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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the
+Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests, by J. J. von Tschudi
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests
+
+Author: J. J. von Tschudi
+
+Translator: Thomasina Ross
+
+Release Date: October 3, 2008 [EBook #26745]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS IN PERU ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: NATIVES OF VALPARAISO.]
+
+[Illustration: CHILIAN HORSEMANSHIP.]
+
+
+
+
+  TRAVELS
+
+  IN PERU,
+
+  ON THE COAST, IN THE SIERRA, ACROSS THE CORDILLERAS
+  AND THE ANDES, INTO THE PRIMEVAL FORESTS.
+
+
+  BY DR. J. J. VON TSCHUDI.
+
+
+  TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN
+
+  BY THOMASINA ROSS.
+
+
+  NEW EDITION, COMPLETE IN ONE VOLUME.
+
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  A. S. BARNES & CO., 51 JOHN-STREET.
+  CINCINNATI: H. W. DERBY.
+  1854.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The Work from which the present Volume is translated consists of
+extracts from the Author's Journal, accompanied by his recollections
+and observations. The absence of chronological arrangement will be
+sufficiently accounted for, when it is explained that the zoological
+investigations for which the journey was undertaken frequently
+required the Author to make repeated visits to one particular place or
+district, or to remain for a considerable time within the narrow
+circuit of a few miles; and sometimes to travel rapidly over vast
+tracts of country. Disclaiming any intention of making one of those
+travelling romances, with which the tourist literature of the day is
+overstocked, the Author has confined himself to a plain description of
+facts and things as they came within the sphere of his own observation.
+But though Dr. Tschudi lays claim to no merit beyond the truthfulness
+of his narrative, yet the reader will no doubt readily concede to him
+the merit of extensive information, and happy descriptive talent. His
+pictures of Nature, especially those relating to the animal world, are
+frequently imbued with much of the charm of thought and style which
+characterizes the writings of Buffon.
+
+Lima, the oldest and most interesting of the cities founded by the
+Spaniards on the western coast of South America, has been frequently
+described; but no previous writer has painted so animated a picture of
+the city and its inhabitants, as that contained in the following volume.
+After quitting the capital of Peru, Dr. Tschudi went over ground
+previously untrodden by any European traveller. He visited the Western
+Sierra, the mighty chain of the Cordilleras, the boundless level
+heights, the deep mountain valleys on the eastern declivity of the
+Andes, and the vast primeval forests. Whilst recounting his wanderings
+in these distant regions, he describes not only the country and the
+people, but every object of novelty and interest in the animal,
+vegetable, and mineral creations.
+
+Those lovers of Natural History who are familiar with the German
+language, and who may wish to make themselves extensively acquainted
+with the animal world, in those parts of Peru visited by Dr. Tschudi,
+will find abundant information on the subject in his work, with plates,
+entitled "Untersuchungen über die Fauna Peruana." The present
+Publication, though containing a vast deal to interest the naturalist,
+is addressed to the general reader, and will, it is presumed, gratify
+curiosity respecting the highly interesting and little known regions to
+which it relates. It may fairly be said that no previous writer has
+given so comprehensive a picture of Peru; combining, with animated
+sketches of life and manners, a fund of valuable information on Natural
+History and Commerce.
+
+                                                                 T. R.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+                                                                     PAGE
+
+Embarkation at Havre--The Voyage--Arrival at the Island of
+Chiloe--Landing--The Gyr-Falcon--Punta Arena--The Island of
+Chiloe described--Climate and Cultivation--Cattle--The Bay--San
+Carlos--The Governor's House--Poverty and Wretchedness of the
+Inhabitants of the Town--Strange method of Ploughing--Coasting
+Vessels--Smuggling--Zoology--Departure from Chiloe                      1
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+Valparaiso and the adjacent country--The Bay--Aspect of the
+Town--Lighthouses--Forts--Custom House--Exchange--Hotels and
+Taverns--War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation--First
+Expedition--Preparations for the Second Expedition--Embarkation
+of the Troops--Close of the Port--July Festival in honor of
+the French Revolution--The _Muele_, or Mole--Police--_Serenos_,
+or Watchmen--Movable Prisons--Clubs--Trade of
+Valparaiso--Santiago--Zoology                                          15
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+Juan Fernandez--Robinson Crusoe--Passage to Callao--San
+Lorenzo--Rise and fall of the coast--Mr. Darwin's opinions
+on this subject--Callao--The Fortress--Siege by the
+Spaniards--General Rodil--Siege by the Chilians--The
+Colocolo--Pirates--Zoology--Road to Lima                               26
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+Lima--Situation and extent of the City--Streets,
+Houses, Churches and Convents--San Pedro--The
+Jesuits--Nunneries--Beatarios--Hospitals--San Andres--The
+Foundling House--The Pantheon--The Palace--The Plaza
+Mayor--Pizarro--The Cabildo--Fountains--Palace of the
+Inquisition--The University--National Library--Museum of
+Natural History and Antiquities--Academy of Design--The
+Mint--The Theatre--Circus for Cock-fighting--The Bridge--The
+City Wall--Santa Catalina--Barracks                                    42
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+Population of Lima--Its diminution--Different races of the
+Inhabitants--Their characteristics--Amusements--Education--The Women
+of Lima--Their Costume--the _Saya y Manto_--Female domestic
+life--Love of dress--Beatas--Indians--Slaves--Bosales--Free
+Creoles--Negroes--Negresses--Black Creoles--Their
+varieties--Mestizos--Mulattoes--Pelanganas--Zambos--Chinos--Foreigners
+in Lima--Corruption of the Spanish language                            63
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+Primary Schools--Colleges--The University--Monks--Saints--Santo
+Toribio and Santa Rosa--Religious Processions--Raising the Host--The
+Noche Buena--The Carnival--Paseos, or Public Promenades--Ice--Riding
+and Driving--Horses--Their Equipments and Training--Mules--Lottery
+in Lima--Cookery--Breakfasts, Dinners, &c.--Coffee-houses and
+Restaurants--Markets--The _Plazo Firme del Acho_--Bull Fights          89
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+Geographical Situation of Lima--Height above Sea
+level--Temperature--Diseases--Statistical Tables of Births and
+Deaths--Earthquakes--The Valley of Lima--The River Rimac--Aqueducts,
+Trenches, &c.--Irrigation--Plantations--Cotton--Sugar--Various
+kinds of Grain--Maize--Potatoes, and other tuberous
+roots--Pulse--Cabbage--Plants used for Seasoning--Clover--The Olive
+and other Oil Trees--Fruits--Figs and Grapes--The Chirimoya--The
+Palta--The Banana and other Fruits                                    111
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+Robbers on the coast of Peru--The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo--The
+Corps of Montoneros--Watering Places near Lima--Surco, Atte and
+Lurin--Pacchacamac--Ruins of the Temple of the Sun--Difficulties of
+Travelling on the Coast of Peru--Sea Passage to Huacho--Indian
+Canoes--Ichthyological Collections--An old Spaniard's recollections
+of Alexander Von Humboldt--The Padre Requena--Huacho--Plundering of
+Burial Places--Huaura--Malaria--The Sugar Plantation at
+Luhmayo--Quipico--Ancient Peruvian Ruins--The Salinas, or Salt
+Pits--Gritalobos--Chancay--The Piques--Mode of extracting
+them--Valley of the Pasamayo--Extraordinary Atmospheric
+Mirrors--Piedras Gordas--Palo Seco                                    137
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+The Coast southward of Lima--Chilca--Curious Cigar cases made
+there--Yauyos--Pisco--Journey to Yea--A night on the Sand
+Plains--Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823--Vine Plantations at
+Yea--Brandy and Wine--Don Domingo Elias--Vessels for transporting
+Brandy (Botijas and Odres)--Cruel mode of skinning Goats--Negro
+Carnival--Peculiar species of Guinea Pig--The Salamanqueja--Cotton
+Plantations--Quebrada of Huaitara--Sangallan--Guano--Retrospect of
+the Peruvian Coast--Rivers--Medanos--Winds--Change of Seasons--The
+Garuas--The Lomas--Mammalia--Birds--Amphibia                          160
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+Roads leading to the Sierra--Chaclacayo and Santa Iñes--Barometrical
+observations--San Pedro Mama--The Rio Seco--Extraordinary Geological
+Phenomenon--Similar one described by Mr. Darwin--Surco--Diseases
+peculiar to the Villages of Peru--The Verugas--Indian mode of
+treating the disorder--The Bird-catching Spider--Horse-Shoeing--Indian
+Tambos--San Juan de Matucanas--The Thorn-apple and the Tonga--The
+Tambo de Viso--Bridges--San Mateo--Passports--Acchahuari--Malady
+called the Veta--Its effects on horses--Singular tact and caution
+of Mules--Antarangra and Mountain Passes--Curious partition of
+Water--Piedra Parada--Yauli--Indian Smelting Furnaces--Mineral
+Springs--Portuguese Mine owners--Saco--Oroya--Hanging
+Bridges--Huaros--Roads leading from Oroya                             179
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+The Cordillera and the Andes--Signification of the terms--Altitude
+of the Mountains and Passes--Lakes--Metals--Aspect of the
+Cordillera--Shattered Rocks--Maladies caused by the diminished
+Atmospheric Pressure--The Veta and the Surumpe--Mountain Storms--The
+Condor--Its habits--Indian mode of Catching the Bird--The Puna or
+Despoblado--Climate--Currents of Warm Air--Vegetation--Tuberous
+Plant called the Maca--Animals of the Puna--The Llama, the Alpaco,
+the Huanacu and the Vicuña--The Chacu and the Bolas--Household
+Utensils of the Ancient Peruvians--The Viscacha and the
+Chinchilla--Puna Birds and Amphibia--Cattle and Pasture--Indian
+Farms--Shepherds' Huts--Ancient Peruvian Roads and
+Buildings--Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna              203
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+Cerro de Pasco--First discovery of the Mines--Careless mode of
+working them--Mine Owners and Mine Laborers--Amalgamating and
+Refining--Produce of the Mines--Life in Cerro de Pasco--Different
+Classes of the Population--Gaming and Drunkenness--Extravagance
+and Improvidence of the Indian Mine Laborers--The Cerro de San
+Fernando--Other Important Mining Districts in Peru--The Salcedo Mine
+Castrovireyna--Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of Peru--Rich
+Mines secretly known to the Indians--Roads leading from Cerro de
+Pasco--The Laguna of Chinchaycocha--Battle of Junin--Indian
+Robbers--A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds                          229
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+The Sierra--Its Climate and Productions--Inhabitants--Trade--Eggs
+circulated as money--Mestizos in the Sierra--Their Idleness
+and Love of Gaming and Betting--Agriculture--The Quinua Plant,
+a substitute for Potatoes--Growth of Vegetables and Fruits
+in the Sierra--Rural Festivals at the Seasons of Sowing and
+Reaping--Skill of the Indians in various Handicrafts--Excess of
+Brandy-Drinking--Chicha--Disgusting mode of making it--Festivals of
+Saints--Dances and Bull-Fights--Celebration of Christmas-Day,
+New-Year's Day, Palm Sunday, and Good Friday--Contributions levied
+on the Indians--Tardy and Irregular Transmission of Letters--Trade
+in Mules--General Style of Building in the Towns and Villages of
+the Sierra--Ceja de la Montaña                                        253
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+Road to the Primeval Forests--Barbacoas, or Indian Suspension
+Bridges--Vegetation--Hollow Passes--Zoology--the Montaña
+Plantations--Inhabitants--Trade in Peruvian Bark--Wandering
+Indians--Wild Indians or Indios Braves--Languages,
+Manners, and Customs of the Indios Bravos--Dress--Warlike
+Weapons and Hunting Arms--Dwellings--Religion--Physical
+formation of the Wild Indian Tribes--Animals of the Aboriginal
+Forests--Mammalia--Hunting the Ounce--Birds--Amphibia--Poisonous
+Serpents--Huaco--Insects--Plants                                      271
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+Montaña of San Carlos de Vitoc--Villages--Hacienda of
+Maraynioc--the Coca Plant--Mode of Cultivating and Gathering
+it--Mastication of Coca--Evil Consequences of its excessive
+Use--Its Nutritious Qualities--Indian Superstitions connected
+with the Coca Plant--Suggestions for its Introduction in
+the European Navies--Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo--The
+Chunchos--Missions to Cerro de la Sal--Juan Santos Atahuallpa--The
+Franciscan Monks--Depopulation of Vitoc                               309
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians--The
+Repartimiento and the Mita--Indian Insurrections--Tupac Amaru--His
+Capture and Execution--War of Independence--Character of the Peruvian
+Indians--Music--Dress--Superstitions--Longevity--Diminished Population
+of Peru--Languages spoken by the Aboriginal Inhabitants--Specimen of
+Quichua Poetry--The Yaravies--The Quipu--Water Conduits--Ancient
+Buildings--Fortresses--Idols--Domestic Utensils--Ancient Peruvian
+Graves--Mode of Burying the Dead--Mummies                             329
+
+
+
+
+TRAVELS IN PERU.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+Embarkation at Havre--The Voyage--Arrival at the Island of
+Chiloe--Landing--The Gyr-Falcon--Punta Arena--The Island of
+Chiloe described--Climate and Cultivation--Cattle--The Bay--San
+Carlos--The Governor's House--Poverty and Wretchedness of the
+Inhabitants of the Town--Strange method of Ploughing--Coasting
+Vessels--Smuggling--Zoology--Departure from Chiloe.
+
+
+On the 27th of February, 1838, I sailed from Havre-de-Grace on board the
+"Edmond." This vessel, though a French merchantman, was freighted with a
+cargo of Swiss manufactured goods, suited to any commercial transactions
+which might be entered into in the course of a circumnavigatory voyage.
+It was a boisterous morning. A fall of snow and heavy clouds soon
+intercepted our view of the coast of France, and not one cheering
+sunbeam shone out to betoken for us a favorable voyage. We passed down
+the British Channel, where the multitude of vessels, and the flags of
+all nations, presented an enlivening picture, and we finally cleared it
+on the 5th of March. Favored by a brisk north wind, we soon reached
+Madeira and came in sight of Teneriffe, the peak being just perceptible
+on the skirt of the horizon. Easterly breezes soon brought us to the
+island of Fogo, which, having passed on the 35th day of our voyage, we
+received the usual marine baptism, and participated in all the
+ceremonies observed on crossing the equator. We soon reached the tropic
+of Capricorn, and endeavored to gain the channel between the Falkland
+Islands and Patagonia; but unfavorable winds obliged us to direct our
+course eastwards, from the Island of Soledad to the Staten Islands. On
+the 3d of March we made the longitude of Cape Horn, but were not able to
+double it until we got into the 60th degree of south latitude. In those
+dangerous waters, where it is admitted by the boldest English sailors
+that the waves rage more furiously than in any other part of the world,
+we encountered great risk and difficulty. For twenty-two days we were
+driven about on the fearfully agitated sea, southward of Tierra del
+Fuego, and were only saved from being buried in the deep, by the
+excellent build and soundness of our ship.
+
+We suffered much, and were long delayed by this storm; but when it
+subsided, a smart breeze sprang up from the southward, and we held our
+course along the Pacific to the coast of Chile. After a voyage of 99
+days we cast anchor on Sunday the 5th of June, in the Bay of San Carlos.
+Like the day of our departure from Europe, that of our arrival off
+Chiloe was gloomy and overcast. Heavy clouds obscured the
+long-looked-for island, and its picturesque shore could only be seen,
+when, at intervals, the wind dispersed the dark atmospheric veil. We had
+no sooner cast anchor than several boats came alongside rowed by
+Indians, who offered us potatoes, cabbage, fish, and water, in exchange
+for tobacco. Only those who have been long at sea can form an idea of
+the gratification which fresh provisions, especially vegetables, afford
+to the weary voyager. In a couple of hours, the harbor-master came on
+board to examine the ship, the cargo, &c., and to give us permission to
+go ashore. The long-boat being got out, and well manned, we stepped into
+it, and were conveyed to the harbor. The Bay of San Carlos being
+shallow, large ships, or vessels, heavily laden, are obliged to go three
+English miles or more from the landing-place before they can anchor. Our
+boat was gaily decorated and newly painted; but this was mere outside
+show, for it was in a very unsound condition. During our passage through
+the tropics, the sun had melted the pitch between the planks of the
+boat, which lay on the deck keel uppermost. In this crazy boat, we had
+scarcely got a quarter of a league from the ship, when the water rushed
+in so forcibly through all the cracks and fissures, that it was soon
+more than ankle deep. Unluckily the sailors had forgotten to put on
+board a bucket or anything for baling out the water, so that we were
+obliged to use our hats and boots for that purpose. Fourteen persons
+were crowded together in this leaky boat, and the water continued
+rising, until at length we began to be seriously apprehensive for our
+safety, when, fortunately, our situation was observed by the people on
+shore. They promptly prepared to send out a boat to our assistance, but
+just as it was got afloat, we succeeded in reaching the pier, happy once
+more to set our feet on _terra firma_.
+
+Our first business was to seek shelter and refreshment. There is no
+tavern in San Carlos, but there is a sort of substitute for one, kept
+by an old Corsican, named Filippi, where captains of ships usually
+take up their quarters. Filippi, who recognized an old acquaintance in
+one of our party, received us very kindly, and showed us to apartments
+which certainly had no claim to the merits of either cleanliness or
+convenience. They were long, dark, quadrangular rooms, without
+windows, and were destitute of any article of furniture, except a bed
+in a kind of recess.
+
+As soon as I got on shore, I saw a multitude of small birds of prey.
+They keep in flocks, like our sparrows, hopping about everywhere, and
+perching on the hedges and house-tops. I anxiously wished for an
+opportunity to make myself better acquainted with one of them.
+Presuming that shooting in the town might be displeasing to the
+inhabitants, who would naturally claim to themselves a sort of
+exclusive sporting right, I took my gun down to the sea-shore, and
+there shot one of the birds. It belonged to the Gyr-Falcon family
+(_Polyboriniæ_), and was one of the species peculiar to South America
+(_Polyborus chimango_, Vieil). The whole of the upper part of the body
+is brown, but single feathers here and there have a whitish-brown
+edge. On the tail are several indistinct oblique stripes. The
+under-part of the body is whitish-brown, and is also marked with
+transverse stripes feebly defined. The bird I shot measured from the
+point of the beak to the end of the tail 1 foot 6-1/2 inches. Though
+these Gyr-Falcons live socially together, yet they are very greedy and
+contentious about their prey. They snap up, as food, all the offal
+thrown out of doors; and thus they render themselves serviceable to
+the inhabitants, who consequently do not destroy them. In some of the
+valleys of Peru, I met with these birds again, but very rarely and
+always single and solitary. I continued my excursions on the
+sea-shore, but with little satisfaction, for the pouring rain had
+driven animals of every kind to their lurking-holes. After a few days,
+I went on board the "Edmond," for the purpose of visiting PUNTA ARENA,
+a town on the side of the bay, whither our boat used to be sent for
+fresh water. The ground surrounding the spring whence the ships obtain
+supplies of water, is sandy, and it becomes exceedingly marshy further
+inland. After wandering about for a few hours, I found myself quite
+lost in a morass, out of which I had to work my way with no little
+difficulty. The whole produce of my hard day's sport consisted of an
+awlbeak, a small dark-brown bird (_Opethiorhyncus patagonicus_), and
+some land-snails. On our return, as we were nearing the ship, we
+killed a seal (_Otaria chilensis_, Müll.), which was rising after a
+dive, close to the boat.
+
+On the 22d of June, all our ship's company were on board by order of
+the captain. We weighed anchor, and cruized about for some time. At
+length, about five in the afternoon, we returned, and the ship was
+anchored again precisely on the spot she had left a few hours before.
+It was set down in the log-book that the wind was not sufficiently
+favorable to allow the ship to pass out safely through the narrow
+entrance to the bay. But all on board were well aware that this was
+merely a pretence on the part of the captain, who, for some reason or
+other, wished to stop longer at San Carlos.
+
+I was very much pleased at this opportunity of prolonging my stay at the
+Island of Chiloe, hoping that better weather would enable me to make an
+excursion into the interior. But the sky still continued overcast, and
+the rain poured incessantly. One day, however, I undertook a journey to
+Castro, in company with the French Chargé d'Affaires to Peru, one of my
+fellow passengers on the voyage. A merchant accommodated us with two
+horses, saddled in the Chilian manner; but he warned us to be on our
+guard, as horses were often restive when just returned from their summer
+pasturage. We set off very promisingly. The commencement of our ride was
+pleasant enough, though the road was steep and very difficult. It
+sometimes lay over smooth slippery stones, then through deep marshes, or
+over scattered logs of wood, which bore evidence of attempts to render
+the ground passable, by this rude kind of paving. After we had ridden
+for several hours in the forest, the rain checked our further progress,
+and we turned, to retrace our way back. Our horses seemed well pleased
+with the project of returning home. For a time they proceeded with
+wonderful steadiness; but on coming to a part of the road where the
+ground was comparatively level and firm, they quickened their pace, and
+at length dashed forward through the wood, uncontrolled by the bridle.
+The long narrow saddle, with its woollen covering, the crescent-shaped
+wooden stirrups, and the heavy spurs, with their clumsy rowels, baffled
+all our skill in horsemanship, and it was with no little difficulty we
+kept our seats. We thought it best to give the animals the rein, and
+they galloped through the umbrageous thickets, until at last, panting
+and breathless, they stuck in a morass. Here we recovered our control
+over them, and pursued the remainder of our journey without further
+accident, though we were drenched to the skin on our return to the town.
+
+On subsequent days, I took my rambles on foot, and found myself richly
+rewarded thereby. The long evenings we spent in the company of our host
+and the harbor-master, from both of whom I obtained some useful
+information respecting the island.
+
+Chiloe is one of the largest islands of the Archipelago which extends
+along the west coast of South America, from 42° south lat. to the
+Straits of Magellan. It is about 23 German miles long, and 10 broad. A
+magnificent, but almost inaccessible forest covers the unbroken line of
+hills stretching along Chiloe, and gives to the island a charming aspect
+of undulating luxuriance. Seldom, however, can the eye command a
+distinct view of those verdant hills; for overhanging clouds surcharged
+with rain, almost constantly veil the spreading tops of the trees. At
+most parts of the shore the declivity is rapid. There are many inlets,
+which, though small, afford secure anchorage; but there are no harbors
+of any magnitude. While Castro was the capital of the island, Chacao was
+the principal port; but San Carlos having become the residence of the
+governor, this latter place is considered the chief harbor; and with
+reason, for its secure, tranquil bay unites all the advantages the
+navigator can desire on the stormy coast of South Chile. At Chacao, on
+the contrary, reefs and strong currents render the entrance dangerous
+and the anchorage insecure.
+
+Chiloe is but little cultivated, and scantily populated. If the
+statement of my informant, the harbor-master, be correct, Chiloe and the
+adjacent small islands contain only from 48,000 to 50,000 inhabitants,
+part of whom live in _ranchos_ (huts), and part in a few villages. Next
+to San Carlos, and the half-deserted Castro, to which the title of
+"City" is given, the chief places are Chacao, Vilipilli, Cucao, Velinoe.
+It is only in the neighborhood of these towns or villages that the
+forest trees have been felled, and their removal has uncovered a fertile
+soil, which would reward by a hundred-fold the labor of the husbandman.
+
+The climate of the island is moist and cool, and upon the whole very
+unpleasant. During the winter months, the sun is seldom seen; and it is
+a proverbial saying in Chiloe, that it rains six days of the week, and
+is cloudy on the seventh. In summer there are occasionally fine days,
+though seldom two in succession. The thick forests are therefore never
+dry, and beneath the trees, the vegetation of the marshy soil is
+peculiarly luxuriant. The constant moisture is one of the greatest
+obstacles to agriculture. To clear the ground for cultivation, it would
+be necessary to burn the forests, and as the trees are always damp, that
+could not be done without great difficulty. To some kinds of culture the
+soil is not favorable. The cereals, for example, seldom thrive in
+Chiloe; the seed rots after the ear is formed. Maize grows best; though
+it shoots too much into leaf, and bears only small grain. The damp soil,
+on the other hand, is favorable to potatoes, of which vast quantities
+are planted. There is a degenerate kind of potato, very abundant in
+Chiloe. On bisection it exhibits a greater or lesser number of
+concentric rings, alternately white and violet; sometimes all of the
+latter color. It is well known that southern Chile is the native land of
+the potato. In Chiloe and also in the neighboring islands, potatoes grow
+wild; but, both in size and flavor, they are far inferior to the
+cultivated kind. Like the maize, they shoot up in large leaves and
+stalks. The climate is also very favorable to the different kinds of the
+cabbage plant; but peas and beans do not thrive there.
+
+In the forests there are often clear spots on which the grass grows to a
+great height, and supplies excellent pasturage for numerous herds of
+cattle. The inhabitants of Chiloe breed for their own use, horses, oxen,
+sheep, and swine. The horses are small, and not handsomely formed, but
+very spirited and strong. Some are scarcely twelve hands high. The cows
+are small and lank, and the same may be said of the swine and sheep. It
+is remarkable that all the rams have more than two horns; the greater
+number have three, and many are furnished with four or five. I
+afterwards observed the same in Peru. The domestic animals on this
+island, notwithstanding the abundance of food, are small, and
+sickly-looking. I believe the cause to be want of care, for they remain
+all the year round exposed to every sort of weather and discomfort.
+
+The population of Chiloe consists of Whites, Indians, and people of
+mixed blood. The Indians are now few in number, and those few are
+chiefly in the southern part of the island, and the adjacent islets.
+They are of the Araucana race, and appear to be a sept between that
+race and the people of Tierra del Fuego, on the one side, and the
+Pampas Indians on the other. People of mixed races form by far the
+greater portion of the population. They are met with in every variety
+of amalgamation. Taken in general, they are the reverse of handsome.
+They are short and thick-set, and have long, straight coarse hair.
+Their faces are round and full, their eyes small, and the expression
+of their countenances is unintelligent. The whites are either
+Chilenos or Spaniards: the latter are almost the only Europeans
+who have become settlers here.
+
+The principal town, San Carlos, called by the natives "Ancud," lies on
+the northern coast of a very fine bay. Without a good chart, the
+entrance to this bay is difficult. Numerous small islands form a
+labyrinth, out of which vessels, if not commanded by very experienced
+pilots, cannot easily be extricated. Besides, near the land, the sky is
+usually obscured by clouds which prevent any observation for the
+latitude, as the sun's altitude cannot be taken even at noon; and when
+the sun gets lower, the hills, which would serve as guiding points,
+cease to be distinctly seen.
+
+Several whalers, which for some days vainly endeavored to work through
+this passage, were afterwards obliged to direct their course northward,
+and to cast anchor in Valivia. One of the largest islands at the
+entrance of the bay is San Sebastian, where there are numerous herds of
+cattle. Cochino is a small island, distant only a few miles from San
+Carlos. It is hilly, and thickly crowned with brush-wood. It has only
+one landing-place, and that is rather insecure for boats. The water of
+the bay is remarkably clear and good; only round the little island of
+Cochino, and along the harbor, it is covered with an immense quantity of
+sea-moss, which often renders the landing difficult. It frequently
+happens that commanders of ships, wishing to go on board to make sail
+during the night, get out of the right course, and instead of going to
+the ship, steer to Cochino and get into the moss, where their boats
+stick fast, till returning daylight enables them to work their way out.
+
+The poor inhabitants boil this sea-moss and eat it. It is very salt
+and slimy, and is difficult of digestion. Among the people of Chiloe,
+this sea-moss occupies an important place in surgery. When a leg or an
+arm is broken, after bringing the bone into its proper position, a
+broad layer of the moss is bound round the fractured limb. In drying,
+the slime causes it to adhere to the skin, and thus it forms a fast
+bandage, which cannot be ruffled or shifted. After the lapse of a few
+weeks, when the bones have become firmly united, the bandage is
+loosened by being bathed with tepid water, and it is then easily
+removed. The Indians of Chiloe were acquainted, long before the French
+surgeons, with the use of the paste bandage.
+
+The town of San Carlos is dirty; the streets unpaved, narrow, and
+crooked. The houses, with few exceptions, are wretched wooden huts, for
+the most part without windows; but there is a board divided in the
+middle horizontally, the upper part of which being open, it serves for a
+window, and when both parts are open, it forms a door. The flooring
+usually consists merely of hard-trodden clay, covered with straw
+matting. The furniture, like the apartments, is rude and inconvenient.
+These remarks of course apply to the habitations of the very poor class
+of people. The richer families live in more comfortable style. Of the
+public buildings, the custom-house and the governor's residence are the
+most considerable, but both make a very indifferent appearance. In front
+of the governor's house, which occupies a tolerably large space of
+ground, in the upper part of the town, a sentinel is constantly
+stationed. This sentinel parades to and fro, without shoes or stockings,
+and not unfrequently without a coat, his arms being covered only by his
+shirt sleeves. As to a cap, that seems to be considered as unnecessary a
+part of a well-conditioned uniform, as shoes and stockings. After sunset
+every person who passes the governor's house is challenged. "Who goes
+there?" is the first question; the second is _Que gente?_ (what
+country?) The sailors amuse themselves by returning jocular answers to
+these challenges; and the sentinel, irritated by their jeers, sometimes
+runs after them through part of the town, and when weary of the chace
+returns to his post.
