+
+The belts received at treaties, councils and other assemblies were
+entrusted for presentation to the care of one individual, usually the
+sachem, who was expected to keep in mind the occasion and purport of
+each, which he could readily do by the aid of the devices emblematic of
+the event it signalized that were traced upon each.[17] Thus a belt
+presented to Sir Wm. Johnson by the Six Nations, had wrought upon it the
+sun, the emblem of light, and symbols of the Six Nations. It signified
+that their minds were now illumined by the clear bright light of truth
+and their intention to abide in the light.[17] In a belt presented at
+Easton, His Majesty King George was figured taking hold of the king of
+the Six Nations with one hand, and the king of the Delawares with the
+other. A belt presented by the Indians of Eastern Maine as a pledge of
+their friendship and fidelity to the United States and the king of
+France was explained as follows: The belt was thirteen rows wide to
+represent the United States, and had upon it a cross indicating France,
+and several white figures denoting the different Indian villages.[18]
+The Indian like other young languages drew closer to nature than the
+dusty abstractions of civilization. It was highly figurative and the
+majority of its words referred directly to familiar external sights. The
+tribes of each nation of the Iroquois were known respectively as the
+Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Turtle, Deer, Snipe, Heron and Hawk. The significant
+names of chiefs are known to all, and whoever is familiar with Indian
+oratory will readily recollect its garb of bold and striking metaphors.
+These features, while imparting energy to the language, at the same
+time made it easy to convey its meaning by picture writing or
+symbolism, the only mode of writing which the aborigine possessed.[19]
+Thus, too, it was easy to put upon a belt a few significant characters
+which by the principle of mental association should clearly depict the
+salient features of an event or of a series of events. Such belts
+carefully preserved served as the annals of a nation. They were the only
+authentic history of the past, recalling the treaties, councils,
+triumphs and domestic celebrations of former generations. At stated
+times their custodian, the sachem, was accustomed to gather the younger
+warriors about him, and unfolding to them the secrets locked up in
+these mysterious records, instruct them in the history and engagements
+of their tribe. The old soldier's breast glowed with honest pride, as he
+recounted to his young braves the exploits of their sires, or exhibited
+the proud tokens of submission forced from some ancient enemy, and most
+of all when he came to dwell upon scenes conspicuous for his own valor
+and reddened by his blood. And as the impetuous youths drank in the
+glorious story of their father's might and valor on the war path, there
+sprang up within them a patriotism "that grew by what it fed on." In the
+extensive confederation of the Iroquois, Hono Wenato, an Onondaga
+sachem, was the hereditary keeper of the wampum. Whenever the grand
+council met to fill a vacancy in the sachemship of a tribe of any
+nation, it was his duty publicly to repeat to the new sachem their
+ancient laws and usages, and to unfold to him the structure and
+principles of the league, as recorded in the belts committed to his
+charge.[20]
+
+Wampum played an important part in religious as well as civil
+ceremonies. On occasions of great public calamities, it formed the most
+acceptable sacrifice that could be offered to the terrible Hobbamocko,
+the author of evil, and it entered largely into the mystic rites of all
+those weird assemblies that gathered under the shades of the forest.
+When evil threatened or its farther progress was to be stayed, as also
+after great triumphs and abundant harvests, the Indians gathered from
+far and near to celebrate their mysteries. They danced for days, painted
+and clad in hideous guise, about a great fire, the throne of the
+divinity, and with wild and frantic yells cast from time to time into
+the flames furs and weapons, and that choicest of their treasures the
+costly wampum. Nay it was even whispered in the early time, that little
+children gaily adorned with wampum were led into the midst and thrust
+into the fiery embrace of the hissing god.[21] The practice of the
+Iroquois was less fearful, among whom a string of white wampum was hung
+around the neck of a white dog suspended to a pole and offered as a
+sacrifice to the mighty Haweuneyn. The wampum was a pledge of their
+sincerity, and white an emblem of purity and of faith. In the same
+nation, previous to "giving thanks to the Maple," and their other stated
+festivals, the people assembled for the mutual confession of their sins.
+"The meeting was opened by one of the 'keepers of the faith,' with an
+address upon the propriety and importance of acknowledging their evil
+deeds to strengthen their minds against future temptations. He then took
+a string of white wampum in his hand, and set the example by a
+confession of his own faults, after which he handed the string to the
+one nearest to him, who received it, made his confession in like manner,
+and passed it to another. In this way the wampum went around from hand
+to hand, and those who had confessions to make, stated wherein they had
+done wrong, and promised to do better in the future. Old and young, men,
+women and even children, all united in this public acknowledgment of
+their faults, and joined in the common resolution of amendment. On some
+occasions the string of wampum was placed in the centre of the room, and
+each one advanced in turn to perform the duty as the inclination seized
+him. A confession and promise without holding the wampum would be of no
+avail. It was the wampum which recorded their words and gave their
+pledge of sincerity. The object of the confession was future
+amendment."[22]
+
+Wampum was the tribute paid by the vanquished in war, as also the means
+by which threatened wars were often averted. The Long Island Indians for
+many years paid an annual tribute to the Pequots, a powerful tribe
+dwelling in Eastern Connecticut.[23] It is commonly supposed that these
+tribes were also tributary to the Six Nations. To the same great power
+were subject the clans between the Hudson and the Connecticut, and every
+year two aged but haughty Mohawks might be seen going from village to
+village to collect the tribute that was their due. It is asserted that
+as late as 1756, a small tribe near Sugar Loaf Mountain made an annual
+payment to this nation of £20 in wampum. Individual as well as national
+obligations were similarly satisfied. Like the early German, the Indian
+set a marketable value on human life, and a suitable present of wampum
+on the part of the murderer, if accepted, freed him from the vengeance
+of the dead man's friends, for the wampum belt washed away all traces of
+the bloody stain.[24] Perhaps desire for another's wampum sometimes
+prompted him to such foul deeds, as it did the white man,[25] though
+happily the Indian seldom stooped to theft.
+
+Thus in the rude civilization of the aborigine wampum filled a space
+accorded to no one article in our own. Through life it faithfully met
+all his varied wants, and when he came to die, his friends placed it
+about his dead body,[26] that it might befriend him on his journey to
+the spirit land, and on his arrival there gain for him admission to the
+realms of the god Kiehtan, the abode of the blessed.
+
+The shrewd commercial instinct of the Dutch colonists was quick to
+profit by wampum in their dealings with the aborigines. Happily its most
+extensive producers dwelt at their very doors. They obtained from the
+Long Island tribes in return for knives, scissors, hatchets and the
+like, great quantities of this novel coinage, and then exchanged it with
+the Indians of the mainland for hides and furs, often plunging far into
+the interior and drawing thence products which gold could never have won
+from their possessors. Did common trifles fail, wampum was the unfailing
+reserve whose charms the savage was powerless to resist. With such an
+adjutant trade became doubly flourishing and lucrative. Posts sprang up
+along the Hudson, in the valley of the Connecticut and as far south as
+the Schuylkill, through all of which ceaseless revenues poured into the
+coffers of the Dutch West India Company. Connecticut, alone, annually
+furnished to her traders ten thousand beaver skins.[27] In all this
+traffic wampum played a leading part, so much so in fact that fur trade
+and wampum trade became synonymous terms.
+
+Toward the close of September, 1627, Isaac de Rasieres was dispatched
+from New Amsterdam on an embassy to the English colony at New Plymouth.
+Being of a trading turn, he carried with him in his vessel among other
+merchandise about £50 in wampum which he managed to dispose of
+there.[28] Wampum was as yet comparatively unknown in Massachusetts Bay,
+and the colonists were ignorant of its uses. This purchase made with
+great reluctance, they sent to their trading house at Kennebeck, where
+"when the inland Indians came to know it, they could scarce procure
+enough for many years together." Everywhere in New England, as in the
+Dutch provinces, wampum soon became a leading article in the Indian
+trade, and added greatly to its profits. Seven years after its
+introduction to Kennebeck, Mr. Winslow carried thence into England about
+twenty hogsheads of beaver, "the greater part whereof was traded for
+wampampeage" during the year. By 1636 this trade had grown to such
+proportions in Massachusetts colony that the standing colony were
+authorized to farm it out for the increase of the public revenues, and
+to establish the severest penalties for any infringement of the
+privileges thus granted. The traders of New England were now ranging the
+forests in all directions and often plunged into them for hundreds of
+miles to the great alarm of the Dutch who feared that the English would
+monopolize all the profits of the trade, and that "they should be
+obliged to eat oats out of English hands."[29] From the north the French
+descended in great numbers, eager to share in the gains of this traffic,
+and often encroached upon the domains of other nations. The solitudes of
+the wilderness thus resounded every where to the tread of the
+adventurous white man, who, lured on by the hope of gain, thought not of
+the dangers that beset his path. It doubtless afforded the Indian no
+little satisfaction to welcome the haughty foreigner to his wigwam, and
+while dictating his own terms, to receive in payment the honored
+currency of his fathers. When he took his pay, he measured it off after
+his own fashion, the unit being the distance from the elbow to the end
+of the little finger. According to one authority it made no difference
+whether a short or tall man measured it.[30] Adrian Van Tiedhoven, clerk
+of the court at the South river, however tells a different story,
+complaining bitterly "because the Indians always take the largest and
+tallest among them to trade with us."
+
+But hides and furs were not the only articles which wampum purchased
+from the natives. It was a frequent consideration in early Indian deeds.
+In the records of Windsor, Conn., is preserved a deed, which conveys
+territory lying between the Podunk and Scantic rivers, and extending a
+day's march into the country, the price paid for which was fifteen
+fathoms of wampum and twenty cloth coats. Most of the present towns of
+Warwick and Coventry in Rhode Island, were purchased of Miantinomi,
+sachem of the Narragansetts, for one hundred and forty-four fathoms of
+wampum.[31]
+
+In New England the limits of the trade were considerably extended by the
+quantities of wampum tribute which poured into the hands of the colonial
+authorities. Wampum was the commodity in which tribute was universally
+paid, and the stern justice of our fathers imposed this with no sparing
+hand upon their weak and erring neighbors. In 1634, the Pequots were
+fined 400 fathoms of wampum, and two years afterwards 600 fathoms
+more.[32] After 1637, the Long Island Indians paid a large yearly
+tribute to the united commissioners,[33] as did also the Block
+Islanders. It is often difficult, as in the present case, to see the
+justice of such exactions. These Indians had been guilty of no
+unfriendly act, and the utmost urged in extenuation of the imposition
+was the flimsy pretence that but for an alleged protection the same sums
+would have gone in fealty to their red brethren. In 1644, the
+Narragansetts were fined 2000 fathoms, and doomed to pay yearly
+thereafter a fathom for every Pequot man, half a fathom for every youth
+and a hand breadth for every child in the tribe. As late as 1658,[34]
+the Pequots were fined ten fathoms a man, and one of their number
+imprisoned for offering refuse wampum in part payment.[35] This tribe
+had suffered so many and severe exactions that they were obliged to
+search in all directions for the material out of which to manufacture
+their wampum, and occasionally crossed over to Long Island for this
+purpose. The Montauk sachem fearing that his shores would be exhausted
+of their shelly wealth, opposed these visits, until the Pequots
+succeeded in securing the interposition of the united commissioners in
+their behalf.[36] In 1663, the assessment upon this tribe was fixed at
+80 fathoms. Such are a few of the many instances to be found in the
+records, showing the enormous amount of wampum paid as tribute by the
+natives to the early authorities of New England.
+
+The Dutch supply was augmented in a different manner. They soon found
+the native manufactories inadequate to the demand and erected mints of
+their own, and by introducing steel drills and polishing lathes won a
+great advantage over the original wearisome hand processes. The French
+sought a still greater advantage by substituting porcelain for shells,
+but the Indians were not to be thus easily imposed upon, and the
+manufacture of earthen money was soon given up.[37] It is sometimes
+asserted that the English engaged in making wampum, though the statement
+appeared to be without foundation. The Dutch, however, produced it in
+large quantities, and were thereby enabled to enlarge the circle of
+their own posts; and also to furnish liberal supplies to the traders,
+north and south, who ranged over the entire Atlantic coast from the St.
+Lawrence to the gulf. In Virginia, the Carolinas, and later in Georgia,
+wampum was the chief medium employed in the fur trade.
+
+The poverty of the early settlers, added to that short sighted and now
+obsolete policy of Europe in the seventeenth century, which jealously
+sought to keep all specie within her borders, produced a general dearth
+of the precious metals in the currency of the New World, and all kinds
+of shifts were made to eke out the scanty supply. Corn, wheat, oats,
+peas, poultry and the like sufficed to satisfy any obligation. But then,
+though answering well in cases of barter, where two mutual desires met,
+were far too bulky and unwieldy for general use. Naturally then recourse
+was had to an article in extensive use among the traders, and possessing
+in a measure the portability of gold and silver, and _wampum_ became a
+constituent part of the currency. In one feature at least, the old
+civilization held its own beside the new. As early as 1637, wampum was
+made a legal tender in Massachusetts for any sum under 12_d._, at the
+rate of six beads for a penny.[38] The same year it became a legal
+tender in Connecticut for any amount. The general court declaring it
+receivable for taxes "at fousen (4) a penny."[39]
+
+But coin grew scarcer in Massachusetts and shell money increased in
+value, till in 1640, the authorities were compelled to adopt the
+valuation of Connecticut, ordering that the white pass at four and the
+"bleuse" at two a penny, "and not above 12_d._ at a time except the
+receiver desire more."[40] The public needs soon required another
+change, and the legality of shell currency rose to £10.[41] This novel
+coinage, thus regulated from time to time, answered well for money
+throughout the colonies, till after a while trouble arose from an
+unexpected source. The enormous demand at length brought upon the market
+beads of stone or unallowed shells, as also many rough, ill-strung
+specimens of the genuine article. The disorder was aggravated, because
+the Indians, who best understood the qualities of their wampum, would
+take only the genuine from the traders, while the refuse was thrown back
+into the circulation of the colonies. The commissioners of the United
+Colonies being appealed to for a remedy recommended to the separate
+governments to suppress this poor "peage" by law. Accordingly in 1648,
+the general courte of Connecticut ordered "that no peage, white or
+black, be paid or received, but what is strung and in some measure
+strung suitably, and not small and great, uncomely and disorderly mixt,
+as formerly it hath beene."[42] A similar order was passed in
+Massachusetts, where it was further enacted to prepare this Indian money
+for ready use, that it be "suitably strung in eight known parcells,
+1_d._ 3_s._ 12_d._ 5_s._ in white; 2_d._ 6_s._ 6_d._ and 10_s._ in
+blacke."[43] Another favorite length was the fathom, containing 360
+beads and current at about 10_s._ Thus during these years shell money
+was current throughout New-England, and constituted, doubtless, the best
+and most convenient portion of the currency. The government received it
+for taxes, the farmer for his produce, the merchant for his wares, and
+the laborer for his hire. It formed a frequent item in the inventories
+of deceased colonists, being often the only cash mentioned. It even
+found its way into the coffers of Harvard college, for we read that the
+lease of the wampum trade in Massachusetts was attended with the
+obligation to take from the college the wampum which it might have on
+hand from time to time.[44] In the forest, likewise, it now circulated
+as money, for the Indian was quick to copy the white man's use of his
+beads.
+
+Toward the middle of the century wampum reached its highest value in
+New-England. Thereafter the increasing prosperity of the colonies, the
+domestic coinage of silver, and perhaps the too extensive manufacture of
+the shell money, gradually diminishing its value, drove it from
+circulation. In 1650, it was refused in payment of country rates in
+Massachusetts.[45] This action of the government naturally created
+distrust among the people, to counteract which it was ordered that
+"peage" should still "remagne pawable from man to man, according to the
+law in force." Close upon this followed another decree, limiting it as a
+legal tender to 40 shillings.[46] These laws continued in force till
+1661, when wampum was declared to be no longer a legal tender in
+Massachusetts.[47] Rhode Island passed a similar decree the next
+year[48] and Connecticut, probably, soon afterwards. But though wampum
+now ceased to be legally current, it lingered among the people for years
+and constituted in great part the small change of the community. As late
+as 1704, it was a common mode of payment in country places.[49]
+
+Shell money was used extensively and for a long time in the Dutch
+colonies. Here for a while absolutely no coin was in circulation, and
+wampum being the feasible substitute was universally adopted. So great
+was the popular demand, that even the unstrung wampum, prohibited in the
+eastern colonies, passed at but a trifling discount.[50] For many years
+the easy-going government at New Amsterdam does not seem to have
+regulated the currency by law, as did its more thorough neighbors, and
+the amount of wampum requisite to make a stiver, was left to be
+determined by the parties concerned. Such a course was fraught with
+inconvenience to the public, and frequent petitions were made for the
+establishment of some uniform rate.[51]
+
+The rate, however, which obtained by common consent, was four of the
+strung and six of the loose beads for a stiver.[52] But in 1641, there
+came from foreign parts an inundation of "nasty, rough" sewan, which
+drove the better sort out of circulation, "nay," so runs the record,
+"threatened the ruin of the country," and legislation was imperatively
+demanded. This inferior article was therefore condemned to pass five
+for a stiver during the following month, and afterwards six, at which
+rate the loose, unstringed wampum, which served the community as change,
+subsequently circulated.[53] The importance of wampum during these years
+is well illustrated by the fact that the opulent West India Company in
+1664, sought to negotiate a loan of five or six thousand guilders in it,
+wherewith to pay the laboring people, the obligation to be satisfied
+with _good negroes_ or other goods.[54] The Dutch succumbed to superior
+force, but wampum still held its own. It continued to be the chief
+currency not only in New York, but in the many settlements to the west
+and south, which were then under the control of the authorities at New
+York. In 1672, the inhabitants of Hoanskill and New Castle on the
+Delaware, having been plundered by Dutch privateers were permitted by
+the government at New York to lay an impost of four guilders, in wampum,
+upon each anker of strong rum imported or sold there.[55] A guilder,
+which was about six pence currency or four pence sterling, consisted of
+twenty stivers, and eight beads were reckoned equal to one stiver. As
+heretofore there was little or no certain coin in circulation and wampum
+passed for current payment in all cases. Indeed the country was so
+drained of even this currency by the Indian trade, that there was
+difficulty in obtaining a sufficiency. To remedy this state of affairs,
+the governor and council of New York were in 1673 constrained to issue
+their proclamation which was published at Albany, Esopus, Delaware, Long
+Island and the adjacent parts, commanding that "instead of eight white
+and four black (beads), six white and three black should pass for a
+stiver; and three times so much the value of silver."[56]
+
+The contributions in the churches were for many years made in wampum,
+and the first church on the Jersey shore was built with funds
+contributed in this way from Sabbath to Sabbath. As late as 1683, "the
+schoolmaster in Flatbush was paid his salary in wheat, wampum value: He
+was bound to provide a basin of water for the purpose of baptism, for
+which he received from the parents or sponsors twelve stivers in
+wampum."[57] Nor ten years later had the money of the aborigines become
+wholly supplanted by gold and silver, for we learn that "in 1693, the
+ferriage of each single person from New York to Brooklyn was eight
+stivers in wampum, or a silver two-pence."[58] Further than this we are
+unable to trace, though we have good reason to believe that it
+circulated, to a limited extent, for some time thereafter.
+
+Thus while the Indian declined in power his simple coinage passed from
+hand to hand, among his conquerors, in the haunts where unnumbered
+generations of his ancestors had trafficked it in rude barter, or
+offered it with solemn ceremonial, their costliest offering, to their
+country's gods. It was for about a quarter of a century a legal tender
+in New England, while among the Dutch it was during half a century often
+the only circulating medium, and among both Dutch and English it filled
+a more or less important part in the currency for nearly an entire
+century.
+
+When at length the increasing wealth of the people drove wampum out of
+common use, it still remained an important article in commerce. It was
+manufactured at New York until the commencement of the present century
+to be used in traffic with the Indians, for whom it had lost none of its
+charms, and to be carried by our whalers into the northern seas.
+
+Treaties and compacts between the different tribes and the states, and
+later the general government, continued to be ratified by the
+interchange of wampum belts. The records of the eighteenth century
+abound with instances of this character. The last occasion of the kind
+is believed to have been at Prairie du Chien in 1825.[59]
+
+Among the Indians of the present day wampum is unknown. The name still
+remains, but the trifles to which it is applied bear no resemblance to
+the ancient article. The glass beads now current as wampum and the
+original wampum are not less unlike, than the squalid Blackfoot of our
+western plains, and the proud and imperious Mohawk, beside his native
+stream.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Trumbull in his notes in the Narragansett Club Reprint of Roger
+Williams's _Key_, says: "_Wom pam_ was the name of the white beads
+collectively; when strung or wrought in girdles they constituted
+_wanôm-peg_ [Roger Williams], the _wampon-peage_ of Wood and other early
+writers."
+
+_Peage_ or _peake_ signified simply "strung beads," and _wampom-peage_
+accordingly signified "strings of white beads."
+
+The English were doubtless led to consider _wampum_ a generic word,
+because they heard it oftenest used, _wampum_ being much more abundant
+than _suckáuhock_. Their error has however long since received the
+sanction of usage. But as far as our own knowledge extends there was no
+comprehensive word for all shell beads in use among the Indians. _Sewan_
+had perhaps very nearly such a use in certain localities, but the real
+meaning of the word _sewan_ appears from the following note in the
+Narragansett Club Reprint of Roger Williams's _Key_:--"_Seahwhóog_,
+'they are scattered' [Elliot]. From this word the Dutch traders gave the
+name of _sewared_ or _zeewand_ [the participle, _seahwhóun_,
+'scattered,' 'loose'], to _all_ shell money just as the English called
+all _peage_, or string beads, by the name of the white or _wampom_."
+
+[2] Sometimes from the _Buccinum undulatum_ [Möll], found from Nantucket
+to Labrador, and occasionally perhaps from the _Natica heros_ [Say]
+found from New York to Labrador, and the _Natica duplicata_ found from
+Florida to Massachusetts Bay.
+
+In this connection the writer would acknowledge his indebtedness to Hon.
+J. Hammond Trumbull, a gentleman who has given much time and talent to
+the investigation of matters of Indian history.
+
+[3] Many writers have asserted that wampum was worked out of the inside
+of the Great Conque shell. This view is evidently erroneous, as the
+Great Conque, _Strombus gigas_ [Linn.], is not found on the Atlantic
+coast, north of Florida and the West Indies, except in the fossil state.
+
+The assertion that wampum is an Iroquois word, meaning a "muscle," is
+doubtless equally unfounded.
+
+Roger Williams [_Key_, chap. xxiv], who certainly had fine opportunities
+for observation, and our other most trustworthy authorities, state that
+the _Suckáuhock_ was made from the clam shell, and the _wampum_ from the
+shells of the Periwinkle, and such was unquestionably the case.
+
+[4] Roger Williams's _Key_, chap. xxiv.
+
+[5] Gordon, _Hist. of Penn._, Appendix F.
+
+[6] See Schoolcraft's report on the Grove Creek Mound in vol. I, of
+_Transactions of the Am. Ethnological Soc._
+
+[7] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 120.
+
+[8] The otekóa of the Iroquois was the only exception of which we know.
+
+[9] Roger Williams's _Key_, chap. xxiv.
+
+[10] Roger Williams's _Key_, chap. xxiv.
+
+[11] For an excellent illustration of the different modes of wearing
+wampum, see the plates in that admirable work, _Harriot's Virginia_,
+written in 1586, and published in 1590, in the first volume of De Bry's
+_Voyages_.
+
+[12] Trumbull's _Hist. of Connecticut_, I, p. 50.
+
+[13] "It is obvious to all who are the least acquainted with Indian
+affairs, that they regard no message or invitation, be it of what
+consequence it will, unless attended or confirmed by strings or belts of
+wampum, which they look upon as we our letters or rather
+bonds."--_Letter of Sir Wm. Johnson_, 1753. _Doc. Hist. of N. Y._, vol.
+II, p. 624.
+
+[14] As late as 1720, a belt was brought into Connecticut from some
+place at the south called Towattowan, and circulated very generally
+among the Indians, to the alarm of the colony, "the assembly caused some
+inquiries to be made into the mystery, and an Indian, named
+Tapanranawko, testified that the belt was in token that at each place
+where it was accepted, captive Indians would be received and sold. He
+said that it would be sent back to Towattowan, which was a great way to
+the south, and was inhabited by a large tribe of Indians. The assembly
+resolved that the Indians should be directed to send it back whence it
+came, and should be charged not to receive such presents in future
+without giving notice to the magistrates."--DeForest's _Hist. of Indians
+of Conn._, p. 349.
+
+[15] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 339.
+
+[16] Documents relating to the _Colonial History of New York_, vol. VII,
+p. 44.
+
+[17] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 120.
+
+[18] _Eastern Maine and Nova Scotia in the Revolution_, Kidder, p. 286.
+
+[19] It is interesting in this connection to notice the manner in which
+the chiefs affixed their names to early deeds. In the deed of New Haven
+given by the Quinnipiacs [see Appendix IV, DeForest's Indians of Conn.],
+may be seen as autographs, an arrow, a bow, a drawn bow, a war club, a
+tobacco pipe, a snake, a wolf (apparently), a wild fowl, etc., etc.
+
+[20] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 119.
+
+[21] President Stiles's _Itinerary_, unpublished.
+
+[22] _League of the Iroquois_, page 188.
+
+[23] Thomson's _Long Island_, p. 62.
+
+[24] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 331.
+
+[25] It is stated in _Winthrop's Journal_ [p. 147 and after], that four
+servants of Plymouth were condemned and hung upon their own confession
+of having murdered an Indian to obtain his wampum.
+
+[26] In the tomb, apparently of a chief, in the Grove Creek Mound, 1700
+beads were found around the remains of a skeleton, and such deposits are
+frequently found in opening old graves.
+
+[27] Winthrop, I, 113.
+
+[28] Bradford's _Letters_, _Mass. Hist. Collections_, III, 54.
+
+[29] _Doc. Rel. to Colonial History of New York_, I, 459.
+
+[30] Lawson's _History of North Carolina_, ed. of 1714, page 315.
+
+[31] Rhode Island _Colonial Records_, I, 130.
+
+[32] _Winthrop_, pages 147, 149 and 192.
+
+[33] Thompson's _Long Island_, page 62.
+
+[34] _Hazard_, II, page 413.
+
+[35] _Hazard_, III, page 44.
+
+[36] _Hazard_, II, pages 387 and 388.
+
+[37] Thompson's _Long Island_, page 60.
+
+[38] _Records of Mass._, I, 238. Where only one rate is mentioned, as
+here, we are probably to understand the white, and deduct one-half for
+the black or blue.
+
+[39] _Colonial Records of Conn._, I, 12.
+
+[40] _Records of Mass._, I, p. 302.
+
+[41] _Ibid._, p. 329.
+
+[42] _Col. Records of Conn._, I, 179.
+
+[43] _Records of Mass._, II, 261.
+
+[44] _Records of Mass._, I, 323.
+
+[45] _Records of Mass._, II, 279.
+
+[46] _Ibid._, IV, p. 36.
+
+[47] _Records of Mass._, IV, part 2, pages 4, 5.
+
+[48] _R. Island Colonial Records_, I, page 474.
+
+[49] Madam Knight's _Journal_, written in 1704, page 43.
+
+[50] _Doc. Relating to the Colonial Hist. of New York_, I, 474.
+
+[51] _Ibid._, p. 336.
+
+[52] _Ibid._, p. 425.
+
+[53] O'Callaghan's _New Netherland_, I, 230.
+
+[54] _Doc. Col. Hist. of New York_, II, p. 371.
+
+[55] Proud's _Hist. of Pennsylvania_, I, page 133.
+
+[56] Hazzard's _Annals of Pennsylvania_.
+
+[57] O'Callaghan's _New Netherland_, I, 61.
+
+[58] O'Callaghan's _New Netherland_, I, _ibid._
+
+[59] Schoolcraft's _Notes on the Iroquois_.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+    Archaic spellings have been retained. Abbreviations have been
+    normalised. Minor typographical errors have been corrected without
+    note, whilst more significant amendments are listed below:
+
+      P. 10, "Pyrula canicalata" to _Pyrula caniculata_.
+
+      P. 11n, "Great Congue" to _Great Conque_, could be amended to
+        _Great Conch_ however the former seems more in keeping with the
+        original intent.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wampum, by Ashbel Woodward
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+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Wampum, by Ashbel Woodward
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wampum, by Ashbel Woodward
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wampum
+       A Paper Presented to the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society
+              of Philadelphia
+
+Author: Ashbel Woodward
+
+Release Date: November 26, 2007 [EBook #23635]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAMPUM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
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+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<h1><big>WAMPUM,</big></h1>
+
+
+<p class="hd1">A PAPER PRESENTED TO<br />
+
+<big><span class="smcap">The Numismatic and Antiquarian Society</span></big><br />
+
+OF PHILADELPHIA.</p>
+
+
+<p class="hd2"><span class="smcap">By</span></p>
+
+<h2><small>ASHBEL WOODWARD, M.D.,</small></h2>
+
+<p class="hd3">OF FRANKLIN, CONN.,</p>
+
+<p class="hd2"><b>CORRESPONDING MEMBER.</b></p>
+
+
+<p class="hd4">ALBANY, N. Y.:<br />
+J. MUNSELL, PRINTER.<br />
+1878.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="hd5">Entered according to act of Congress in the year 1878,<br />
+by ASHBEL WOODWARD,<br />
+in the Library of Congress.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p>At a Stated Meeting of the Numismatic and Antiquarian
+Society of Philadelphia, held January 2, 1868, the following
+resolutions were unanimously adopted:</p>
+
+<p><i>Resolved</i>, That the thanks of this Society are due and are
+hereby tendered to Ashbel Woodward, M.D., of Franklin,
+Conn., for his very able and interesting research upon "Wampum"
+this evening read before the Society.</p>
+
+<p><i>Resolved</i>, That said paper be referred to the Publication Committee.</p>
+
+
+<p class="signing1">Attest,</p>
+<p class="signing2"><span class="smcap">Henry Phillips, Jr.</span>,<br />
+<i>Corresponding Secretary.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>NOTE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The following pages constitute an Essay read
+before the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society
+of Philadelphia in January 1868. It was intended
+for publication in the second volume of
+the Transactions of the Society, but as the appearance
+of this volume has been unexpectedly
+delayed, it has been thought best to allow the
+Essay to appear separately.</p>
+
+<p><i>Franklin, Conn.</i>, January, 1878.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+<h2><b>WAMPUM.</b></h2>
+
+
+<p>When Columbus, on his second voyage to the
+New World, landed upon Cape Cabron, Cuba,
+the cacique of the adjacent country meeting him
+upon the shore offered him a string of beads made
+of the hard parts of shells as an assurance of welcome.