+
+Poverty and uncleanliness vie with each other in San Carlos. The lower
+class of the inhabitants are exceedingly filthy, particularly the women,
+whose usual dress is a dirty woollen gown, and a greasy looking
+mantilla. In their damp gloomy habitations, they squat down on the
+floor, close to the _brasero_ (chafing pan), which also serves them as a
+stove for cooking. They bruise maize between two stones, and make it
+into a thick kind of soup or porridge. When employed in paring potatoes
+or apples, or in cutting cabbages, they throw the skins and waste leaves
+on the ground, so that they are frequently surrounded by a mass of
+half-decayed vegetable matter. Their favorite beverage is _mate_ (the
+Paraguay tea), of which they partake at all hours of the day. The mode
+of preparing and drinking the _mate_ is as follows: a portion of the
+herb is put into a sort of cup made from a gourd, and boiling water is
+poured over it. The mistress of the house then takes a reed or pipe, to
+one end of which a strainer is affixed,[1] and putting it into the
+decoction, she sucks up a mouthful of the liquid. She then hands the
+apparatus to the person next to her, who partakes of it in the same
+manner, and so it goes round. The mistress of the house and all her
+guests suck the aromatic fluid through the same pipe or _bombilla_.
+
+The poverty of the people is extreme. Specie is seldom current, and is
+exclusively in the hands of a few traders, who supply the Indians with
+European articles, in payment of their labor, or in exchange for the
+produce of the island, which is sent to Chile and Peru. With much
+surprise I learned that there is no saw-mill in Chiloe, where the vast
+abundance of trees would furnish a supply of excellent deals, for which
+ready and good payment would be obtained in Peru.
+
+The inhabitants direct their industry chiefly to agriculture and
+navigation. But rude and imperfect are their implements for field labor,
+as well as their nautical vessels. To a stranger nothing can appear more
+extraordinary than their mode of ploughing. As to a regular plough, I do
+not believe such a thing is known in Chiloe. If a field is to be tilled,
+it is done by two Indians, who are furnished with long poles, pointed at
+one end. The one thrusts his pole, pretty deeply, and in an oblique
+direction, into the earth, so that it forms an angle with the surface of
+the ground. The other Indian sticks his pole in at a little distance,
+and also obliquely, and he forces it beneath that of his fellow-laborer,
+so that the first pole lies as it were above the second. The first
+Indian then presses on his pole, and makes it work on the other, as a
+lever on its fulcrum, and the earth is thrown up by the point of the
+pole. Thus they gradually advance, until the whole field is furrowed by
+this laborious process.
+
+The Chiloe boats are merely hulks. They obey the helm reluctantly, but
+they bear away before the wind. Several individuals usually join
+together, and convey in these boats, the produce of their respective
+localities, in the southern villages, to San Carlos. Women as well as
+men take their turn at rowing the boats, and after being out all day,
+they run into some creek, where they pass the night. When a favorable
+breeze springs up, they hoist a sail, made of _ponchos_. The poncho is
+an important article of male clothing in this country. It consists of a
+piece of woollen cloth, measuring from 5 to 7 feet long, and from 3 to 4
+feet broad. In the middle there is a slit from 12 to 14 inches long;
+through this slit the wearer passes his head. The poncho thus rests on
+the shoulders, and hangs down in front and behind as low as the knees.
+At the sides, it reaches to the elbow, or middle of the forearm, and
+thus covers the whole of the body. The carters and wagoners in Swabia
+wear, in rainy weather, a covering somewhat resembling the poncho, which
+they make out of their woollen horse-coverings. When a Chiloe boat is on
+its passage on the coast, and a sail happens to be wanted, the men give
+up their ponchos and the women their mantillas. The slits in the ponchos
+are stitched up, and both ponchos and mantillas being sewn together are
+fixed to a pole or bar of wood, which is hoisted to a proper position on
+the mast. This patchwork sail can only be serviceable when the wind is
+fresh. At nightfall, when the boat runs into one of the creeks for
+shelter, the sail is lowered, and the sewing being unpicked, the ponchos
+and mantillas are returned to their respective owners, who wrap
+themselves in them, and go to sleep.
+
+There is but little trade in San Carlos, for Chile itself possesses in
+superfluity all the productions of Chiloe, and the inhabitants of the
+island are so poor, and their wants so limited, that they require but
+few foreign articles. The port is therefore seldom visited by any
+trading vessel from Europe. Some of the Chiloe boats keep up a regular
+traffic along the coast. They carry wood, brooms, hams, and potatoes, to
+Valparaiso, Arica, Callao, &c., and they bring back in return, linen,
+woollen and cotton cloths, ironware, tobacco, and spirits.
+
+North American and French whalers have for several years past been
+frequent visitors to San Carlos, as they can there provide themselves,
+at a cheap rate, with provisions for the long fishing season. All the
+captains bring goods, which they smuggle on shore, where they sell or
+exchange them at a high profit. A custom-house officer is, indeed, sent
+on board every vessel to examine what is to be unshipped; but a few
+dollars will silence him, and make him favor the contraband operations,
+which are carried on without much reserve. A French captain brought to
+Chiloe a quantity of water-proof cloaks and hats, made of a sort of
+black waxed cloth, and sold them to a dealer in San Carlos. To evade the
+duty, he sent his men on shore each wearing one of these hats and
+cloaks, which they deposited in the dealer's store, and then returned on
+board the ship, dressed in their sailors' garb. This was repeated so
+often, that at length it was intimated to the captain that, if his men
+had a fancy to come on shore with such hats and cloaks they would be
+permitted to do so, but it must be on condition of their returning on
+board dressed in the same costume.
+
+The people of Ancud (San Carlos), formerly so simple and artless, have
+gradually become corrupt and degenerate, since their frequent
+intercourse with the whale-fishers. Among the female portion of the
+population, depravity of morals and unbecoming boldness of manners have
+in a great degree superseded the natural simplicity which formerly
+prevailed. All the vices of the lowest class of sailors, of which the
+crews of the South Sea Whalers are composed, have quickly taken root in
+San Carlos, and the inseparable consequences of those vices will soon be
+fatal to the moral and physical welfare of the inhabitants.
+
+In the interior of the island of Chiloe there are few quadrupeds. The
+largest, the domestic animals excepted, is a fox (_Canis fulvipes_,
+Wat.), which was first discovered by the naturalists who accompanied
+Capt. King's expedition. This is the only beast of prey. The coast
+abounds in seals of the sea-dog species (_Otaria chilensis_, Müll.,
+_Otaria Ursina_, Per., _Otaria jubata_, Desm.)--in sea-otters (_Otaria
+chilensis_, Ben.)--and in the water mouse (_Myopotamus Coypus_, J.
+Geoff). Among the birds, there are some very fine species of ducks, well
+worthy of notice, which are also found on the continent of South
+America. There is the little Cheucau (_Pteroptochus rubecula_, Kettl.),
+to which the Chilotes attach various superstitious ideas, and pretend to
+foretell good or ill luck from its song. The modulations which this bird
+is capable of uttering are numerous, and the natives assign a particular
+meaning to each. One day, when I wished to have some shooting, I took
+an Indian lad with me. Having levelled my gun at one of these birds,
+which was sitting in a low bush, and uttering its shrill _huit-huit_, my
+young companion firmly grasped my arm, earnestly entreating me not to
+shoot the bird, as it had sung its unlucky note. But my desire to
+possess a specimen was too great to be thus baffled, so I fired my gun
+and brought it down. I was engaged in examining the elegant little bird,
+when a mule, probably alarmed by the shot, came running at full speed
+towards the spot where we were, and we deemed it prudent to get behind a
+hedge as speedily as possible. The infuriated mule made an attack on my
+gun, which was resting against the hedge. It was thrown down, bitten,
+and trampled on by the mule. The Indian boy turned to me, with a serious
+countenance, and said:--"It is well if we escape further danger! I told
+you the bird had piped bad luck!"
+
+The day fixed for our departure from Chiloe now approached. The wind,
+which had heretofore been unfavorable for leaving the port, promised to
+change, and we began to ship provisions. Whilst I was waiting for the
+boat which was to take me on board, I had an opportunity of observing
+the dexterity with which the Indians slaughter their cattle. This
+business is performed on the Mole, where, in the space of a quarter of
+an hour, and by two men only, an ox is killed, and the carcase cut up
+into the proper pieces. When it is necessary to ship live oxen, the
+animals are brought to the shore, where their feet are bound together,
+and then they are rolled over planks into the _lancha_ (boat). On
+nearing the ship, the Indians tie a rope round the animal's horns, and
+then the sailors hoist him up with a strong tackle. It is a curious
+sight to behold a strongly-bound struggling ox, hanging by the tackle,
+and swinging between wind and water. My little Chilotean pony, which I
+intended to take to Peru, was dealt with more gently: he was got on
+board with a girth, purposely made for hoisting horses on board ship.
+
+At length we sailed out of the bay with a fresh easterly wind. Three
+coasting boats, one of which was heavily laden with brooms, left the
+roads at the same time, and their crews said they hoped to reach
+Valparaiso before us. But they had too great confidence in their
+round-bottomed keels, for they did not anchor in their place of
+destination till five or six days after our arrival. The wind soon got
+up, blowing W.N.W., but rather flat. In the course of the night, during
+the second watch, we were roused from our sleep by a heavy shock,
+followed by a peculiarly tremulous motion of the whole ship. We
+concluded we had struck in passing over some hidden rock. The lead was
+thrown, but no ground was found; the pumps were set a-going, but we were
+free of water. The captain attributed the shock to an earthquake, and on
+our arrival at Chile, his conjecture was confirmed. In Valdivia, in the
+latitude of which place we were at the time, a severe shock of an
+earthquake had been experienced.
+
+After a pretty favorable passage of seven days, we anchored on the 30th
+of June in the harbor of Valparaiso.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: _Bombilla_ is the name given to this pipe, and the cup or
+gourd in which the decoction of the _mate_ is prepared, is called the
+_macerina_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+Valparaiso and the adjacent country--The Bay--Aspect of the
+Town--Lighthouses--Forts--Custom House--Exchange--Hotels and
+Taverns--War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation--First
+Expedition--Preparations for the Second Expedition--Embarkation
+of the Troops--Close of the Port--July Festival in honor of the
+French Revolution--The _Muele_, or Mole--Police--_Serenos_,
+or Watchmen--Moveable Prisons--Clubs--Trade of
+Valparaiso--Santiago--Zoology.
+
+
+The impression produced by the approach to Valparaiso on persons who see
+land for the first time after a sea voyage of several months' duration,
+must be very different from that felt by those who anchor in the port
+after a passage of a few days from the luxuriantly verdant shores of the
+islands lying to the south. Certainly, none of our ship's company would
+have been disposed to give the name of "Vale of Paradise" to the
+sterile, monotonous coast which lay outstretched before us; and yet, to
+the early navigators, its first aspect, after a long and dreary voyage,
+over the desert ocean, might naturally enough have suggested the idea of
+an earthly paradise.
+
+Along the sea coast there extends a range of round-topped hills, 15 or
+16 hundred feet high, covered with a grey-brownish coating, relieved
+only here and there by patches of dead green, and furrowed by clefts,
+within which the bright red of tile-roofed houses is discernible.
+Half-withered cactus trees, the only plants which take root in the
+ungenial soil, impart no life to the dreary landscape. The hills
+continue rising in undulating outlines, and extend into the interior of
+the country, where they unite with the great chain of the Andes.
+
+The bay of Valparaiso is open on the north and west; on the south it is
+protected by a little promontory called the Punta de Coromilla. In this
+direction the shore is steep and rocky, and the waves break against it
+with great fury. From the Punta de Coromilla the bay extends from east
+to north-west in the form of a gently curved crescent, having a sloping,
+sandy beach, which rises very gradually towards the hills. On the north
+side of the bay there are several small inlets, almost inaccessible and
+edged with steep rocks. The bay is sometimes unsafe, for it is
+completely unsheltered on the north, and the heavy gales which blow from
+that point frequently end in storms. At those times the bay is furiously
+agitated, the waves sometimes rising as high as in the open sea, and the
+ships are obliged to cast their sheet-anchors. Many vessels have at
+various times been driven from their anchorage, cast ashore, and dashed
+to pieces on a rock called Little Cape Horn; for, when a violent gale
+blows from the north, it is impossible to get out to sea. Sailors are
+accustomed to say that in a violent storm they would rather be tossed
+about on the wide ocean than be at anchor in the bay of Valparaiso. But
+against the south wind, though sometimes no less boisterous than the
+northern gales, the harbor affords secure refuge, being perfectly
+sheltered by the Punta de Coromilla.
+
+The town of Valparaiso looks as if built on terraces at the foot of the
+range of hills above mentioned. Northward it stretches out on the level
+sea shore, in a long double row of houses called the Almendral: towards
+the south it rises in the direction of the hills. Two clefts or chasms
+(quebradas) divide this part of the town into three separate parts
+consisting of low, shabby houses. These three districts have been named
+by the sailors after the English sea terms Fore-top, Main-top, and
+Mizen-top. The numerous quebradas, which all intersect the ground in a
+parallel direction, are surrounded by poor-looking houses. The wretched,
+narrow streets running along these quebradas are, in winter, and
+especially at night, exceedingly dangerous, Valparaiso being very badly
+lighted. It sometimes happens that people fall over the edges of the
+chasms and are killed, accidents which not unfrequently occur to the
+drunken sailors who infest these quarters of the town.
+
+Viewed from the sea, Valparaiso has rather a pleasing aspect, and some
+neat detached houses built on little levels, artificially made on the
+declivities of the hills, have a very picturesque appearance. The
+scenery in the immediate background is gloomy; but, in the distance, the
+summit of the volcano Aconcagua, which is 23,000 feet above the level of
+the sea, and which, on fine evenings, is gilded by the rays of the
+setting sun, imparts a peculiar charm to the landscape.
+
+The bay is protected by three small forts. The southernmost, situated
+between the lighthouse and the town, has five guns. The second, which is
+somewhat larger, called el Castillo de San Antonio, is in the southern
+inlet of the bay. Though the most strongly fortified of the three, it is
+in reality a mere plaything. In the northern part of the town, on a
+little hillock, stands the third fort, called el Castillo del Rosario,
+which is furnished with six pieces of cannon. The churches of Valparaiso
+are exceedingly plain and simple, undistinguished either for
+architecture or internal decoration.
+
+The custom-house is especially worthy of mention. It is a beautiful and
+spacious building, and from its situation on the Muele (Mole) is an
+object which attracts the attention of all who arrive at Valparaiso. In
+the neighborhood of the custom-house is the exchange. It is a plain
+building, and contains a large and elegant reading-room, in which may
+always be found the principal European newspapers. In this reading-room
+there is also an excellent telescope by Dollond, which is a source of
+amusement, by affording a view of the comical scenes sometimes enacted
+on board the ships in the port.
+
+The taverns and hotels are very indifferent. The best are kept by
+Frenchmen, though even those are incommodious and expensive. The
+apartments, which scarcely contain necessary articles of furniture, are
+dirty, and often infested with rats. In these houses, however, the table
+is tolerably well provided; for there is no want of good meat and
+vegetables in the market. The second-rate taverns are far beneath the
+very worst in the towns of Europe.
+
+On our arrival in Valparaiso, a vast deal of activity and bustle
+prevailed in the harbor. Chile had declared war against the
+Peru-Bolivian confederation, and was fitting out a new expedition for
+the invasion of Peru. At its head were the banished Peruvian president
+Don Augustin Gamarra, and the Chilian general Bulnes. The growing power
+of Santa Cruz, who set himself up as protector of a confederation
+between Bolivia and Peru, had given alarm to the Chilian government. It
+was apprehended, and not without reason, that the independence of Chile
+might be threatened by so dangerous a neighbor. Santa Cruz had given
+umbrage to Chile by several decrees, especially one, by which merchant
+vessels coming direct from Europe into a Bolivian or Peruvian port, and
+there disposing of their cargoes, were subject to very low duties,
+whilst heavy imposts were levied on ships landing any part of their
+cargoes in a Chilian port. This law greatly increased the trade of Peru;
+but it was prejudicial to Chile. This and other grounds of offence,
+joined to the representations of the fugitive Ex-president Gamarra and
+his adherents, determined the Chilian government to declare war. An
+expedition under the command of General Blanco was sent to Peru; but
+Santa Cruz was prepared to receive the invaders, and in the valley of
+Arequipa he surrounded the Chilian forces so completely that they were
+obliged to surrender without striking a blow. Santa Cruz magnanimously
+allowed General Blanco to make a very favorable capitulation. The
+soldiers were sent home to their country; but the horses were detained
+and sold by the conquerors to the conquered.
+
+The generosity of Don Andres Santa Cruz did not meet its due return on
+the part of the Chilian government. The treaty of peace concluded by
+Blanco was not ratified in Santiago, the minister declaring that the
+general was not authorized to negotiate it. Hostilities were kept up
+between the two states, and at length a second and more important
+expedition was fitted out. It sailed whilst we were lying in the harbor.
+
+No sooner had we cast anchor than several officers of the Chilian army
+came on board to inquire whether we had any swords to dispose of,
+assuring us that they, together with the majority of their comrades,
+were yet unprovided with arms, and knew not where to procure them. The
+captain informed them that there were no swords in our cargo; but that
+he had a few sabres, &c., which he was very willing to sell. They were
+immediately produced, and some were purchased; among the number was a
+heavy broad-sword, about five feet in length, which had once belonged
+to a cuirassier in Napoleon's guard. The Chilian officer who bargained
+for it was a delicate-looking stripling, who, with both hands, could
+scarcely raise the heavy weapon. He, nevertheless, flattered himself
+that it would enable him to achieve great deeds in battle and deal death
+among the Peruvians. Ten months afterwards I met this hero on a march
+among the mountains of Peru. He had, girded on, a light little sword,
+like a tooth pick or a bodkin compared with the formidable weapon he had
+discarded, and which a sturdy negro was carrying behind him. I could not
+refrain from asking the officer whether the trusty broad-sword had not
+done good service in the battle of Yungay; but he candidly acknowledged
+that he had not attempted to use it, as he found it much too unwieldy.
+
+The Chilian squadron sent to Peru consisted of twenty-seven transport
+ships, and eight ships of war. Almost all were in a wretched condition,
+having but few guns, and manned by very insufficient crews. The largest
+vessels were the three corvettes, Confederacion, Santa Cruz, and
+Valparaiso. Only one ship, the schooner brig Colocolo, was distinguished
+for solidity and swift sailing. The fleet was commanded by an admiral of
+little judgment and experience.
+
+Among the crew there were but few Chilenos: most of the men were
+Chilotes and French, English and American deserters. The officers
+commanding the ships were almost all Englishmen. The transport ships
+were heavily laden, some carrying troops, and others provisions. These
+provisions consisted of sesino (dried beef), chalonas (whole sheep
+dried), maize, potatoes, dried fruits and barley, together with hay for
+the horses. The embarkation of the horses was most clumsily managed:
+many were strangled in being hoisted up the ships' sides, others slipped
+through their girths and were severely hurt by falling, and a
+considerable number of the poor animals died before the ships left the
+port. Every morning we saw dozens of dead horses thrown over board. The
+continued lurching of the vessels in which the cavalry was embarked,
+bore evidence of the inconvenient situation of the horses between decks.
+
+At the beginning of July the whole squadron sailed for the harbor of
+Coquimbo, where the troops were decimated by the small-pox.
+
+There prevailed in Chile a feeling very adverse to this campaign; so
+much so that most of the troops were embarked by force. I was standing
+on the _muele_ when the Santiago battalion was shipped. The soldiers,
+who were in wretched uniforms, most of them wearing ponchos, and
+unarmed, were bound together two-and-two by ropes, and absolutely driven
+into the boats.
+
+This war proved most unfortunate to Peru, a result which, however,
+cannot certainly be ascribed either to the courage of the enemy's troops
+or the judgment of their commanders. We shall presently see the
+circumstances which combined to secure triumph to the Chilenos.
+
+I and my fellow-voyagers were also sufferers by the war, our captain
+having imprudently announced his intention of selling the Edmond to the
+protector Santa Cruz, as she might easily have been transformed into an
+excellent corvette. She was a quick sailer, tight-built, carrying ten
+guns of moderate calibre, and she might easily have mounted ten more.
+
+The captain's intention having reached the knowledge of the Chilian
+government, the natural consequence was, that the port was closed, a
+measure deemed the more necessary inasmuch as an American captain was
+suspected of entertaining the design of selling his ship to the
+Peruvians. It was not until the fleet had had time to reach Peru, and
+the first blow was supposed to be struck, that the embargo was raised,
+and we obtained leave to depart. We lay in the port of Valparaiso
+five-and-forty days. To me the most annoying circumstance attending this
+delay was, that I could not absent myself from the port longer than
+twenty-four hours at a time, as the ship was constantly in readiness to
+get under weigh, as soon as we should receive permission to sail, which
+was hourly expected. My excursions were, therefore, confined to the
+immediate neighborhood of the town; and even there my walks and rides
+were much impeded by constant stormy and rainy weather.
+
+On the 29th of July, preparations were made on board our ship for
+celebrating the Paris revolution of 1830. At eight o'clock in the
+morning we fired three guns, and the Edmond was soon decorated from her
+deck to her mast-heads with flags and streamers. At the fore-mast gaily
+floated the Swiss flag, probably the first time it had ever been seen in
+the Pacific. When the guns on board the French ship-of-war had ceased
+firing, we began our salute; but, as we had only ten guns, it was
+necessary to load a second time. Our seamen, being unused to this kind
+of duty, did not observe due precaution, and the consequence was that
+one of them had his hand so dreadfully shattered that immediate
+amputation was indispensable. The day's rejoicing was thus suddenly
+brought to a melancholy close.
+
+The mole in front of the custom-house is exceedingly dangerous; so much
+so, that, during the prevalence of stormy north winds, it is impossible
+to pass along it. From the shore a sort of wooden jetty stretches into
+the sea, at the distance of about sixty paces. This jetty has been
+sometimes partially, and at other times completely, destroyed by the
+waves. The harbor-master's boats, and those belonging to the
+ships-of-war, land on the right side; the left side is allotted to the
+boats of the merchant ships. On the shore there are always a number of
+boats ready to convey persons who wish to go on board the different
+ships. Each boat is generally rowed by two Indians. Whenever any person
+approaches the shore he is beset by the boatmen, who throng round him,
+and alternately, in English and Spanish, importune him with the
+questions,--"Want a boat?" "Vamos á bordo?"
+
+Day and night, parties of custom-house officers go round the port for
+the purpose of preventing smuggling. In this, however, they only
+partially succeed; for they detect only petty smugglers, whilst those
+who carry on contraband trade on a large scale elude their vigilance.
+The captains of French vessels are notorious for this kind of traffic,
+and they frequently succeed in landing vast quantities of goods
+surreptitiously.
+
+The police of Valparaiso is probably as good as it is in any part of
+South America. _Serenos_ (watchmen) perambulate the streets on foot and
+on horseback, and continually give signals one to another by blowing
+small whistles. For personal safety there is little risk, probably not
+more than in the most populous cities of Europe. It is true that
+nocturnal murders sometimes take place; but the police speedily succeed
+in capturing the criminals, who, after a summary trial, are shot.
+
+In Valparaiso, as in most of the towns on the western coast of South
+America, the _serenos_ go about all night, calling the hours and
+announcing the state of the weather. At ten o'clock they commence with
+their--"_Viva Chile!_"--"_Ave Maria purissima!_"--"_Las diez han dado y
+sereno!_" (past ten o'clock and a fine night!) or _nublado_
+(cloudy),--or _lloviendo_ (raining). Thus, they continue calling every
+half-hour till four o'clock in the morning. Should an earthquake take
+place it is announced by the _sereno_ when he goes his round in the
+following half hour. However, the phenomenon usually announces itself in
+so positive a way, that the inhabitants may easily dispense with the
+information of the _serenos_.
+
+Among the most remarkable objects in Valparaiso may be numbered the
+moveable prison. It consists of a number of large covered wagons, not
+unlike those used for the conveyance of wild beasts. In the inside of
+each wagon, planks are fixed up like the board bedsteads in a
+guard-house, affording resting-places for eight or ten prisoners. A
+guard is stationed at the door, which is at the back of the wagon; and
+in the front a sort of kitchen is constructed. These wagons are drawn by
+the prisoners themselves, who are for the most part destined to work in
+the streets and roads, and, accordingly, they take their prison with
+them when they are ordered to any considerable distance from the town.
+To a country in which there may be said to be no winter, this sort of
+nomad prison is exceedingly well-suited, and the prisoners may be
+conveyed from place to place at very little expense.
+
+I went into some of these moveable prisons, and I must confess that I
+never beheld such an assemblage of ill-looking faces as were collected
+within them. In the countenances of some of the prisoners unbridled
+passion and degrading sensuality were so plainly and so odiously
+portrayed, that one shuddered to reflect that such features could be
+an index of the human mind. Most of them were Creole Indians; but
+there were a few Europeans among them. To me it was melancholy to
+behold the European, who might be supposed to possess some little
+share of education, mounting the prison steps chained to his
+fellow-criminal, the uncivilized Chileno.
+
+In Valparaiso, as in all seaports, there is a heterogeneous mixture of
+different countries, nations, languages, and manners, amidst which the
+national character of the country is entirely lost. The trade in
+European goods is very extensive, but almost exclusively in the hands
+of a few great North American and English houses, who supply the whole
+country with the articles they import. At times, such is the overstock
+of importations, that goods are sold at lower prices in Valparaiso
+than in Europe. The warehouses are so filled with some sorts of
+merchandise, that without any fresh supplies there would be sufficient
+for some years to come.
+
+Among the clerks in the mercantile houses I met with a great number of
+Germans, who all maintain an intimate association with each other. They
+have formed themselves into a union, and they have a very commodious
+place in which they hold their meetings. Following their example, the
+English have united together and established several clubs. The French
+have not gained any considerable footing in this part of South America,
+in which there are scarcely two French mercantile houses of any
+consequence. On the other hand, there is abundance of French
+hairdressers, tailors, shoemakers, jewellers, confectioners, and
+_Chevaliers d'industrie_. Neither is there any want of _Modistes
+Parisiennes et Bordelaises_.
+
+Valparaiso is yearly increasing in extent and in the numbers of its
+inhabitants; but the town makes little improvement in beauty. That
+quarter which is built along the Quebradas is certainly susceptible of
+no improvement, owing to the unfavorable locality, and it is only the
+newly-built houses on the heights that impart to the town anything like
+a pleasing aspect. In laying out buildings in a place like Valparaiso,
+the aid of art should make amends for the defects of nature. My visits
+to Valparaiso did not produce a very favorable impression on me. The
+exclusively mercantile occupations of the inhabitants, together with the
+poverty of the adjacent country, leave little to interest the attention
+of a mere transient visitor. The case may be different with persons
+who, having longer time than I had to stay in the town, may enjoy
+opportunities of entering into society, and occasionally visiting the
+pleasant valley of Quillota and the interesting capital Santiago.
+
+The latter is thirty leagues distant from the port; but a very active
+communication is kept up between the two places, and better roads would,
+no doubt, increase the intercourse. A few years ago the roads were very
+unsafe; but now the journey may be performed without danger if the
+_Birlocheros_ (coach-drivers) are in the least degree careful.
+
+The zoology of the neighborhood of Valparaiso is not very interesting,
+though more so along the sea-shore than in parts further inland. Among
+the Mammalia are sometimes seen the fox (_Canis Azaræ_, Wild.), and
+the pole-cat. In the immediate vicinity of the town a very large mouse
+is seen in the burrows of the ground; it is of the eight-toothed
+species (_Octodon Cummingii_, Benn.), and has a brush-formed tail. As
+the fields round Valparaiso are not cultivated these animals do no
+harm, otherwise they would be the plague of agriculture, and probably
+are so in the interior parts of the country. Now and then a sea-dog
+may be observed in the bay; but the whale is seldom seen, and whenever
+one appears he is immediately killed, as there is always a whaler at
+anchor and not far off.
+
+In the market, live condors are frequently sold. These birds are caught
+in traps. A very fine one may be purchased for a dollar and a half. I
+saw eight of these gigantic birds secured in a yard in a very singular
+manner. A long narrow strap of leather was passed through the nostrils
+of the bird and firmly knotted at one end, whilst the other end was
+fastened to a wooden or iron peg fixed in the ground. By this means the
+motion of the bird was not impeded: it could walk within the range of a
+tolerably wide circle; but on attempting to fly it fell to the ground
+head foremost. It is no trifling matter to provide food for eight
+condors; for they are among the most ravenous of birds of prey. The
+owner of those I saw assured me that, by way of experiment, he had
+given a condor, in the course of one day, eighteen pounds of meat
+(consisting of the entrails of oxen); that the bird devoured the
+whole, and ate his allowance on the following day with as good an
+appetite as usual. I measured a very large male condor, and the width
+from the tip of one wing to the tip of the other was fourteen English
+feet and two inches--an enormous expanse of wing, not equalled by any
+other bird except the white albatross. (_Diomedea exulans_, Linn.).
+The snipes (_Scolopax frenata_, Ill.) found on the little plain
+between the bay and the light-house are in color precisely like those
+of Europe, from which, however, they differ in having two more
+feathers in their tails. Small green parrots, little bigger than
+finches, are tamed and brought to Valparaiso from the interior of the
+country. These parrots are very docile, and are easily taught to
+speak; but they cannot endure cold, and require to be tended with very
+great care. In the bay itself there are numerous cormorants, and
+occasionally penguins and large flights of the cut-water or shear-bill
+(_Rhynchops nigra_, Linn.). The latter is distinguished by a
+sharp-pointed bill closing laterally, the under mandible being about
+double the length of the upper one. But the most beautiful bird in the
+bay of Valparaiso is the majestic swan (_Cygnus nigricollis_, Mol.),
+whose body is of dazzling white, whilst the head and neck are black.
+
+On the 13th of August we at length obtained leave to sail. Early on
+the morning of the 14th we weighed anchor; and, as we sailed out of
+the Bay of Valparaiso, the summit of Aconcagua soon disappeared in
+the blue horizon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+Juan Fernandez--Robinson Crusoe--Passage to Callao--San
+Lorenzo--Rise and fall of the coast--Mr. Darwin's opinions
+on this subject--Callao--The Fortress--Siege by the
+Spaniards--General Rodil--Siege by the Chilians--The
+Colocolo--Pirates--Zoology--Road to Lima.
+
+
+With a favorable east wind we reached, in thirty-six hours, the island
+of Juan Fernandez, which lies in the latitude of Valparaiso. Ships from
+Europe, bound to Peru, which do not go into Chile, usually touch at Juan
+Fernandez to test their chronometers. It consists in fact of three
+islands, forming a small compact group. Two of them, in accordance with
+the Spanish names, may be called the Inward Island and the Outward
+Island, for the most easterly is called _Mas a Tierra_ (more to the main
+land), that to the west is called _Mas a Fuera_ (more towards the
+offing). That to the south, which is almost a naked rock, is the _Isla
+de Lobos_, which we may call Sea-dog Island. The two first are covered
+with grass and trees. _Mas a Tierra_ is much longer, and better suited
+for cultivation than _Mas a Fuera_. In form the two islands have a
+striking resemblance to Flores and Cordua, islands of the group of the
+Azores. Until within these twenty years, _Mas a Tierra_ was the place of
+exportation for convicts from Chile; but as it was found that the
+facility of escape is great, none are now sent there. In 1812 a number
+of prisoners of war were confined there, but the rats, which had
+increased in an extraordinary degree, consumed all the provisions sent
+from Chile. Several fruitless attempts have been made to populate the
+island, but that object is now given up, and it is only occasionally
+visited by sea-dog hunters. Ulloa speaks of the great number of
+sea-calves or dogs with which the island was frequented, and
+distinguishes kinds which belong to the short-eared species. Their skins
+are excellent, and they sell at a good price in England. Wild goats are
+numerous, and their propagation would be excessive were it not for the
+multitude of dogs, also wild, by which they are destroyed.
+
+There is yet another kind of interest attached to Juan Fernandez. It was
+on Mas a Tierra that, in 1704, the celebrated English navigator,
+Dampier, landed his coxswain, Alexander Selkirk, with whom he had
+quarrelled, and left him there with a small quantity of provisions, and
+a few tools. Selkirk had lived four years and four months on this
+uninhabited island, when he was found there by the bucaneers Woods and
+Rogers, and brought back to Europe. From the notes which he made during
+his solitary residence, the celebrated Daniel Defoe composed his
+incomparable work, ROBINSON CRUSOE.
+
+The weather continued favorable, and in about a week we doubled the west
+point of San Lorenzo Island, where some Chilian cruizers were watching
+the coast. We soon entered the fine bay of Callao, and cast anchor in
+the harbor of the _Ciudad de los Reyes_. While rounding the island, an
+American corvette spoke us. She had left Valparaiso on the same day with
+us, and sailed also through the strait between San Lorenzo and the main
+land; yet, during the whole passage, we never saw each other.
+
+No signals were exchanged between us and the shore, and no port-captain
+came on board. We were exceedingly anxious to know the issue of the
+Chilian expedition. Hostile ships of war lay off the port, but the
+Peruvian flag waved on the fort. At last a French naval cadet came on
+board, and informed us that the Chilians had landed successfully, and
+had taken Lima by storm two days previously. They were, at that moment,
+besieging the fortress. We immediately went on shore.
+
+The town presented a melancholy aspect. The houses and streets were
+deserted. In all Callao we scarcely met a dozen persons, and the most
+of those we saw were negroes. Some of the inhabitants came gradually
+back, but in the course of a month scarcely a hundred had returned,
+and for safety they slept during the night on board merchant ships in
+the bay. At the village of Bella Vista, a quarter of a mile from
+Callao, the Chilians had erected their batteries for bombarding the
+fortress. As it was difficult to obtain provisions, the commanders of
+the foreign ships of war sent every morning a small detachment of
+sailors with a steward to Bella Vista, to purchase meat and
+vegetables. The merchant-ships joined in the practice, so that early
+every morning a long procession of boats with flags flying proceeded
+to the Chilian camp. But a stop was soon put to this, as an English
+butcher in Callao found means to go with the boats for the purpose of
+purchasing large quantities of meat, which he afterwards sold at an
+immense profit, to the fortress. Though the besieged did not suffer
+from want, they were far from having superfluity.
+
+Having sufficient time to make myself acquainted with the country in the
+immediate vicinity of Callao, I took advantage of every opportunity for
+excursions; going from place to place by water, which was more safe than
+journeying by land.
+
+The bay of Callao is one of the largest and calmest on the west coast of
+South America. On the south-west, it is bounded by the sterile island of
+San Lorenzo; on the north it flows into the creeks, which are terminated
+by the Punta Gorda, the Punta Pernal, the Punta de dos Playas, and the
+Punta de Doña Pancha. The beach is flat, for the most part shingly, and
+about the mouth of the Rimac, somewhat marshy. Between the mouth of the
+Rimac and that of the Rio de Chillon, which is a little southward of the
+Punta Gorda, there is a tract of rich marshy soil. A small boot-shaped
+tongue of land stretches from the fortress westward to San Lorenzo. On
+this spot are the ruins of old Callao.
+
+San Lorenzo is a small, long-shaped island, about 15 English miles in
+circumference. It is intersected throughout its whole length by a ridge
+of sharp crested hills, of which the highest point is about 1387 feet
+above the level of the sea. On the north-eastern side, the declivity is
+less steep than on the south-west, where it descends almost
+perpendicularly into the sea. Seals and sea-otters inhabit the steep
+rocks of the southern declivity, and swarms of sea-birds nestle on the
+desolate shore. San Lorenzo is separated on the southern side by a
+narrow strait, from a small rocky island called El Fronton, which is
+also the abode of numerous seals.
+
+The coasts of Callao and San Lorenzo have undergone very remarkable
+changes within a few centuries. Mr. Darwin, the English geologist, is
+of opinion that this part of Peru has risen eighty-five feet since it
+has had human inhabitants. On the north-eastern declivity of San
+Lorenzo, which is divided into three indistinctly marked terraces, there
+are numbers of shells of those same species of conchyliæ which are at
+the present time found living on the coast. On an accurate examination
+of these shells, Mr. Darwin found many of them deeply corroded. "They
+have," he says, "a much older and more decayed appearance than those at
+the height of 500 or 600 feet on the coast of Chile. These shells are
+associated with much common salt, a little sulphate of lime (both
+probably left by the evaporation of the spray, as the land slowly rose),
+together with sulphate of soda, and muriate of lime. The rest are
+fragments of the underlying sand-stone, and are covered by a few inches
+thick of detritus. The shells higher up on this terrace could be traced
+scaling off in flakes, and falling into an impalpable powder; and on an
+upper terrace, at the height of 170 feet, and likewise at some
+considerably higher points, I found a layer of saline powder, of exactly
+similar appearance, and lying in the same relative position. I have no
+doubt that the upper layer originally existed on a bed of shells, like
+that on the eighty-five feet ledge, but it does not now contain even a
+trace of organic structure."[2] Mr. Darwin adds, that on the terrace,
+which is eighty-five feet above the sea, he found embedded amidst the
+shells and much sea-drifted rubbish, some bits of cotton thread, plaited
+rush, and the head of a stalk of Indian corn.
+
+San Lorenzo does not appear to have been inhabited in very early ages.
+The fragments of human industry which have been found mixed in the
+shells have probably been brought thither by fishermen who visit the
+island, and often pass the night on it.
+
+Darwin further remarks:--"It has been stated that the land subsided
+during this memorable shock (in 1746): I could not discover any proof
+of this; yet it seems far from improbable, for the form of the coast
+must certainly have undergone some change since the foundation of the
+old town," &c.--"On the island of San Lorenzo there are very
+satisfactory proofs of elevation within a recent period; this, of
+course, is not opposed to the belief of a small sinking of the ground
+having subsequently taken place."
+
+But satisfactory evidence of the sinking of the coast is not to be
+obtained in a visit of a few weeks' duration; nor must that evidence
+rest solely on geological facts, though doubtless they furnish much
+important data. History must aid the inquiry. Tradition and the
+recollections of old persons must be attended to. According to these
+authorities, a change more or less considerable has taken place in the
+level of the coast, after every great earthquake. If we refer to the
+account given by Ulloa, and compare the plan of the harbor of Callao,
+drawn by him in 1742, with the most correct modern charts, we do not
+find much difference in the representations of the distance between
+the main-land and San Lorenzo. Four years afterwards the great
+earthquake occurred, which destroyed the city of Callao, and plunged
+it into the sea. Subsequently there was a rising of the coast, which
+could not be inconsiderable, for according to the statements of old
+inhabitants of Callao, the distance from the coast to San Lorenzo was
+so inconsiderable that boys used to throw stones over to the island.
+At present the distance is nearly two English miles. I have no doubt
+of the general correctness of those statements, for a careful
+investigation of facts leads to the same conclusion; so that within
+the last sixty or seventy years the sinking must have been
+considerable. It must be observed, however, that the ruins on the
+small tongue of land are not, as Darwin supposes, the remains of the
+city of Callao, swallowed up by the sea in 1746, but of the Callao
+which was destroyed by the great earthquake of 1630.
+
+Another proof of the sinking exists in the extensive shallow between
+the coast of the main-land and San Lorenzo, called the Camotal. In
+early times this shallow was dry land, producing vegetables, in
+particular _Camotes_ (sweet potatoes), whence the name of this portion
+of the strait is derived. The inundation took place in the time of the
+Spaniards, but before 1746, either in the great earthquake of 1687, or
+in that of 1630.
+
+Northward of the Bay of Callao, near the plantation of Boca Negra, there
+is a shallow, where, according to records, there existed a sugar
+plantation about fifty years ago. Turning to the south of Callao, in the
+direction of Lurin, we find, at the distance of about two English miles
+from the coast, two islands or rocks, of which one is called Pachacamac,
+and the other Santa Domingo. At the time of the Spanish invasion these
+rocks were connected with the main-land, and formed a promontory. On one
+of them stood a temple or castle. At what period they were detached from
+the coast I have not been able to ascertain authentically; but there
+appears reason to suppose that the separation took place during the
+violent earthquake of 1586. Attentive investigations to the north of
+Callao--at Chancay, Huacho, Baranca, &c., would probably bring to light
+further evidence on this subject.
+
+Between the facts stated by Mr. Darwin and those here adduced, there
+is considerable discrepancy. On the one hand they denote a rising, and
+on the other a sinking. But it may be asked, might not both these
+phenomena have occurred at different times?[3] Mr. Darwin's opinion
+respecting the still-continued rising of the coast does not appear to
+me to rest on satisfactory evidence. The relics of human industry
+which he found embedded among shells, at the height of eighty-five
+feet above the sea, only prove that the elevation has taken place
+after the land was inhabited by the human race, but do not mark the
+period at which that elevation occurred. Pieces of cotton thread and
+plaited rush are no proofs of a very refined degree of civilisation,
+such as the Spaniards brought with them to Peru, and cannot therefore
+be taken as evidence that the elevation took place at any period
+subsequent to the conquest. Garcilaso de la Vega traces the dynasty of
+the Incas down to the year 1021, a period when the inhabitants of the
+coast of Peru were tolerably well advanced in civilisation. Fernando
+Montesinos furnishes facts connected with the history of Peru, of
+several thousand years' earlier date; and, judging from the number of
+dynasties, the nature of the laws, &c., it may be inferred that
+civilisation existed at a period of even more remote antiquity. It
+cannot therefore be determined with any accuracy at what time the
+deposit at San Lorenzo, now eighty-five feet high, was level with the
+sea, or whether the rise suddenly followed one of those frightful
+catastrophes which have so often visited the western coast of South
+America. Then, again, the different degrees of decay presented by the
+beds of shells seem to indicate that the rising has been gradual; and
+it may have been going on for thousands of years. Had the coast risen
+eighty-five feet since the Spanish conquest--that is to say, within
+the space of three hundred and sixty-two years--the Camotal would long
+since have again risen above the surface of the sea; for it is very
+improbable that it sank to a depth exceeding ninety or ninety-five
+feet. It is evident that risings and sinkings have occurred at various
+times, and that causes contingent on earthquakes have produced the
+variations in the rising and falling of the coast.
+
+It is probable that the accurate sounding of the depth of water in the
+Camotal, at stated intervals, would furnish the best means of
+ascertaining the rising and sinking of the coast. A variety of
+circumstances combine to favor the practicability of calculation by this
+method. For example, no river flows into that part of the bay in which
+the Camotal is situated. The Rimac, whose mouth lies further to the
+north, is not sufficiently large to carry any considerable deposit into
+the bed of the bay: moreover, there is but little tide, and the bay is
+always calm, being sheltered on the south by the island of San Lorenzo,
+and north breezes are rare and never violent.
+
+I may here mention a singular phenomenon which has in latter times often
+occurred at Callao, and which, in 1841, I had myself the opportunity of
+observing. About two in the morning the sea flowed from the shore with
+greater force than in the strongest ebb; the ships farthest out were
+left dry, which is never the case in an ebb tide. The alarm of the
+inhabitants was great when the sea rushed instantly back with increased
+force. Nothing could withstand its fury. Meanwhile there was no
+commotion of the earth, nor any marked change of temperature.
+
+In the earthquake of 1746 Callao was completely overwhelmed by the
+sea. Several travellers have related that on calm days with a clear
+sky the old town may be seen beneath the waves. I have also heard the
+same story from inhabitants of Callao. It is doubtless a mere fable.
+Under the most favorable circumstances I have often examined the
+spot--the Mar brava, as it is called--without being able to discover a
+trace of the ruins of old Callao.
+
+The existing town of Callao is small, and by no means pleasant. In
+winter it is damp and dirty, and in summer so dusty that in passing
+through the streets one is almost choked. Most of the houses are very
+slightly built, and they are usually only one story high. The walls are
+constructed of reeds, plastered over with loam or red clay. All the
+roofs are flat, being made of straw mats laid on a frame-work of reeds,
+which is also plastered with loam on the under side. The windows are in
+the roof, and consist of wooden trap-doors, which look very much like
+bird-cages. They have no glass panes, but gratings made of wooden spars.
+On the inside there is a window-shutter, and a string hangs down into
+the apartment, by means of which the shutter can be opened or closed.
+
+The most interesting object seen in Callao is the splendid fortress.
+Though built on a flat surface close to the sea, it has a magnificent
+appearance. It consists of two castles, the largest of which the
+Spaniards named Real Filippe, but since the Revolution it is called
+Castillo de la Independencia. It has two round towers, wide, but not
+very high. The court-yards are spacious. The walls are thick, rather
+low, and surrounded by a ditch, which can be filled with water from the
+sea. To the south of this castle there is a smaller one, called El
+Castillo del Sol. Before the War of Independence they mounted both
+together four hundred pieces of cannon, many of which were of very large
+calibre. At present they have only sixty pieces of cannon and
+seventy-one carronades.
+
+On the fortress of Callao the Spanish flag waved long after independence
+was declared in all the countries of Spanish South America. The Spanish
+general, Rodil, threw himself into the castle, and with wonderful
+resolution held out against a siege of a year and a half. During the
+last three months the Spaniards suffered all the privations and
+miseries which a besieged army must endure within the tropics.
+
+Lord Cochrane blockaded the fortress by sea, and General Bartolome Salom
+drew up his army on the land side. More than 4,000 Spaniards fled to the
+castle with all their valuable property, and took refuge under Rodil's
+protection. The greater part of the fugitives belonged to the principal
+families of the country. When provisions began to fail, the commandant
+found it necessary to expel 400 women, and one morning they issued forth
+in a long line of procession. The besiegers supposed that the enemy was
+making a sortie, and directed the fire of their artillery against the
+helpless beings, who, uttering loud shrieks, attempted to save
+themselves by flight. As soon as the mistake was discovered the firing
+stopped, and the women were conveyed to Lima. Insurrections were several
+times attempted by the garrison of Callao; but the presence of mind and
+cool resolution of Rodil in every instance enabled him to suppress these
+mutinies. The guilty were punished with so much severity that the
+soldiers soon gave up all further attempts. Horses, asses, dogs and
+cats, became at length the food of the besieged. Rodil at this time
+carried on a traffic which does no honor to his character. He had a
+quantity of provisions stored, which he now sold at immense prices. For
+a fowl he got from three to four gold ounces. He demanded proportional
+prices for bread, &c. A contagious fever broke out, and, of more than
+4000 persons who had taken refuge in the fortress, only about 200
+survived the siege. Hunger and disease at last obliged Rodil to yield.
+On the 19th of February, 1826, he obtained an honorable capitulation,
+and embarked with his acquired wealth for Spain, where he was invested
+with the rank of commander-in-chief of the infantry guards.
+
+Since the independence of Peru this fortress has often been the seat of
+partial revolutions. Its death-doom has been pronounced by different
+governments, and it will be a fortunate event for the country when it
+ceases to exist as a place of warlike defence. It has lately been found
+useful for other purposes, and a great portion of its vast space has
+been converted into custom-house warehouses.
+
+The siege of Callao by the Chilians, of which we were eye-witnesses, was
+by no means such a serious affair as that undertaken by the patriots.
+The squadron was weak, and the land army inconsiderable. Callao was only
+cannonaded during the night by some Chilian gun-boats commanded by
+Englishmen. The artillery of the castle was inefficient, but the Chilian
+bombs did considerable damage. One Sunday afternoon the little Chilian
+brig, "Colocolo," sailed in close under the walls of the fortress, and
+threw in some shot. The fire was immediately returned by all the guns
+that could be directed to the sea-side; but in vain did the Peruvians
+expend their shot. Every ball went over the "Colocolo," and fell among
+the neutral ships. The commander of the French squadron then sent a boat
+to the fortress, with a declaration that he would attack it in good
+earnest if the fire was not discontinued. The message had due effect.
+
+A few days after the affair with the "Colocolo," the Peruvians had an
+opportunity of avenging the provocations they had received. The Chilian
+admiral sent an officer, with seven sailors, to our ship to purchase
+shoes. The garrison having observed the Chilian boat, sent out a shallop
+with twenty-five men, which came close alongside of us. In spite of our
+opposition the Chilian officer leaped into his boat and stood off. He
+was, however, too late; for, just as he was leaving the ship's side, the
+hostile shallop passed under our bowsprit, and fired a volley into the
+Chilian boat. Five sailors fell into the sea, either killed or wounded.
+Of three men picked up, one was the officer, who had received two wounds
+from musket balls. We saved one of the wounded sailors by throwing him a
+rope, by which we pulled him up, covering him with the French flag.
+
+The Peruvians had no longer a fleet strong enough to keep at sea; but
+soon after their government purchased the "Edmond," and some other
+merchantmen, and fitted them up as privateers. The command was given to
+M. Blanchet, who had been first pilot of the "Edmond" during our voyage
+from Europe. After he had taken the "Arequipena," an old Chilian ship of
+war, and burnt several transports, he attacked three Chilian corvettes
+in the harbor of Casma. They had already struck their flags, when
+Blanchet was shot while boarding one of them. His loss damped the
+courage of the Corsairs, and the contest was soon given up. The shock of
+Blanchet's death had such an effect on the crew of the "Edmond," that
+they all went down between decks in great grief, except the cook, who
+fired a gun he had charged to the brim, and killed some men who were on
+a bowsprit of one of the hostile vessels. He then sprang to the helm,
+and steered the ship safely into one of the inlets of the bay.
+
+The lover of natural history finds in the bay of Callao numerous
+opportunities for gratifying his curiosity. The mammalia are not very
+numerous. Sea otters and sea dogs are found there, as on all parts of
+the South American coast. Two species (the _Otaria aurita_, Humb., and
+the _O. Ulloæ_, Tsch.) inhabit the southern declivity of the Fronton.
+I went to hunt seals on the rock with the officers of a French ship of
+war. When we landed, which was difficult on account of the breakers,
+we fired at the animals and killed a number of them. A sailor waded
+through the breakers and bound the dead seals with a rope, by which he
+drew them on board. As we shot a great number of birds, the Chilian
+admiral, on hearing the firing, thought that one of his ships must be
+engaged with the Peruvian Corsairs; and, therefore, sent out the "San
+Lorenzo" brig of war to see what was going on.
+
+The bay abounds in fine water-fowl. Amongst the most remarkable is
+Humboldt's penguin (_Spheniscus Humboldti_, Mey.). A few are smaller
+than the common grey penguin, and one is somewhat different in color on
+the back and breast. The Peruvians call it _Paxaro niño_ (the child
+bird). It is easily tamed, becomes very social, and follows its master
+like a dog. It is amusing to see it waddling along with its plump body
+and short legs, and keeping itself in equilibrium by moving its floating
+wings. I had one completely tame, which I bought from an Indian. It was
+named _Pepe_, and it answered readily to the name. When I was at my
+meals he regularly placed himself beside my chair, and at night he slept
+under my bed. When he wished to bathe he went into the kitchen and beat
+with his bill on an earthen pan until somebody threw water over him, or
+brought him a vessel full of water for a bath.
+
+I brought away a few of the marine birds which appeared the most
+remarkable. Among them was the banded cormorant (_Carbo Gaimardi_,
+Less.). On the back it is grey, marbled by white spots; the belly is
+fine ash-grey, and on each side of the throat there runs a broad white
+stripe or band. The bill is yellow and the feet are red. The iris is
+peculiar; I never saw its like in any other bird. It changes throughout
+the whole circle in regular square spots, white and sea-green. Thousands
+of the spotted gannet (_Sula variegata_, Tsch.) inhabit the rocks of the
+island of San Lorenzo. This bird is the greatest producer of guano. The
+inca tern (_Sterna luca_, Less.) is without doubt the finest of the
+whole tern family. The color of the head is brown-grey; getting darker
+towards the tail, and brighter on the lower body. From the root of the
+bill on either side there shoot out some white feathers slightly
+curving, so that they give the appearance of white moustachios. Among
+the land birds are some very fine colibri (_Trochilus Amazilia_, and
+_Tr. Cora_, Less.). The horse-protector (_Crotophaga sulcata_, Swains.)
+is a singular animal. It is about the size of a starling, with a short,
+compressed and curved bill, having several deep furrows along its sides.
+The tail is long and fan-shaped. The whole body is of a deep blue color,
+with a slight metallic brightness. The bird is very social with cattle
+of all kinds, and more particularly with horses. It is fond of perching
+on the back of a horse or an ass, and searching for insects which it
+finds there in abundance. These animals are very sensible of the service
+thus rendered to them, and by the manner in which they move about when
+the bird is perched on their heads or necks, show how much they are
+gratified by its presence.
+
+Foreigners, when they visit the coast of Peru for the first time, are
+much surprised at the immense number of birds of the vulture species
+which they meet with about the roads and on the roofs of the houses. In
+Callao and in all other ports the Turkey vulture (_Cathartes aura_,
+Illig.) is frequently seen. It is called by the Spaniards _Gallinazo á
+cabéza colorada_ (red-headed vulture). Further in the interior of the
+country it is frequently seen, though there it is less common than the
+black gallinazo (_Cathartes foetens_, Illig.). The color of the former
+is dark brownish-black; the unplumed head and throat are red; the
+throat is full of wrinkles and warts. The latter is very like it in size
+and color, only the head and neck are greyish black. These birds are the
+size of a turkey-cock; but they are lanker and more angular in form. The
+black-headed gallinazo is inactive, heavy, and seldom flies far. When
+seeking food he hops about on the ground in short, regular springs. When
+he wishes to move faster forwards he helps himself with his wings, but
+without flying. Its cry is seldom heard and never long continued. At
+noon, sometimes from sixty to eighty of these birds perch themselves on
+the tops of the houses or on the adjoining walls, and with the heads
+under the wing they all go to roost. They are extremely voracious, and
+devour every sort of animal substance they can find, however filthy it
+may be. They are not in the least degree shy, for they hop about among
+men and cattle in the most populous places. The Turkey vulture is far
+more lively, and its movements are more light. It flies faster, and
+continues longer on the wing than the black-headed gallinazo. It is,
+however, more timid. It nestles in sandy rocks and uninhabited islands.
+The female lays three or four whitish eggs, which are hatched in
+February and March. The common gallinazo usually builds its nest on the
+tops of houses, churches, ruins, and high walls. The female lays three
+or four eggs, which are whitish brown and speckled, and are hatched in
+the same months as the eggs of the Turkey vulture.
+
+Among the amphibia in Callao, the iguana and land agama are numerous.
+Snakes abound in the low bushes at the mouth of the Rimac, and some
+kinds, which are venomous, live on the arid sand-banks. All the sea
+tortoises have been driven out of the bay, and now inhabit the detached
+creeks of the uninhabited parts of the coast.
+
+The kinds of fish are numerous.--Sharks, rays, ballancers, corvinas,
+bonitos, &c., are caught in abundance. Most of the corvinas and bonitos
+are carried to market. The flesh of the latter is firm, dry, and less
+savory than the corvina. The _Pexe-rey_ (king-fish) is superior in
+flavor to the _Pexe-sapo_ (toad-fish), which is a little larger, and has
+a thick, fleshy head. These fish are taken on rocks and under water,
+where they are struck by a kind of harpoon hooks and drawn out.
+
+When, on board the "Edmond," I first saw the towers of Lima gilded by
+the beams of the setting sun, and the chains of hills behind, rising by
+gradations, until in the farthest background they blended with the
+cloud-capped Cordilleras, I felt an inexpressible desire to advance
+towards those regions, that I might breathe the air of the Andes, and
+there behold nature under her wildest aspect. But these wishes were
+vain, and I was compelled to turn again to the desolate ocean; for it
+was understood that our further voyage must be towards the north, and
+from there that we should proceed to the coast of Asia. I did not then
+foresee that my longing might be fulfilled, and that so much of
+enjoyment, together with so much toil and danger, awaited me in the
+mountainous regions of Peru.
+
+Notwithstanding the insecurity of the road to Lima I resolved to proceed
+thither. Carriages and horses were not to be procured in Callao, for the
+latter were all either seized for the service of the government or
+concealed. I could therefore travel only on foot. Don Manuel de la
+Guarda, the commander of the fortress, observed, whilst giving me a
+passport, that he would advise me to use speed, and to get as soon as
+possible out of the range of the guns, for he expected every moment to
+be obliged to order the firing to commence. I did not neglect to follow
+his advice. However I had not got more than a hundred paces from the
+castle when the artillery began to play, and balls fell around on every
+side. I quickened my pace, and soon got near some fences, where men were
+firing with muskets. There I was seized by some Chilian cuirassiers, who
+sent me forward from post to post, until at last in one of the posts I
+met with an officer with whom I had been acquainted in Chile. When I was
+dining one day on board the corvette Confederacion in the bay of
+Valparaiso, the young officer whom I have just alluded to sat next me.
+The conversation happening to turn on phrenology, he insisted on my
+examining his head, and pronouncing a phrenological diagnosis on it.
+Though I assured him that I attached no value on this alleged science,
+he continued to urge me to make the examination. After feeling his head
+I observed to him, with great gravity: "Here is the organ of
+mathematics pretty well developed, and it is probable that you may
+distinguish yourself in that branch of knowledge." The fact was, I had
+observed from his uniform that he belonged to the artillery, and since I
+was obliged to say something, I thought it would be best to make my
+remarks refer to his profession. Don Antonio had not forgotten it, for
+as soon as he saw me at the outpost, he ran up to me quite overjoyed,
+and told me that I had judged rightly of his talent, for the guns which
+he commanded always sent their balls direct into the fortress, and did
+more execution than any other. By following my advice and cultivating
+his mathematical organ, he assured me, he was enabled to direct a gun
+better than any other officer, and his aim could always be relied on. He
+immediately procured me a pass, by which I was conducted all the
+remainder of my journey.
+
+The distance from Callao to Lima is two Spanish leagues. The road is
+covered with deep sand, and on either side are uncultivated fields and
+low brushwood. After leaving Callao I came to Bella Vista, then to the
+ruins of an old Indian village, and farther on inland reached some
+plantations. Halfway between Callao and Lima is the convent of _la
+Virgen del Carmen_, and also a chapel. The convent is now abandoned,
+but in front of the chapel there constantly stands a monk, who begs
+for alms. Close to the convent there is a Tambo,[4] in which brandy,
+lemonade, and bananas are sold. This place, which is called La Legna,
+is a Spanish league from both towns. The hired horses are so used
+to put up at this place, that it is only with great trouble they
+can be got to pass it.
+
+Though much wearied by my journey on foot, I tried in vain to obtain
+some refreshment here. Unluckily the Tambero, a Zambo, had decamped,
+as his house had often been plundered.
+
+In the most oppressive heat I wandered over the shadeless plain, and
+at last reached the fine road called the _Alameda del Callao_, which
+extends from the Callao Gate of Lima to nearly half a league beyond
+the city. Don Ambrosio O'Higgins, an Irishman by birth, first a small
+shopkeeper in Lima, then a soldier in Chile, and finally viceroy of
+Peru, with the title of _Marques de Osorno_, built the fine Callao
+Gate and laid out the Alameda. On the 6th of January, 1800, it was
+solemnly opened. The whole undertaking cost 340,964 dollars.