+Similar gifts were often made to the
+great discoverer, whenever the natives sought to
+win his favor or wished to assure him of their
+own good will. These shell beads were afterwards
+found to be in general use among the
+tribes of the Atlantic coast. At the close of the
+sixteenth century the English colonists found
+them in Virginia, as did the Dutch at the commencement
+of the following century in New
+York, the English in New England and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+French in Canada. The pre-historic inhabitants
+of the Mississippi valley were also evidently
+acquainted with their manufacture, as remains of
+shell beads have been found in many of the
+mounds which survive as the only memorials of
+that mysterious people.</p>
+
+<p>These Indian beads were known under a
+variety of names among the early colonists, and
+were called, <i>wampum</i>, <i>wampom-peage</i>, or <i>wampeage</i>,
+frequently <i>peage</i> or <i>peake</i> only, and in some localities
+<i>sewan</i> or <i>zewand</i>. But generally sewan prevailed
+among the Dutch, and wampum among
+the English. These names were applied without
+distinction to all varieties of beads. This confusion
+arose naturally enough from the scanty
+acquaintance of the whites with the Indian language.
+The word wampum [wompam],<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+has since become a general term, was restricted
+by the Indians to the white beads. It was derived
+from <i>wompi</i>, "white." The other or dark beads
+were called <i>suck&aacute;uhock</i>, a name compounded of
+<i>s&uacute;cki</i>, "dark colored," and <i>hock</i>, "shell." The
+name <i>Mowhakes</i>, compounded of <i>mowi</i>, "black,"
+and <i>hock</i>, "shell," was also sometimes applied to
+the dark beads. It thus appears that the Indians
+divided their beads into two general classes, the
+<i>wompam</i>, or white beads, and <i>suck&aacute;uhock</i>, or dark
+beads. Both white and black consisted of highly
+polished, testaceous cylinders, about one-eighth of
+an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch long,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+drilled length-wise and strung upon fibres of hemp
+or the tendons of wild beasts. <i>Suck&aacute;uhock</i> was
+made from the stem of the <i>Venus mercenaria</i>,
+or common round clam, popularly known as the
+quauhaug; <i>wampum</i> from the column and inner
+whorls of the <i>Pyrula carica</i> and <i>Pyrula caniculata</i><a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+[Lam.], species known as Winkles or Periwinkles
+among fishermen, and the largest convoluted shells<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+of our New England coast.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> These shells were
+found in great abundance along the sea shore,
+lying either upon the mud, or just beneath the
+surface, and were wrought in the following
+manner. The desirable portions of the shells
+were first broken out into small pieces of the form
+of a parallelopiped; these were then drilled and
+afterwards ground and polished. Possessing no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+better tools, the Indians made shift to bore them
+with stone drills,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> implements which hardly correspond
+with the delicacy and exactness exhibited
+by the specimens of original wampum that have
+come down to us. The process of polishing and
+shaping was equally painful and laborious, for
+rubbing with the hand over a smooth stony
+surface, was the only method which the rudeness
+of the Aborigines could devise. Yet the finished
+beads, whether attached in thick masses to garments,
+or strung in long flexible rows, were very
+comely and without a trace of the tawdriness,
+which is so characteristic of uncivilized peoples.
+The suck&aacute;uhock with its varying shades of purple<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+was particularly beautiful. Its value was double
+that of the white and the darker its color, the
+more highly it was prized. But the laborious
+method of production imparted no trivial value
+to both varieties.</p>
+
+<p>It seems almost incredible that the Indian
+could produce so clever an article with his rude
+implements. Some have conjectured that the
+specimens produced before the natives obtained
+awl blades from the colonists were very inferior
+to their later productions. One writer<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> even
+goes so far as to suggest, that, before the advent
+of Europeans, Indian beads consisted mostly of
+small pieces of wood, stained white or black. The
+fact is, however, that the manufacture of wampum
+dates back at least to the time of the mound
+builders, for quantities of beads similar in form
+to the more modern article, and proved by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+chemical tests and structural peculiarities to be
+similar in material, have been exhumed from the
+ancient mounds of the west.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>Other species besides the wampum and suck&aacute;uhock
+crept into local use among the different
+tribes. The Iroquois in their civil and religious
+ceremonies employed a variety named <i>otek&oacute;a</i>, and
+made from spiral fresh water shells of the genus
+<i>unio</i>. This as may be inferred from its uses was
+held in the highest esteem, and no other could be
+employed in the different stages of the ceremonial.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
+In New England and perhaps elsewhere,
+an inferior kind made evidently from shells too
+small and thin to be wrought into the cylindrical
+beads, circulated to a limited extent. The separate
+pieces were round and flat, about an eighth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+of an inch broad and a sixteenth of an inch
+thick, white and black were strung alternately,
+but the strings, though arranged with considerable
+nicety, lacked wholly the finish and flexibility
+of the regular article. In Virginia <i>roenoke</i> was
+current. This consisted of small rough fragments
+of cockle shells, which were drilled and
+strung. The last two varieties were only used to
+a limited extent, even in the region of their
+manufacture. Here, as elsewhere, the cylindrical
+wampum was the standard, and the dearest to the
+Indian of all his treasures. Indeed such was the
+value set upon it, that attempts were often made
+to counterfeit it, an unallowed shell being fraudulently
+used in the manufacture of the white,
+while the black was imitated from a kind of
+stone. Yet the habitual caution and keenness of
+the Indian made it difficult to palm off the spurious
+article upon him.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+<p>As wampum was made from marine shells,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> it
+was naturally manufactured by the sea shore
+tribes, and in localities determined by the abundance
+of raw material. Here the shells were
+stored up in some convenient spot during summer,
+to be worked out in winter when the rigors
+of the season should deter the men from their
+ordinary out door pursuits.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Probably but little
+was produced north of the Narragansetts [Rhode
+Island], as the necessary shells were scarce beyond
+Cape Cod. The Narragansetts were themselves
+great producers, and tradition claimed for their
+tribe the honor of the invention of wampum.
+But the Long Island Indians were by far the
+greatest producers along our northern coast. Their
+sandy flats and marshes teemed with sea life, and,
+when the Dutch first came to New Amsterdam,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+their island went by the name of <i>sewan hacky</i>, or
+the "land of the sewan shell," so numerous were
+the sewan manufactories upon it. Without doubt
+production was stimulated beyond its natural limits
+by the demand from powerful tribes from the
+main land, who found it easier to exact wampum
+as tribute from their weak neighbors, than personally
+to engage in its laborious coinage. Hazard,
+in his collection of state papers, states, that the
+Narragansetts frequently compelled large tributes
+in wampum from the Long Island Indians. The
+Pequots also for many years prior to 1637, exacted
+large annual contributions from the same
+tribes while they were still further subject to the
+levies of the imperious Mohawks. Thus the
+mint of wealth at their very doors became to its
+possessors the source of untold misery. Constant
+fear kept them toiling at the mines, while the
+scanty proceeds of their labor only quickened the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+greed of their savage masters. The number and
+extent of the sewan manufactories upon Long
+Island may be inferred from the frequent and
+immense shell heaps left by the Indians in all of
+which scarcely a whole shell is to be found.
+Occasionally the whole shells were carried over
+to the main land and there wrought. From
+Sewan-Hacky down the Atlantic coast and along
+the gulf, the shaded covers and quiet banks were
+doubtless dotted with wampum manufactories,
+for there was a great demand constantly to be
+met.</p>
+
+<p>The inland tribes were of course unable to produce
+their own wampum, and depended for their
+supply upon the coast tribes. A brisk trade thus
+arose between the coast and interior. Hides and
+furs were brought down to clothe the denser
+population of the shore, and wampum carried<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+back in exchange.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Often, however, the inland
+tribes were able to pounce down and wring this
+precious material from its carriers in the form of
+tribute.</p>
+
+<p>Wampum is often spoken of as "Indian money."
+This expression if referring to colonial times is
+perfectly proper, but must be received with caution
+in the consideration of ante-colonial days.
+The barbarian, dwelling in independent isolation,
+satisfies the majority of his wants by direct effort
+and not by an interchange of services, nor till
+civilization has considerably advanced can we look
+for any general system of exchanges with the
+mutual dependence and mutual benefits which
+such a system involves. So attractive an article
+as wampum was doubtless eagerly sought in
+barter, and would readily procure for its possessor
+whatever else he might desire. Indeed we know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+that it was the means of an extensive trade between
+the coast and the interior, the inland
+Indians bringing down hides and furs to be exchanged
+for the wampum of the shore. All this,
+however, was in the way of barter, and we cannot
+hence infer that the idea of a medium or money
+crept into the limited circle of the redman's wants
+and satisfactions. His circumstances did not demand
+and would not therefore suggest it. Wampum
+was the gold of the aborigine. But he
+had yet to learn that the value of gold resides not
+alone in its glitter. The ancient Peruvians dwelt
+amid mountains of gold, but the idea of a circulating
+medium never dawned upon them. In
+like manner, the Indian had never learned that
+use of his golden wampum which was the first
+to suggest itself to the white man. He made
+and valued it for other purposes.</p>
+
+<p>A fondness for personal display and decoration<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+are characteristic of uncivilized life, and wampum
+was well adapted to satisfy this weakness of the
+Indian. It was every where used for adornment
+of the person. The humblest proudly wore his
+trifle, while the more favored ones were wont to
+decorate themselves in countless gay and fantastic
+ways. It was oftenest worn about the neck in
+strings of the length of a rosary, the number of
+strings being determined by the means or social
+position of the wearer.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> Bracelets and necklaces
+were other forms in which it was frequently displayed.
+With the females, head-dresses, consisting
+of bands of wampum twined about the
+head and gathering up their abundant tresses,
+were an especial delight. A border of beads
+greatly enhanced the value of any garment, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+outer clothing was usually thus ornamented.
+Indeed the wealthy and powerful wore cloaks, as
+also aprons and caps, thickly studded with wampum
+wrought into various fantastic forms and
+figures. Says that old voyager, John Josselyn,
+"Prince Phillip, a little before I came to England
+[1671], coming to Boston, had on a coat
+and buskins thick set with these beads in pleasant
+wild works." The moccasin was also, as at the
+present day, the recipient of much taste and skill.</p>
+
+<p>More of a luxury and confined mostly to
+sachems and sagamores was the wampum belt,
+alternate white and purple strings attached in rows
+to a deerskin base, and worn as a belt about the
+waist, or thrown over the shoulders like a scarf.
+Ordinary belts consisted of twelve rows of one
+hundred and eighty beads each, but they increased
+in length and breadth with the social importance
+of the wearer. As many as ten thousand beads are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+known to have been wrought into a single war
+belt four inches wide. The regular alternation
+of white and purple rows was not always adopted,
+but birds and beasts and such other rustic fantasies
+as suited the owner's taste, were often interwoven
+with the different colors. One of King Philip's
+belts surrendered by the Sagamore Annawon to
+Capt. Church, was nine inches wide, of sufficient
+length when placed about Capt. Church's
+shoulders to reach to his ancles, and curiously
+inwrought with figures of birds, beasts and flowers.
+From another belt of no less exquisite workmanship
+and designed to be worn about the head,
+two flags fell in graceful folds upon the shoulders.
+A third and smaller one had a star embroidered
+upon its end, and was to be worn upon the breast.
+The haughty old chief was wont to adorn his
+person with these insignia when he sat in state
+among his subjects. They symbolized, by striking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+emblems, his might and prowess, and kindled in
+beholders feelings and emotions that royal pomp
+and purple could not awake. The idea of gaudiness
+is apt to associate itself in our minds with
+Indian trappings, but we must confess that the
+simple grace and force of these rustic adornments
+would put to shame many a glittering article of
+more modern wear.</p>
+
+<p>But wampum strings and belts subserved other
+equally important uses. They were among the
+Indian race the universal bonds of nations and
+individuals, the inviolable and sacred pledges of
+word and deed. No promise was binding unless
+confirmed by gifts of wampum. The young
+warrior declared his passion for his Indian maid,
+by presenting wampum chains and belts, and her
+acceptance of the proffered present sealed the
+marriage compact.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Like tokens accompanied<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+every weighty message, and little reliance was put
+upon the messenger who brought not with him
+such assurances of good faith.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> They cemented
+friendships, confirmed alliances, sealed treaties, and
+effectually effaced the memory of injuries.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> A
+curious ceremonial had grown up in their presentation
+on state occasions. When ambassadors
+set out for another nation, they bore before them
+the calumet, or pipe of peace, in evidence of their
+pacific purpose and to secure protection for their
+journey, and also belts of wampum to be submitted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+in confirmation of their proposals, or, if
+their people had been worsted in battle to atone
+for injuries and purchase peace. In the great
+council assembled to receive them, the orator of
+the embassy rose and unfolded the object of their
+visit, corroborating each important statement and
+proposal at its close by laying down wampum
+belts. If his words were pleasing, and the presents
+taken from the ground in evidence thereof,
+similar presents were given in return, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+contract sealed with the smoking of the calumet
+and the burial of the hatchet in the midst. Among
+the Six Nations, whenever the council failed to
+adjust the difficulty or when for any other reason
+peace was to be interrupted, war was proclaimed
+by striking a tomahawk painted red and ornamented
+with black wampum, into the war post
+in each village of the league.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>To illustrate what we have said, we subjoin
+the following account of an interview between
+Sir William Johnson, the noted Indian agent and
+the Six Nations, among whom this ceremony
+survived even after their decline. "At a meeting
+of the Six Nations and their allies at Fort Johnson,
+Feb. 18, 1756, Sir William Johnson said:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Brethren of the Six Nations</i>,</p>
+
+<p class="p1">I have heard with great concern that a war
+party of the Senecas, the most remote nation of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+the confederacy, have had a considerable misunderstanding
+with their brethren the English to
+the southward, which has been fatal to some of
+that nation. I am extremely unable to express
+my sorrow for that unhappy affair, and as the
+hatchet remains fixed in your heads, I do with
+the greatest tenderness and affection remove it
+thence.</p>
+
+<p class="rgt">A belt.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Brethren</i>,</p>
+
+<p class="p1">With this belt I cleanse and purify the beds of
+those who fell in that unfortunate affair from the
+defilement they have contracted.</p>
+
+<p class="rgt">A belt.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Brethren</i>,</p>
+
+<p class="p1">I am informed that on that occasion you lost
+three of your powerful warriors. I do with this
+belt cover their dead bodies that they may not
+offend our sight any more and bury the whole
+affair in oblivion.</p>
+
+<p class="rgt">A belt.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Answer of the Six Nations and their Allies.</span></h3>
+
+<p><i>Brother Warraghiyagey</i>,</p>
+
+<p class="p1">We the sachems and warriors of the Seneca
+nation return to you our sincere thanks for your
+great affection in drying our tears and driving
+sorrow from our hearts, and we in return perform
+the same ceremony to you with the like hearty
+affection.</p>
+
+<p class="rgt">A string of wampum.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Brother Warraghiyagey</i>,</p>
+
+<p class="p1">We are sensible of your goodness expressed to
+us in removing the cause of our grief and tenderly
+taking the axe out of our heads.</p>
+
+<p class="rgt">A belt.</p>
+
+<p>After several more speeches and presentations
+by the Senecas, the other nations in turn presented
+belts. In 1748, the general had given them a
+large belt upon which was an emblem of the Six
+Nations joined hand in hand with the English.