+Resting-places are made in the Alameda at regular distances; and there
+are on each side charming gardens, with luxuriant fruit-trees. Happy
+in having reached the end of my wearisome journey, I quickly passed
+through the Callao Gate, and entered the City of the Kings.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: Natural History and Geology of the countries visited by the
+Beagle.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Mr. Darwin, in the work just quoted, says in reference to
+this subject, "Since our voyage, Dr. Tschudi has come to the conclusion,
+by the comparison of old and modern maps, that the earth both north and
+south of Lima has certainly subsided."--T.]
+
+[Footnote 4: _Tambo_ is an Indian word, signifying an _Inn_. _Tambero_
+means _Inn-keeper_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+Lima--Situation and extent of the City--Streets, Houses, Churches and
+Convents--San Pedro--The Jesuits--Nunneries--Beatarios--Hospitals--San
+Andres--The Foundling House--The Pantheon--The Palace--The Plaza
+Mayor--Pizarro--The Cabildo--Fountains--Palace of the Inquisition--The
+University--National Library--Museum of Natural History and
+Antiquities--Academy of Design--The Mint--The Theatre--Circus for
+Cock-fighting--The Bridge--The City Wall--Santa Catalina--Barracks.
+
+
+Lima is built on both banks of the river Rimac, which divides the town
+into two unequal parts.[5] The larger part (the town, properly so
+called) is situated on the southern bank of the river; the smaller part,
+consisting of the suburb San Lazaro, or the fifth section, is on the
+northern bank. The greatest extent of Lima is from east to west; from
+the Gate of Maravillas to the Monserrate. Between those two points the
+distance is 4471 varas,[6] or two-thirds of a Legua, or Spanish league;
+and the greatest breadth of the city, that is to say, from the Bridge
+(the suburb of San Lazaro not included) to the Gate of Guadalupe, is
+2515 varas, or two-fifths of a Legua. The utmost circumference of Lima
+is about ten English miles. The plain on which the city is built, takes
+rather a decided slope from east to west.
+
+The streets of Lima intersect each other in right lines, and
+consequently groups of houses form quadrangles: these are called
+_manzanas_. Each side of one of these manzanas measures on the average
+from 140 to 145 varas; and it may therefore be computed that,
+collectively, they occupy a superficies of from 148,000 to 160,000.
+There are in all 211 manzanas, of which those situated on the Periphery
+are the smallest and most irregularly constructed. Lima is divided into
+five sections, which are again subdivided into ten districts and
+forty-six _Barrios_. It contains about 3380 houses, 56 churches and
+convents (the latter occupying at least one-fourth of the superficies of
+the city), 34 squares or open areas in front of the churches, and 419
+streets. On the average the streets are about 34 feet wide and 386 feet
+long. Most of them are very badly paved, but they have lateral
+footpaths. According to the original plan for building Lima, it was
+intended that all the streets should run in one direction, viz., from
+southeast to northwest, so that the walls of the houses might afford
+shade both morning and afternoon. Between the Plaza Mayor and Santa
+Clara this plan has been pretty uniformly carried out; but in other
+parts it has been less rigidly observed. At noon there can be no shade,
+as the city is situated in 12° of south latitude.
+
+The impression produced at first sight of Lima is by no means favorable,
+for the Periphery, the quarter which a stranger first enters, contains
+none but old, dilapidated, and dirty houses; but on approaching the
+vicinity of the principal square, the place improves so greatly that the
+miserable appearance it presents at first sight is easily forgotten.
+
+Most of the houses in Lima are only one story high, and some have only
+the ground-floor. The larger class of houses correspond one with another
+in the style of building. In front they have two doors: one is called
+the _Azaguan_, and is the principal entrance to the house; and next to
+it is the door of the _Cochera_ (coach-house). Either above the cochera
+door, or on one side of the house door, there is frequently a little
+chamber, having a window closed by a wooden railing. At this little
+railed window the ladies are accustomed to sit and watch the
+passers-by--nor are they very much displeased when some of the latter
+occasionally make free to _reguardar la reja_ (to look at the railing).
+The azaguan opens into a spacious court-yard called the _Patio_, on
+either side of which there are little rooms. Directly facing the
+azaguan, is the dwelling-house, round which there usually runs a
+balcony. Two large folding-doors lead into the Hall (_Sala_), in which
+the furniture consists of a sofa, a hammock, and a row of chairs: the
+floor is covered with straw matting. From the sala a glazed door opens
+into a smaller apartment, called the _Cuadro_, which is elegantly, often
+splendidly furnished, and the floor is carpeted. This is the room into
+which visitors are shown. Adjoining the cuadro are the sleeping-rooms,
+the dining-room, the nursery, &c. These apartments communicate with a
+second court-yard, called the _Traspatio_, the walls of which are often
+adorned with fresco paintings. This _Traspatio_, a portion of which is
+usually laid out as a little garden, communicates with the kitchen and
+the stable (_corral_). A small avenue, called the _callejon_, forms a
+communication from the first to the second Patio, and is used as a
+passage for the horses. When there is no _callejon_, as is often the
+case in the poorer class of houses, the horses are led through the sala
+and the cuadro. In the upper story the arrangement of the rooms differs
+from that of the ground-floor. Above the azaguan is the cuadro, opening
+into a balcony, which is attached to most of the houses in Lima. The
+sala in the upper story forms an ante-room to the cuadro; and the rest
+of the apartments are built above the ranges of ground-floor rooms on
+either side of the patio. Above the sala and cuadro of the ground-floor,
+there are no upper rooms. The roofs of those two apartments form a kind
+of large terrace called the _Azotea_, which is paved with freestone, and
+surrounded by a railing. This _azotea_ serves as a play-ground for the
+children of the family; it is ornamented with flower-pots, and covered
+with an awning to shade it from the sun. The upper story has a flat
+roof, composed of bamboos and mats, overspread with mortar or light
+tiles. In the houses of Lima, as in those of Callao, the windows of some
+of the rooms are made in the roofs. The other windows, of which there
+are but few, are on each side of the house door; they are tastefully
+ornamented, and often have richly gilt lattices.
+
+The style of house-building here described must of course be taken
+merely as a general example; that there are numerous deviations from it
+may naturally be supposed. In the large houses the walls are of brick,
+faced with ornamental tiles (_adobes_). In the smaller houses, the walls
+consist of double rows of bamboos, covered with plaster, and afterwards
+painted white or yellow. The fronts of the houses are usually quite
+plain, but here and there may be seen a house with a finely ornamented
+façade. The house of Torre Tagle, near San Pedro, and some others, are
+remarkable for the beauty of their ornaments, which attract the notice
+of all strangers visiting Lima.
+
+Owing to the heat of the climate, the doors and windows are almost
+always kept open, so that the houses have not the privacy and comfort
+of European dwellings.
+
+Of the numerous churches and convents in Lima, some are deserving of
+particular mention. The cathedral occupies the whole eastern side of
+the Plaza Mayor. The foundation stone of this edifice was laid on the
+18th of January, 1534, by Don Francisco Pizarro, who named it the
+Church of _Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion_. Ninety years elapsed
+before the building was completed, and on the 19th of October, 1625,
+it was consecrated by the Archbishop, Don Gonzalo de Ocampo. Such was
+the pomp observed at this ceremony, that, though mass commenced at
+six in the morning, it was five o'clock in the afternoon before the
+host was raised.
+
+The interior of the cathedral is exceedingly beautiful. The grand altar
+is ornamented with seven Ionic columns of silver, twelve feet high, and
+one and a half thick, and is surmounted by a massive silver gilt crown.
+The tabernacle is seven feet and a half high, and composed of
+exquisitely wrought gold, set with a profusion of diamonds and emeralds.
+On each side of the altar there are massive silver candelabra, each
+weighing four and a half arobas (712-1/2 pounds). On high festival days,
+the gorgeous splendor of the cathedral of Lima probably exceeds that of
+the principal churches in Rome. The robes and ornaments worn by the
+priests correspond with the magnificence of the altar; they are
+embroidered in gold, and set with precious stones. The cathedral service
+is performed by the canons (Canonigos).
+
+Among the Churches of Lima, San Lazaro is distinguished for its tasteful
+exterior, and the chaste simplicity of its internal decoration. The
+bodies of persons unknown, found dead in the streets, are conveyed to
+the door of the church of San Lazaro, and there exposed for the space of
+twenty-four hours.
+
+The convent of San Francisco, the largest of the monastic
+establishments in Lima, is an immense building, situated in the
+vicinity of the Plaza Mayor. In this convent mass is read daily every
+half-hour, from five in the morning till noon. A small chapel within
+the convent is called the _Capilla de los Milagros_, and a
+superstitious tradition records that during the great earthquake of
+1630, the image of the Madonna, which surmounts the chapel door,
+turned towards the grand altar, and with folded hands invoked the
+divine grace in favor of the city. By this intercession it is
+believed that Lima was saved from total destruction. The monk who
+conducted me over the convent, and who related to me this miracle,
+observed with much simplicity that it was singular that the Madonna
+did not repeat her gracious intercession in the year 1746.
+
+The carved work which adorns the ceilings in the corridors is admirably
+executed, though not very beautiful in design. The cells of the monks
+are very simple, but perfectly comfortable for habitation. The spacious
+and well-arranged gardens within the area of the convent form a pleasing
+contrast to the gloomy appearance of the external walls.
+
+To the Franciscan monks also belongs the convent of _Los Descalzos_,
+situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. A broad avenue planted with six
+rows of trees leads to Los Descalzos. It is a neat but not large
+edifice, and stands at the foot of a sterile hill. The extensive
+garden which surrounds it, and which is in a very neglected
+condition, contains three palm-trees, the only ones to be seen in the
+near vicinity of Lima. The situation of the convent is not healthy,
+and in consequence the monks frequently suffer from intermittent
+fever. These monks go barefooted, and live entirely on alms. Every
+morning two lay brethren ride on asses to the city, where they visit
+the market-place, and obtain from the different saleswomen charitable
+donations of fish, vegetables, or meat.
+
+Another convent is the _Recoleta de San Diego_. During Lent, and
+especially in Passion Week, many men retire to this place to prepare
+themselves by mortification and prayer for confession and
+participation in the Holy Sacrament.
+
+The convent of Santo Domingo is very rich. It enjoys a yearly revenue of
+from seventy to seventy-five thousand dollars, for the most part
+accruing from the ground-rents of houses in the city. The steeple of
+Santo Domingo is the loftiest in all Lima. It is 188 feet high, and is
+visible at the distance of three leagues. It is built of wood, and
+inclines so considerably in its upper part, that there is little
+probability of its surviving another earthquake like that of 1746. The
+interior of the church is splendid. The grand altar almost vies with
+that of the cathedral.
+
+San Pedro must, doubtless, at a former period, have been the principal
+convent in Lima. It belonged to the Jesuits, and was their _Colegio
+maximo_. This establishment possessed enormous revenues, for all the
+finest plantations and best houses in Lima were the property of the
+order. In 1773, the king of Spain, instigated by the celebrated Bull of
+the 21st of June of that year (Dominus ac redemptor noster), dispatched
+an order to the viceroys of the provinces of South America, directing
+them to arrest the Jesuits all in one night, to ship them off to Spain,
+and to confiscate their wealth. Of course the utmost secresy was
+observed, and it is a well-authenticated fact, that in Peru, with the
+exception of the viceroy, and those of his agents whose assistance was
+indispensable, no one knew anything of the affair. But the same ship
+which conveyed the king's commands to the viceroy, had on board the
+necessary instructions to the vicar-general in Lima, from the superior
+of the Jesuits in Madrid, who was fully acquainted with the king's
+design. The preparatory arrangements were made under the seal of perfect
+secresy, and at ten o'clock at night the viceroy assembled his council,
+and communicated to them the royal commands. It was determined that no
+one should be permitted to leave the council-chamber until the blow was
+struck. At midnight some confidential officers, with the requisite
+assistance, were despatched to arrest the Jesuits, an accurate list of
+whose names lay on the table before the viceroy. The patrols knocked at
+the gate of San Pedro, which was immediately opened. The commanding
+officer desired to see the vicar-general, and the porter ushered him
+into the great hall of the convent, where all the members of the order
+were assembled, evidently expecting his visit. The holy brethren were
+prepared for immediate departure, each being provided with a bag or
+trunk containing such articles as were requisite on a sea voyage.
+Similar preparations had been made in all the other convents belonging
+to the Jesuits. The surprise and disappointment of the viceroy on
+receiving this information may be easier conceived than described.
+Without delay he ordered the whole brotherhood to be conducted under a
+strong escort to Callao, where they embarked. In the course of a few
+days inventories were made of the effects in the convents. At San Pedro
+it was expected that vast treasures in specie would be found; but how
+great was the dismay, when, instead of the millions which it was well
+known the order possessed, only a few thousand dollars could be
+collected. All the keys, even that of the treasury, were politely laid
+out in the chamber of the superior. This was a cruel mockery! The
+Jesuits could not have taken a more ample revenge on the treachery that
+had been practised on them.
+
+It was suspected that the treasures were concealed partly in the convent
+of San Pedro, and partly in the plantations. According to the evidence
+of an old negro, at that time in the service of the convent, he,
+together with some of his comrades, was employed during several nights
+in carrying heavy bags of money into the vaults of the convent. Their
+eyes were bandaged, and they were conducted by two of the brethren, who
+helped them to raise and set down the bags. The negro, moreover,
+declared his conviction that there was a subterraneous spring near the
+spot where the treasure was deposited. The searches hitherto made have
+been very superficial, and it seems not impossible that by dint of more
+active exertions this concealed wealth may yet be brought to light.
+
+At present San Pedro is occupied by about a dozen lay priests. They
+perform the spiritual service of the _Oratorio de San Felipe Neri_. They
+live on the revenues derived from the rents of the few plantations which
+have not been confiscated or sold. The chapel is prettily fitted up in
+the interior, and the midnight mass at Christmas is performed there with
+great solemnity. The external walls of both the chapel and the convent
+are painted a reddish-brown color, which has a very sombre and ugly
+effect.
+
+The convents of _Nuestra Señora de la Marced_ and _San Agustin_ are
+situated at the back of San Pedro. The former is spacious, but not
+largely endowed; the latter is a poor-looking edifice, but it possesses
+rich revenues. To San Agustin is attached the once eminent but now very
+inferior college of San Ildefonso.
+
+Besides the monastic establishments above named, Lima contains
+several smaller convents for friars, and sixteen nunneries. Of the
+latter the largest is the Monasterio de la Concepcion. It is very
+rich, and has an annual revenue of upwards of 100,000 dollars; in
+other respects it is remarkable for nothing except the not very pious
+habits of its inmates. _Santa Clara_ and the _Encarnacion_ are also
+large establishments, and well endowed. The nuns who observe the most
+rigorous conventual rules are the _Capuchinas de Jesus Maria_, the
+_Nazarenas_ and the _Trinitarias descalzas_. For extremely pious
+women, who wish to lead a cloistered life without taking the veil,
+there are three establishments called _Beaterios_, which may be
+entered and quitted at pleasure:[7] these are the _Beaterio de
+Patrocinio_, the _Beaterio de Santa Rosa de Viterbo_, and the
+_Beaterio de Copacabana_. This last was originally established
+exclusively for Indian females. The _Refugio de San Jose_ is a place
+for the reception of married women who wish to withdraw from the ill
+treatment of bad husbands. On the other hand husbands who are of
+opinion that their wives may be improved by a little temporary
+seclusion and quiet meditation, can, with the permission of the
+archbishop, send them for a while to the _Refugio_. The _Recojidas_
+is another institution of the same kind, but destined for females of
+the poorer class.
+
+Lima possesses a great many hospitals, but all are lamentably
+defective in internal arrangement, and above all in judicious medical
+attendance. The largest of the hospitals, San Andres, was founded in
+the year 1552 by the Licentiate Francisco de Molina. Three years
+afterwards, the Viceroy Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, first Marquis
+de Cañete, placed it under the direction of the Government. Down to
+the year 1826 this hospital was exclusively destined for the
+reception of sick Spaniards. San Andres contains five large and four
+smaller wards, with 387 beds. One part of the establishment is set
+apart for incurable patients. The annual outlay of the hospital
+amounts to between 45,000 and 50,000 dollars. In the hospital of San
+Andres insane patients are received, and their number is always
+considerable. On the 30th of November (St. Andrew's Day) this
+hospital is opened for the admittance of the public, and one of the
+favorite amusements of the inhabitants of Lima is to go to San Andres
+to see the lunatics. It is melancholy to observe these unfortunate
+beings, thus made the objects of public exhibition, and irritated by
+the idle throng who go to stare at them. The collection of alms from
+the numerous visitors is, doubtless, the motive for keeping up this
+custom, which, nevertheless, is exceedingly reprehensible.
+
+The hospital _Santa Ana_ was founded in the year 1549, by Don Fray
+Geronimo de Loyza, first Archbishop of Lima, and was destined for
+Indians of both sexes. The benevolent founder, with the most earnest
+self-devotion, attended the patients, and with true Christian charity
+performed the humblest duties of a sick-nurse. He died in 1575 in the
+hospital, to which he bequeathed a yearly revenue of 16,000 dollars.
+The building contains five large wards, and 336 beds. Since the
+declaration of independence no Indian has been received into it. This
+hospital, alternately with those of San Andres and San Bartolome, was
+used as a military lazaretto; but since 1841 it has been allotted
+exclusively to female patients of all classes; for it was found
+necessary to abandon the former female hospital of _La Caridad_, on
+account of its damp situation.
+
+_San Bartolome_ was an hospital founded in the year 1661, for negro
+patients; but it has lately been closed. It contains eleven wards
+and 217 beds.
+
+Under the name of Santo Toribio an hospital for incurable patients was
+established in the year 1669, by Don Domingo Cueto.
+
+In 1702 it was consigned to the superintendence of an order of monks,
+called the padres Belemitas, and in 1822 it was incorporated with the
+hospital of San Lazaro. The latter establishment was founded by Anton
+Sanchez, in the year 1563, and was exclusively destined for leprous
+patients. Persons afflicted with cutaneous diseases, and especially
+maladies of a contagious nature, are sent thither.
+
+In the convent of San Pedro there is a small hospital for poor priests.
+Attached to it is a dispensary, from whence the poor were supplied
+gratuitously with medicines, at the time when the convent was in the
+possession of the Jesuits.
+
+Lima also possesses a Foundling Hospital. Luis Ojeda, who humbly took to
+himself the title of _Luis el Pecador_ (Luis the Sinner), bequeathed all
+his fortune to the foundation of this establishment, which received the
+name of "Collegio de Santa Cruz de los niños expositos."[8]
+
+The refuge for female penitents was founded in the year 1670 by the
+viceroy, Count de Lemos. The funds were derived from a legacy
+bequeathed for that object by Don Francisco Arcain in 1572. The
+establishment has but few inmates.
+
+In former times it was the custom in Lima to bury the dead in graves
+dug within the churches; but the heat of the climate, and the
+difficulty of making the graves sufficiently deep, rendering this
+practice exceedingly objectionable, the viceroy, Don Jose Fernando
+Abascal, determined on making a burial place beyond the boundaries of
+the city. A piece of ground was allotted for the purpose, and it was
+consecrated on the 1st of January, 1808. It is called the _Cementerio
+gèneral_ or _Panteon_, and is situated eastward of the city on the
+high road leading to the Sierra de Tarma. It consists of two gardens,
+very prettily planted, and inclosed by high walls. Along the walls,
+on the inner side, there are niches, about a thousand in number,
+ranged in sixteen different classes, and they may be purchased by
+those who wish to possess them. Many of them belong to families and
+convents. The graves are watched and kept in order by criminals who
+are condemned to this duty as a punishment. It is calculated that it
+will be five years before this cemetery is filled. When room is
+wanting, the niches which have been first occupied will be cleared,
+and the bones deposited in a bone-house, of simple but appropriate
+construction. At the entrance of the Panteon there is a neat little
+chapel, where the funeral obsequies are performed. Burials are
+permitted to take place only in the morning; and when a funeral
+retinue arrives too late, the body remains uninterred until the
+following morning. The rich are buried in coffins, the poor merely in
+winding sheets, which are made after the pattern of the habits worn
+by the barefooted friars of the order of San Francisco.
+
+The grand square of Lima, the _Plaza Mayor_, though not in the centre
+of the city, is nevertheless the central point of its life and
+business. It is 426 feet distant from the Rimac, and presents a
+regular quadrangle, each side of which is 510 feet long. From each of
+the four corners two handsome straight streets run at right angles.
+There is no pavement, but the ground is covered with fine sand. The
+cathedral and the archbishop's palace occupy the eastern side of the
+square. The latter adjoins the sanctuary, and has rather a fine
+façade. The windows of the principal apartments open into a balcony,
+commanding a view of the Plaza.
+
+On the north side of the square stands the government palace,
+formerly the residence of the all-powerful viceroys. Its exterior
+aspect is mean. It is a square building, and the front next the Plaza
+is disfigured by a long range of shabby little shops (called _La
+rivera_), in which drugs are sold.[9] These shops are surmounted by a
+balcony. A large double door opens from the Plaza into the great
+court-yard of the palace. Along the western side of the building there
+are also a number of little shops occupied by saddlers and dealers in
+old iron. The street, running in this direction, is called the Old
+Iron Street (Calle del Fierro Viego). The principal entrance to the
+palace is on this side. On the south the building has no entrance, and
+it presents the gloomy aspect of a jail. On the east a door opens into
+a small yard or court, within which are the office and prison of the
+police. A few long flag-staffs, fixed on the roof of the palace, do
+not add to the beauty of the edifice. The interior of the building
+corresponds with its outward appearance, being at once tasteless and
+mean. The largest apartment formerly bore the name of the _Sala de los
+Vireyes_. It is now used as a ball room when entertainments are given
+by the government. Under the Spanish domination this room was hung
+round with portraits of the viceroys, the size of life.[10] The series
+of vice-regal portraits from Pizarro to Pezuela, forty-four in number,
+completely filled the apartment at the time when the patriot army in
+Lima revolted, and consequently the last viceroy, Don Jose de la
+Serna, who owed his elevation to the military revolution, could not
+have a place assigned for his portrait among those of his
+predecessors.[11] The other apartments of the palace are small and
+inelegant. Some of the rooms are used as government offices.
+
+The present palace was, as far as I have been able to ascertain, built
+about the beginning of the seventeenth century. In the great
+earthquake of 1687 it was almost totally destroyed, but it was
+subsequently restored. The palace which Don Francisco Pizarro built
+for his own residence, stood, not on the site of the existing edifice,
+but on the southern side of the Plaza, on the spot where now a narrow
+dirty alley, called the _Callejon de petateros_, forms a communication
+between the Plaza and the Silversmith's street (_Calle de Plateros_).
+It was in that old palace that Juan de Herada, the friend and partisan
+of Don Diego de Almagra, carried into effect his plot against
+Pizarro. On the 26th of June, 1546, the viceroy was seated at table
+with a party of his friends, when the insurgents surrounded the
+palace, shouting "Death to the tyrants!" Pizarro, though warned of his
+danger, had scarcely time to seize his sword. One of his principal
+officers, Don Francisco de Chavez, was killed at the door of the
+apartment, and several of the viceroy's friends and servants escaped
+by the windows. Among others who attempted to save themselves in this
+way was Pizarro's counsellor, Juan de Velasquez. Only on the previous
+evening this man had been heard to declare that no one would be found
+bold enough to join in an insurrection as long as he held in his hand
+his staff of authority. This declaration was in a certain measure
+verified, for Velasquez, whilst descending from the window, held his
+staff between his teeth, that he might be the better able to support
+himself with his hands. Martin Pizarro, together with two noblemen and
+two pages, were the only persons who remained faithful to the viceroy.
+The latter, with the bravery of a lion, made a long stand against his
+assailants. "Courage, brother! Down with the traitors!" exclaimed
+Martin Pizarro, who, the next moment, lay dead at the viceroy's feet.
+At length Pizarro, exhausted by his efforts to defend himself, could
+no longer wield his hitherto victorious sword: he was overpowered, and
+one of his assailants having stabbed him in the throat, he fell,
+mortally wounded. With his last faltering accents he implored the aid
+of a confessor; and after losing the power of utterance he traced with
+his finger, on the ground, the sign of the cross, kissed it
+repeatedly, and breathed his last. Such was the sad end of one of the
+greatest heroes of his age;[12] a man guilty of many crimes, but also
+unjustly accused of many of which he was innocent. His acts were
+consistent with the spirit of his age, and were influenced by the
+frightful circumstances in which he was placed. In short, there can be
+little doubt that Pizarro was "better than his fame."
+
+The west side of the Plaza Mayor is occupied by the _Cabildo_, or
+senate-house (formerly called the _Casa Consistorial_), together with
+the city jail, and a row of houses of no very handsome appearance.
+The south side is filled by a range of private dwelling-houses, with
+balconies looking to the Plaza. The houses, both on the west and
+south sides of the square, are built above a colonnade, in which
+there are numerous shops.
+
+In the middle of the Plaza is a magnificent bronze fountain with three
+basins. From the middle basin rises a pillar, surmounted by a figure
+of Fame spouting the water from her trumpet. In the other two basins
+the water is ejected from the mouths of four lions. The pillar and
+figures for this triple fountain were cast in the year 1650, by the
+able artist Antonio Rivas, by order of the then reigning viceroy,
+Count de Salvatierra. Besides this principal fountain, there are
+several smaller ones, from which the public are permitted to supply
+themselves with water.
+
+The second large public square in Lima is the _Plaza de la
+Inquisicion_, which, since the war of independence, has received the
+name of the Square of Independence (_Plazuela de la Independencia_).
+It is of trapezi-form, widening in the eastern part, and is certainly
+no ornament to the town, for it is always in a very dirty condition.
+Being the public market-place, it presents a very busy aspect during
+the fore part of the day. Two buildings on this Plazuela attract
+attention, viz.--the Palace of the Inquisition and the University.
+There are now but few remaining traces of the internal arrangements of
+the fearful tribunal; for, on the suppression of the Inquisition by
+the Cortes, the enraged populace forced their way into the building,
+where they gutted the rooms, and destroyed the furniture. Lima was the
+seat of spiritual jurisdiction for the whole western coast of South
+America; and the rigor of its despotism was not far short of that of
+the Inquisition of Madrid. Every year vast numbers of persons
+convicted or suspected of crimes were brought from all the intervening
+points between Chiloe and Columbia to the Tribunal of the Inquisition,
+and most of them were doomed to the most dreadful punishments. _Autos
+da fe_ were frequently held in Lima, and cases of other kinds of
+martyrdom were exceedingly numerous. The lists, which have been only
+partially preserved, present melancholy results. One part of the
+Palace of the Inquisition is now converted into a store-house for
+provisions, and the other part is used as a prison.
+
+The University of Lima was once the most important seat of education
+in South America. It owes its origin to a decree of the emperor
+Charles V., issued at the solicitation of the dominican monk Maestro
+Fray Tomas de San Martin. The decree was dated the 12th of May, 1551,
+but it did not reach Lima until two years after that time. A papal
+bull of Pius V. confirmed the imperial decree, and conferred on the
+institution the same privileges as those enjoyed by the Spanish
+university of Salamanca. The Lima university was originally
+established in the convent of Santo Domingo, but after the lapse of
+three years it was removed to the building now occupied by San Marcel,
+and in 1576 it was installed in the site it now occupies. It received
+the name of _Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Marcos_. In the year
+1572 the first lay rector was elected in the person of Gaspar
+Menendez, a doctor of medicine.
+
+The building is situated on the east side of the _Plaza de la
+Independencia_, next to the hospital of _la Caridad_. The façade is not
+handsome, but is remarkable for a style not belonging to the age in
+which it was erected. The building is entered by a lofty door, opening
+into a spacious quadrangular court, along the four sides of which there
+are pillared corridors. On the walls of these corridors the different
+branches of science are allegorically represented in fresco paintings,
+and beneath these paintings are inscribed quotations from ancient
+classic authors. The lecture rooms open into the corridors which run
+round the court. Facing the entrance door, in the left angle of the
+court, are great double doors opening into the Aula, which is spacious,
+and has rather an imposing aspect. In the middle of the wall, on the
+right-hand side, stands the rector's chair in a sort of niche,
+surmounted by a canopy. On either side of this chair are ranged the
+seats of the professors, and the members of faculties. Opposite to the
+rector's seat, on the left-hand side of the Aula, is an elevated chair
+occupied by the president, when academic prizes are distributed. Below
+it is an arm-chair for the candidate. On each side of the president's
+seat are several rows of benches, for the members of the university and
+visitors. Over the entrance door there is a gallery to which the public
+are admitted, and which, on the occasions when prizes are distributed,
+is usually occupied by ladies. On the walls of the Aula are hung
+portraits of celebrated learned men.
+
+The National Library, situated near the convent of San Pedro, was
+founded by a decree, dated the 28th of August, 1821. The books belonging
+to the university of San Marcos formed the nucleus of the National
+Library. To them were added the libraries of several of the monasteries,
+some sequestrated works, and the collections of a few private
+individuals. Of these latter, the most considerable was the collection
+of General San Martin, and a library of 7772 volumes bequeathed,
+together with a legacy of a thousand dollars, by Don Miguel de la Fuente
+y Pacheco. In November, 1841, the National Library of Peru contained
+26,344 printed volumes, 432 manuscripts, and a small collection of maps
+and copperplate engravings. It is particularly rich in old works on
+religious and historical subjects. The books relating to the Conquest,
+and to the early period of the Spanish dominion, form in themselves a
+complete historical series. Of modern works there are but few. The
+pecuniary support of the establishment is very inconsiderable. The
+government exacts from it the import duty, three per cent., on European
+books, making an average annual sum of 400 dollars. In addition to this
+the salaries of the librarians amount annually to 2794 dollars. The
+library is open to the public every day (Friday and Sunday excepted)
+from eight in the morning till one in the afternoon, and from four in
+the afternoon till six in the evening.
+
+In the left wing of the same building is the museum, containing a
+collection of objects of natural history, antiquities, and other
+curiosities. This collection was first formed in the year 1826, in some
+of the spare rooms of the palace of the Inquisition, and was afterwards
+removed from one place to another, until at length the government
+allotted to the purpose the two fine apartments in the building above
+mentioned. As yet the establishment is quite in its infancy. It contains
+nothing of scientific value, and but for the series of historical
+portraits already described, it would differ but little from the
+collections of curiosities frequently formed by amateurs, in which all
+sorts of heterogeneous objects are jumbled together. The museum of Lima
+bids fair to remain for some time to come on the footing on which it was
+when I saw it, for the establishment has no funds, save a monthly
+allowance of thirty-two dollars, and out of that scanty pittance the
+expense of fitting up the rooms, the glass cases, &c., has yet to be
+defrayed. The museum is open to the public four days in the week.
+
+Two other apartments in the same building are set aside for the Academy
+of Design (_Academia de Debujo_). On three evenings every week pupils
+are admitted to this academy to receive gratuitous instruction in
+drawing. The number of the pupils amounts to between 80 and 100; but
+there is convenient room for 200. The collection of models and drawing
+copies for the use of the students is but indifferent.
+
+The mint is situated in the vicinity of the Plazuela de la
+Independencia. It was founded in Lima in the year 1565; in 1572
+transferred to Potosi, and in 1683 removed back to Lima. For the space
+of seventy years this establishment was in the hands of private
+individuals; but in the year 1753 the Spanish government took the
+management of it, and erected the building in which it is still
+located. It is a large and handsome structure, but very defective in
+its internal arrangement. Until the year 1817 the machinery for
+casting was worked by mules, ninety-two of those animals being
+employed daily. Subsequently, under the direction of an Englishman,
+water-power was introduced, by which expense was diminished and time
+saved. A few years ago a French merchant made an arrangement with the
+government for the use of a complex machine, which he proposed to
+bring from Europe. The machine arrived, but by an unlucky fatality it
+proved perfectly useless. For the space of four years repeated
+attempts were made to work it, but in vain; it fulfilled none of the
+required conditions. Its faults are manifold, and it reflects but
+little credit on the person by whom it was contrived. It has cost no
+less than 250,000 dollars, and has never been of the least use.
+
+In the mint of Lima there are annually cast from two to two and a half
+millions of dollars, which yield a profit of from 140,000 to 180,000
+dollars, out of which are paid the salaries of the persons employed.
+Under the Spanish government these salaries amounted annually to
+48,906 dollars; now they make, together with other customary outlays,
+the sum of 85,105 dollars.
+
+The value of a mark of silver in the mint is 8 dollars 4 reales; that of
+a mark of gold is 144 dollars 4 reales. The standard worth of the gold
+is 21 carats; that of the silver 20 grains.
+
+Next to the arena for bull-fights, situated in the Plaza firme del Acho,
+the theatre is the principal place of public amusement in Lima. The
+first theatre, erected in the year 1602, was situated near the convent
+of San Augustin, in the street which still bears the name of "Comedia
+vieja." It was destroyed in the earthquake of 1630, and rebuilt on the
+same site. In 1662 it was pulled down to make room for a new street, and
+afterwards the present building was erected. Its external appearance is
+very ugly and the interior is not much better. Before the orchestra
+there are some commodious inclosed seats or stalls. The boxes, which are
+completely separated one from another by partitions, are narrow but
+deep: the smaller ones are capable of containing eight persons, and the
+larger ones twelve. In the centre of the first tier of boxes, and
+fronting the stage, is the government box, which occupies the space of
+two of the others. It contains seats for the prefect, the sub-prefect,
+and the members of the Cabildo. The president's box is likewise on the
+first tier, and on the left of the stage. Adjoining it there is a small
+cabinet, closed on the side next the pit by a wooden railing. Into this
+cabinet the president retires between the acts of the performance. The
+stage is small, and the scenery very indifferent.
+
+The performances are for the most part wretched, both as regards the
+merit of the pieces and the talent of the actors. Nothing can be in
+worse taste than the little farces called saynetes, which, according to
+Spanish custom, always close the performances, whether the principal
+piece be a tragedy or a comedy. Common-place intrigues form the subjects
+of these _saynetes_, and their dialogue consists of vulgar jokes. They
+are altogether calculated to banish any gratifying impression which
+might by possibility be produced by the principal piece.
+
+For some years past a company of Italians, settled in Lima, have given
+operatic performances on a small scale. One of them, Signora
+Pantanelli, is an excellent singer, and would be heard with pleasure
+even in Europe. Some other members of the company have middling talents,
+but the rest are decidedly bad. The operas performed are Giulietta y
+Romeo, Parisina, Lucia di Lammermuir, Marino Faliero, La Sonnambula, and
+Il Barbiere di Seviglia: these, together with a mutilated Norma, and a
+much curtailed Semiramide, form almost the whole repertory. Want of
+stage room is an obstacle to the representation of operas demanding
+grand scenery and machinery. The costumes are for the most part
+exceedingly elegant, though seldom historically correct. The orchestra
+is defective, and ought to be much improved, to give satisfaction to a
+public passionately fond of music.
+
+But if the inhabitants of Lima are great lovers of music, dancing has no
+less powerful attractions for them. Though the time is gone, when the
+dress of any opera-dancer may be expected to reach below the knee, yet
+the drapery of a Limanese Terpsichore appears to have attained even an
+ultra degree of curtailment. The representation of ballets, properly so
+called, is not attempted; but the Bolero, the Fandango, the Cachucha,
+and Don Mateo, are favorite and often repeated performances.
+
+During the long intervals between the acts, smoking is permitted in the
+pit and in the outer court of the theatre. There is also a plentiful
+supply of very bad and very dear refreshments.
+
+An intolerable annoyance experienced in visiting the theatre at Lima is
+caused by the swarms of fleas which infest every part of the house, but
+most especially the boxes. Unfortunately, this nuisance is irremediable,
+and the visitor must be blessed with a large amount of endurance who can
+patiently sit out a whole evening's entertainments.
+
+Not far from the theatre is situated the circus for cock-fighting
+(_Coliseo de gallos_), where fights (_peleas_) take place daily. The
+Coliseo is a large amphitheatre, with an arena in the middle. The
+game-cocks trained for this sport have the spur removed from the right
+foot and in its stead is substituted a small sharp steel blade, curved
+and shaped like a scythe. One or other of the animals is frequently
+killed at the first spring; and when that is not the case they continue
+fighting until they die of wounds and exhaustion. It is a cruel sport,
+and a worthy pendant to bull-fighting. The first Coliseo was erected in
+1762, by Don Juan Garrial. The present building, in the Plazuela de
+Santa Catalina, is a very handsome structure, and Lima may fairly boast
+of possessing the finest circus for cock-fighting in all the world.
+
+In the same square with the _Coliseo de gallos_ is the tennis-court,
+a spacious area, surrounded by high walls. It is not now so much
+resorted to as formerly, for the Creoles are not so fond of tennis
+as the Spaniards.
+
+A beautiful stone bridge unites the town with the suburb of San
+Lazaro. This bridge was built in the years 1638-1640, when the Marquis
+de Montes Claros was viceroy of Peru. The plan was designed by Fray
+Geronimo Villegas, an Augustine monk. It is 530 feet long, and has six
+arches rising thirty-seven feet above the surface of the water. The
+foundation of the piers is composed of square blocks of stone, the
+piers themselves are of brick, and the parapet of cemented stone work.
+The erection of this bridge cost 400,000 dollars. A sufficient proof
+of its strength and solidity is the fact that it survived the
+earthquakes of 1687 and 1746, which shattered all other parts of Lima.
+In the earthquake of 1746 the first arch, on which stood an equestrian
+statue of Philip V., was destroyed, but it is now restored. It has on
+one side two towers, with a dial in the middle.
+
+The city of Lima, with the exception of a portion of the north side,
+and the suburb of San Lazaro, is surrounded by a wall built of brick.
+This wall was constructed in the year 1585, when the Duque de la Plata
+was viceroy. It is the work of a Fleming, named Pedro Ramon. This wall
+is between eighteen and twenty feet high. Its breadth at the base is
+from ten to twelve feet, and at the top nine feet. It does not
+therefore afford sufficient space for mounting large guns. Along the
+whole extent of the wall there are thirty-four bastions. In the year
+1807, this wall, which had fallen into a very ruinous condition, was
+repaired by order of the viceroy Abascal, and put into a condition to
+be mounted with artillery. On each side commodious pathways were made,
+and along the inner side powder magazines were constructed. At present
+these fortifications are in a state of complete dilapidation. The
+paths, which are obstructed by rubbish, are almost impassable, and
+the powder magazines are destroyed. The city wall of Lima has nine
+gates (_Portadas_). Of these, six only are now open, viz., the
+Portadas of Maravillas, Barbones, Cocharcas, Guadelupe, Juan Simon,
+and Callao; the three others, the Portadas of Martinete, Monserrat,
+and Santa Catalina, are walled up. At every one of the open gates
+there are stationed custom-house guards, whose chief duty consists in
+preventing the smuggled introduction of unstamped silver (_plata de
+piña_). In the direction of the suburb of San Lazaro, the city cannot
+be closed, as the wall does not extend to that part. Between San
+Lazaro, and the high road to Cero de Pasco, is the _Portada de Guias_;
+this, however, is not properly a gate, but a small custom-house. In
+this direction it is easy to gain entrance to the city from the river,
+and consequently it is here that most of the contraband silver,
+brought from the mountains, is smuggled.
+
+Among the fortifications of Lima may be included the pretty little
+castle of Santa Catalina, situated at the eastern end of the city,
+between the Portada de Cocharcas and the Portada de Guadelupe, at the
+distance of about two hundred yards from the city wall. It is
+surrounded by rather high walls, and is flanked by two bastions. The
+interior of this citadel is very well arranged, and is kept much
+cleaner than such places usually are in Peru. It contains stores of
+arms and barracks for the artillery. The largest barracks in Lima are
+those of the infantry, _Quartel de Infanteria_, in the Colegio. They
+are remarkable for want of cleanliness, and like most of the public
+buildings in this interesting city, going fast to decay.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 5: The city of Lima was founded by Don Francisco Pizarro on
+the 6th of January, 1534. As it was the day of the Epiphany, Lima
+received the title of _Ciudad de los Reyes_ (City of the Kings).
+Historical records vary respecting the day and the year of the
+foundation of Lima; but I have reason to believe that the date I have
+mentioned above is perfectly correct.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The _Vara Castellana_ is equal to 33 inches English
+measure.]
+
+[Footnote 7: The females who retire to these establishments are called
+_Beatas_ (Bigots). The term _Beaterio_ signifies a house for
+Bigots.--T.]
+
+[Footnote 8: According to some accounts this establishment was
+instituted in 1654, by Mateo Pastor de Velasco, a native of
+Portollano in Spain.]
+
+[Footnote 9: In these shops any one may purchase for a trifle one of
+the most deadly poisons (Strichnos Ignatia, L.). It is made up into
+what are called _Pepitas de Cabalonga_. It is used in Lima for
+poisoning dogs.]
+
+[Footnote 10: This highly valuable and interesting collection of
+portraits is now removed from the palace to the museum. It is curious
+to mark the progressive changes of costume, and to observe the various
+physiognomies, especially if we reflect on the history of the men whose
+traits denote such striking differences of character. Almost all these
+portraits are distinguished by an air of tranquil gravity which in some
+is combined with true kingly dignity, and in others with an expression
+of fierceness. The handsomest head of the whole series is decidedly
+that of Francisco Pizarro. His features bear the stamp of manly energy,
+and his whole countenance is characterized by courage and candor. The
+nose has the prominent Arabic form, and the forehead is high and
+expanded. The thick beard, covering the mouth and chin, gives a gloomy
+and resolute character to the face. In this series of portraits there
+is one representing a priest with the vice-regal insignia.]
+
+[Footnote 11: By a singular coincidence, the title of Conde de los Andes
+(Count of the Andes) was conferred on La Serna by King Ferdinand at
+Madrid on the 9th of December, 1824, being the very day on which he
+gained the battle of Ayacucho, the results of which gave the Spanish
+dominion in South America its death-blow.]
+
+[Footnote 12: The above particulars are collected from the _Historia
+del descubrimiento y conquista de la Provincia del Peru_, by Augustin
+de Zarate.]
+
+[Illustration: CHILIAN INDIAN MOTHER.]
+
+[Illustration: LADY OF LIMA.]
+
+[Illustration: PERUVIAN MONK.]
+
+[Illustration: PERUVIAN FARMER.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+Population of Lima--Its diminution--Different races of the
+Inhabitants--Their characteristics--Amusements--Education--The
+women of Lima--Their Costume--The _Saya y Manto_--Female domestic
+life--Love of dress--Beatas--Indians--Slaves--Bosales--Free
+Creoles--Negroes--Negresses--Black Creoles--Their
+varieties--Mestizos--Mulattoes--Palanganas--Zambos--Chinos--Foreigners
+in Lima--Corruption of the Spanish language.
+
+
+Proceeding from the shell to the kernel, we will now take a glance at
+the inhabitants of the capital of Peru: first, surveying the native in
+his fatherland, and next, the foreign settler in his adopted country.
+
+The population of Lima has at various periods undergone remarkable
+fluctuations. In the year 1764 the number of the inhabitants was stated
+to be 54,000; in 1810, 87,000; in 1826, 70,000; in 1836, 54,600; and in
+1842, 53,000. Of most of these estimates I entertain some degree of
+distrust, as they are merely founded on general calculations, and are
+not the results of careful numbering. Certain it is, however, that the
+population of Lima has very considerably decreased since the declaration
+of independence. This is sufficiently proved by the fact that several
+parts of the city are now totally uninhabited: the houses falling to
+decay, and the gardens lying waste.
+
+The cause of this diminished population is easily explained by the
+physical and political condition of the country. Earthquakes have, at
+various times, buried thousands of people beneath the ruins of their own
+dwellings; the war of independence was attended by vast sacrifices of
+life; banishment and voluntary emigration have removed from Lima the
+families of some of the principal citizens; and epidemic disease, the
+natural consequence of defective police regulations, has swept away
+countless multitudes of the inhabitants. The number of new settlers is
+very inconsiderable; and for several past years the number of deaths
+has nearly doubled that of the births. There appears no reason to doubt
+that this decrease of population will continue; because, as will
+presently be seen, the causes to which it is assignable cannot be
+checked, inasmuch as they are intimately blended with the character of
+the nation. Most of these causes operate not only in the capital, but
+over the whole country; indeed, in the latter their influence is in some
+instances much greater; for example, in the interior of Peru the loss of
+life attendant on the war was relatively much greater than in Lima. This
+favored country, which extends from the 3d to the 22d degree of south
+latitude, and which contained at the time of its conquest by the
+Spaniards an immense population, though its amount is not known with
+numerical exactitude, now counts only 1,400,000 inhabitants.
+
+In the tax registers, drawn up during the protectorate of Santa Cruz,
+in 1836, the number of the inhabitants of Lima is represented as
+follows:--
+
+
+                                             Male.    Female.   Total.
+
+  1. White Creoles (being the
+       descendants of foreigners,
+       but chiefly of Spaniards)             9,423    10,170    19,593
+
+  2. Indians                                 2,561     2,731     5,292
+
+  3. People of Color (mixed races)          11,771    12,355    24,126
+
+  4. Slaves                                  2,186     3,606     4,792
+
+  5. Ecclesiastics (Lay and Monastic)          475       350       825
+                                            ------    ------    ------
+       In all                               26,416    29,212    54,628
+
+
+From the above it appears that in every class (No. 5 excepted) there is
+a preponderance of females; and that on the whole population of 54,628
+individuals there is a surplus of 2796 women. About one in every
+sixty-six individuals belongs to the priesthood.
+
+Possibly in no other place in the world is there so much variety of
+complexion and physiognomy as in Lima. From the delicately fair creole
+daughter of European parents, to the jet black Congo negro, people of
+every gradation of color are seen living in intimate relation one with
+another. The two extreme classes--the whites and blacks--are as
+distinct in character as in color, and of either of those it is no
+difficult task to give an accurate portraiture. But it is different
+with the mixed races. To define their characteristics correctly would
+be impossible, for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood.
+As a general rule, it may fairly be said that they unite in themselves
+all the faults, without any of the virtues, of their progenitors. As
+men they are greatly inferior to the pure races, and as members of
+society they are the worst class of citizens. Here, as well as in the
+following delineations of the different races, I wish my observations
+to be understood only in a general sense. I have met with some
+honorable exceptions; though, unfortunately, they were mere solitary
+luminaries, whose transient light has been speedily obscured by
+the surrounding darkness.
+
+The white Creoles, who, with very few exceptions, are the descendants of
+Spaniards, constitute somewhat less than a third part of the population
+of Lima. They are slender in figure and of middling height. Their
+features are strongly marked, their complexions fair and pale, and their
+hair is of the darkest black. The men are feeble and look prematurely
+old. Their countenances, though not devoid of dignity, have a sort of
+sensual expression. They are effeminate, and disinclined to any kind of
+active exertion. If they ride the distance of ten miles, they think they
+have performed a feat of heroism worthy to be recorded in the state
+archives. If the white Creoles are inferior to the Spaniards in physical
+organization, they are no less beneath them in qualities of mind. They
+shrink from anything that demands intellectual exertion. In short, they
+are sworn enemies to business of every kind, and those who are obliged
+to work for their own support, make choice of some occupation which,
+like that of a shopman, affords them ample time to smoke cigars and to
+gossip with their neighbors. The richer classes give themselves up
+wholly to idleness. They walk about and visit their acquaintances, or
+they lounge in shops or at the corners of streets, and in that manner
+they often amuse themselves for half a day. Those who are owners of
+plantations occasionally ride through them to receive reports from their
+mayordomos. Their afternoons are usually spent in the _Coliseo de
+gallos_, in the coffee-houses, or at the gaming-table. The white Creoles
+are as passionately fond of gaming as the Spaniards, and sums equal to
+those staked at the gaming-tables of Mexico and the Havannah are daily
+lost and won in Lima. Though games of hazard are prohibited, yet they
+are very publicly played, and it is only now and then that the police
+enforce the regulations of the law by the seizure of a bank.
+
+Gaming in Lima is carried on very quietly, and the most determined
+gamblers do not show themselves very much excited either by losses or
+winnings. The discovery of false dice, however, creates bitter feelings
+of animosity, which not unfrequently lead to assassination. Of this I
+knew several instances when I was in the interior of the country.
+
+The intellectual culture of the white Creole of Lima is exceedingly
+defective. He is not wanting in talent; but an imperfect system of
+education affords him no opportunity for the development of his
+faculties, and innate indolence is a bar to his self-improvement by
+study. He seldom rises above the level of every-day life, and is
+ignorant of everything beyond the boundary of the city, or, at all
+events, of the province in which he was born. I have often been amazed
+at the monstrous ignorance of so-called educated Peruvians, respecting
+the situation, the extent, the physical formation, and the productions
+of their native country.
+
+On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that Lima has been the
+birthplace of several white Creoles, whose talents and learning have
+honorably distinguished them from the rest of their countrymen. For
+example, Don Tomas de Salazar, author of the "Interpretaciones de los
+Leyes de Indias."[13] Don Miguel Nuñez de Rojas, the learned Judge of
+Confiscations in the Spanish war of succession, and Don Alonzo Conde de
+San Donas, who in the reign of Philip IV. was Spanish Ambassador at the
+Court of France. Among those eminent in literature may be named Don
+Pedro de la Reyna Maldonado, and the poet Don Diego Martinez de Rivera,
+of whom Cervantes in his "Galatea" says--
+
+    Su divina ingenio ha producido
+    En Arequipa eterna Primavera.[14]
+
+Several monks distinguished for learning have been white Creoles,
+and an eminent individual of that race was Don Hipolito Unanue, the
+author of the "Guide to Peru," and "Observations on the Climate of
+Lima, and its Influence on organized Beings, especially Man;"[15] a
+Treatise on the Cocoa-tree, &c. In more recent times, Don Mariano
+Eduardo de Rivero has zealously devoted himself to the study of
+natural history and antiquities.
+
+But in spite of his faults, the Lima Creole has his good qualities.
+He is an enemy to strong drinks. When he takes wine it is usually of
+some sweet kind, and of that he partakes very sparingly. A white
+Creole in a state of intoxication would, indeed, be a rare sight. Not
+so in the interior of the country, where the whites are remarkable
+for intemperate drinking.
+
+Far superior to the men, both physically and intellectually, are the
+women of Lima. Nature has lavishly endowed them with many of her
+choicest gifts. In figure they are usually slender and rather tall, and
+they are especially remarkable for small, elegantly formed feet. Their
+fair faces, from which the glowing breath of the tropics banishes every
+trace of bloom, are animated by large, bright, dark eyes. Their features
+are pleasing--the nose being well formed, though in general not
+small--the mouth invariably adorned with two rows of brilliant white
+teeth,[16] and their long black hair, arranged in plaits, falls
+gracefully over the bosom and shoulders. Add to all this a captivating
+grace of manner and deportment, joined to an exceeding degree of
+gentleness and amiability, and it will be readily admitted that the
+Limena is a noble specimen of female loveliness.
+
+At home, especially in the summer season, the ladies of Lima dress
+lightly and even negligently. For visiting, or going to the theatres,
+they adopt the French fashion. When walking in the streets, attending
+church, joining religious processions, &c., they appear in a very
+singular costume, peculiar to Lima, and consisting of two garments
+called the _Saya_ and the _Manto_. Of the saya there are two kinds.
+The one called the _Saya ajustada_, was formerly in general use, but
+is now seldom seen. It consists of a petticoat, or skirt of thick
+stiff silk, plaited at top and bottom, in small fluted folds, drawn
+very close together at the waist and widening towards the ankles,
+beneath which the saya does not descend. It is tight to the form, the
+outline of which it perfectly displays, and its closeness to the
+limbs naturally impedes rapid movement. When wearing the _Saya
+ajustada_, the ladies find it no very easy task to kneel down at
+church, and at the termination of every genuflexion, they are obliged
+to twist and twirl about for a considerable time before they can
+again stand on their feet.[17]
+
+The other description of saya is called the Saya _culeça_, or the
+_Saya desplegada_. It is plaited close at the waist, and from thence
+downwards it stands out like a hooped petticoat. This sort of saya is
+made by first being plaited both at top and bottom like the _Saya
+ajustada_; but, afterwards, the lower plaits are undone to form the
+_Saya desplegada_. The saya is always made of some dark-colored silk,
+black, green, blue, or cinnamon color.
+
+The _Manto_ is a veil of thick black silk fastened by a band at the back
+of the waist, where it joins the _saya_. From thence it is brought over
+the shoulders and head, and drawn over the face so closely that only a
+small triangular space, sufficient for one eye to peep through, is left
+uncovered. A rich shawl thrown over the shoulders conceals the whole of
+the under garment, except the sleeves. One of the small, neatly-gloved
+hands, confines the folds of the _manto_, whilst the other holds a
+richly embroidered pocket-handkerchief.
+
+At first sight this costume has a very singular effect, and it is
+long before the eye of a foreigner becomes reconciled to it. The
+narrow saya is by no means graceful; the wide saya, on the other hand,
+is very becoming, and sets off to great advantage a good figure and
+elegant deportment. When I first arrived in Lima and saw the ladies
+closely muffled up in their _mantos_, and carrying embroidered cambric
+handkerchiefs and nosegays in their hands, it struck me that the nuns
+enjoyed greater freedom in that country than in any other part of the
+world. After vespers, that is to say half-past seven in the evening,
+the police regulations prohibit any woman from appearing in the
+streets dressed in the saya.
+
+As this garment may be worn over a dress of the ordinary kind, it is
+found to be very convenient, inasmuch as it saves the trouble of a
+careful toilette. During short visits the ladies do not take off the
+saya; but when making long visits they usually lay it aside.
+
+The Saya y Manto are found to be very useful auxiliaries in the numerous
+intrigues in which the Limeñas frequently engage.
+
+A _Tapada_[18] indulges in a vast deal of freedom when in the streets,
+and scruples not to make satirical observations on anybody or anything
+that strikes her as strange or ludicrous. The veil, or manto, is sacred,
+and should a man attempt to remove it by force, he would run the risk of
+being severely handled by the populace.
+
+In intrigues of gallantry the Saya y Manto play a conspicuous part. A
+lady has been known to arrange an assignation with a gentleman in the
+street, whilst her husband, standing at the distance of a few yards
+and conversing with a friend on some matter of business, has little
+suspected that the _Tapada_ whose graceful figure he admired, was his
+own faithful better-half. It frequently happens that Doña Mariquita
+obliges Doña Merceditas, or Doña Panchita, with the loan of her saya,
+for the purpose of hood-winking the Argus-eyes of a jealous
+husband;--the lady being well convinced that her kind friends will
+render her the like service in similar circumstances. Sometimes a
+lady may be seen in an old tattered saya, such as scarcely the poorest
+female might be expected to wear; but the costly shawl, the worked
+pocket-handkerchief, the silk stockings, and satin shoes, betray the
+rank of the _Tapada_, and plainly denote that she has sallied forth on
+an adventure. It is difficult, nay almost impossible, to recognize a
+lady thus muffled up. The one eye alone visible, is, as may be
+supposed, a very uncertain token of identity, and the figure and walk
+may be easily disguised.
+
+It will readily be supposed that these concealments sometimes occasion
+mortifying mistakes. On beholding a tall slender figure whose
+symmetrical contour is discernible even through the unwieldy saya, and a
+bright dark eye beaming beneath the folds of the manto, one may be
+induced to imagine that the charms of a Hebe are concealed beneath the
+disfiguring garb. But how great is the disappointment when an accidental
+movement of the manto discloses the wide mouth of an ugly mulatta
+grinning from ear to ear.
+
+Most foreigners who marry Limeñas stipulate that from the time of
+betrothal, their wives shall no longer wear the saya y manto. The
+condition is agreed to; but how far it is faithfully observed the
+husbands best know. Many, no doubt, lull themselves in the confidence
+of their wishes being implicitly obeyed; but female ingenuity readily
+devises opportunities for deception. The women of Lima never willingly
+renounce the saya y manto, for it is inseparably associated with
+customs to which they are, heart and soul, devoted.
+
+If we follow the Limeña (the white Creole, be it understood) into the
+retirement of domestic life, we find that she is an affectionate mother,
+but not a very clever housekeeper. Every lady has at her command a great
+many more domestics than are necessary: some are servants, but most of
+them slaves. The establishment usually consists of a cook, a nurse-maid,
+one or two house-maids, a needle-woman, several men-servants, and a
+little negro or Indian, whose chief business is to carry a carpet behind
+his mistress when she goes to church. These servants all do as they
+please, and the lady of the house concerns herself very little about the
+indolence which her want of vigilance encourages. She rises at a late
+hour, and having dressed herself and decorated her hair with sprigs of
+jasmine and orange blossom, she takes her breakfast. That meal being
+ended, she goes out to make visits. During the sultry hours of mid-day
+she reposes, either by swinging in a hammock or reclining on a sofa, and
+meanwhile smokes a cigar. After dinner she again makes visits, and the
+evening is spent in the theatre, on the plaza, or on the bridge. Some
+few ladies employ themselves in needle-work, in which they are often
+most accomplished adepts; they especially excel in embroidery and fancy
+work; but they never pursue these employments before company.
+
+The ladies of Lima are passionately fond of music. Most of them play the
+piano-forte or the guitar, and also sing; but for want of good
+instruction neither their playing nor their singing is above mediocrity.
+Smoking is pretty general among females, at least those of mature age;
+but they indulge in this practice only in their own apartments. Of late
+years the custom of smoking has been on the decline in Lima, in
+proportion as it has been increased on the continent of the old world.
+Though snuff-taking is prohibited in the convents, yet the nuns practise
+it to a great extent. They use an exceedingly fine kind of red snuff,
+which has the effect of closing the breathing passage through the
+nostrils, and of producing a peculiar nasal tone of voice.
+
+With the ladies of Lima, vanity and the love of dress appear to have
+reached their climax. To this passion for personal adornment they
+sacrifice everything. Formerly, when none but _real_ pearls and diamonds
+were worn, many a lady was known to have ruined her husband by the
+purchase of those costly articles; now, however, thanks to French mock
+jewelry, they are enabled to bedeck themselves in glittering ornaments
+at trivial expense. Another of their passions is a fondness for
+perfumes. They are continually besprinkling themselves with _eau de
+Cologne_, _esprit de Lavande_, _agua rica_, or _mistura_. The latter is
+a fragrant yellow-colored water, prepared from gillyflower, jasmine, and
+flor de mistela (_Talinum umbellatum_). They perfume their apartments
+daily with _Sahumerios_ (pastiles). When the lady of the house wishes to
+show particular attention to her visitors, she offers them perfumed
+water, dropping it into the bosoms of the ladies, and on the
+pocket-handkerchiefs of the gentlemen. Considering their free use of
+perfumes, it is not surprising that the fair Limeñas should be
+constantly complaining of headache, vertigo, and other nervous ailments,
+or, to use their own phrase (_los nervios_).