+This the speaker then took and said:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p><i>Brother Warraghiyagey</i>,</p>
+
+<p class="p1">Look with all attention on this belt and remember
+the solemn and mutual engagements
+we entered into when you first took upon you
+the management of our affairs. Be assured we
+look upon them as sound and shall on our part
+punctually perform them as long as we remain a
+people.</p>
+
+<p class="rgt">A prodigious large belt.</p>
+
+<p>Taking up another large belt formerly given
+them by the governor of New York, he said:</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Brother Warraghiyagey</i>,</p>
+
+<p class="p1">We hope our brethren, the English, will
+seriously remember the promises made us by this
+belt and exactly perform them, and we promise
+to do the same though we have no record but
+our memories.</p>
+
+<p class="rgt">A very large belt."<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+<p>The belts received at treaties, councils and other
+assemblies were entrusted for presentation to the
+care of one individual, usually the sachem, who
+was expected to keep in mind the occasion and
+purport of each, which he could readily do by
+the aid of the devices emblematic of the event it
+signalized that were traced upon each.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Thus a
+belt presented to Sir Wm. Johnson by the Six
+Nations, had wrought upon it the sun, the emblem
+of light, and symbols of the Six Nations. It
+signified that their minds were now illumined by
+the clear bright light of truth and their intention
+to abide in the light.<a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> In a belt presented at
+Easton, His Majesty King George was figured
+taking hold of the king of the Six Nations with
+one hand, and the king of the Delawares with
+the other. A belt presented by the Indians of
+Eastern Maine as a pledge of their friendship and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+fidelity to the United States and the king of
+France was explained as follows: The belt was
+thirteen rows wide to represent the United States,
+and had upon it a cross indicating France, and
+several white figures denoting the different Indian
+villages.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> The Indian like other young languages
+drew closer to nature than the dusty abstractions
+of civilization. It was highly figurative and the
+majority of its words referred directly to familiar
+external sights. The tribes of each nation of the
+Iroquois were known respectively as the Wolf,
+Bear, Beaver, Turtle, Deer, Snipe, Heron and
+Hawk. The significant names of chiefs are
+known to all, and whoever is familiar with Indian
+oratory will readily recollect its garb of bold and
+striking metaphors. These features, while imparting
+energy to the language, at the same time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+made it easy to convey its meaning by picture
+writing or symbolism, the only mode of writing
+which the aborigine possessed.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> Thus, too, it
+was easy to put upon a belt a few significant
+characters which by the principle of mental association
+should clearly depict the salient features
+of an event or of a series of events. Such belts
+carefully preserved served as the annals of a nation.
+They were the only authentic history of the past,
+recalling the treaties, councils, triumphs and
+domestic celebrations of former generations. At
+stated times their custodian, the sachem, was
+accustomed to gather the younger warriors about
+him, and unfolding to them the secrets locked up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+in these mysterious records, instruct them in the
+history and engagements of their tribe. The old
+soldier's breast glowed with honest pride, as he
+recounted to his young braves the exploits of their
+sires, or exhibited the proud tokens of submission
+forced from some ancient enemy, and most of all
+when he came to dwell upon scenes conspicuous
+for his own valor and reddened by his blood.
+And as the impetuous youths drank in the glorious
+story of their father's might and valor on the war
+path, there sprang up within them a patriotism
+"that grew by what it fed on." In the extensive
+confederation of the Iroquois, Hono Wenato, an
+Onondaga sachem, was the hereditary keeper of
+the wampum. Whenever the grand council met
+to fill a vacancy in the sachemship of a tribe of
+any nation, it was his duty publicly to repeat to
+the new sachem their ancient laws and usages, and
+to unfold to him the structure and principles of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+the league, as recorded in the belts committed
+to his charge.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>Wampum played an important part in religious
+as well as civil ceremonies. On occasions of
+great public calamities, it formed the most acceptable
+sacrifice that could be offered to the terrible
+Hobbamocko, the author of evil, and it entered
+largely into the mystic rites of all those weird
+assemblies that gathered under the shades of the
+forest. When evil threatened or its farther progress
+was to be stayed, as also after great triumphs
+and abundant harvests, the Indians gathered
+from far and near to celebrate their mysteries.
+They danced for days, painted and clad in hideous
+guise, about a great fire, the throne of the divinity,
+and with wild and frantic yells cast from time to
+time into the flames furs and weapons, and that
+choicest of their treasures the costly wampum.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+Nay it was even whispered in the early time, that
+little children gaily adorned with wampum were
+led into the midst and thrust into the fiery
+embrace of the hissing god.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> The practice of the
+Iroquois was less fearful, among whom a string
+of white wampum was hung around the neck of
+a white dog suspended to a pole and offered as a
+sacrifice to the mighty Haweuneyn. The wampum
+was a pledge of their sincerity, and white an
+emblem of purity and of faith. In the same
+nation, previous to "giving thanks to the Maple,"
+and their other stated festivals, the people assembled
+for the mutual confession of their sins. "The
+meeting was opened by one of the 'keepers of the
+faith,' with an address upon the propriety and
+importance of acknowledging their evil deeds to
+strengthen their minds against future temptations.
+He then took a string of white wampum in his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+hand, and set the example by a confession of his
+own faults, after which he handed the string to
+the one nearest to him, who received it, made his
+confession in like manner, and passed it to another.
+In this way the wampum went around from hand
+to hand, and those who had confessions to make,
+stated wherein they had done wrong, and promised
+to do better in the future. Old and young,
+men, women and even children, all united in this
+public acknowledgment of their faults, and joined
+in the common resolution of amendment. On
+some occasions the string of wampum was placed
+in the centre of the room, and each one advanced
+in turn to perform the duty as the inclination
+seized him. A confession and promise without
+holding the wampum would be of no avail. It
+was the wampum which recorded their words and
+gave their pledge of sincerity. The object of
+the confession was future amendment."<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p><p>Wampum was the tribute paid by the vanquished
+in war, as also the means by which
+threatened wars were often averted. The Long
+Island Indians for many years paid an annual tribute
+to the Pequots, a powerful tribe dwelling in
+Eastern Connecticut.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> It is commonly supposed
+that these tribes were also tributary to the Six
+Nations. To the same great power were subject
+the clans between the Hudson and the Connecticut,
+and every year two aged but haughty Mohawks
+might be seen going from village to village to
+collect the tribute that was their due. It is asserted
+that as late as 1756, a small tribe near Sugar Loaf
+Mountain made an annual payment to this nation
+of &pound;20 in wampum. Individual as well as national
+obligations were similarly satisfied. Like the
+early German, the Indian set a marketable value
+on human life, and a suitable present of wampum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+on the part of the murderer, if accepted, freed
+him from the vengeance of the dead man's friends,
+for the wampum belt washed away all traces of
+the bloody stain.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> Perhaps desire for another's
+wampum sometimes prompted him to such foul
+deeds, as it did the white man,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> though happily
+the Indian seldom stooped to theft.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in the rude civilization of the aborigine
+wampum filled a space accorded to no one article
+in our own. Through life it faithfully met all
+his varied wants, and when he came to die, his
+friends placed it about his dead body,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> that it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+might befriend him on his journey to the spirit
+land, and on his arrival there gain for him admission
+to the realms of the god Kiehtan, the
+abode of the blessed.</p>
+
+<p>The shrewd commercial instinct of the Dutch
+colonists was quick to profit by wampum in their
+dealings with the aborigines. Happily its most
+extensive producers dwelt at their very doors.
+They obtained from the Long Island tribes in
+return for knives, scissors, hatchets and the like,
+great quantities of this novel coinage, and then
+exchanged it with the Indians of the mainland
+for hides and furs, often plunging far into the
+interior and drawing thence products which gold
+could never have won from their possessors. Did
+common trifles fail, wampum was the unfailing
+reserve whose charms the savage was powerless to
+resist. With such an adjutant trade became
+doubly flourishing and lucrative. Posts sprang up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+along the Hudson, in the valley of the Connecticut
+and as far south as the Schuylkill, through all of
+which ceaseless revenues poured into the coffers
+of the Dutch West India Company. Connecticut,
+alone, annually furnished to her traders ten thousand
+beaver skins.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> In all this traffic wampum
+played a leading part, so much so in fact that fur
+trade and wampum trade became synonymous
+terms.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the close of September, 1627, Isaac
+de Rasieres was dispatched from New Amsterdam
+on an embassy to the English colony at New
+Plymouth. Being of a trading turn, he carried
+with him in his vessel among other merchandise
+about &pound;50 in wampum which he managed to
+dispose of there.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> Wampum was as yet comparatively
+unknown in Massachusetts Bay, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+the colonists were ignorant of its uses. This purchase
+made with great reluctance, they sent to
+their trading house at Kennebeck, where "when
+the inland Indians came to know it, they could
+scarce procure enough for many years together."
+Everywhere in New England, as in the Dutch
+provinces, wampum soon became a leading article
+in the Indian trade, and added greatly to its profits.
+Seven years after its introduction to Kennebeck,
+Mr. Winslow carried thence into England about
+twenty hogsheads of beaver, "the greater part
+whereof was traded for wampampeage" during
+the year. By 1636 this trade had grown to such
+proportions in Massachusetts colony that the
+standing colony were authorized to farm it out
+for the increase of the public revenues, and to
+establish the severest penalties for any infringement
+of the privileges thus granted. The traders
+of New England were now ranging the forests in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+all directions and often plunged into them for
+hundreds of miles to the great alarm of the Dutch
+who feared that the English would monopolize
+all the profits of the trade, and that "they should
+be obliged to eat oats out of English hands."<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>
+From the north the French descended in great
+numbers, eager to share in the gains of this traffic,
+and often encroached upon the domains of other
+nations. The solitudes of the wilderness thus resounded
+every where to the tread of the adventurous
+white man, who, lured on by the hope of
+gain, thought not of the dangers that beset his
+path. It doubtless afforded the Indian no little
+satisfaction to welcome the haughty foreigner to
+his wigwam, and while dictating his own terms, to
+receive in payment the honored currency of his
+fathers. When he took his pay, he measured it
+off after his own fashion, the unit being the distance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+from the elbow to the end of the little
+finger. According to one authority it made no
+difference whether a short or tall man measured
+it.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> Adrian Van Tiedhoven, clerk of the court
+at the South river, however tells a different story,
+complaining bitterly "because the Indians always
+take the largest and tallest among them to trade
+with us."</p>
+
+<p>But hides and furs were not the only articles
+which wampum purchased from the natives. It
+was a frequent consideration in early Indian deeds.
+In the records of Windsor, Conn., is preserved a
+deed, which conveys territory lying between the
+Podunk and Scantic rivers, and extending a day's
+march into the country, the price paid for which
+was fifteen fathoms of wampum and twenty cloth
+coats. Most of the present towns of Warwick
+and Coventry in Rhode Island, were purchased of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+Miantinomi, sachem of the Narragansetts, for
+one hundred and forty-four fathoms of wampum.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p>In New England the limits of the trade were
+considerably extended by the quantities of wampum
+tribute which poured into the hands of the colonial
+authorities. Wampum was the commodity
+in which tribute was universally paid, and the
+stern justice of our fathers imposed this with no
+sparing hand upon their weak and erring neighbors.
+In 1634, the Pequots were fined 400
+fathoms of wampum, and two years afterwards
+600 fathoms more.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> After 1637, the Long Island
+Indians paid a large yearly tribute to the united
+commissioners,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> as did also the Block Islanders.
+It is often difficult, as in the present case, to see
+the justice of such exactions. These Indians had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+been guilty of no unfriendly act, and the utmost
+urged in extenuation of the imposition was the
+flimsy pretence that but for an alleged protection
+the same sums would have gone in fealty to their
+red brethren. In 1644, the Narragansetts were
+fined 2000 fathoms, and doomed to pay yearly
+thereafter a fathom for every Pequot man, half
+a fathom for every youth and a hand breadth for
+every child in the tribe. As late as 1658,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> the
+Pequots were fined ten fathoms a man, and one
+of their number imprisoned for offering refuse
+wampum in part payment.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> This tribe had
+suffered so many and severe exactions that they
+were obliged to search in all directions for the
+material out of which to manufacture their
+wampum, and occasionally crossed over to Long
+Island for this purpose. The Montauk sachem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+fearing that his shores would be exhausted of their
+shelly wealth, opposed these visits, until the
+Pequots succeeded in securing the interposition
+of the united commissioners in their behalf.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
+In 1663, the assessment upon this tribe was fixed
+at 80 fathoms. Such are a few of the many instances
+to be found in the records, showing the
+enormous amount of wampum paid as tribute by
+the natives to the early authorities of New England.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch supply was augmented in a different
+manner. They soon found the native manufactories
+inadequate to the demand and erected mints
+of their own, and by introducing steel drills and
+polishing lathes won a great advantage over the
+original wearisome hand processes. The French
+sought a still greater advantage by substituting
+porcelain for shells, but the Indians were not to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+be thus easily imposed upon, and the manufacture
+of earthen money was soon given up.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> It is
+sometimes asserted that the English engaged in
+making wampum, though the statement appeared
+to be without foundation. The Dutch, however,
+produced it in large quantities, and were thereby
+enabled to enlarge the circle of their own posts;
+and also to furnish liberal supplies to the traders,
+north and south, who ranged over the entire
+Atlantic coast from the St. Lawrence to the gulf.
+In Virginia, the Carolinas, and later in Georgia,
+wampum was the chief medium employed in the
+fur trade.</p>
+
+<p>The poverty of the early settlers, added to that
+short sighted and now obsolete policy of Europe
+in the seventeenth century, which jealously
+sought to keep all specie within her borders, produced
+a general dearth of the precious metals in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+the currency of the New World, and all kinds
+of shifts were made to eke out the scanty supply.
+Corn, wheat, oats, peas, poultry and the like
+sufficed to satisfy any obligation. But then, though
+answering well in cases of barter, where two
+mutual desires met, were far too bulky and unwieldy
+for general use. Naturally then recourse
+was had to an article in extensive use among the
+traders, and possessing in a measure the portability
+of gold and silver, and <i>wampum</i> became a
+constituent part of the currency. In one feature
+at least, the old civilization held its own beside
+the new. As early as 1637, wampum was made
+a legal tender in Massachusetts for any sum under
+12<i>d.</i>, at the rate of six beads for a penny.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> The
+same year it became a legal tender in Connecticut<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+for any amount. The general court declaring
+it receivable for taxes "at fousen (4) a penny."<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<p>But coin grew scarcer in Massachusetts and
+shell money increased in value, till in 1640, the
+authorities were compelled to adopt the valuation
+of Connecticut, ordering that the white pass at
+four and the "bleuse" at two a penny, "and not
+above 12<i>d.</i> at a time except the receiver desire
+more."<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> The public needs soon required another
+change, and the legality of shell currency rose to
+&pound;10.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> This novel coinage, thus regulated from
+time to time, answered well for money throughout
+the colonies, till after a while trouble arose
+from an unexpected source. The enormous demand
+at length brought upon the market beads
+of stone or unallowed shells, as also many rough,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+ill-strung specimens of the genuine article. The
+disorder was aggravated, because the Indians, who
+best understood the qualities of their wampum,
+would take only the genuine from the traders,
+while the refuse was thrown back into the circulation
+of the colonies. The commissioners of the
+United Colonies being appealed to for a remedy
+recommended to the separate governments to
+suppress this poor "peage" by law. Accordingly
+in 1648, the general courte of Connecticut
+ordered "that no peage, white or black, be paid or
+received, but what is strung and in some measure
+strung suitably, and not small and great, uncomely
+and disorderly mixt, as formerly it hath beene."<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>
+A similar order was passed in Massachusetts,
+where it was further enacted to prepare this
+Indian money for ready use, that it be "suitably
+strung in eight known parcells, 1<i>d.</i> 3<i>s.</i> 12<i>d.</i> 5<i>s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+in white; 2<i>d.</i> 6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> and 10<i>s.</i> in blacke."<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> Another
+favorite length was the fathom, containing
+360 beads and current at about 10<i>s.</i> Thus during
+these years shell money was current throughout
+New-England, and constituted, doubtless, the
+best and most convenient portion of the currency.