+
+Above all things the Limeñas pride themselves in the excessive smallness
+of their feet. Whether walking, standing, sitting, swinging in the
+hammock, or reclining on the sofa, the grand object invariably is to
+display to advantage the tiny foot. To praise her virtue, her
+intelligence, her wit, or even her beauty, would be less complimentary
+to a Limeña than to admire the elegance of her feet. All possible care
+is taken to preserve the small form of the foot, and the Lima ladies
+avoid everything that may tend to spread or enlarge it. Their shoes are
+usually made of embroidered velvet or satin, or of very fine kid, and
+are so exceedingly small, that they cannot be drawn on and off without
+difficulty. It is usual to have two new pairs every week, and the
+expense of a lady's shoes not unfrequently amounts to two hundred
+dollars per annum. A large foot is a thing held in horror by the
+Limeñas: they call it _una pataza inglesa_ (an English paw). I once
+heard some Lima ladies extolling in high terms the beauty of a fair
+European; but all their praises ended with the words:--"Pero que pie,
+valgame Dios! parece una lancha." (But what a foot, good Heaven! It is
+like a great boat.) Yet the feet of the lady alluded to would not, in
+Europe, have been thought by any means large.
+
+_Gourmanderie_ is one of the evil habits of the female inhabitants of
+Lima. Between meals they are continually eating sweetmeats and a variety
+of things. At one moment they order _tamal_,[19] next _omitas_,[20] then
+_pan de chancay_ (a sweet sort of bread), and biscuits, then _masamorita
+morada_,[21] or _frijoles coladas_,[22] &c.; and yet dinner is partaken
+with as hearty an appetite as though none of these interludes had been
+introduced. Can it be matter of surprise that the good ladies are
+constantly complaining of indigestion and _mal de estomago_?
+
+In the interior of the houses cleanliness does not extend beyond those
+apartments which are open to visitors, namely, the _sala_ and the
+_cuadro_. The other rooms of the house frequently bear more
+resemblance to a stable than a human habitation, and their condition
+reflects little credit on the domestic habits of the female inmates.
+But even this is typical of the national character,--a great outward
+show and little inward worth.
+
+At first a stranger is struck with the singularity of the names of many
+of the women of Lima. A child receives the name of the saint or of the
+festival whose celebration falls on the day of its birth. Those who
+happen to come into the world on the days on which the Romish Church
+celebrates the several manifestations of the Virgin receive the most
+extraordinary names. For example, a child born on the anniversary day of
+the manifestation to St. Francis on the Snow Mountain, is named _Nièves_
+(snow). _Pilar_ (fountain-basin) is another strange name, conferred in
+honor of the manifestation of the Virgin at the Fountains in Saragossa.
+Then there are _Conceptions_, _Natividads_, and _Asuncions_, without
+number. A girl born on Candlemas-day is named _Candelaria_, and one born
+on the first day of the year receives the name of Jesus. The singular
+effect of these names is heightened by the Spanish custom of using
+diminutives, formed by adding to the name the particle _ito_ or _ita_,
+the former being the masculine, the latter the feminine. It may be
+readily imagined that a foreigner is not a little startled on hearing a
+young lady called Doña Jesusita. In some names the diminutive takes a
+form totally different from the full name; as, for example, Panchita for
+Francisca, Pepita for Josefa, Conchita for Concepcion. A married woman
+does not take the family name of her husband, but retains her own,
+adding to it her husband's name preceded by the particle _de_, as, for
+example, Doña Maria Juana Rodriguez de Salazar.
+
+On attaining a certain age, the Limeñas totally alter their habits of
+life. When their beauty fades, and they cease to be the objects of
+compliment and flattery; or when weary of an idle, luxurious, and, in
+too many instances, a no very virtuous life, they betake themselves to
+piety, and become _Beatas_.[23] The Limeña who thus renounces the
+vanities of the world attends church two or three times every day,
+confesses at least once every week, retires during Lent to a house of
+penitence; fasts, prays, and receives the visits of her confessor, to
+whom she sends presents of sweetmeats;--and should the holy man, as is
+usually the case, prefer riding to walking, she shows her piety by
+giving him the use of her _Calesa_ to convey him from place to place.
+
+The women of Lima are gifted by nature with extraordinary natural
+talent, though unfortunately it is rarely cultivated. They possess
+shrewd and penetrating intelligence, clear judgment, and in general
+very just views on the ordinary affairs of life. Like the women of the
+southern provinces of Spain, they are remarkable for quickness and
+smartness of repartee, and in a wordy contest a Limeña is sure to come
+off triumphant. They have a great deal of decision of character, and a
+degree of courage which does not usually fall to the lot of the female
+sex. In these respects they are infinitely superior to the timid,
+spiritless men. In the various political revolutions of the country,
+the women have often taken an active, and, in some instances, a more
+decided part than the men.
+
+The Indians in Lima form but a small portion of the population, being
+about 5000 in number. Among them are as many emigrants as natives. Most
+of the former are from the mountainous districts, and but few are from
+places on the coast. Their character is, of course, much modified by
+continual intercourse with the whites; but I will endeavor to describe
+them as they show themselves in their original purity, marking the
+distinctions observable between the _Indio Costeño_ (the Coast
+Indian), and the _Indio Serrano_ (the mountain Indian). The Indians in
+Lima are active and industrious. Many of them are shopkeepers, and by
+the integrity of their dealings they stand on a footing of good credit
+with the great commercial houses. Those who are employed as servants
+are less remarkable for industry and honesty. They are reserved and
+suspicious; qualities especially observable when they have but
+recently emigrated into Lima. They combine personal vanity with an
+inconceivable degree of dirtiness. Their intellectual faculties are
+far beneath those of the white Creoles, of whom they stand in a
+degree of fear, which is not easily eradicated.
+
+At a former period there existed in Lima a college exclusively for
+noble-born Indians; and the eldest sons of the families descended
+from the Incas, when they wished to study, were received at the
+expense of the State into the College of San Carlos; but since the
+declaration of independence, all the privileges enjoyed by the
+Indians have been annulled.
+
+The negroes in Lima form one-fifth part of the population. Their
+number amounts to upwards of 10,000, of which 4800 are slaves. Though
+an article in the Charter of Independence declares that "in Peru no
+person is born a slave," yet the National Congress has on various
+occasions thought fit to deviate from this principle. In Huaura it was
+decreed that children born in slavery shall be free on attaining the
+age of twenty-five, and the Congress of Huancayo prolonged the period
+to fifty years. There are no new importations of negroes from Africa,
+for an article in the Charter just mentioned sets forth that "every
+person who may be brought, as a slave, from another country to Peru,
+is free from the moment when he sets foot on the soil of that
+republic." Accordingly, if a Peruvian take his slave with him on a
+journey to Chile, and brings him back again, the slave may, on his
+return, claim his freedom. The only exception to this rule refers to
+runaway negroes, who, even after years of absence, may be reclaimed on
+their return. The value of slaves is not so high in Peru as in the
+southern states of North America. In Lima, the average price of a
+young, strong, and healthy negro is 400 dollars; the price of a
+negress, especially a _Negra de Chavra_ (capable of field work), is
+100 dollars higher. The value of those destined for domestic service
+depends on character and qualifications. A negress who is a good cook
+or needlewoman, is of course worth more than a negro who is to be
+employed as a water-carrier or a footman. In the plantations their
+value depends wholly on health and strength.
+
+The treatment of slaves in Lima, especially by the Creoles, is
+exceedingly mild, and generally much on the same footing as the
+treatment of servants in Europe. It is seldom that a master inflicts
+severe corporal chastisement on a slave. If the latter requires
+punishment, he is sent into the _Panaderia_ (the bakehouse) to knead the
+dough and bake the bread, which work they perform under the supervision
+of a Mayordomo, who is usually a hard task-master. Owing to the heat of
+the climate, working in the _Panaderia_ is more feared by the slaves
+than any other kind of punishment.
+
+In Lima the special laws for the protection of slaves are more
+favorable to them than the similar laws of any other slave country.
+The slaves bring their complaints before a particular judge, whose
+business it is to protect them against ill-treatment. A slave is free
+whenever he can pay the sum which his master demands for him,--which
+sum, in disputed cases, is fixed by legal decision. The slave also
+possesses the right of selling himself to another master, and the
+latter may pay the purchase-money to the former owner, who, however
+unwillingly, is obliged to conclude the bargain. The negroes have
+ample opportunities for saving money. They are permitted, during five
+or six hours of the day, to work for themselves; so that in the course
+of a few years they may with ease save the sum requisite for
+purchasing their independence. But in general they spend their
+earnings in mere idle enjoyments, and care but little about obtaining
+their freedom. As slaves they are provided with lodging, food, and
+clothing, and they are nursed in sickness; but as soon as they become
+free, they must supply all these wants for themselves; an undertaking
+which their natural indolence renders them little inclined to. On the
+whole, domestic negroes may be said to be willing slaves; it is
+possibly different with those employed in the plantations, who are
+liable to harder work and harsher treatment. I knew an old negro, who
+had hoarded up 6000 dollars, and yet did not purchase his own
+freedom, though he had paid for the liberation of his children and
+his two sisters. He often observed to me, that he should not be half
+so well off if he were free.
+
+The negroes brought from Africa, who are called _Bosales_, are far
+better than the Creole negroes. In physical strength they are inferior
+to the latter, and are less lively; yet they are patient, and much more
+faithful and attached to their masters than the Creole negroes born in
+Peru. The Bosales all have a certain degree of pride, but especially
+those who are of princely blood. A gentleman of old Spain bought a
+young negro princess, who not without the greatest difficulty could be
+brought to perform the duties of servitude. When she was directed to go
+to market, she set her basket down on the ground, and signified that she
+had been accustomed to be served, and not to serve. Some chastisement
+was resorted to, with the view of compelling her to do the duty allotted
+to her; but in vain. Her pride and obstinacy remained unconquerable.
+Sometimes she would sit for hours gloomily, with her eyes fixed on the
+ground, and muttering between her teeth, in her broken Spanish, the
+words, "_Yo clavita! yo clavita!_"[24] Then suddenly springing up, she
+would strike her head against the wall until she became almost
+senseless. As she showed a fondness for the children of the family, she
+was relieved from household work, and became the nursery-maid. In that
+way she discharged the duties which devolved on her with the most
+touching affection and fidelity; but she never would do anything,
+however trivial, which she considered to be menial service, and her
+master and mistress were reasonable enough not to require it.
+
+When the number of the African negroes in Lima was more considerable
+than it now is, the various races kept together, and formed
+themselves into unions, called _Cofradias_. They used to meet
+together at regular periods. At these meetings the negroes of
+princely descent were treated with marks of respect which they could
+scarcely have received in their native home. Speeches were delivered,
+and religious ceremonies performed; whilst music, singing, and
+dancing, revived recollections of past happiness, and of the
+far-distant native land. These Cofradias were also conducive to
+philanthropic ends; for when a slave had a hard master, the sum
+requisite for purchasing his freedom was raised by a general
+subscription in the union to which he belonged. Since the
+independence of Peru, and the consequent prohibition of the
+importation of negroes, the Cofradias have declined, and have lost
+much of their original character. Creoles and free negroes have now
+become members of them. The places in which these meetings are held
+are situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. The walls of the rooms
+are painted with grotesque figures of negro kings, elephants,
+camels, palm trees, &c.
+
+In Lima, and indeed throughout the whole of Peru, the free negroes are a
+plague to society. Too indolent to support themselves by laborious
+industry, they readily fall into any dishonest means of getting money.
+Almost all the robbers who infest the roads on the coast of Peru are
+free negroes. Dishonesty seems to be a part of their very nature; and
+moreover, all their tastes and inclinations are coarse and sensual. Many
+warm defenders of the negroes excuse these qualities by ascribing them
+to the want of education, the recollection of slavery, the spirit of
+revenge, &c. But I here speak of free-born negroes, who are admitted
+into the houses of wealthy families, who from their early childhood have
+received as good an education as falls to the share of many of the white
+Creoles--who are treated with kindness and liberally remunerated, and
+yet they do not differ from their half-savage brethren who are shut out
+from these advantages. If the negro has learned to read and write, and
+thereby made some little advance in education, he is transformed into a
+conceited coxcomb, who, instead of plundering travellers on the highway,
+finds in city life a sphere for the indulgence of his evil propensities.
+What is the cause of this incorrigible turpitude of the negroes? To
+answer this important question is not easy, if we admit the principle
+that the negro is as capable of cultivation as the Caucasian; and in
+support of it the names of some highly-educated Ethiopians may be cited.
+Those who are disposed to maintain this principle, and who are at the
+same time intimately acquainted with the social relations of the
+countries in which free negroes are numerous, may solve the problem. My
+opinion is, that the negroes, in respect to capability for mental
+improvement, are far behind the Europeans, and that, considered in the
+aggregate, they will not, even with the advantages of careful education,
+attain a very high degree of cultivation; because the structure of the
+negro skull, on which depends the development of the brain, approximates
+closely to the animal form. The imitative faculty of the monkey is
+highly developed in the negro, who readily seizes anything merely
+mechanical, whilst things demanding intelligence are beyond his reach.
+Sensuality is the impulse which controls the thoughts, the acts, the
+whole existence of the negroes. To them freedom can be only nominal; for
+if they conduct themselves well it is because they are compelled, not
+because they are inclined to do so. Herein lie at once the cause of, and
+the apology for, their bad character.
+
+The negro women differ but little from the men, in their general
+characteristics. They are, however, more active and industrious, and
+better tempered. As domestic servants they are superior to the mixed
+races. They are much employed as nurses, and in those situations they
+discharge their duties well. Their personal vanity is boundless, and
+every real they can save is spent in dress and ornaments. It is amusing
+to see them, on festival days, parading about the streets, dressed in
+white muslin gowns trimmed with lace, and short sleeves displaying their
+black arms. Very short petticoats, seldom extending below the ankle,
+serve to exhibit the tawdry finery of red silk stockings and light blue
+satin shoes. From their ears are suspended long gold drops, and their
+uncovered necks are not unfrequently adorned with costly necklaces. A
+negress, who was a slave belonging to a family of my acquaintance,
+possessed a necklace composed of fine Panama pearls, worth several
+thousand dollars. The pure white of the pearls was wonderfully
+heightened by the contrast of the jet-black skin of the wearer; and for
+this reason they were more ornamental to the negress than they would
+have been to the fairest lady in Europe.
+
+Having noticed the principal races, we will now consider the variegated
+mass of people of mixed blood, who in Lima form a considerable portion
+of the population. Stevenson[25] gives a long list of these mixed races,
+and specifies the proportionate degree, that is to say, how many eighths
+or sixteenths of black, brown, or white color belong to each. But these
+data respecting tint are fallacious, for, being founded solely on
+external appearance, they are liable to endless modifications. Stevenson
+falls into the mistake of giving to the children of a negro father and
+a white mother, the name of Zambos; whilst to the offspring of a white
+father and a black mother, he gives the name of Mulattos. By a similar
+error, he terms the children of a white man and a Cuarterona, Quinteros;
+and to those of a Cuarteron and a white woman, he gives the designation
+Cuarterones. It is, however, an established rule, that the children bear
+the designation, denoting the same degree of mixed blood, whatever may
+respectively be the colors of the parents. Accordingly, the child of a
+negro and a white woman is, properly speaking, a Mulatto; just the same
+as though the relations of race on the part of the parents were
+transposed. When a man of mixed blood marries a woman darker than
+himself, and his children thereby become further removed from the white
+tint, it is said to be _un paso atras_ (a step backwards).
+
+In Europe it is very common to attach to the term _Creole_, the idea of
+a particular complexion. This is a mistake. The designation Creole
+properly belongs to all the natives of America born of parents who have
+emigrated from the Old World, be those parents Europeans or Africans.
+There are, therefore, white as well as black Creoles.[26]
+
+The subjoined list shows the parentage of the different varieties of
+half-casts, and also the proper designations of the latter:--
+
+
+           PARENTS.                       CHILDREN.
+
+  White Father and Negro Mother       Mulatto.
+  White Father and Indian Mother      Mestizo.
+  Indian Father and Negro Mother      Chino.
+  White Father and Mulatta Mother     Cuarteron.
+  White Father and Mestiza Mother     Creole (only distinguished from
+                                        the White, by a pale-brownish
+                                        complexion).
+  White Father and China Mother       Chino-Blanco.
+  White Father and Cuarterona Mother  Quintero.
+  White Father and Quintera Mother    White.
+  Negro Father and Mulatta Mother     Zambo-Negro.
+  Negro Father and Mestiza Mother     Mulatto-Oscuro.
+  Negro Father and China Mother       Zambo-Chino.
+  Negro Father and Zamba Mother       Zambo-Negro (perfectly bl'k).
+  Negro Father and Cuarterona or
+    Quintera Mother                   Mulatto (rather dark).
+  Indian Father and Mulatta Mother   Chino-Oscuro.
+  Indian Father and Mestiza Mother    Mestizo-Claro (frequently very
+                                        beautiful).
+  Indian Father and China Mother      Chino-Cholo.
+  Indian Father and Zamba Mother      Zambo-Claro.
+  Indian Father and China-Chola
+    Mother                            Indian (with rather short
+                                        frizzy hair).
+  Indian Father and Cuarterona or
+    Quintera Mother                   Mestizo (rather brown).
+  Mulatto Father and Zamba Mother     Zambo (a miserable race).
+  Mulatto Father and Mestiza Mother   Chino (of rather clear
+                                        complexion).
+  Mulatto Father and China Mother     Chino (rather dark).
+
+
+Besides the half-casts here enumerated, there are many others, not
+distinguished by particular names, as they do not in color materially
+differ from those above specified. The best criterion for determining
+the varieties is the hair of the women: this is far less deceiving
+than the complexion, for the color of the skin is sometimes
+decidedly at variance with that characteristic of the race. Some of
+the Mulatta females have complexions brilliantly fair, and features
+which, for regularity, may vie with those of the most beautiful
+women of Europe; but they bear the unmistakeable stamp of descent in
+the short woolly hair.
+
+The white Creole women of Lima have a peculiar quickness in detecting
+a person of half-cast at the very first glance; and to the less
+practised observer they communicate their discoveries in this way,
+with an air of triumph; for they have the very pardonable weakness of
+priding themselves in the purity of their European descent. Despite the
+republican constitution, there prevails throughout Peru a strong pride
+of cast, which shows itself at every opportunity. In quarrels, for
+example, the fairer antagonist always taunts the darker one about his
+descent. By all the varieties, the white skin is envied, and no one
+thinks of disputing its superiority of rank. The Indian looks with
+abhorrence on the Negro; the latter with scorn on the Indio. The
+Mulatto fancies himself next to the European, and thinks that the
+little tinge of black in his skin does not justify his being ranked
+lower than the Mestizo, who after all is only an _Indio bruto_.[27]
+The Zambo laughs at them all, and says "if he himself is not worth
+much, yet he is better than his parents." In short, each race finds a
+reason for thinking itself better than another.
+
+In the commencement of the present chapter I made the observation that
+the people of mixed blood unite in themselves all the faults without
+any of the virtues of their progenitors. To this general remark,
+however, the Mestizos form an honorable exception. They inherit many
+of the good qualities both of the Whites and the Indians. They are
+mild and affectionate. Their feelings are very excitable, and they
+readily perform an act of kindness or generosity on the impulse of
+the moment--but they are irresolute and timid. They attach themselves
+affectionately to the Whites; but they are not partial to the
+Indians, whom they regard with some degree of contempt. In Lima their
+number is less considerable than in the interior of the country,
+where whole villages are inhabited solely by Mestizos. In those
+places they style themselves Whites, and hold themselves very much
+aloof from the Indians. One cannot pay them a better compliment than
+to inquire whether they are Spaniards, a question which they always
+answer in the affirmative, though their features are plainly
+impressed with the Indian stamp. The complexion of the Mestizos is
+usually a clear brown; but in some individuals it has a very dark
+tinge. Their hair is sleek, long, and very strong. The women
+frequently wear their hair in two long plaits descending nearly to
+the knees. The men are strongly made, have marked features and but
+very little beard. In Lima they are chiefly handicraftsmen and
+traders. Most of the hawkers (Mercachifles) in Lima are Mestizos.
+
+The Mulattos differ very widely from the Mestizos. In person they are
+less strongly made; but in intellect they are superior to any of the
+half-casts. They possess a very great aptitude for mechanical
+employments, great dexterity and a remarkable degree of imitative
+talent, which, if well directed, might be brilliantly developed. They
+are exceedingly impressionable, and all their feelings are readily
+exalted into passions. Indifferent to all out sensual enjoyments, they
+indulge in the fleeting pleasure of the present moment, and are
+regardless of the future. There is a certain class of Mulattos, who,
+in a psychological point of view, are very remarkable. They are
+distinguished by the nick-name of _Palanganas_.[28] They are gifted
+with wonderful memory, and after the lapse of years they will repeat,
+word for word, speeches or sermons which they have heard only once.
+With this extraordinary power of memory, they combine a fertile fancy,
+and a boundless share of self-confidence. Wherever there is anything
+to be seen or heard, the Palanganas never fail to attend, and they
+repeat with the most ludicrous attitudes and gestures all that they
+hear, be it a sermon in church, a speech in Congress, or an address
+delivered at any public solemnity.
+
+The Mulattos now study theology; for, since the establishment of
+independence, the Indian law, which prohibited any person of mixed
+blood from entering the ecclesiastical state, is no longer observed.
+Many have devoted themselves to medicine; and most of the physicians
+in Lima are Mulattos; but they are remarkable only for their
+ignorance, as they receive neither theoretical nor clinical
+instruction. Nevertheless, they enjoy the full confidence of the
+public, who rank the ignorant native far above the educated foreigner.
+The business of a barber is one that is much followed by the Mulattos
+of Lima. In that occupation they are quite in their element, for they
+possess all the qualifications for which the members of that
+fraternity are distinguished in all parts of the world.
+
+Among the Mulatto females many are remarkably beautiful--though they
+are always wanting in that oval form of the face which is the first
+condition of classic beauty. Their countenances are generally round
+and broad, their features strongly marked, and their expression
+impassioned. Their beauty soon fades; and as they advance in life the
+negro character of their features becomes distinctly defined. Their
+hair, which does not grow beyond a finger's length, is jet black and
+frizzy. They plait it very ingeniously in small tresses, frequently
+making more than a hundred. Their complexions vary from white to
+dark-brown; but most of them are dark brunettes, with large black
+eyes and pearl-white teeth.
+
+Their vanity is quite equal to that of the Negresses, but it is
+combined with a certain degree of taste, in which the latter are
+wanting. The Mulatto women are passionately fond of music, singing
+and dancing. They play the guitar and have pleasing voices, but
+their singing is quite uninstructed.
+
+The Zambos are the most miserable class of half-casts. With them
+every vice seems to have attained its utmost degree of development;
+and it may confidently be said that not one in a thousand is a useful
+member of society, or a good subject of the state. Four-fifths of the
+criminals in the city jail of Lima are Zambos. They commit the most
+hideous crimes with the utmost indifference, and their lawless
+propensities are continually bringing them into collision with the
+constituted authorities. In moral nature they are below the Negroes;
+for they are totally wanting in any good qualities possessed by the
+latter. Their figures are athletic, and their color black, sometimes
+slightly tinged with olive-brown. Their noses are much less flat
+than those of the Negroes, but their lips are quite as prominent.
+Their eyes are sunk and penetrating, and their hair very little
+longer than that of the Negroes, but curling in larger locks. The
+men have very little beard.
+
+The Chinos are but little superior to the Zambos. Indeed, in physical
+formation they are inferior to them, for they are small and
+attenuated. Their countenances are hideously ugly. They have the Negro
+nose and mouth, and the Indian forehead, cheeks and eyes. Their hair
+is black, rough, but less frizzy than that of the Mulattos. They are
+deceitful, ill-tempered, and cruel. They never forget an offence, but
+brood over it till an opportunity, however distant, presents itself
+for wreaking their vengeance. They are very dangerous enemies.
+
+Respecting the half-casts of fairer complexion, especially the
+Cuarterones and the Quinteros, there is but little to be said. Both
+physically and morally they approximate closely to the whites, among
+whom they almost rank themselves.
+
+The majority of the foreigners in Lima, and indeed throughout the whole
+of Peru, are the families of the Spaniards from Europe, who emigrated to
+South America before the war of independence. Since the close of that
+struggle there has been but little emigration, as the circumstances of
+the country are not now very favorable to new settlers. The old Spanish
+families are for the most part landed proprietors or merchants. They are
+people of very temperate habits, but they are passionately fond of
+gaming, and in this respect they have bequeathed a dangerous inheritance
+to the Creoles. The pride and mercenary spirit which distinguished the
+Spaniards before the independence are now broken, if not entirely
+subdued. The intercourse between them and the natives, though still
+somewhat constrained, is every year becoming more and more friendly, as
+the privileges enjoyed by the Spaniards, which were a continued cause of
+hostile feeling, are now removed.
+
+Next to the Spaniards, the most numerous class of foreigners are the
+Italians. These are chiefly Genoese, and the majority are run-away
+sailors and adventurers. They usually begin by setting up a Pulperia (a
+brandy shop), or a spice shop, and gradually extend their traffic until,
+in the course of a few years, they amass money enough to return to their
+native country. Some of them make good fortunes and possess extensive
+warehouses.
+
+The French in Lima occupy the same positions as their countrymen in
+Valparaiso, viz., they are tailors and hair-dressers, dealers in
+jewellery and millinery.
+
+The English and North Americans, who are much better liked by the
+natives than the French, are chiefly merchants. They are the heads of
+the principal commercial houses, as Gibbs, Grawley & Co., Alsop & Co.,
+Templeman and Bergmann, Huth, Crüning & Co., &c. The enterprising
+spirit of the English and North Americans has led many of them into
+extensive mining speculations, which in some instances have proved
+very unfortunate.
+
+The Germans in Lima are proportionally few. They are distinguished by
+their aptitude for business, and many of them fill high stations in the
+great English commercial houses. They are held in high esteem by the
+natives. The general gravity of their manners has given rise, among the
+Limeños, to the saying, "_Serio como un Aleman_"--Serious as a German.
+
+Settlers from the other American republics have of late years
+considerably increased in Lima. After the Chilian expedition, many
+Chilenos established themselves in Peru, and numbers of Argentinos,
+escaping from the terrorism of Rosas in Buenos Ayres, have taken refuge
+in Lima.
+
+Foreigners being in general more industrious and more steady than the
+Creoles, the Limeños readily form connexions with them. The ladies
+generally prefer marrying a _Gringo_[29] to a _Paisanito_.[30]
+
+I may close this chapter on the inhabitants of Lima, with some remarks
+on the Spanish language as spoken in the capital of Peru. The old
+Spaniards, who brought their various dialects into the New World, retain
+them there unchanged. The Galician transposes the letters _g_ and _j_;
+the Catalonian adds an _s_ to the final syllables of words, and gives a
+peculiarly harsh sound to the letter _j_; the Andalusian rolls the _r_
+over his tongue, and imparts a melodious expression even to
+harsh-sounding words; the Biscayan mingles a variety of provincialisms
+with his own peculiar dialect. The Madrileño (native of Madrid) prides
+himself here, as well as in Europe, in being far superior to the rest of
+his countrymen in elegance of pronunciation. The Creoles, however, have
+gradually dropped the characteristic dialects of their progenitors, and
+have adopted new ones, varying one from another in the different South
+American provinces. The Spanish language, as spoken by the natives of
+Peru, differs widely from the correct and pure model of pronunciation.
+The inhabitants of the coast have too soft an accent, and they
+frequently confound, one with another, letters which have a mutual
+resemblance in sound. On the other hand, the people who dwell in the
+mountainous districts speak with a harsh accent, and very
+ungrammatically. As the Swiss force out their guttural tones from the
+lowest depth of their throats, and with the strongest possible
+aspiration, so do the Peruvians of the Cordillera. The inhabitants of
+the sand flats of North Germany, on the contrary, impart a ludicrously
+soft sound to the harsher consonants; and the same peculiarity is
+observable in the people who inhabit the coast of Peru.
+
+Of all the inhabitants of Lima, the white Creoles speak the best
+Spanish; but still their language is far from pure. The ladies in
+particular have the habit of substituting one letter for another in
+certain words; for example, instead of _pulso_ (pulse) they say
+_purso_, and instead of _salsa_ (sauce) they say _sarsa_. In other
+words they substitute _d_ for _r_, saying _amod_ for _amor_,
+_cavalledo_ for _cavallero_. The _ll_ is frequently sounded by the
+Peruvians like _y_, a blunder which foreigners are also very apt to
+commit; for example, in the word _pollo_ (chicken), which they
+pronounce as if it were spelled _poyo_, and _gallina_ (hen) they
+pronounce as if spelled _gayina_. Not only do they confound single
+letters, but they frequently change whole syllables; as for instance,
+in the word _pared_ (wall), which they transform into _pader_. The
+name of the well-known ex-President Orbegoso was, by two-thirds of the
+natives of Lima, pronounced as if written _Obregoso_. There is no word
+in the Spanish language beginning with an _s_ followed by a consonant,
+and the Limeños, when they attempt to pronounce foreign words or
+proper names commencing in the manner just described, never fail to
+prefix to them the letter _e_. I know not whether in the schools and
+colleges of old Spain this method of prefixing the letter _e_ is
+adopted in teaching Latin; but the practice is universal among the
+students of all the colleges in Lima. For studium they say _estudium_;
+for spurius, _espurius_; for sceleratus, _esceleratus_, &c.
+
+To the Limeños the correct pronunciation of these words is extremely
+difficult, and many have assured me that they find it impossible to
+omit the _e_ before the _s_. Still more arbitrary is their conversion
+of _h_ into _k_ in the words mihi, nihil, &c., which they pronounce
+_miki_, _nikil_.
+
+The colored Creoles, who are generally uneducated, speak the Spanish
+language much more corruptly than the whites. The Negroes have a very
+bad accent. Their tongues seem quite unfitted for the pronunciation of
+the Spanish language, which many of them render unintelligible by
+transposing letters and lopping off syllables.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 13: Interpretations of the Indian Laws.]
+
+[Footnote 14: His divine genius has produced eternal spring in
+Arequipa.]
+
+[Footnote 15: "Guia del Peru." "Observaciones sobre el clima de Lima y
+sus influencias en los seres organizados en especial el hombre."]
+
+[Footnote 16: The women of Lima clean their teeth several times a day
+with the root called _Raiz de dientes_ (literally _root for the teeth_),
+of which they keep a piece constantly in their pocket.]
+
+[Footnote 17: It is related that, during the war of independence, when
+Lima was alternately in possession of the Patriots and the Spaniards, a
+party of the latter, in order to ascertain the spirit of the Limeños,
+disguised themselves as Patriots and marched to the vicinity of the
+town. On their approach becoming known, a great number of persons
+proceeded from Callao to the Alameda to meet them. Among those who went
+forth to welcome the supposed patriots were a number of women dressed in
+the narrow _sayas_ above described. When the disguised Spaniards had
+advanced within a little distance of the deceived multitude they began
+to attack them. The men saved themselves by flight; but the women, whose
+sayas impeded their motion, were unable to escape, and were almost all
+killed.]
+
+[Footnote 18: A _Tapada_ is a lady closely concealed beneath the folds of
+her veil or manto. The term is derived from the verb _tapar_, to cover
+or conceal. _Taparse a media ojo_, is said of a lady when she draws her
+manto over her face so as to leave only one eye or rather the half of an
+eye uncovered.--T.]
+
+[Footnote 19: A preparation of finely-bruised maize mixed with morsels of
+pork. It is rolled in maize leaves, and in that manner served up.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Sweet cakes made of maize and raisins.]
+
+[Footnote 21: A syrup made from the pulp of fruit.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Preserved peas with syrup.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Literally Bigots.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Meaning _Yo esclavita!_ (I, a slave!) _Esclavita_ being the
+diminutive of _Esclava_.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Narrative of twenty years' residence in South America, by
+W. B. Stevenson.]
+
+[Footnote 26: The term Creole is a corruption of the Spanish word
+_criollo_, which is derived from _criar_ to create or to foster. The
+Spaniards apply the term _criollo_ not merely to the human race, but
+also to animals propagated in the colonies, but of pure European blood:
+thus they have _creole_ horses, bullocks, poultry, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 27: A brutish Indian; a favorite expression of the Limeños when
+speaking of the Indians, who certainly do not merit the compliment.]
+
+[Footnote 28: The word _Palangana_ signifies a wash-hand-basin; but more
+especially the kind of basin used by barbers. Figuratively the term is
+used to designate an empty babbler.]
+
+[Footnote 29: _Gringo_ is a nickname applied to Europeans. It is probably
+derived from _Griego_ (Greek). The Germans say of anything
+incomprehensible, "That sounds like Spanish,"--and in like manner the
+Spaniards say of anything they do not understand, "That is Greek."]
+
+[Footnote 30: _Paisanito_ is the diminutive of _Paisano_
+(Compatriot.)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+Primary Schools--Colleges--The University--Monks--Saints--Santo
+Toribio and Santa Rosa--Religious Processions--Raising the
+Host--The Noche Buena--The Carnival--Paseos, or Public
+Promenades--Ice--Riding and Driving--Horses--Their Equipments and
+Training--Mules--Lottery in Lima--Cookery--Breakfasts, Dinners,
+&c.--Coffee-houses and Restaurants--Markets--The _Plazo Firme del
+Acho_--Bull Fights.
+
+
+Schools for primary instruction are numerous in Lima, and upon the
+whole they are tolerably well conducted. There are thirty-six of these
+primary schools, public and private; twenty for boys, and sixteen for
+girls; and altogether about 2000 pupils[31] receive in these
+establishments the first elements of juvenile instruction. The
+principal public institutions of this class are the Normal School of
+Santo Tomas (in which the Lancasterian system is adopted), and the
+Central School of San Lazaro. Each contains from 320 to 350 pupils. Of
+the private schools, some are very well conducted by Europeans. The
+College of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe was founded a few years ago by
+two Spanish merchants. In this establishment the sons of the wealthier
+class of people may receive a better education than they can obtain in
+the public schools. There are three Latin schools, and the number of
+pupils attending them amounts to about two hundred.
+
+The College of Santo Toribio is exclusively appropriated to students of
+theology, who are likewise received into the College of San Carlos,
+though the latter is chiefly destined for the study of jurisprudence.
+San Carlos was founded in the year 1770 by the Viceroy Amat, who
+incorporated with it the previously existing Colleges of San Martin and
+San Felipe. In the year 1822 the Colegio de Esquilache was likewise
+united to San Carlos, which now contains about a hundred students. The
+building is large and commodious, containing spacious halls, a fine
+refectory, and a well-stored library. There are five professors of law
+and two of theology. French, English, geography, natural philosophy,
+mathematics, drawing, and music are likewise taught in this college. The
+annual revenue of the establishment, exclusively of the fees paid by the
+students, amounts to 19,000 dollars. During the war of emancipation,
+this establishment for a time bore the name of Colegio de San Martin, in
+honor of General San Martin, the liberator of Chile; but its original
+title was soon restored.
+
+The Colegio de San Fernando was founded in 1810 by the Marques de la
+Concordia, for students of medicine. In the year 1826 this Institution
+received the name of _Colegio de la Medecina de la Independencia_, a
+title which it justly merits, for certainly medicine is taught there
+with a singular independence of all rules and systems. The Professors,
+who themselves have never received any regular instruction, communicate
+their scanty share of knowledge in a very imperfect manner to the
+students. The number of the students is between twelve and fifteen, and
+there are two Professors. The clinical lectures are delivered in the
+Hospital of San Andres, to which an anatomical amphitheatre was
+attached in 1792. The heat of the climate renders it necessary that
+burials should take place within twenty-four hours after death, a
+circumstance which naturally operates as an impediment to the
+fundamental study of anatomy. It cannot therefore be matter of surprise
+that the native surgeons should have but a superficial knowledge of
+that important branch of science.
+
+In the University of San Marcos no lectures are delivered, and the
+twenty-five Professors' chairs are merely nominal. Honors and degrees
+are however conferred in San Marcos, and the same rules and ceremonies
+are observed as in the Spanish Universities. In the departments of
+medicine and jurisprudence there are three degrees; those of Bachelor,
+Licentiate, and Doctor. In former times the dignity of Doctor was
+conferred with great pomp and solemnity, and the public were admitted in
+large numbers to witness the ceremony. The acquisition of the degree of
+Doctor was then attended by an expense of about two thousand dollars,
+chiefly expended in presents. The new Doctor was required to send to
+every member of the University, from the Bachelors to the Rector, a new
+dollar, a goblet full of ice, and a dish of pastry.
+
+Lima is overrun with monks, lay and conventual. The monastic regulations
+are not very strict, for the monks are permitted to leave the convents
+at all hours, according to their own pleasure. They avail themselves of
+this liberty to the utmost extent. Friars of various orders are seen in
+the streets in numbers. Most of them are fat Dominicans, who sit in the
+Portales playing at draughts, or lounge in shops staring at the
+_Tapadas_ as they pass by. Many of these ecclesiastics are remarkable
+for their disregard of personal cleanliness; indeed it would be
+difficult to meet with a more slovenly, ignorant, and common-place class
+of men. They frequent all places of public entertainment, the
+coffee-houses, the chichereas, the bull-fights, and the theatres: these
+two last-mentioned places of amusement they visit in disguise. The
+Franciscans and the Mercenarias are little better than the Dominicans;
+but the Descalzados (barefooted friars) lead a somewhat more strict and
+regular life. To the monks of the _Buena Muerte_ belongs the duty of
+administering the last consolation to the dying. Whenever they hear of
+any person who is dangerously ill, they hasten to the house without
+waiting till they are sent for, and they never leave the invalid until
+he either recovers or dies. Day and night they sit by the sick-bed, and
+scarcely allow themselves time for necessary rest and refreshment. I
+have known many of these monks who, from long experience and
+observation, but without any medical knowledge, had acquired wonderful
+shrewdness in determining the degree of danger in cases of illness, and
+who could foretel with almost unfailing certainty the moment of
+dissolution. As soon as the patient has breathed his last, the monk
+utters a short prayer, then giving the corpse a knock on the nose, he
+silently takes his departure. I have frequently witnessed this singular
+custom, but I never could discover its origin or motive. The habit worn
+by the monks of _Buena Muerte_ is black, with a large red cross on the
+breast, and hats with high conical crowns.
+
+Many pious natives, or inhabitants of Lima, have been admitted among the
+number of the saints. Of these the most distinguished was the Spaniard
+Toribio, who, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, filled the
+archiepiscopal chair in Lima. His kindness and charity have become
+proverbial, and his many acts of benevolence are still alive in the
+recollection of the people. Of many anecdotes that are related of him, I
+may here quote one. Late one night, the patrol who was on duty in the
+vicinity of the archbishop's palace, met a man in the street carrying a
+heavy load on his back. The challenge, "Who goes there?" was answered by
+the name "Toribio." The watch, uttering an oath, impatiently called out
+"Que Toribio?" (What Toribio?) "El de la esquina!" (He who dwells at the
+corner!) was the simple reply. The soldier angrily stepped up to his
+interlocutor, and, to his astonishment, recognized the archbishop, who
+was carrying a sick person to the hospital.
+
+The saint to whom the Limeños render the highest honor, is Santa Rosa,
+the saint of the city. She was a native of Lima, and is the only
+Peruvian female who has attained the honor of being ranked among the
+saints. On the 30th of August, the festival of Santa Rosa is
+celebrated with great pomp in the cathedral, and her image, richly
+bedecked with gold and jewels, is carried in solemn procession from
+Santo Domingo to the Sagrario.
+
+Religious processions are among the most favorite amusements of the
+inhabitants of Lima. They are always very numerously attended; and it
+may fairly be said that no merry-making would afford the Limeños so much
+diversion as they derive from these pious solemnities. Vast numbers of
+ladies join the processions as Tapadas, indulging in all sorts of
+coquettish airs, and with thoughts evidently bent on any subject but
+religion. The gentlemen station themselves in groups at the corners of
+the streets, to admire the graceful figures of the Tapadas, whose faces
+are concealed; and when the procession has passed one corner they rush
+to another, to see it defile a second time; and in this manner continue
+moving from place to place, as if they could never see enough of the
+interesting spectacle. The most brilliant processions are those which
+take place on the festivals of Corpus Christi, San Francisco, and Santo
+Domingo. A very solemn procession takes place on the 28th of October,
+the anniversary of the great earthquake of 1746.
+
+Every morning, at a quarter to nine, the great bell of the cathedral
+announces the raising of the host, during the performance of high mass.
+Immediately every sound is hushed in the streets and squares. Coachmen
+stop the carriages, riders check their horses, and foot-passengers stand
+motionless. Every one suspends his occupation or his conversation, and
+kneeling down, with head uncovered, mutters a prayer. But scarcely has
+the third solemn stroke of the bell ceased to vibrate, when the noise
+and movement are resumed; the brief but solemn stillness of the few
+preceding moments being thus rendered the more impressive by contrast.
+The same incident is renewed in the evening, between six and seven
+o'clock, when the bell sounds for the Angelus (Oraciones). The cathedral
+bell gives the signal, by three slow, measured sounds, which are
+immediately repeated from the belfries of all the churches in Lima. Life
+and action are then, as if by an invisible hand, suddenly suspended;
+nothing moves but the lips of the pious, whispering their prayers. The
+_Oracion_ being ended, every one makes the sign of the cross, and says
+to the person nearest him, _Bueñas noches_ (Good night). It is regarded
+as an act of courtesy to allow another to take precedence in saying
+"Good night," and if several persons are together, it is expected that
+the eldest or the most distinguished of the group should be the first to
+utter the greeting. It is considered polite to request the person next
+one to say _Bueñas noches_; he with equal civility declines; and the
+alternate repetition of "_diga Vm._" (you say it), "_No, Señor, diga
+Vm._" (No, Sir, you say it), threatens sometimes to be endless.
+
+The effect produced by the three strokes of the cathedral bell is truly
+astonishing. The half-uttered oath dies on the lips of the uncouth
+negro; the arm of the cruel Zambo, unmercifully beating his ass, drops
+as if paralyzed; the chattering mulatto seems as if suddenly struck
+dumb; the smart repartee of the lively Tapada is cut short in its
+delivery; the shopkeeper lays down his measure; the artizan drops his
+tool; and the monk suspends his move on the draught-board: all, with one
+accord, join in the inaudible prayer. Here and there the sight of a
+foreigner walking along indifferently, and without raising his hat,
+makes a painful impression on the minds of the people.
+
+Christmas-night (_Noche buena_) is a great festival in Lima. The streets
+and squares, especially the _Plaza Mayor_, are crowded with people,
+amusing themselves in all sorts of ways. Hundreds of persons take their
+seats on the benches of the Plaza; there they regale themselves with
+sherbet, ices, and pastry, and look at the dancing of the negroes, &c.
+On this occasion the midnight mass is performed with extraordinary
+solemnity. On Christmas-day some of the families of Lima get up what are
+called _Nacimientos_, consisting of symbolical representations of the
+birth of the Saviour. On some of these shows considerable expense and
+ingenuity are bestowed.
+
+In Carnival time Lima is so unpleasant a place of residence that many
+families retire to the country during that season of misrule. One of the
+favorite sports consists in sprinkling people with water; and from all
+the balconies various kinds of liquids are thrown on the passers-by.
+Groups of Negroes post themselves at the corners of the streets, where
+they seize people, and detain them prisoners, until they ransom
+themselves by the payment of a certain sum of money. Those who do not
+pay the money are rolled in the street gutters, and treated in the most
+merciless way; whilst those who purchase grace escape with having a few
+handfulls of dirty water thrown in their faces. Even in private houses,
+relations and intimate acquaintances are guilty of the most
+unwarrantable annoyances. Parties of young men enter the houses of
+families with whom they are acquainted, and begin sprinkling the ladies
+with scented water. That being exhausted, spring water, or even dirty
+water, is resorted to, so that what began in sport ends in reckless
+rudeness. The ladies, with their clothes dripping wet, are chased from
+room to room, and thereby become heated. The consequence is, in many
+instances, severe and dangerous illness. Inflammation of the lungs,
+ague, rheumatism, &c., are the usual results of these carnival sports,
+to which many fall victims. A year never passes in which several murders
+are not committed, in revenge for offences perpetrated during the
+saturnalia of the carnival.
+
+A very favorite trick adopted in carnival time, for frightening people
+as they pass along the streets, is the following:--a sack, filled with
+fragments of broken glass and porcelain, is fastened to the balcony by a
+strong rope, of such a length that, when suspended from the window, the
+sack is about seven feet above the street. The apparatus being all
+ready, a mischievous negress and her _amita_ (young mistress) watch the
+passers-by until they select one for their victim. The sack is then
+thrown over the front of the balcony, and a deafening crash ensues,
+though the rope prevents its contents from hurting any one. It is well
+known that in almost every street in Lima there is at least one balcony
+ready prepared for the performance of this trick; yet the suddenness of
+the crash always proves a shock, even to the strongest nerves. People
+start and run to one side of the street, and are sometimes so terrified
+that they drop down; then loud laughter and jeering remarks are heard in
+the balcony. Every year this trick is prohibited by the police, but the
+prohibition is treated with contempt.
+
+One of the most popular recreations of the Limeños, especially of the
+people of color, is the _Paseo de Amancaes_, which takes place on St.
+John's Day. The Amancaes is a gently sloping plain, about half a mile
+north-west of Lima, and it is bounded by a semicircular range of hills,
+which rise from twelve to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the
+sea. During the hot months of the year this plain is a parched and
+barren waste; but when the misty and rainy season sets in, the Amancaes
+is covered with numerous flowers, among which a beautiful yellow lily is
+conspicuous. About the end of June this lily is in full bloom. On St.
+John's Day booths and stalls are fitted up for the sale of various kinds
+of refreshments, and throngs of people of all classes and colors are
+seen riding or walking in the direction of the Amancaes. There they
+amuse themselves with dancing, playing, eating, drinking, and gathering
+flowers; and in the evening they return to Lima. It is amusing to see
+the Mulattas and Zambas with bouquets of yellow lilies stuck in their
+heads and bosoms. These women crowd into heavily-laden vehicles, beside
+which their black cavaliers ride on horseback--all laughing, jesting,
+and giving vent to unrestrained mirth. From the 24th of June to the end
+of October, pleasure parties repair on Sundays and festival days, either
+to the Amancaes or to the Lomas. The latter is a range of hills a little
+further from Lima.
+
+There is no want of promenades in the vicinity of the city. Leading from
+the Callao gate is the fine long avenue of trees I have already
+mentioned. In the suburb of San Lazaro there is a fine broad promenade
+planted with trees, called the _alameda vieja_, at the end of which is
+situated the Convent of the Descalzos. Along the bank of the Rimac there
+is a new promenade planted with four rows of trees, called the _alameda
+nueva_. Behind it the _Paseo militar_, with two rows of trees, extending
+as far as _Piedra lisa_, on the road to the pleasant village of
+Lurigancho. On the right of these promenades is the river, on the left
+the pyramidal hill, of the Cerro de San Cristoval. At the extremity of
+the Alameda nueva are the Puquio.[32] These baths are within a long
+low-roofed building, covered on the top with straw mats.
+
+On summer evenings the bridge and the Plaza Mayor are visited by
+throngs of promenaders who there enjoy the refreshing breeze, which,
+after sunset, is wafted from the Cordilleras, along the surface of the
+Rimac. After the hour of the _Oraciones_ (evening prayers), the bridge
+is crowded with gentlemen, who walk up and down whilst the ladies sit
+in the rotundas built above each of the piers. Long rows of
+promenaders are seen moving to and fro, either going to the Alamedas,
+or returning from thence to the Plaza, to obtain refreshments. Before
+the Portal de los Escribanos, on the Plaza Mayor, tables are laid out
+with lemonade, almond milk and ices. The promenaders sit down on
+benches, which are placed round these tables, and partake of
+refreshments, none of which, however, are so delicious as the cool
+breeze after the sultry heat of the day.
+
+To the inhabitants of Lima, ice is one of the necessaries of life: it is
+considered so indispensable, that a scarcity of it, during several days,
+would be sufficient to excite popular ferment. In all revolutions,
+therefore, the leaders carefully avoid calling into requisition the
+service of the mules employed in the transport of ice. It is obtained in
+the Cordilleras, at the distance of about twenty-eight leagues from
+Lima. The Indians who ascend the glaciers break the ice into blocks of
+about six arobas in weight, which are lowered by ropes down the
+declivity of the mountain. The women and children then cover the blocks
+of ice with Ichu grass (_Joara ichu_, R. P.), after which they are drawn
+by another party of Indians to a depôt, about two leagues distant, where
+they are packed on the backs of mules. Each mule carries two blocks.
+Thirty mules form what is called a _Recua_, which daily proceeds from
+the ice depôt to Lima. At intervals of two or three miles there are
+stations where relays of mules are in readiness. The operations of
+unloading and reloading are performed with the utmost possible speed,
+and the mules are driven at a brisk trot, wherever the roads will admit
+of it. In the space of eighteen or twenty hours, the ice reaches Lima,
+and as may be expected, considerably reduced in weight by melting. The
+average loss on two blocks of ice is about one hundred pounds.[33] The
+daily consumption of ice in Lima is between fifty and fifty-five cwt.
+About two-thirds of that quantity is used for preparing ices, most of
+which are made of milk or pine-apple juice. Ice is hawked about the
+streets of Lima for sale, and all day long Indians, carrying pails on
+their heads, perambulate the streets, crying _helado_.
+
+The ladies of Lima, when they make visits, seldom go on foot. They
+generally ride in the _caleza_, a very ugly kind of vehicle, being
+nothing more than a square box raised on two high wheels, and drawn
+by a mule, on whose back a negro in livery is mounted. Many of the
+older calezas, instead of being painted on the outside, are covered
+with variegated paper. The calezin is a prettier kind of carriage,
+and is drawn by two horses or mules. Taste in the article of carriages
+is, however, improving in Lima, and several very elegant ones have
+been recently introduced.
+
+Within the last few years a regular line of omnibuses has been
+established between Callao and Lima. From each of those cities an
+omnibus starts daily, at eight in the morning and at four in the
+afternoon, and the journey occupies an hour and a half. To Miraflores,
+Chorillos, Lurin, and other places on the coast, the conveyance is by
+a _balanzin_, a sort of caleza, drawn by three horses harnessed
+abreast. This balanzin is one of the most awkward vehicles ever
+invented, and the slightest shock it sustains is felt with double
+force by the persons riding in it. At greater distances from the
+capital, the want of proper roads renders the employment of vehicles a
+matter of difficulty. Even along the coast to the south of Lima, a
+journey of about forty leagues cannot be accomplished without vast
+difficulty and expense. On such a journey it is usual for a train of
+sixty or eighty horses to accompany the carriage; and it is found
+necessary to change the horses every half-hour, owing to the
+difficulty of drawing the carriage through the fine quicksand, which
+is often more than a foot deep. A Peruvian planter, who was accustomed
+to take his wife every year on a visit to his plantation, situated
+about thirty-two leagues from Lima, assured me that the journey to and
+fro always cost him 1400 dollars.
+
+During the brilliant period of the Spanish domination, incredible sums
+were frequently expended on carriages and mules. Not unfrequently the
+tires of the caleza wheels and the shoes of the mules were of silver
+instead of iron.
+
+In Peru, riding is a universal custom, and almost every person keeps
+one or more horses. The ladies of Lima are distinguished as graceful
+horsewomen. Their equestrian costume consists of a white riding-habit,
+trowsers richly trimmed with lace, a fine white poncho, and a
+broad-brimmed straw hat. Some of the females of the colored races make
+use of men's saddles, and display great skill in the management of the
+most unruly horses.
+
+The horse-trappings used in Peru are often very costly. On the coast and
+in the interior, I have sometimes seen head-gear, bridle, and crupper,
+composed of finely-wrought silver rings, linked one into another. The
+saddle is frequently ornamented with rich gold embroidery, and the
+holster inlaid with gold. The stirrups are usually the richest portion
+of the trappings. They are made of carved wood, and are of pyramidal
+shape; about a foot high and a foot broad at the base. In front and at
+the sides they are close, and are open only at the back in the part
+where the foot rests. The edges are rimmed with silver, and the top of
+the stirrup is surmounted by a bell of the same metal, with a ring
+through which the straps are passed. A priest with whom I was acquainted
+in the Sierra, got a saddle and a pair of stirrups made for me. The
+silver ornaments on the stirrups alone weighed forty pounds. The
+decorations of the saddle were of corresponding richness. The value of
+the silver on both saddle and stirrups was about 1500 dollars. The spurs
+used in Peru are of colossal magnitude. Old custom ordains that they
+must contain three marks (a pound and a half) of silver. The stirrup-bow
+is broad and richly wrought; the ornaments being either of the pattern
+called _hueso de tollo_,[34] or of that styled _hoja de laurel con
+semilla_.[35] The rowel is one and a half or two inches in diameter, and
+the points are about twenty-five or thirty inches long.
+
+In the bridle, the bit and the snaffle are in one piece, and the reins
+are brought together by being passed through a ring, to which the long
+riding-whip is also fastened. The head-band and reins are commonly
+composed of narrow slips of untanned calf or sheep-skin, plaited
+together, and ornamented with silver buckles. The saddle is short and
+narrow, and exceedingly awkward to riders unaccustomed to it. The front
+bolster is four or five inches high, and inclines backward; the hind one
+is lower, and is curved forward in the form of a half-moon; the
+intervening space just affording sufficient room for the thighs of the
+rider, who, in a saddle of this construction, is so firmly fixed that he
+cannot possibly fall. These saddles have, however, one great
+disadvantage, viz., that if the horse starts off at a gallop, and the
+rider has not time to throw himself back in his seat, he is forced
+against the front saddle-bolster with such violence that some fatal
+injury is usually the consequence. Under the saddle is laid a
+horse-cloth, called the _pellon_, about a yard long, and a yard and a
+half wide. The common sort of pellones are composed of two rough
+sheep-skins, sewed together. In the finer kind, the raw wool is combed
+out, and divided into numberless little twists, of about the length of
+one's finger; so that the pellon resembles the skin of some
+long-haired animal. The finest Peruvian pellones are made of a mixture
+of sheep's wool and goat's hair. Between the saddle and the pellon are
+fastened the saddle-bags (_alforjas_), which, on long journeys, are
+filled with provisions and other necessaries. These bags are made
+either of leather or strong woollen cloth; finally, the trappings of a
+Peruvian horse are not complete without the halter (_haquima_), which
+is ornamented in the same manner as the bridle. The halter-strap
+(_cabresto_) is wound round the front bolster of the saddle, and by it
+the horse may be fastened whenever the rider alights, without the use
+of the reins for that purpose. At first a foreigner is apt to regard
+the equipments of a Peruvian horse as superfluous and burthensome; but
+he is soon convinced of their utility, and, when the eye becomes
+familiar to them, they have a pleasing effect.
+
+The pure-bred Peruvian horse is more elegantly formed than his
+Andalusian progenitor. He is of middling size, seldom exceeding
+fourteen hands high. He has a strong expanded chest, slender legs,
+thin pasterns, a short muscular neck, a rather large head, small
+pointed ears, and a fiery eye. He is spirited, docile, and enduring.
+It is only in a few plantations that the purity of the race is
+preserved, and the animals fostered with due care. The common horse is
+higher, leaner, less broad on the chest, and with the crupper thinner
+and more depressed. He is, however, not less fiery and capable of
+endurance than the horse of pure breed. The most inferior horses are
+ill-looking, small, and rough-skinned.
+
+On the coast of Peru the horses are for the most part natural amblers,
+and, if they do not amble naturally, they are taught to do so. There are
+several varieties of amble peculiar to the Peruvian horse; the most
+approved is that called the _paso llano_. It is very rapid, but not
+attended by any jolting motion to the rider. A well-trained horse may
+safely be ridden by a young child at the _paso llano_; the motion being
+so gentle and regular, that the rider may carry a cup of water in his
+hand without spilling a drop, at the same time going at the rate of two
+leagues an hour. Another variety of ambling is called the _paso
+portante_. It consists in the fore and hind foot of one side being
+raised simultaneously, and thrust forward. In this movement, the greater
+or less speed depends on the degree in which the hind foot is advanced
+in comparison with the fore one. It is a rapid, rocking sort of motion,
+and for long continuance is much more wearying to the rider than the
+common trot, as the body cannot be held upright, but must be kept in a
+constant stooping position. The speed of a good ambler in the _paso
+portante_ is so great, that he will outstrip another horse at full
+gallop. The giraffe, as well as the Peruvian horse, has this peculiar
+movement naturally. The _paso compañero_ is merely a nominal
+modification of the _paso portante_. Many horses have no _paso llano_,
+but in its stead a short trot. These have naturally the _paso portante_,
+but they are little esteemed for travelling, though they are good
+working animals. They are called _cavallos aguelillos_. Trotting horses
+cannot be taught the _paso llano_, though they easily acquire the _paso
+portante_. These are called _cavallos trabados_.
+
+In Peru a horse is valued less for beauty of form than for the
+perfection of his amble. The finest trotters are sold at very low
+prices, and are used exclusively as carriage horses. If a horse when
+spurred has the habit of flapping his tail, it is considered a serious
+fault, and greatly depreciates the value of the animal. This vice is
+called _mosquear_ (literally brushing off the mosquitoes), and the
+Peruvians cure it by an incision in the muscle of the tail, by which
+means the horse is disabled from making the movement.
+
+The Peruvians take very little care of their horses. The remark, that
+the more the horse is tended, the worse he is, would seem to be a
+generally admitted truth in Peru. The stable (_coral_) is either totally
+roofless, or very indifferently sheltered. In the mountainous parts of
+the country, and during the rainy season, horses are frequently, for the
+space of six months, up to their knees in mud, and yet they never seem
+to be the worse for it. The fodder consists of lucern (_alfalfa_), or
+maisillo, which is usually thrown down on the ground, though sometimes
+placed in a stone trough, and the drink of the animals consists of
+impure water collected from the ditches at the road sides. Occasionally
+the horses are fed with maize, which they are very fond of. As no oats
+are grown in Peru, barley is given together with maize, especially in
+the interior of the country. Mares and geldings have sometimes the hair
+between the ears cut off quite closely, and the mane arranged in short
+curls, which gives them a resemblance to the horses in ancient
+sculpture. Mares are but little valued, so little indeed, that no
+respectable person will ride one.