+The government received it for taxes, the farmer
+for his produce, the merchant for his wares, and
+the laborer for his hire. It formed a frequent
+item in the inventories of deceased colonists, being
+often the only cash mentioned. It even found
+its way into the coffers of Harvard college, for
+we read that the lease of the wampum trade in
+Massachusetts was attended with the obligation
+to take from the college the wampum which it
+might have on hand from time to time.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> In the
+forest, likewise, it now circulated as money, for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+the Indian was quick to copy the white man's
+use of his beads.</p>
+
+<p>Toward the middle of the century wampum
+reached its highest value in New-England. Thereafter
+the increasing prosperity of the colonies,
+the domestic coinage of silver, and perhaps the
+too extensive manufacture of the shell money,
+gradually diminishing its value, drove it from circulation.
+In 1650, it was refused in payment of
+country rates in Massachusetts.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> This action of
+the government naturally created distrust among
+the people, to counteract which it was ordered
+that "peage" should still "remagne pawable from
+man to man, according to the law in force."
+Close upon this followed another decree, limiting
+it as a legal tender to 40 shillings.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> These laws
+continued in force till 1661, when wampum was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+declared to be no longer a legal tender in Massachusetts.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>
+Rhode Island passed a similar decree
+the next year<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> and Connecticut, probably, soon
+afterwards. But though wampum now ceased to
+be legally current, it lingered among the people
+for years and constituted in great part the small
+change of the community. As late as 1704, it
+was a common mode of payment in country places.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p>Shell money was used extensively and for a long
+time in the Dutch colonies. Here for a while
+absolutely no coin was in circulation, and wampum
+being the feasible substitute was universally adopted.
+So great was the popular demand, that even the
+unstrung wampum, prohibited in the eastern
+colonies, passed at but a trifling discount.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> For<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+many years the easy-going government at New
+Amsterdam does not seem to have regulated the
+currency by law, as did its more thorough neighbors,
+and the amount of wampum requisite to
+make a stiver, was left to be determined by the
+parties concerned. Such a course was fraught
+with inconvenience to the public, and frequent
+petitions were made for the establishment of some
+uniform rate.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<p>The rate, however, which obtained by common
+consent, was four of the strung and six of the
+loose beads for a stiver.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> But in 1641, there
+came from foreign parts an inundation of "nasty,
+rough" sewan, which drove the better sort out
+of circulation, "nay," so runs the record, "threatened
+the ruin of the country," and legislation was
+imperatively demanded. This inferior article was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>
+therefore condemned to pass five for a stiver during
+the following month, and afterwards six, at
+which rate the loose, unstringed wampum, which
+served the community as change, subsequently
+circulated.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> The importance of wampum during
+these years is well illustrated by the fact that the
+opulent West India Company in 1664, sought
+to negotiate a loan of five or six thousand guilders
+in it, wherewith to pay the laboring people, the
+obligation to be satisfied with <i>good negroes</i> or other
+goods.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> The Dutch succumbed to superior force,
+but wampum still held its own. It continued to
+be the chief currency not only in New York, but
+in the many settlements to the west and south,
+which were then under the control of the authorities
+at New York. In 1672, the inhabitants of
+Hoanskill and New Castle on the Delaware,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+having been plundered by Dutch privateers were
+permitted by the government at New York to
+lay an impost of four guilders, in wampum, upon
+each anker of strong rum imported or sold there.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a>
+A guilder, which was about six pence currency
+or four pence sterling, consisted of twenty stivers,
+and eight beads were reckoned equal to one stiver.
+As heretofore there was little or no certain coin
+in circulation and wampum passed for current
+payment in all cases. Indeed the country was so
+drained of even this currency by the Indian trade,
+that there was difficulty in obtaining a sufficiency.
+To remedy this state of affairs, the governor and
+council of New York were in 1673 constrained
+to issue their proclamation which was published
+at Albany, Esopus, Delaware, Long Island and the
+adjacent parts, commanding that "instead of
+eight white and four black (beads), six white and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+three black should pass for a stiver; and three
+times so much the value of silver."<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p>The contributions in the churches were for
+many years made in wampum, and the first church
+on the Jersey shore was built with funds contributed
+in this way from Sabbath to Sabbath. As
+late as 1683, "the schoolmaster in Flatbush was
+paid his salary in wheat, wampum value: He
+was bound to provide a basin of water for the
+purpose of baptism, for which he received from
+the parents or sponsors twelve stivers in wampum."<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>
+Nor ten years later had the money of
+the aborigines become wholly supplanted by gold
+and silver, for we learn that "in 1693, the ferriage
+of each single person from New York to
+Brooklyn was eight stivers in wampum, or a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+silver two-pence."<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> Further than this we are
+unable to trace, though we have good reason to
+believe that it circulated, to a limited extent, for
+some time thereafter.</p>
+
+<p>Thus while the Indian declined in power his
+simple coinage passed from hand to hand, among
+his conquerors, in the haunts where unnumbered
+generations of his ancestors had trafficked it in
+rude barter, or offered it with solemn ceremonial,
+their costliest offering, to their country's gods.
+It was for about a quarter of a century a legal
+tender in New England, while among the Dutch
+it was during half a century often the only circulating
+medium, and among both Dutch and
+English it filled a more or less important part
+in the currency for nearly an entire century.</p>
+
+<p>When at length the increasing wealth of the
+people drove wampum out of common use, it still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+remained an important article in commerce. It
+was manufactured at New York until the commencement
+of the present century to be used in
+traffic with the Indians, for whom it had lost
+none of its charms, and to be carried by our
+whalers into the northern seas.</p>
+
+<p>Treaties and compacts between the different
+tribes and the states, and later the general government,
+continued to be ratified by the interchange
+of wampum belts. The records of the eighteenth
+century abound with instances of this character.
+The last occasion of the kind is believed to have
+been at Prairie du Chien in 1825.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the Indians of the present day wampum
+is unknown. The name still remains, but the
+trifles to which it is applied bear no resemblance
+to the ancient article. The glass beads now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+current as wampum and the original wampum
+are not less unlike, than the squalid Blackfoot of
+our western plains, and the proud and imperious
+Mohawk, beside his native stream.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Trumbull in his notes in the Narragansett Club Reprint
+of Roger Williams's <i>Key</i>, says: "<i>Wom pam</i> was the name of
+the white beads collectively; when strung or wrought in girdles
+they constituted <i>wan&ocirc;m-peg</i> [Roger Williams], the <i>wampon-peage</i>
+of Wood and other early writers."
+</p><p>
+<i>Peage</i> or <i>peake</i> signified simply "strung beads," and <i>wampom-peage</i>
+accordingly signified "strings of white beads."
+</p><p>
+The English were doubtless led to consider <i>wampum</i> a
+generic word, because they heard it oftenest used, <i>wampum</i>
+being much more abundant than <i>suck&aacute;uhock</i>. Their error has
+however long since received the sanction of usage. But as far
+as our own knowledge extends there was no comprehensive
+word for all shell beads in use among the Indians. <i>Sewan</i> had
+perhaps very nearly such a use in certain localities, but the real
+meaning of the word <i>sewan</i> appears from the following note in
+the Narragansett Club Reprint of Roger Williams's <i>Key</i>:&mdash;"<i>Seahwh&oacute;og</i>,
+'they are scattered' [Elliot]. From this word
+the Dutch traders gave the name of <i>sewared</i> or <i>zeewand</i> [the
+participle, <i>seahwh&oacute;un</i>, 'scattered,' 'loose'], to <i>all</i> shell money
+just as the English called all <i>peage</i>, or string beads, by the name
+of the white or <i>wampom</i>."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Sometimes from the <i>Buccinum undulatum</i> [M&ouml;ll], found
+from Nantucket to Labrador, and occasionally perhaps from the
+<i>Natica heros</i> [Say] found from New York to Labrador, and the
+<i>Natica duplicata</i> found from Florida to Massachusetts Bay.
+</p><p>
+In this connection the writer would acknowledge his indebtedness
+to Hon. J. Hammond Trumbull, a gentleman who has
+given much time and talent to the investigation of matters of
+Indian history.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Many writers have asserted that wampum was worked out
+of the inside of the Great Conque shell. This view is evidently
+erroneous, as the Great Conque, <i>Strombus gigas</i> [Linn.], is not
+found on the Atlantic coast, north of Florida and the West
+Indies, except in the fossil state.
+</p><p>
+The assertion that wampum is an Iroquois word, meaning a
+"muscle," is doubtless equally unfounded.
+</p><p>
+Roger Williams [<i>Key</i>, chap. xxiv], who certainly had
+fine opportunities for observation, and our other most trustworthy
+authorities, state that the <i>Suck&aacute;uhock</i> was made from the
+clam shell, and the <i>wampum</i> from the shells of the Periwinkle,
+and such was unquestionably the case.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Roger Williams's <i>Key</i>, chap. xxiv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Gordon, <i>Hist. of Penn.</i>, Appendix F.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> See Schoolcraft's report on the Grove Creek Mound in vol.
+<span class="smcapl">I</span>, of <i>Transactions of the Am. Ethnological Soc.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, p. 120.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The otek&oacute;a of the Iroquois was the only exception of which
+we know.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Roger Williams's <i>Key</i>, chap. xxiv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Roger Williams's <i>Key</i>, chap. xxiv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> For an excellent illustration of the different modes of
+wearing wampum, see the plates in that admirable work,
+<i>Harriot's Virginia</i>, written in 1586, and published in 1590, in
+the first volume of De Bry's <i>Voyages</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Trumbull's <i>Hist. of Connecticut</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, p. 50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> "It is obvious to all who are the least acquainted with
+Indian affairs, that they regard no message or invitation, be it of
+what consequence it will, unless attended or confirmed by strings
+or belts of wampum, which they look upon as we our letters
+or rather bonds."&mdash;<i>Letter of Sir Wm. Johnson</i>, 1753. <i>Doc.
+Hist. of N. Y.</i>, vol. <span class="smcapl">II</span>, p. 624.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> As late as 1720, a belt was brought into Connecticut from
+some place at the south called Towattowan, and circulated very
+generally among the Indians, to the alarm of the colony, "the
+assembly caused some inquiries to be made into the mystery,
+and an Indian, named Tapanranawko, testified that the belt
+was in token that at each place where it was accepted, captive
+Indians would be received and sold. He said that it would be
+sent back to Towattowan, which was a great way to the south,
+and was inhabited by a large tribe of Indians. The assembly
+resolved that the Indians should be directed to send it back
+whence it came, and should be charged not to receive such
+presents in future without giving notice to the magistrates."&mdash;DeForest's
+<i>Hist. of Indians of Conn.</i>, p. 349.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, p. 339.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Documents relating to the <i>Colonial History of New York</i>,
+vol. <span class="smcapl">VII</span>, p. 44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, p. 120.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Eastern Maine and Nova Scotia in the Revolution</i>, Kidder,
+p. 286.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> It is interesting in this connection to notice the manner in
+which the chiefs affixed their names to early deeds. In the
+deed of New Haven given by the Quinnipiacs [see Appendix
+<span class="smcapl">IV</span>, DeForest's Indians of Conn.], may be seen as autographs,
+an arrow, a bow, a drawn bow, a war club, a tobacco pipe, a
+snake, a wolf (apparently), a wild fowl, etc., etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, p. 119.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> President Stiles's <i>Itinerary</i>, unpublished.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, page 188.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Thomson's <i>Long Island</i>, p. 62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> <i>League of the Iroquois</i>, p. 331.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> It is stated in <i>Winthrop's Journal</i> [p. 147 and after], that
+four servants of Plymouth were condemned and hung upon their
+own confession of having murdered an Indian to obtain his
+wampum.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> In the tomb, apparently of a chief, in the Grove Creek
+Mound, 1700 beads were found around the remains of a skeleton,
+and such deposits are frequently found in opening old graves.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Winthrop, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 113.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Bradford's <i>Letters</i>, <i>Mass. Hist. Collections</i>, <span class="smcapl">III</span>, 54.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Doc. Rel. to Colonial History of New York</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 459.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Lawson's <i>History of North Carolina</i>, ed. of 1714, page 315.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Rhode Island <i>Colonial Records</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 130.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Winthrop</i>, pages 147, 149 and 192.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Thompson's <i>Long Island</i>, page 62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> <i>Hazard</i>, <span class="smcapl">II</span>, page 413.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Hazard</i>, <span class="smcapl">III</span>, page 44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Hazard</i>, <span class="smcapl">II</span>, pages 387 and 388.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Thompson's <i>Long Island</i>, page 60.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <i>Records of Mass.</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 238. Where only one rate is mentioned,
+as here, we are probably to understand the white, and deduct
+one-half for the black or blue.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> <i>Colonial Records of Conn.</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 12.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> <i>Records of Mass.</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, p. 302.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 329.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <i>Col. Records of Conn.</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 179.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>Records of Mass.</i>, <span class="smcapl">II</span>, 261.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> <i>Records of Mass.</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 323.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> <i>Records of Mass.</i>, <span class="smcapl">II</span>, 279.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, <span class="smcapl">IV</span>, p. 36.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> <i>Records of Mass.</i>, <span class="smcapl">IV</span>, part 2, pages 4, 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> <i>R. Island Colonial Records</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, page 474.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Madam Knight's <i>Journal</i>, written in 1704, page 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> <i>Doc. Relating to the Colonial Hist. of New York</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 474.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 336.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 425.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> O'Callaghan's <i>New Netherland</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 230.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> <i>Doc. Col. Hist. of New York</i>, <span class="smcapl">II</span>, p. 371.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Proud's <i>Hist. of Pennsylvania</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, page 133.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Hazzard's <i>Annals of Pennsylvania</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> O'Callaghan's <i>New Netherland</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, 61.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> O'Callaghan's <i>New Netherland</i>, <span class="smcapl">I</span>, <i>ibid.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Schoolcraft's <i>Notes on the Iroquois</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="trans1"><p class="trnhd">Transcriber's Note</p>
+
+<p>Archaic spellings have been retained.
+Abbreviations have been normalised.
+Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst more significant amendments
+are listed below:</p>
+
+<ul><li><a href="#Page_10">P. 10</a>, "Pyrula canicalata" to <i>Pyrula caniculata</i>.</li></ul>
+
+<ul><li><a href="#Footnote_3_3">P. 11n</a>, "Great Congue" to <i>Great Conque</i>, could be amended to <i>Great Conch</i>
+however the former seems more in keeping with the original intent.</li></ul>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wampum, by Ashbel Woodward
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@@ -0,0 +1,1376 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wampum, by Ashbel Woodward
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wampum
+       A Paper Presented to the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society
+       of Philadelphia
+
+Author: Ashbel Woodward
+
+Release Date: November 26, 2007 [EBook #23635]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAMPUM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Stephen Blundell and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                 WAMPUM,
+
+          A PAPER PRESENTED TO
+
+ THE NUMISMATIC AND ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY
+
+            OF PHILADELPHIA.
+
+
+                   BY
+
+         ASHBEL WOODWARD, M.D.,
+
+           OF FRANKLIN, CONN.,
+
+          CORRESPONDING MEMBER.
+
+
+             ALBANY, N. Y.:
+          J. MUNSELL, PRINTER.
+                  1878.
+
+
+
+
+ Entered according to act of Congress in the year 1878,
+ by ASHBEL WOODWARD,
+ in the Library of Congress.
+
+
+
+
+At a Stated Meeting of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of
+Philadelphia, held January 2, 1868, the following resolutions were
+unanimously adopted:
+
+_Resolved_, That the thanks of this Society are due and are hereby
+tendered to Ashbel Woodward, M.D., of Franklin, Conn., for his very able
+and interesting research upon "Wampum" this evening read before the
+Society.
+
+_Resolved_, That said paper be referred to the Publication Committee.
+
+                                Attest,
+                                          HENRY PHILLIPS, JR.,
+                                            _Corresponding Secretary._
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+
+The following pages constitute an Essay read before the Numismatic and
+Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia in January 1868. It was intended for
+publication in the second volume of the Transactions of the Society, but
+as the appearance of this volume has been unexpectedly delayed, it has
+been thought best to allow the Essay to appear separately.
+
+_Franklin, Conn._, January, 1878.
+
+
+
+
+WAMPUM.
+
+
+When Columbus, on his second voyage to the New World, landed upon Cape
+Cabron, Cuba, the cacique of the adjacent country meeting him upon the
+shore offered him a string of beads made of the hard parts of shells as
+an assurance of welcome. Similar gifts were often made to the great
+discoverer, whenever the natives sought to win his favor or wished to
+assure him of their own good will. These shell beads were afterwards
+found to be in general use among the tribes of the Atlantic coast. At
+the close of the sixteenth century the English colonists found them in
+Virginia, as did the Dutch at the commencement of the following century
+in New York, the English in New England and the French in Canada. The
+pre-historic inhabitants of the Mississippi valley were also evidently
+acquainted with their manufacture, as remains of shell beads have been
+found in many of the mounds which survive as the only memorials of that
+mysterious people.
+
+These Indian beads were known under a variety of names among the early
+colonists, and were called, _wampum_, _wampom-peage_, or _wampeage_,
+frequently _peage_ or _peake_ only, and in some localities _sewan_ or
+_zewand_. But generally sewan prevailed among the Dutch, and wampum
+among the English. These names were applied without distinction to all
+varieties of beads. This confusion arose naturally enough from the
+scanty acquaintance of the whites with the Indian language. The word
+wampum [wompam],[1] which has since become a general term, was
+restricted by the Indians to the white beads. It was derived from
+_wompi_, "white." The other or dark beads were called _suckauhock_, a
+name compounded of _sucki_, "dark colored," and _hock_, "shell." The
+name _Mowhakes_, compounded of _mowi_, "black," and _hock_, "shell," was
+also sometimes applied to the dark beads. It thus appears that the
+Indians divided their beads into two general classes, the _wompam_, or
+white beads, and _suckauhock_, or dark beads. Both white and black
+consisted of highly polished, testaceous cylinders, about one-eighth of
+an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch long, drilled length-wise
+and strung upon fibres of hemp or the tendons of wild beasts.
+_Suckauhock_ was made from the stem of the _Venus mercenaria_, or common
+round clam, popularly known as the quauhaug; _wampum_ from the column
+and inner whorls of the _Pyrula carica_ and _Pyrula caniculata_[2]
+[Lam.], species known as Winkles or Periwinkles among fishermen, and the
+largest convoluted shells of our New England coast.[3] These shells
+were found in great abundance along the sea shore, lying either upon the
+mud, or just beneath the surface, and were wrought in the following
+manner. The desirable portions of the shells were first broken out into
+small pieces of the form of a parallelopiped; these were then drilled
+and afterwards ground and polished. Possessing no better tools, the
+Indians made shift to bore them with stone drills,[4] implements which
+hardly correspond with the delicacy and exactness exhibited by the
+specimens of original wampum that have come down to us. The process of
+polishing and shaping was equally painful and laborious, for rubbing
+with the hand over a smooth stony surface, was the only method which the
+rudeness of the Aborigines could devise. Yet the finished beads, whether
+attached in thick masses to garments, or strung in long flexible rows,
+were very comely and without a trace of the tawdriness, which is so
+characteristic of uncivilized peoples. The suckauhock with its varying
+shades of purple was particularly beautiful. Its value was double that
+of the white and the darker its color, the more highly it was prized.
+But the laborious method of production imparted no trivial value to both
+varieties.
+
+It seems almost incredible that the Indian could produce so clever an
+article with his rude implements. Some have conjectured that the
+specimens produced before the natives obtained awl blades from the
+colonists were very inferior to their later productions. One writer[5]
+even goes so far as to suggest, that, before the advent of Europeans,
+Indian beads consisted mostly of small pieces of wood, stained white or
+black. The fact is, however, that the manufacture of wampum dates back
+at least to the time of the mound builders, for quantities of beads
+similar in form to the more modern article, and proved by chemical
+tests and structural peculiarities to be similar in material, have been
+exhumed from the ancient mounds of the west.[6]
+
+Other species besides the wampum and suckauhock crept into local use
+among the different tribes. The Iroquois in their civil and religious
+ceremonies employed a variety named _otekoa_, and made from spiral fresh
+water shells of the genus _unio_. This as may be inferred from its uses
+was held in the highest esteem, and no other could be employed in the
+different stages of the ceremonial.[7] In New England and perhaps
+elsewhere, an inferior kind made evidently from shells too small and
+thin to be wrought into the cylindrical beads, circulated to a limited
+extent. The separate pieces were round and flat, about an eighth of an
+inch broad and a sixteenth of an inch thick, white and black were strung
+alternately, but the strings, though arranged with considerable nicety,
+lacked wholly the finish and flexibility of the regular article. In
+Virginia _roenoke_ was current. This consisted of small rough fragments
+of cockle shells, which were drilled and strung. The last two varieties
+were only used to a limited extent, even in the region of their
+manufacture. Here, as elsewhere, the cylindrical wampum was the
+standard, and the dearest to the Indian of all his treasures. Indeed
+such was the value set upon it, that attempts were often made to
+counterfeit it, an unallowed shell being fraudulently used in the
+manufacture of the white, while the black was imitated from a kind of
+stone. Yet the habitual caution and keenness of the Indian made it
+difficult to palm off the spurious article upon him.
+
+As wampum was made from marine shells,[8] it was naturally manufactured
+by the sea shore tribes, and in localities determined by the abundance
+of raw material. Here the shells were stored up in some convenient spot
+during summer, to be worked out in winter when the rigors of the season
+should deter the men from their ordinary out door pursuits.[9] Probably
+but little was produced north of the Narragansetts [Rhode Island], as
+the necessary shells were scarce beyond Cape Cod. The Narragansetts were
+themselves great producers, and tradition claimed for their tribe the
+honor of the invention of wampum. But the Long Island Indians were by
+far the greatest producers along our northern coast. Their sandy flats
+and marshes teemed with sea life, and, when the Dutch first came to New
+Amsterdam, their island went by the name of _sewan hacky_, or the "land
+of the sewan shell," so numerous were the sewan manufactories upon it.
+Without doubt production was stimulated beyond its natural limits by the
+demand from powerful tribes from the main land, who found it easier to
+exact wampum as tribute from their weak neighbors, than personally to
+engage in its laborious coinage. Hazard, in his collection of state
+papers, states, that the Narragansetts frequently compelled large
+tributes in wampum from the Long Island Indians. The Pequots also for
+many years prior to 1637, exacted large annual contributions from the
+same tribes while they were still further subject to the levies of the
+imperious Mohawks. Thus the mint of wealth at their very doors became to
+its possessors the source of untold misery. Constant fear kept them
+toiling at the mines, while the scanty proceeds of their labor only
+quickened the greed of their savage masters. The number and extent of
+the sewan manufactories upon Long Island may be inferred from the
+frequent and immense shell heaps left by the Indians in all of which
+scarcely a whole shell is to be found. Occasionally the whole shells
+were carried over to the main land and there wrought. From Sewan-Hacky
+down the Atlantic coast and along the gulf, the shaded covers and quiet
+banks were doubtless dotted with wampum manufactories, for there was a
+great demand constantly to be met.
+
+The inland tribes were of course unable to produce their own wampum, and
+depended for their supply upon the coast tribes. A brisk trade thus
+arose between the coast and interior. Hides and furs were brought down
+to clothe the denser population of the shore, and wampum carried back
+in exchange.[10] Often, however, the inland tribes were able to pounce
+down and wring this precious material from its carriers in the form of
+tribute.
+
+Wampum is often spoken of as "Indian money." This expression if
+referring to colonial times is perfectly proper, but must be received
+with caution in the consideration of ante-colonial days. The barbarian,
+dwelling in independent isolation, satisfies the majority of his wants
+by direct effort and not by an interchange of services, nor till
+civilization has considerably advanced can we look for any general
+system of exchanges with the mutual dependence and mutual benefits which
+such a system involves. So attractive an article as wampum was doubtless
+eagerly sought in barter, and would readily procure for its possessor
+whatever else he might desire. Indeed we know that it was the means of
+an extensive trade between the coast and the interior, the inland
+Indians bringing down hides and furs to be exchanged for the wampum of
+the shore. All this, however, was in the way of barter, and we cannot
+hence infer that the idea of a medium or money crept into the limited
+circle of the redman's wants and satisfactions. His circumstances did
+not demand and would not therefore suggest it. Wampum was the gold of
+the aborigine. But he had yet to learn that the value of gold resides
+not alone in its glitter. The ancient Peruvians dwelt amid mountains of
+gold, but the idea of a circulating medium never dawned upon them. In
+like manner, the Indian had never learned that use of his golden wampum
+which was the first to suggest itself to the white man. He made and
+valued it for other purposes.
+
+A fondness for personal display and decoration are characteristic of
+uncivilized life, and wampum was well adapted to satisfy this weakness
+of the Indian. It was every where used for adornment of the person. The
+humblest proudly wore his trifle, while the more favored ones were wont
+to decorate themselves in countless gay and fantastic ways. It was
+oftenest worn about the neck in strings of the length of a rosary, the
+number of strings being determined by the means or social position of
+the wearer.[11] Bracelets and necklaces were other forms in which it was
+frequently displayed. With the females, head-dresses, consisting of
+bands of wampum twined about the head and gathering up their abundant
+tresses, were an especial delight. A border of beads greatly enhanced
+the value of any garment, and outer clothing was usually thus
+ornamented. Indeed the wealthy and powerful wore cloaks, as also aprons
+and caps, thickly studded with wampum wrought into various fantastic
+forms and figures. Says that old voyager, John Josselyn, "Prince
+Phillip, a little before I came to England [1671], coming to Boston, had
+on a coat and buskins thick set with these beads in pleasant wild
+works." The moccasin was also, as at the present day, the recipient of
+much taste and skill.
+
+More of a luxury and confined mostly to sachems and sagamores was the
+wampum belt, alternate white and purple strings attached in rows to a
+deerskin base, and worn as a belt about the waist, or thrown over the
+shoulders like a scarf. Ordinary belts consisted of twelve rows of one
+hundred and eighty beads each, but they increased in length and breadth
+with the social importance of the wearer. As many as ten thousand beads
+are known to have been wrought into a single war belt four inches wide.
+The regular alternation of white and purple rows was not always adopted,
+but birds and beasts and such other rustic fantasies as suited the
+owner's taste, were often interwoven with the different colors. One of
+King Philip's belts surrendered by the Sagamore Annawon to Capt. Church,
+was nine inches wide, of sufficient length when placed about Capt.
+Church's shoulders to reach to his ancles, and curiously inwrought with
+figures of birds, beasts and flowers. From another belt of no less
+exquisite workmanship and designed to be worn about the head, two flags
+fell in graceful folds upon the shoulders. A third and smaller one had a
+star embroidered upon its end, and was to be worn upon the breast. The
+haughty old chief was wont to adorn his person with these insignia when
+he sat in state among his subjects. They symbolized, by striking
+emblems, his might and prowess, and kindled in beholders feelings and
+emotions that royal pomp and purple could not awake. The idea of
+gaudiness is apt to associate itself in our minds with Indian trappings,
+but we must confess that the simple grace and force of these rustic
+adornments would put to shame many a glittering article of more modern
+wear.
+
+But wampum strings and belts subserved other equally important uses.
+They were among the Indian race the universal bonds of nations and
+individuals, the inviolable and sacred pledges of word and deed. No
+promise was binding unless confirmed by gifts of wampum. The young
+warrior declared his passion for his Indian maid, by presenting wampum
+chains and belts, and her acceptance of the proffered present sealed the
+marriage compact.[12] Like tokens accompanied every weighty message,
+and little reliance was put upon the messenger who brought not with him
+such assurances of good faith.[13] They cemented friendships, confirmed
+alliances, sealed treaties, and effectually effaced the memory of
+injuries.[14] A curious ceremonial had grown up in their presentation on
+state occasions. When ambassadors set out for another nation, they bore
+before them the calumet, or pipe of peace, in evidence of their pacific
+purpose and to secure protection for their journey, and also belts of
+wampum to be submitted in confirmation of their proposals, or, if their
+people had been worsted in battle to atone for injuries and purchase
+peace. In the great council assembled to receive them, the orator of the
+embassy rose and unfolded the object of their visit, corroborating each
+important statement and proposal at its close by laying down wampum
+belts. If his words were pleasing, and the presents taken from the
+ground in evidence thereof, similar presents were given in return, and
+the contract sealed with the smoking of the calumet and the burial of
+the hatchet in the midst. Among the Six Nations, whenever the council
+failed to adjust the difficulty or when for any other reason peace was
+to be interrupted, war was proclaimed by striking a tomahawk painted red
+and ornamented with black wampum, into the war post in each village of
+the league.[15]
+
+To illustrate what we have said, we subjoin the following account of an
+interview between Sir William Johnson, the noted Indian agent and the
+Six Nations, among whom this ceremony survived even after their decline.
+"At a meeting of the Six Nations and their allies at Fort Johnson, Feb.
+18, 1756, Sir William Johnson said:
+
+
+    _Brethren of the Six Nations_,
+
+    I have heard with great concern that a war party of the Senecas, the
+    most remote nation of the confederacy, have had a considerable
+    misunderstanding with their brethren the English to the southward,
+    which has been fatal to some of that nation. I am extremely unable
+    to express my sorrow for that unhappy affair, and as the hatchet
+    remains fixed in your heads, I do with the greatest tenderness and
+    affection remove it thence.
+
+                                                               A belt.
+
+
+    _Brethren_,
+
+    With this belt I cleanse and purify the beds of those who fell in
+    that unfortunate affair from the defilement they have contracted.
+
+                                                               A belt.
+
+
+    _Brethren_,
+
+    I am informed that on that occasion you lost three of your powerful
+    warriors. I do with this belt cover their dead bodies that they may
+    not offend our sight any more and bury the whole affair in oblivion.
+
+                                                               A belt.
+
+
+    ANSWER OF THE SIX NATIONS AND THEIR ALLIES.
+
+    _Brother Warraghiyagey_,
+
+    We the sachems and warriors of the Seneca nation return to you our
+    sincere thanks for your great affection in drying our tears and
+    driving sorrow from our hearts, and we in return perform the same
+    ceremony to you with the like hearty affection.
+
+                                                   A string of wampum.
+
+
+    _Brother Warraghiyagey_,
+
+    We are sensible of your goodness expressed to us in removing the
+    cause of our grief and tenderly taking the axe out of our heads.
+
+                                                               A belt.
+
+
+    After several more speeches and presentations by the Senecas, the
+    other nations in turn presented belts. In 1748, the general had
+    given them a large belt upon which was an emblem of the Six Nations
+    joined hand in hand with the English. This the speaker then took and
+    said:
+
+
+    _Brother Warraghiyagey_,
+
+    Look with all attention on this belt and remember the solemn and
+    mutual engagements we entered into when you first took upon you the
+    management of our affairs. Be assured we look upon them as sound and
+    shall on our part punctually perform them as long as we remain a
+    people.
+
+                                              A prodigious large belt.
+
+
+    Taking up another large belt formerly given them by the governor of
+    New York, he said:
+
+
+    _Brother Warraghiyagey_,
+
+    We hope our brethren, the English, will seriously remember the
+    promises made us by this belt and exactly perform them, and we
+    promise to do the same though we have no record but our memories.
+
+                                               A very large belt."[16]
+
+
+The belts received at treaties, councils and other assemblies were
+entrusted for presentation to the care of one individual, usually the
+sachem, who was expected to keep in mind the occasion and purport of
+each, which he could readily do by the aid of the devices emblematic of
+the event it signalized that were traced upon each.[17] Thus a belt
+presented to Sir Wm. Johnson by the Six Nations, had wrought upon it the
+sun, the emblem of light, and symbols of the Six Nations. It signified
+that their minds were now illumined by the clear bright light of truth
+and their intention to abide in the light.[17] In a belt presented at
+Easton, His Majesty King George was figured taking hold of the king of
+the Six Nations with one hand, and the king of the Delawares with the
+other. A belt presented by the Indians of Eastern Maine as a pledge of
+their friendship and fidelity to the United States and the king of
+France was explained as follows: The belt was thirteen rows wide to
+represent the United States, and had upon it a cross indicating France,
+and several white figures denoting the different Indian villages.[18]
+The Indian like other young languages drew closer to nature than the
+dusty abstractions of civilization. It was highly figurative and the
+majority of its words referred directly to familiar external sights. The
+tribes of each nation of the Iroquois were known respectively as the
+Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Turtle, Deer, Snipe, Heron and Hawk. The significant
+names of chiefs are known to all, and whoever is familiar with Indian
+oratory will readily recollect its garb of bold and striking metaphors.
+These features, while imparting energy to the language, at the same
+time made it easy to convey its meaning by picture writing or
+symbolism, the only mode of writing which the aborigine possessed.[19]
+Thus, too, it was easy to put upon a belt a few significant characters
+which by the principle of mental association should clearly depict the
+salient features of an event or of a series of events. Such belts
+carefully preserved served as the annals of a nation. They were the only
+authentic history of the past, recalling the treaties, councils,
+triumphs and domestic celebrations of former generations. At stated
+times their custodian, the sachem, was accustomed to gather the younger
+warriors about him, and unfolding to them the secrets locked up in
+these mysterious records, instruct them in the history and engagements
+of their tribe. The old soldier's breast glowed with honest pride, as he
+recounted to his young braves the exploits of their sires, or exhibited
+the proud tokens of submission forced from some ancient enemy, and most
+of all when he came to dwell upon scenes conspicuous for his own valor
+and reddened by his blood. And as the impetuous youths drank in the
+glorious story of their father's might and valor on the war path, there
+sprang up within them a patriotism "that grew by what it fed on." In the
+extensive confederation of the Iroquois, Hono Wenato, an Onondaga
+sachem, was the hereditary keeper of the wampum. Whenever the grand
+council met to fill a vacancy in the sachemship of a tribe of any
+nation, it was his duty publicly to repeat to the new sachem their
+ancient laws and usages, and to unfold to him the structure and
+principles of the league, as recorded in the belts committed to his
+charge.[20]
+
+Wampum played an important part in religious as well as civil
+ceremonies. On occasions of great public calamities, it formed the most
+acceptable sacrifice that could be offered to the terrible Hobbamocko,
+the author of evil, and it entered largely into the mystic rites of all
+those weird assemblies that gathered under the shades of the forest.
+When evil threatened or its farther progress was to be stayed, as also
+after great triumphs and abundant harvests, the Indians gathered from
+far and near to celebrate their mysteries. They danced for days, painted
+and clad in hideous guise, about a great fire, the throne of the
+divinity, and with wild and frantic yells cast from time to time into
+the flames furs and weapons, and that choicest of their treasures the
+costly wampum. Nay it was even whispered in the early time, that little
+children gaily adorned with wampum were led into the midst and thrust
+into the fiery embrace of the hissing god.[21] The practice of the
+Iroquois was less fearful, among whom a string of white wampum was hung
+around the neck of a white dog suspended to a pole and offered as a
+sacrifice to the mighty Haweuneyn. The wampum was a pledge of their
+sincerity, and white an emblem of purity and of faith. In the same
+nation, previous to "giving thanks to the Maple," and their other stated
+festivals, the people assembled for the mutual confession of their sins.
+"The meeting was opened by one of the 'keepers of the faith,' with an
+address upon the propriety and importance of acknowledging their evil
+deeds to strengthen their minds against future temptations. He then took
+a string of white wampum in his hand, and set the example by a
+confession of his own faults, after which he handed the string to the
+one nearest to him, who received it, made his confession in like manner,
+and passed it to another. In this way the wampum went around from hand
+to hand, and those who had confessions to make, stated wherein they had
+done wrong, and promised to do better in the future. Old and young, men,
+women and even children, all united in this public acknowledgment of
+their faults, and joined in the common resolution of amendment. On some
+occasions the string of wampum was placed in the centre of the room, and
+each one advanced in turn to perform the duty as the inclination seized
+him. A confession and promise without holding the wampum would be of no
+avail. It was the wampum which recorded their words and gave their
+pledge of sincerity. The object of the confession was future
+amendment."[22]
+
+Wampum was the tribute paid by the vanquished in war, as also the means
+by which threatened wars were often averted. The Long Island Indians for
+many years paid an annual tribute to the Pequots, a powerful tribe
+dwelling in Eastern Connecticut.[23] It is commonly supposed that these
+tribes were also tributary to the Six Nations. To the same great power
+were subject the clans between the Hudson and the Connecticut, and every
+year two aged but haughty Mohawks might be seen going from village to
+village to collect the tribute that was their due. It is asserted that
+as late as 1756, a small tribe near Sugar Loaf Mountain made an annual
+payment to this nation of L20 in wampum. Individual as well as national
+obligations were similarly satisfied. Like the early German, the Indian
+set a marketable value on human life, and a suitable present of wampum
+on the part of the murderer, if accepted, freed him from the vengeance
+of the dead man's friends, for the wampum belt washed away all traces of
+the bloody stain.[24] Perhaps desire for another's wampum sometimes
+prompted him to such foul deeds, as it did the white man,[25] though
+happily the Indian seldom stooped to theft.
+
+Thus in the rude civilization of the aborigine wampum filled a space
+accorded to no one article in our own. Through life it faithfully met
+all his varied wants, and when he came to die, his friends placed it
+about his dead body,[26] that it might befriend him on his journey to
+the spirit land, and on his arrival there gain for him admission to the
+realms of the god Kiehtan, the abode of the blessed.
+
+The shrewd commercial instinct of the Dutch colonists was quick to
+profit by wampum in their dealings with the aborigines. Happily its most
+extensive producers dwelt at their very doors. They obtained from the
+Long Island tribes in return for knives, scissors, hatchets and the
+like, great quantities of this novel coinage, and then exchanged it with
+the Indians of the mainland for hides and furs, often plunging far into
+the interior and drawing thence products which gold could never have won
+from their possessors. Did common trifles fail, wampum was the unfailing
+reserve whose charms the savage was powerless to resist. With such an
+adjutant trade became doubly flourishing and lucrative. Posts sprang up
+along the Hudson, in the valley of the Connecticut and as far south as
+the Schuylkill, through all of which ceaseless revenues poured into the
+coffers of the Dutch West India Company. Connecticut, alone, annually
+furnished to her traders ten thousand beaver skins.[27] In all this
+traffic wampum played a leading part, so much so in fact that fur trade
+and wampum trade became synonymous terms.
+
+Toward the close of September, 1627, Isaac de Rasieres was dispatched
+from New Amsterdam on an embassy to the English colony at New Plymouth.
+Being of a trading turn, he carried with him in his vessel among other
+merchandise about L50 in wampum which he managed to dispose of
+there.[28] Wampum was as yet comparatively unknown in Massachusetts Bay,
+and the colonists were ignorant of its uses. This purchase made with
+great reluctance, they sent to their trading house at Kennebeck, where
+"when the inland Indians came to know it, they could scarce procure
+enough for many years together." Everywhere in New England, as in the
+Dutch provinces, wampum soon became a leading article in the Indian
+trade, and added greatly to its profits. Seven years after its
+introduction to Kennebeck, Mr. Winslow carried thence into England about
+twenty hogsheads of beaver, "the greater part whereof was traded for
+wampampeage" during the year. By 1636 this trade had grown to such
+proportions in Massachusetts colony that the standing colony were
+authorized to farm it out for the increase of the public revenues, and
+to establish the severest penalties for any infringement of the
+privileges thus granted. The traders of New England were now ranging the
+forests in all directions and often plunged into them for hundreds of
+miles to the great alarm of the Dutch who feared that the English would
+monopolize all the profits of the trade, and that "they should be
+obliged to eat oats out of English hands."[29] From the north the French
+descended in great numbers, eager to share in the gains of this traffic,
+and often encroached upon the domains of other nations. The solitudes of
+the wilderness thus resounded every where to the tread of the
+adventurous white man, who, lured on by the hope of gain, thought not of
+the dangers that beset his path. It doubtless afforded the Indian no
+little satisfaction to welcome the haughty foreigner to his wigwam, and
+while dictating his own terms, to receive in payment the honored
+currency of his fathers. When he took his pay, he measured it off after
+his own fashion, the unit being the distance from the elbow to the end
+of the little finger. According to one authority it made no difference
+whether a short or tall man measured it.[30] Adrian Van Tiedhoven, clerk
+of the court at the South river, however tells a different story,
+complaining bitterly "because the Indians always take the largest and
+tallest among them to trade with us."
+
+But hides and furs were not the only articles which wampum purchased
+from the natives. It was a frequent consideration in early Indian deeds.
+In the records of Windsor, Conn., is preserved a deed, which conveys
+territory lying between the Podunk and Scantic rivers, and extending a
+day's march into the country, the price paid for which was fifteen
+fathoms of wampum and twenty cloth coats. Most of the present towns of
+Warwick and Coventry in Rhode Island, were purchased of Miantinomi,
+sachem of the Narragansetts, for one hundred and forty-four fathoms of
+wampum.[31]
+
+In New England the limits of the trade were considerably extended by the
+quantities of wampum tribute which poured into the hands of the colonial
+authorities. Wampum was the commodity in which tribute was universally
+paid, and the stern justice of our fathers imposed this with no sparing
+hand upon their weak and erring neighbors. In 1634, the Pequots were
+fined 400 fathoms of wampum, and two years afterwards 600 fathoms
+more.[32] After 1637, the Long Island Indians paid a large yearly
+tribute to the united commissioners,[33] as did also the Block
+Islanders. It is often difficult, as in the present case, to see the
+justice of such exactions. These Indians had been guilty of no
+unfriendly act, and the utmost urged in extenuation of the imposition
+was the flimsy pretence that but for an alleged protection the same sums
+would have gone in fealty to their red brethren. In 1644, the
+Narragansetts were fined 2000 fathoms, and doomed to pay yearly
+thereafter a fathom for every Pequot man, half a fathom for every youth
+and a hand breadth for every child in the tribe. As late as 1658,[34]
+the Pequots were fined ten fathoms a man, and one of their number
+imprisoned for offering refuse wampum in part payment.[35] This tribe
+had suffered so many and severe exactions that they were obliged to
+search in all directions for the material out of which to manufacture
+their wampum, and occasionally crossed over to Long Island for this
+purpose. The Montauk sachem fearing that his shores would be exhausted
+of their shelly wealth, opposed these visits, until the Pequots
+succeeded in securing the interposition of the united commissioners in
+their behalf.[36] In 1663, the assessment upon this tribe was fixed at
+80 fathoms. Such are a few of the many instances to be found in the
+records, showing the enormous amount of wampum paid as tribute by the
+natives to the early authorities of New England.
+
+The Dutch supply was augmented in a different manner. They soon found
+the native manufactories inadequate to the demand and erected mints of
+their own, and by introducing steel drills and polishing lathes won a
+great advantage over the original wearisome hand processes. The French
+sought a still greater advantage by substituting porcelain for shells,
+but the Indians were not to be thus easily imposed upon, and the
+manufacture of earthen money was soon given up.[37] It is sometimes
+asserted that the English engaged in making wampum, though the statement
+appeared to be without foundation. The Dutch, however, produced it in
+large quantities, and were thereby enabled to enlarge the circle of
+their own posts; and also to furnish liberal supplies to the traders,
+north and south, who ranged over the entire Atlantic coast from the St.
+Lawrence to the gulf. In Virginia, the Carolinas, and later in Georgia,
+wampum was the chief medium employed in the fur trade.
+
+The poverty of the early settlers, added to that short sighted and now
+obsolete policy of Europe in the seventeenth century, which jealously
+sought to keep all specie within her borders, produced a general dearth
+of the precious metals in the currency of the New World, and all kinds
+of shifts were made to eke out the scanty supply. Corn, wheat, oats,
+peas, poultry and the like sufficed to satisfy any obligation. But then,
+though answering well in cases of barter, where two mutual desires met,
+were far too bulky and unwieldy for general use. Naturally then recourse
+was had to an article in extensive use among the traders, and possessing
+in a measure the portability of gold and silver, and _wampum_ became a
+constituent part of the currency. In one feature at least, the old
+civilization held its own beside the new. As early as 1637, wampum was
+made a legal tender in Massachusetts for any sum under 12_d._, at the
+rate of six beads for a penny.[38] The same year it became a legal
+tender in Connecticut for any amount. The general court declaring it
+receivable for taxes "at fousen (4) a penny."[39]
+
+But coin grew scarcer in Massachusetts and shell money increased in
+value, till in 1640, the authorities were compelled to adopt the
+valuation of Connecticut, ordering that the white pass at four and the
+"bleuse" at two a penny, "and not above 12_d._ at a time except the
+receiver desire more."[40] The public needs soon required another
+change, and the legality of shell currency rose to L10.[41] This novel
+coinage, thus regulated from time to time, answered well for money
+throughout the colonies, till after a while trouble arose from an
+unexpected source. The enormous demand at length brought upon the market
+beads of stone or unallowed shells, as also many rough, ill-strung
+specimens of the genuine article. The disorder was aggravated, because
+the Indians, who best understood the qualities of their wampum, would
+take only the genuine from the traders, while the refuse was thrown back
+into the circulation of the colonies. The commissioners of the United
+Colonies being appealed to for a remedy recommended to the separate
+governments to suppress this poor "peage" by law. Accordingly in 1648,
+the general courte of Connecticut ordered "that no peage, white or
+black, be paid or received, but what is strung and in some measure
+strung suitably, and not small and great, uncomely and disorderly mixt,
+as formerly it hath beene."[42] A similar order was passed in
+Massachusetts, where it was further enacted to prepare this Indian money
+for ready use, that it be "suitably strung in eight known parcells,
+1_d._ 3_s._ 12_d._ 5_s._ in white; 2_d._ 6_s._ 6_d._ and 10_s._ in
+blacke."[43] Another favorite length was the fathom, containing 360
+beads and current at about 10_s._ Thus during these years shell money
+was current throughout New-England, and constituted, doubtless, the best
+and most convenient portion of the currency. The government received it
+for taxes, the farmer for his produce, the merchant for his wares, and
+the laborer for his hire. It formed a frequent item in the inventories
+of deceased colonists, being often the only cash mentioned. It even
+found its way into the coffers of Harvard college, for we read that the
+lease of the wampum trade in Massachusetts was attended with the
+obligation to take from the college the wampum which it might have on
+hand from time to time.[44] In the forest, likewise, it now circulated
+as money, for the Indian was quick to copy the white man's use of his
+beads.
+
+Toward the middle of the century wampum reached its highest value in
+New-England. Thereafter the increasing prosperity of the colonies, the
+domestic coinage of silver, and perhaps the too extensive manufacture of
+the shell money, gradually diminishing its value, drove it from
+circulation. In 1650, it was refused in payment of country rates in
+Massachusetts.[45] This action of the government naturally created
+distrust among the people, to counteract which it was ordered that
+"peage" should still "remagne pawable from man to man, according to the
+law in force." Close upon this followed another decree, limiting it as a
+legal tender to 40 shillings.[46] These laws continued in force till
+1661, when wampum was declared to be no longer a legal tender in
+Massachusetts.[47] Rhode Island passed a similar decree the next
+year[48] and Connecticut, probably, soon afterwards. But though wampum
+now ceased to be legally current, it lingered among the people for years
+and constituted in great part the small change of the community. As late
+as 1704, it was a common mode of payment in country places.[49]
+
+Shell money was used extensively and for a long time in the Dutch
+colonies. Here for a while absolutely no coin was in circulation, and
+wampum being the feasible substitute was universally adopted. So great
+was the popular demand, that even the unstrung wampum, prohibited in the
+eastern colonies, passed at but a trifling discount.[50] For many years
+the easy-going government at New Amsterdam does not seem to have
+regulated the currency by law, as did its more thorough neighbors, and
+the amount of wampum requisite to make a stiver, was left to be
+determined by the parties concerned. Such a course was fraught with
+inconvenience to the public, and frequent petitions were made for the
+establishment of some uniform rate.[51]
+
+The rate, however, which obtained by common consent, was four of the
+strung and six of the loose beads for a stiver.[52] But in 1641, there
+came from foreign parts an inundation of "nasty, rough" sewan, which
+drove the better sort out of circulation, "nay," so runs the record,
+"threatened the ruin of the country," and legislation was imperatively
+demanded. This inferior article was therefore condemned to pass five
+for a stiver during the following month, and afterwards six, at which
+rate the loose, unstringed wampum, which served the community as change,
+subsequently circulated.[53] The importance of wampum during these years
+is well illustrated by the fact that the opulent West India Company in
+1664, sought to negotiate a loan of five or six thousand guilders in it,
+wherewith to pay the laboring people, the obligation to be satisfied
+with _good negroes_ or other goods.[54] The Dutch succumbed to superior
+force, but wampum still held its own. It continued to be the chief
+currency not only in New York, but in the many settlements to the west
+and south, which were then under the control of the authorities at New
+York. In 1672, the inhabitants of Hoanskill and New Castle on the
+Delaware, having been plundered by Dutch privateers were permitted by
+the government at New York to lay an impost of four guilders, in wampum,
+upon each anker of strong rum imported or sold there.[55] A guilder,
+which was about six pence currency or four pence sterling, consisted of
+twenty stivers, and eight beads were reckoned equal to one stiver. As
+heretofore there was little or no certain coin in circulation and wampum
+passed for current payment in all cases. Indeed the country was so
+drained of even this currency by the Indian trade, that there was
+difficulty in obtaining a sufficiency. To remedy this state of affairs,
+the governor and council of New York were in 1673 constrained to issue
+their proclamation which was published at Albany, Esopus, Delaware, Long
+Island and the adjacent parts, commanding that "instead of eight white
+and four black (beads), six white and three black should pass for a
+stiver; and three times so much the value of silver."[56]
+
+The contributions in the churches were for many years made in wampum,
+and the first church on the Jersey shore was built with funds
+contributed in this way from Sabbath to Sabbath. As late as 1683, "the
+schoolmaster in Flatbush was paid his salary in wheat, wampum value: He
+was bound to provide a basin of water for the purpose of baptism, for
+which he received from the parents or sponsors twelve stivers in
+wampum."[57] Nor ten years later had the money of the aborigines become
+wholly supplanted by gold and silver, for we learn that "in 1693, the
+ferriage of each single person from New York to Brooklyn was eight
+stivers in wampum, or a silver two-pence."[58] Further than this we are
+unable to trace, though we have good reason to believe that it
+circulated, to a limited extent, for some time thereafter.
+
+Thus while the Indian declined in power his simple coinage passed from
+hand to hand, among his conquerors, in the haunts where unnumbered
+generations of his ancestors had trafficked it in rude barter, or
+offered it with solemn ceremonial, their costliest offering, to their
+country's gods. It was for about a quarter of a century a legal tender
+in New England, while among the Dutch it was during half a century often
+the only circulating medium, and among both Dutch and English it filled
+a more or less important part in the currency for nearly an entire
+century.
+
+When at length the increasing wealth of the people drove wampum out of
+common use, it still remained an important article in commerce. It was
+manufactured at New York until the commencement of the present century
+to be used in traffic with the Indians, for whom it had lost none of its
+charms, and to be carried by our whalers into the northern seas.
+
+Treaties and compacts between the different tribes and the states, and
+later the general government, continued to be ratified by the
+interchange of wampum belts. The records of the eighteenth century
+abound with instances of this character. The last occasion of the kind
+is believed to have been at Prairie du Chien in 1825.[59]
+
+Among the Indians of the present day wampum is unknown. The name still
+remains, but the trifles to which it is applied bear no resemblance to
+the ancient article. The glass beads now current as wampum and the
+original wampum are not less unlike, than the squalid Blackfoot of our
+western plains, and the proud and imperious Mohawk, beside his native
+stream.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Trumbull in his notes in the Narragansett Club Reprint of Roger
+Williams's _Key_, says: "_Wom pam_ was the name of the white beads
+collectively; when strung or wrought in girdles they constituted
+_wanom-peg_ [Roger Williams], the _wampon-peage_ of Wood and other early
+writers."
+
+_Peage_ or _peake_ signified simply "strung beads," and _wampom-peage_
+accordingly signified "strings of white beads."
+
+The English were doubtless led to consider _wampum_ a generic word,
+because they heard it oftenest used, _wampum_ being much more abundant
+than _suckauhock_. Their error has however long since received the
+sanction of usage. But as far as our own knowledge extends there was no
+comprehensive word for all shell beads in use among the Indians. _Sewan_
+had perhaps very nearly such a use in certain localities, but the real
+meaning of the word _sewan_ appears from the following note in the
+Narragansett Club Reprint of Roger Williams's _Key_:--"_Seahwhoog_,
+'they are scattered' [Elliot]. From this word the Dutch traders gave the
+name of _sewared_ or _zeewand_ [the participle, _seahwhoun_,
+'scattered,' 'loose'], to _all_ shell money just as the English called
+all _peage_, or string beads, by the name of the white or _wampom_."
+
+[2] Sometimes from the _Buccinum undulatum_ [Moell], found from Nantucket
+to Labrador, and occasionally perhaps from the _Natica heros_ [Say]
+found from New York to Labrador, and the _Natica duplicata_ found from
+Florida to Massachusetts Bay.
+
+In this connection the writer would acknowledge his indebtedness to Hon.
+J. Hammond Trumbull, a gentleman who has given much time and talent to
+the investigation of matters of Indian history.
+
+[3] Many writers have asserted that wampum was worked out of the inside
+of the Great Conque shell. This view is evidently erroneous, as the
+Great Conque, _Strombus gigas_ [Linn.], is not found on the Atlantic
+coast, north of Florida and the West Indies, except in the fossil state.
+
+The assertion that wampum is an Iroquois word, meaning a "muscle," is
+doubtless equally unfounded.
+
+Roger Williams [_Key_, chap. xxiv], who certainly had fine opportunities
+for observation, and our other most trustworthy authorities, state that
+the _Suckauhock_ was made from the clam shell, and the _wampum_ from the
+shells of the Periwinkle, and such was unquestionably the case.
+
+[4] Roger Williams's _Key_, chap. xxiv.
+
+[5] Gordon, _Hist. of Penn._, Appendix F.
+
+[6] See Schoolcraft's report on the Grove Creek Mound in vol. I, of
+_Transactions of the Am. Ethnological Soc._
+
+[7] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 120.
+
+[8] The otekoa of the Iroquois was the only exception of which we know.
+
+[9] Roger Williams's _Key_, chap. xxiv.
+
+[10] Roger Williams's _Key_, chap. xxiv.
+
+[11] For an excellent illustration of the different modes of wearing
+wampum, see the plates in that admirable work, _Harriot's Virginia_,
+written in 1586, and published in 1590, in the first volume of De Bry's
+_Voyages_.
+
+[12] Trumbull's _Hist. of Connecticut_, I, p. 50.
+
+[13] "It is obvious to all who are the least acquainted with Indian
+affairs, that they regard no message or invitation, be it of what
+consequence it will, unless attended or confirmed by strings or belts of
+wampum, which they look upon as we our letters or rather
+bonds."--_Letter of Sir Wm. Johnson_, 1753. _Doc. Hist. of N. Y._, vol.
+II, p. 624.
+
+[14] As late as 1720, a belt was brought into Connecticut from some
+place at the south called Towattowan, and circulated very generally
+among the Indians, to the alarm of the colony, "the assembly caused some
+inquiries to be made into the mystery, and an Indian, named
+Tapanranawko, testified that the belt was in token that at each place
+where it was accepted, captive Indians would be received and sold. He
+said that it would be sent back to Towattowan, which was a great way to
+the south, and was inhabited by a large tribe of Indians. The assembly
+resolved that the Indians should be directed to send it back whence it
+came, and should be charged not to receive such presents in future
+without giving notice to the magistrates."--DeForest's _Hist. of Indians
+of Conn._, p. 349.
+
+[15] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 339.
+
+[16] Documents relating to the _Colonial History of New York_, vol. VII,
+p. 44.
+
+[17] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 120.
+
+[18] _Eastern Maine and Nova Scotia in the Revolution_, Kidder, p. 286.
+
+[19] It is interesting in this connection to notice the manner in which
+the chiefs affixed their names to early deeds. In the deed of New Haven
+given by the Quinnipiacs [see Appendix IV, DeForest's Indians of Conn.],
+may be seen as autographs, an arrow, a bow, a drawn bow, a war club, a
+tobacco pipe, a snake, a wolf (apparently), a wild fowl, etc., etc.
+
+[20] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 119.
+
+[21] President Stiles's _Itinerary_, unpublished.
+
+[22] _League of the Iroquois_, page 188.
+
+[23] Thomson's _Long Island_, p. 62.
+
+[24] _League of the Iroquois_, p. 331.
+
+[25] It is stated in _Winthrop's Journal_ [p. 147 and after], that four
+servants of Plymouth were condemned and hung upon their own confession
+of having murdered an Indian to obtain his wampum.
+
+[26] In the tomb, apparently of a chief, in the Grove Creek Mound, 1700
+beads were found around the remains of a skeleton, and such deposits are
+frequently found in opening old graves.
+
+[27] Winthrop, I, 113.
+
+[28] Bradford's _Letters_, _Mass. Hist. Collections_, III, 54.
+
+[29] _Doc. Rel. to Colonial History of New York_, I, 459.
+
+[30] Lawson's _History of North Carolina_, ed. of 1714, page 315.
+
+[31] Rhode Island _Colonial Records_, I, 130.
+
+[32] _Winthrop_, pages 147, 149 and 192.
+
+[33] Thompson's _Long Island_, page 62.
+
+[34] _Hazard_, II, page 413.
+
+[35] _Hazard_, III, page 44.
+
+[36] _Hazard_, II, pages 387 and 388.
+
+[37] Thompson's _Long Island_, page 60.
+
+[38] _Records of Mass._, I, 238. Where only one rate is mentioned, as
+here, we are probably to understand the white, and deduct one-half for
+the black or blue.
+
+[39] _Colonial Records of Conn._, I, 12.
+
+[40] _Records of Mass._, I, p. 302.
+
+[41] _Ibid._, p. 329.
+
+[42] _Col. Records of Conn._, I, 179.
+
+[43] _Records of Mass._, II, 261.
+
+[44] _Records of Mass._, I, 323.
+
+[45] _Records of Mass._, II, 279.
+
+[46] _Ibid._, IV, p. 36.
+
+[47] _Records of Mass._, IV, part 2, pages 4, 5.
+
+[48] _R. Island Colonial Records_, I, page 474.
+
+[49] Madam Knight's _Journal_, written in 1704, page 43.
+
+[50] _Doc. Relating to the Colonial Hist. of New York_, I, 474.
+
+[51] _Ibid._, p. 336.
+
+[52] _Ibid._, p. 425.
+
+[53] O'Callaghan's _New Netherland_, I, 230.
+
+[54] _Doc. Col. Hist. of New York_, II, p. 371.
+
+[55] Proud's _Hist. of Pennsylvania_, I, page 133.
+
+[56] Hazzard's _Annals of Pennsylvania_.
+
+[57] O'Callaghan's _New Netherland_, I, 61.
+
+[58] O'Callaghan's _New Netherland_, I, _ibid._
+
+[59] Schoolcraft's _Notes on the Iroquois_.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+    Archaic spellings have been retained. Abbreviations have been
+    normalised. Minor typographical errors have been corrected without
+    note, whilst more significant amendments are listed below:
+
+      P. 10, "Pyrula canicalata" to _Pyrula caniculata_.
+
+      P. 11n, "Great Congue" to _Great Conque_, could be amended to
+        _Great Conch_ however the former seems more in keeping with the
+        original intent.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Wampum, by Ashbel Woodward
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