+
+The horse-breakers (_chalanes_) are generally free men of color. They
+possess great bodily vigor, and understand their business thoroughly;
+but they use the horses very cruelly, and thereby render them shy. For
+the first three years foals are suffered to roam about with perfect
+freedom; after that time they are saddled, an operation not performed
+without great difficulty, and sometimes found to be impracticable,
+until the animal is thrown on the ground and his limbs tied. The young
+horse under the management of the _chalan_ is trained in all sorts of
+equestrian feats, especially the art of pirouetting (_voltear_). This
+consists in turning either wholly or half round on the hind legs with
+great rapidity and when at full gallop. Another important object of
+the _chalan_ is to teach the horse to stop short suddenly, and to
+stand perfectly motionless (_sentarse_) at the signal of his rider;
+and to go backward (_cejar_) for a considerable space in a straight
+line. When all this is accomplished, the horse is regarded as
+completely broken (_quebrantado_).
+
+As an instance of the certainty with which a Peruvian horse will make a
+pirouette (_voltata_) at the signal of his rider, I may mention the
+following fact, which occurred under my own observation. A friend of
+mine, in Lima, rode at full gallop up to the city wall (which is
+scarcely nine feet broad), leaped upon it, and then made his horse
+perform a complete _voltata_, so that the fore-feet of the animal
+described the segment of a circle beyond the edge of the wall. The feat
+he performed several times in succession, and he assured me he could do
+the same with all his horses.
+
+Peruvian taste requires that the neck of the horse should present a
+finely-curved outline, and that the mouth should be drawn inward, so as
+to approach the breast. The horses called _Cavallos_ de Brazo are much
+esteemed. At every step they describe a large circle with their
+fore-feet, in such a manner that the horse-shoe strikes the lower part
+of the stirrup. This motion is exceedingly beautiful when combined with
+what is termed the "Spanish pace," in which the noble form of the animal
+and his proud bearing are advantageously displayed.
+
+The mule is a very important animal in Peru. The badness of the roads
+would render commercial communication impracticable, were it not for
+mules. The Peruvian mules are fine, strong animals. The best are reared
+in Piura, and sent to Lima for sale. The amblers are selected for the
+saddle, the trotters for harness, and the rest are used as beasts of
+burthen. The price of a mule of middling quality is one hundred dollars;
+a better one double or treble that price; and the very best may even
+cost ten times as much. The endurance of these animals under fatigue and
+indifferent nurture is extraordinary, and without them the vast sand
+plains of Peru would present insuperable obstacles to intercourse
+between one place and another. In the power of continuous ambling they
+exceed the horses, and are often equal to them in speed.
+
+In Lima there is a public lottery, which the Government farms to a
+private individual, for a considerable sum. The tickets are drawn
+weekly. The price of a ticket is one real. The largest prize is 1000
+dollars; the smaller prizes 500, 250, or 100 dollars. A lottery on a
+larger scale is drawn every three months. The highest prize in this
+lottery is 4000 dollars, and the price of the ticket is four reals. To
+every ticket is affixed a motto, usually consisting of an invocation to
+a saint, and a prayer for good luck, and at the drawing of the lottery
+this motto is read aloud when the number of the ticket is announced. Few
+of the inhabitants of Lima fail to buy at least one ticket in the weekly
+lottery. The negroes are particularly fond of trying their luck in this
+way, and in many instances fortune has been singularly kind to them.
+
+"Eating and drinking keep soul and body together." So says the German
+proverb; and it may not be uninteresting to take a glance at the Limeños
+during their performance of these two important operations. The hour of
+breakfast is generally nine in the morning. The meal consists of boiled
+mutton (_Sancochado_), soup (_Caldo_), with yuccas, a very
+pleasant-tasted root, and _Chupe_. This last-mentioned dish consists, in
+its simplest form, merely of potatoes boiled in very salt water, with
+cheese and Spanish pepper. When the chupe is made in better style, eggs,
+crabs, and fried fish are added to the ingredients already named; and it
+is then a very savory dish. Chocolate and milk are afterwards served. A
+negress brings the _Chocolatera_ into the breakfast-room, and pours out
+a cup full for each person. The natives prefer the froth to the actual
+beverage; and many of the negresses are such adepts in the art of
+pouring out, that they will make the cup so overflow with foam, that it
+contains scarcely a spoonful of liquid. Chocolate is the favorite
+beverage of the Peruvians. In the southern parts of the country it is
+customary to offer it to visitors at all hours of the day. The visitor
+is no sooner seated than he is presented with a cup of coffee, which is
+often so thick that the spoon will stand upright in it. It would be a
+breach of politeness to decline this refreshment, and whether agreeable
+or not it must be swallowed!
+
+The best cocoa is obtained from the Montañas of Urubamba, and from the
+Bolivian Yungas. The long land transport, however, renders it very
+dear, and therefore the nuts brought from Guayaquil are those commonly
+used in Lima.
+
+Dinner, which takes place about two or three in the afternoon, commences
+with a very insipid kind of soup. This is followed by the _Puchero_,
+which is the principal dish. Puchero, made in its best style, contains
+beef, pork, bacon, ham, sausage, poultry, cabbage, yuccas, camotes (a
+sort of sweet potato), potatoes, rice, peas, _choclitas_ (grains of
+maize), quince and banana. When served up, the different kinds of meat
+are placed in one dish, and the vegetable ingredients in another. I was
+at first astonished at the poorness of the soups in Lima, considering
+the quantity of meat used in preparing them; but I soon discovered that
+the soup served up to table was little more than water, and that the
+strong gravy of the meat was either thrown away or given to the negroes.
+There prevails an almost universal belief that the liquor in which the
+meat is first stewed is injurious to health. Only a very few families
+are sufficiently free from this prejudice to allow the strong gravy to
+be used in the preparation of _caldo_, &c. The Puchero is an excellent
+and nutritious dish, and would in itself suffice for a dinner, to which,
+however, in Lima, it is merely the introduction. Roast meat, fish,
+vegetables, preserves and salad are afterwards served. Another dish not
+less indispensable to a Lima dinner than _puchero_, is _picante_. Under
+this denomination are included a variety of preparations, in which a
+vast quantity of cayenne pepper is introduced. The most favorite
+_picantes_ are the _calapulcra_, the _lagua_, the _zango_, the
+_charquican_, the _adobas_, the _picante de ullucos_, &c. The
+_calapulcra_ is composed of meat and potatoes dried and finely pounded;
+the _lagua_ is made of maize flour and pork; the _zango_, of the same
+ingredients, but differently prepared; the _adobas_ consists of pork
+alone; and the _picante de ullucos_ is made of a root resembling the
+potato, cut into small square bits. These dishes, though much too highly
+seasoned for European palates, are considered great dainties by the
+Limeños. All the _picantes_ have a very red color, owing to the quantity
+of cayenne used in preparing them; the _achote_ grains, which are also
+used, produce a beautiful vermilion tint. Another dish, common on the
+dinner-table in Lima, is called _ensalada de frutas_. It is a most
+heterogeneous compound, consisting of all sorts of fruits stewed in
+water. To none but a Limanian stomach could such a mixture be agreeable.
+The dessert consists of fruits and sweets (_dulces_). The Limeño must
+always drink a glass of water after dinner, otherwise he imagines the
+repast can do him no good; but to warrant the drinking of the water, or,
+as the phrase is, _para tomar agua_, it is necessary first to partake of
+_dulces_. The one without the other would be quite contrary to rule. The
+dulces consist of little cakes made of honey or of the pulp of the
+sugar-cane; or they are preserved fruits, viz., pine-apple, quince,
+citron, and sometimes preserved beans or cocoa-nut. There is also a
+favorite kind of dulce made from maize, called _masamora_.
+
+The Peruvians have some very singular prejudices on the subject of
+eating and drinking. Every article of food is, according to their
+notions, either heating (_caliente_), or cooling (_frio_); and they
+believe that certain things are in opposition one to another, or, as the
+Limeños phrase it, _se oponen_. The presence in the stomach of two of
+these opposing articles of food, for example, chocolate and rice, is
+believed to be highly dangerous, and sometimes fatal. It is amusing to
+observe the Limeños when at dinner, seriously reflecting, before they
+taste a particular dish, whether it is in opposition to something they
+have already eaten. If they eat rice at dinner, they refrain from
+drinking water, because the two things _se oponen_. To such an extreme
+is this notion carried, that they will not taste rice on days when they
+have to wash, and laundresses never eat it. Frequently have I been asked
+by invalids whether it would be safe for them to take a foot-bath on
+going to bed, as they had eaten rice at dinner!
+
+The white Creoles, as well as all the superior class of people in Lima,
+are exceedingly temperate in drinking. Water and a kind of sweet wine
+are their favorite beverage; but the lower classes and the people of
+color are by no means so abstemious. They make free use of fermented
+drinks, especially brandy, chicha, and guarapo. The brandy of Peru is
+very pure, and is prepared exclusively from the grape. On the warm sea
+coast, the use of this liquor is not very injurious; there, its evil
+effects are counteracted by profuse perspiration. But one half the
+quantity that may be drunk with impunity on the coast, will be very
+pernicious in the cool mountainous regions. An old and very just maxim
+of the Jesuits is, "_En pais caliente, aguardiente; en pais frio, agua
+fria_" (in the warm country, brandy; in the cold country, water).
+
+Guarapo is a fermented liquor, made of sugar-cane pulp and water. It
+is a very favorite beverage of the negroes. There are several kinds of
+guarapo. The best sorts are tolerably agreeable. _Chicha_ is a sort of
+beer prepared from maize. The seeds of the maize are watered and left
+until they begin to sprout, after which they are dried in the sun.
+When sufficiently dry they are crushed, boiled in water, and then
+allowed to stand till fermentation takes place. The liquid is of a
+dark yellow color, and has a slightly bitter and sharp taste. Chicha
+is likewise made from rice, peas, barley, yuccas, pine-apples, and
+even bread. The kind most generally used is that made from maize. Even
+before the Spanish conquest of Peru, this maize beer was the common
+beverage of the Indians. In Lima there are some very dirty and
+ill-arranged _restaurations_, styled _picanterias_. These places are
+divided by partitions into several small compartments, each of which
+contains a table and two benches. The _restaurateur_, usually a zambo
+or a mulatto, prides himself in the superiority of his _picantes_ and
+his _clicha_. The most motley assemblages frequent these places in the
+evening. The Congo negro, the grave Spaniard, the white Creole, the
+Chino, together with monks and soldiers, may be seen, all grouped
+together, and devouring with evident relish refreshments, served out
+in a way not remarkable for cleanliness. Brandy and guarapo are
+likewise sold in shops which are to be met with at the corner of
+almost every street. The coffee-houses are very inferior; most of
+them are very dirty, and the attendance is wretched.
+
+Every street in Lima contains one or more cigar shops, in which
+mestizos and mulattos are busily employed in making cigars. Smoking is
+a universal custom, and is practised everywhere except in the
+churches. The cigars used in Lima are short, and the tobacco is rolled
+in paper, or in dried maize leaves. The tobacco is brought from the
+northern province, Jaen de Bracamoras, in very hard rolls called
+_masos_, about a yard long and two inches thick. Another kind of
+cigars is made of Peruvian or Columbian tobacco. They are scarcely
+inferior to the Havannah cigars, and would be quite equal to them, if
+they were kept long enough and well dried: but in Lima they are smoked
+within a few hours after being made. When any one wants to light his
+cigar in the street, he accosts the first smoker he happens to meet,
+whatever be his color, rank, or condition; and asks him for a light.
+The slave smokes in the presence of his master, and when his cigar
+dies out, he unceremoniously asks leave to relight it at his master's.
+It has been calculated that the daily cost of the cigars smoked in
+Lima and the immediate vicinity amounts to 2,300 dollars.
+
+Formerly the market was held on the Plaza Mayor, and was always
+abundantly supplied with vegetables, fruit, and flowers. Now it is
+held in the Plazuela de la Inquisicion, and it is very inferior to
+what it used to be. Along the sides of the Plaza are stalls kept by
+women, who sell sausages and fish. The central part of the market is
+appropriated to the sale of vegetables, of which there is always an
+excellent supply. Facing the Palace of the Inquisition are the
+butchers' shops. The meat is good, though not very plentifully
+displayed. The most abundant kinds of meat are mutton and beef. The
+slaughtering of young animals being strictly prohibited by law, veal,
+lamb, and sucking pigs are never seen in the market. The daily
+consumption of butcher's meat in Lima is about twenty-eight or thirty
+heads of horned cattle, and between one hundred and sixty and two
+hundred sheep. Pork, neither fresh nor cured, is seen in the market;
+though great numbers of swine are slaughtered. The fleshy parts of the
+animal are cut into small square pieces, and boiled; the fat or lard
+is used in cookery, and the pieces of pork, which are spread over with
+lard, are called _chicharones_, and are held in high esteem by
+Limanian epicures. There is an abundant show of poultry in the market,
+especially fowls and turkeys, which are brought from Huacho. Game is
+never sold, and but very little is obtained in the neighborhood of
+Lima. The flower market, which is held on the Plaza Mayor, is but
+sparingly supplied with the gifts of Flora. The ladies of Lima recal
+pleasing recollections of the former glory of their flower market, and
+speak with regret of its present degenerate condition. The
+much-vaunted _pucheros de flores_ are still occasionally displayed for
+sale. They are composed of a union of fragrant fruits and flowers.
+Several small fruits are laid on a banana leaf, and above them are
+placed odoriferous flowers, tastefully arranged according to their
+colors: the whole is surmounted with a strawberry, and is profusely
+sprinkled with _agua rica_, or lavender water. These _pucheros_ are
+very pleasing to the eye, on account of the tasteful arrangement of
+the flowers; but their powerful fragrance affects the nerves. They
+vary in price, according to the rarity of the fruits and flowers of
+which they are composed. Some cost as much as six or eight dollars.
+A _puchero de flores_ is one of the most acceptable presents that
+can be offered to a Lima lady.
+
+A mingled feeling of disgust and surprise takes possession of the
+European who witnesses the joy which pervades all classes of the
+inhabitants of Lima on the announcement of a bull-fight. For several
+days the event is the exclusive topic of conversation, and, strange to
+say, the female portion of the population takes greater interest in it
+than the men. Bills notifying the approaching entertainment are stuck up
+at the corners of the streets; and every one is anxious to obtain a
+_lista de los toros_. When the season of the toros[36] commences, a
+bull-fight takes place every Monday, and then the whole city of Lima is
+thrown into a state of indescribable excitement. The ladies prepare
+their finest dresses for the occasion, and they consider it the greatest
+possible misfortune if anything occurs to prevent them going to the
+bull-fight: indeed, a Monday passed at home in the season of the toros
+would be regarded as a lost day in the life of a Limeña. Those who
+cannot go to the _corrida_, resort to the bridge, or to the Alameda,
+where they sit and amuse themselves by looking at the throngs of people
+passing and repassing.
+
+In the time of the Viceroys, bull-fights frequently took place on the
+Plaza Mayor. Now there is a place expressly built for these
+entertainments, called the _Plaza firme del Acho_. It is a spacious
+amphitheatre without a roof, and is erected at the end of the new avenue
+of the Alameda. The preparations for the sport commence at an early hour
+in the morning. Along the Alameda are placed rows of tables covered with
+refreshments, consisting of lemonade, brandy, chicha, picantes, fish,
+dulces, &c. About twelve o'clock, those who have engaged places in the
+amphitheatre begin to move towards the Plaza del Acho.
+
+Most European ladies would turn with horror, even from a description
+of these cruel sports, which the ladies of Lima gaze on with delight.
+They are barbarous diversions, and though they form a part of national
+customs, they are nevertheless a national disgrace. At the same time
+it would be unjust to make this love of bull-fighting a ground for
+unqualified censure on the Limeños, or a reason for accusing them of
+an utter want of humanity. Being accustomed to these diversions from
+early childhood, they regard them with perfect indifference; and
+custom, no doubt, blinds them to the cruelties they witness in the
+bull-ring. The same extenuation may be urged in behalf of the women:
+and though to most of the Limeñas a bull-fight affords the highest
+possible gratification, yet there are some who form honorable
+exceptions to this remark, and who, with true feminine feeling, shrink
+with horror from such scenes.
+
+Peru is the only one of the South American states in which bull-fights
+are included in the category of public amusements. As Peru was the last
+to answer the cry of independence, and to shake off the yoke of Spanish
+domination, so she adheres with most tenacity to the customs of the
+mother country; for she has not the energy requisite for developing a
+nationality of her own. Even here is apparent that want of independence
+of character for which the Peruvians are remarkable. The faults of the
+Spaniards in them become vices, because, in imitating without
+reflecting, they push everything to an extreme. Thus, if bull-fights are
+cruel in Spain, they are barbarous in Lima. The government, too, finds
+it expedient to court popularity by favoring public entertainments,
+among which bull-fights take the lead. By allowing the people to indulge
+unrestrainedly in all their favorite amusements, the government gains a
+two-fold object, viz., that of securing the support, if not the love of
+the people, and of averting public attention from political affairs.
+These, it must be confessed, are important objects in a country which,
+like Peru, is continually disturbed by revolutions caused by the
+outbreaks of a turbulent populace, or an undisciplined army.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 31: A very small number in a population of 55,000.]
+
+[Footnote 32: _Puquio_ in the Quichua language signifies springs.]
+
+[Footnote 33: These fine blocks of ice clearly refute the assertion
+made by some travellers, that the first real glaciers are found in
+19° S. lat. The extensive fields of ice from which the blocks in
+question are brought are situated in 11° 14' S. lat.]
+
+[Footnote 34: A sort of arabesque resembling the backbone of a fish
+called the _Tollo_.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Laurel leaves and seed.]
+
+[Footnote 36: _Toros_ (Bulls) is used by way of contraction for
+_Corrida de Toros_ (Bull Course).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+Geographical Situation of Lima--Height above Sea
+level--Temperature--Diseases--Statistical Tables of Births and
+Deaths--Earthquakes--The Valley of Lima--The River Rimac--Aqueducts,
+Trenches, &c.--Irrigation--Plantations--Cotton--Sugar--Various
+kinds of Grain--Maize--Potatoes, and other tuberous
+roots--Pulse--Cabbage--Plants used for Seasoning--Clover--The Olive
+and other Oil Trees--Fruits--Figs and Grapes--The Chirimoya--The
+Palta--The Banana and other Fruits.
+
+
+Lima, according to the careful observations made by Herr Scholtz, is
+situated in 12° 3' 24'' south latitude, and 77° 8' 30'' west longitude
+from Greenwich. It may, however, be mentioned that the longitude from
+Greenwich is very differently stated. In sea charts and Manuals of
+Geography it is often marked 76° 50'. Humboldt makes it 77° 5' 5''; and
+Malaspina 77° 6' 45''. According to Ulloa it is 70° 37' west of Cadiz.
+The latitude is very generally fixed at 12° 2' 3'' south. The height
+above the level of the sea is also differently estimated. Rivero, in the
+_Memorial de Ciencias Naturales_, I., 2, page 112, states it to be 154
+metres, or 462 French feet. On another occasion he makes it 184-4/5
+Castilian varas (each vara being equal to 33 inches English). He gives
+the following account of heights, according to the barometer, between
+Callao and Lima, in varas, viz., Callao, 00; Baquijano, 24-3/5; _La
+Legua_, 50-2/5; Mirones, 94-3/20; Portada del Callao, 150; _Plaza de
+Lima_, 184-4/5.
+
+The first estimate given by Rivero is the most correct. Gay makes the
+height of Lima, at the corner of the church of _Espiritu Santo_, 172·2
+Castilian varas; but most of his heights are incorrectly stated.
+
+The conical hill in the north-east of Lima, called Cerro de San
+Cristoval, is, according to trigonometrical measurements, made in 1737,
+by Don Jorge Juon, and De la Condamines, 312 varas higher than the Plaza
+Mayor, or 134 toises above the sea; but one of the most exact
+measurements is Pentland's, who found the height to be 1275 English
+feet.
+
+The average temperature during the hottest period of the year, from
+December to March, is 25° C. The medium temperature during the cold
+season, from April to November, 17·5° C. Highest rise of the hygrometer,
+21·5°.
+
+The low temperature of Lima at the distance of only twelve degrees from
+the Equator is to be ascribed to the situation of the town, and the
+prevailing atmospheric currents. The Cordilleras, rising at the distance
+of only twenty-eight Spanish leagues east of the city, are crowned with
+eternal snow; and on the west the sea is distant only two leagues. The
+prevailing wind blows from the south-south-west. West winds are not very
+common, though they sometimes blow with extraordinary violence for those
+regions, and breaking on the surrounding mountains, they form
+atmospheric whirlwinds, which diffuse alarm through the whole
+population. In June, 1841, I had the opportunity of observing one of
+these dreadful whirlwinds, which swept away huts, and tore up trees by
+the roots. The atmospheric currents from the north, which pass over the
+hot sand-flats, are not of constant occurrence, but they are
+oppressively sultry. There must be other causes for the low temperature
+of Lima, for in the villages, only a few miles from the city, and
+exposed to the same atmospheric influences, it is much higher.
+
+Miraflores is a small place, about one Spanish league and a half from
+Lima, but it is much hotter. Among the records of the thermometer are
+the following:--
+
+  December 20 to 27, maximum 31·8° C.; minimum, 25·9° C.
+
+  December 28, at 6 in the morning, 26·0° C.; at 2 P.M., 32·7° C.;
+    at 10 at night, 27·3° C.
+
+  January 1, at 2 P.M., 33·1° C., maximum of the day.
+
+  January 18, at 2 P.M., maximum 34·2° C.
+
+A comparison with the temperature of Lima, on the same days, gives an
+average of 5·7° C. of heat in favor of Miraflores.
+
+The River Rimac, which rises among the glaciers of the Cordilleras, and
+after a course of no great length, intersects the city, doubtless
+contributes to cool the atmosphere.
+
+The climate of Lima is agreeable, but not very healthy. During six
+months, from April to October, a heavy, damp, but not cold mist,
+overhangs the city. The summer is always hot, but not oppressive. The
+transition from one season to another is gradual, and almost
+imperceptible. In October and November the misty canopy begins to rise;
+it becomes thinner, and yields to the penetrating rays of the sun. In
+April the horizon begins to resume the misty veil. The mornings are cool
+and overcast, but the middle of the day is clear. In a few weeks after,
+the brightness of noon also disappears. The great humidity gives rise to
+many diseases, particularly fevers, and the alternations from heat to
+damp cause dysentery. On an average, the victims to this disease are
+very numerous. It is endemic, and becomes, at apparently regular but
+distant periods, epidemic. The intermittent fevers or agues, called
+_tercianos_, are throughout the whole of Peru very dangerous, both
+during their course and in their consequences. It may be regarded as
+certain that two-thirds of the people of Lima are suffering at all times
+from _tercianos_, or from the consequences of the disease. It usually
+attacks foreigners, not immediately on their arrival in Lima, but some
+years afterwards. In general the tribute of acclimation is not so soon
+paid by emigrants in Lima as in other tropical regions.
+
+In consequence of the ignorance of the medical attendants, and the
+neglect of the police, the statistical tables of deaths are very
+imperfectly drawn up, and therefore cannot be entirely depended upon.
+I may, however, here subjoin one of them, which will afford the reader
+some idea of the mortality of Lima.
+
+The annual number of deaths in Lima varies from 2,500 to 2,800.
+
+In the ten months, from the 1st of January to the 30th of October, 1841,
+the number of marriages was 134, of which 46 were contracted by whites,
+and 88 by people of color.
+
+
+        DEATHS IN LIMA FROM JANUARY 1, TO OCTOBER 30, 1841:-
+
+  Diseases.                             Men.  Women.  Children.  Total.
+
+  Dysentery                             171     105      59        335
+  Fevers, chiefly intermittent           57      88      71        216
+  Typhus                                 14       7      24         45
+  Pulmonary Consumption                  87     110      11        208
+  Inflammation of the Lungs              78      75      26        179
+  Dropsy, for the most part a
+    consequence of intermittent fevers   33      32       7         72
+  Hooping-cough                                          36         36
+  Small Pox                               3               1          4
+  Sudden death                           23      13       1         37
+  Shot                                    3                          3
+  Various Diseases                      271     228     610      1,109
+                                        ---     ---     ---      -----
+                                        740     658     846      2,244
+
+
+The number of births were:--
+
+
+                      Boys.   Girls.   Total.
+
+  In marriage          410     412      822
+  Not in marriage      432     428      860
+                       ---     ---    -----
+                       842     840    1,682
+
+
+The number of births not in marriage (860) is remarkable, and no less so
+is the number of dead children exposed, which, during the above
+interval, was 495. These are most decided proofs of the immorality and
+degraded state of manners prevailing in Lima, particularly among the
+colored part of the population. Though there is no certain evidence of
+the fact, yet there is reason to conjecture that a considerable number
+of those infants are destroyed by the mothers. Of the children born out
+of marriage, nearly two-thirds, and of those exposed dead, full
+four-fifths are Mulattos.
+
+The important annual surplus of deaths over births is a matter of
+serious consideration for Lima. The above tables show, in the course of
+ten months, a surplus of 562 deaths. By a comparison of the lists of
+births and deaths from 1826 to 1842, I find that on an average there are
+annually 550 more deaths than births. It would lead me too far to
+endeavor to investigate all the grounds of this disparity, but I may
+observe that one of the causes, unquestionably, is the common, though
+punishable crime of producing abortion.
+
+Along the whole coast of Peru the atmosphere is almost uniformly in a
+state of repose. It is not illuminated by the lightning's flash, or
+disturbed by the roar of the thunder: no deluges of rain, no fierce
+hurricanes destroy the fruits of the fields, and with them the hopes of
+the husbandman. Even fire appears here to have lost its annihilating
+power, and the work of human hands seems to be sacred from its
+attack.[37] But the mildness of the elements above ground is frightfully
+counterbalanced by their subterranean fury.
+
+Lima is frequently visited by earthquakes, and several times the city
+has been reduced to a mass of ruins. At an average forty-five shocks may
+be counted on in a year. Most of them occur in the latter part of
+October, in November, December, January, May, and June. Experience gives
+reason to expect the visitation of two desolating earthquakes in a
+century. The period between the two is from forty to sixty years. The
+most considerable catastrophes experienced in Lima since Europeans have
+visited the west coast of South America, happened in the years 1586,
+1630, 1687, 1713, 1746, 1806. There is reason to fear that in the course
+of a few years this city may be the prey of another such visitation.
+
+The slighter shocks are sometimes accompanied by a noise; at other
+times, they are merely perceptible by the motion of the earth. The
+subterraneous noises are manifold. For the most part they resemble the
+rattling of a heavy loaded wagon, driven rapidly over arches. They
+usually accompany the shock, seldom precede it, and only in a few
+cases do they follow it; sounding like distant thunder. On one
+occasion the noise appeared to me like a groan from the depth of the
+earth, accompanied by sounds like the crepitation of wood in
+partitions when an old house is consumed by fire.
+
+Of the movements, the horizontal vibrations are the most frequent, and
+they cause the least damage to the slightly-built habitations. Vertical
+shocks are most severe; they rend the walls, and raise the houses out of
+their foundations. The greatest vertical shock I ever felt was on the
+4th of July, 1839, at half-past seven in the evening, when I was in the
+old forests of the Chanchamoyo territory. Before my hut there was an
+immense stem of a felled tree, which lay with its lower end on the stump
+of the root. I was leaning against it and reading, when suddenly, by a
+violent movement, the stem rose about a foot and a half, and I was
+thrown backwards over it. By the same shock the neighboring river,
+Aynamayo, was dislodged from its bed, and its course thereby changed for
+a considerable length of way.
+
+I have had no experience of the rotatory movements of earthquakes.
+According to the statements of all who have observed them, they are very
+destructive, though uncommon. In Lima I have often felt a kind of
+concussion, which accords with that term in the strictest sense of the
+word. This movement had nothing in common with what may be called an
+oscillation, a shock, or a twirl: it was a passing sensation, similar to
+that which is felt when a man seizes another unexpectedly by the
+shoulder, and shakes him; or like the vibration felt on board a ship
+when the anchor is cast, at the moment it strikes the ground. I believe
+it is caused by short, rapid, irregular horizontal oscillations. The
+irregularity of the vibrations is attended by much danger, for very
+slight earthquakes of that kind tear away joists from their joinings,
+and throw down roofs, leaving the walls standing, which, in all other
+kinds of commotion, usually suffer first, and most severely.
+
+Humboldt says that the regularity of the hourly variations of the
+magnetic needle and the atmospheric pressure is undisturbed on
+earthquake days within the tropics. In seventeen observations, which I
+made during earthquakes in Lima with a good Lefevre barometer, I found,
+in fifteen instances, the position of the mercury quite unaltered. On
+one occasion, shortly before a commotion, I observed it 2·4 lines lower
+than it had been two hours before. Another time, I observed, also on
+the approach of the shock and during the twelve following hours, a
+remarkable rising and sinking in the column. During these observations
+the atmosphere was entirely tranquil.
+
+Atmospheric phenomena are frequent, but not infallible prognostics of
+an earthquake. I have known individuals in Lima, natives of the coast,
+who were seldom wrong in predicting an earthquake, from their
+observation of the atmosphere. In many places great meteors have been
+seen before the commotion. Before the dreadful earthquake of 1746,
+there were seen fiery vapors (_exhalaciones encendidas_) rising out of
+the earth. On the island of San Lorenzo these phenomena were
+particularly remarked.
+
+Many persons have an obscure perception--a foreboding, which is to
+them always indicative of an approaching earthquake. They experience a
+feeling of anxiety and restlessness, a pressure of the breast, as if
+an immense weight were laid on it. A momentary shudder pervades the
+whole frame, or there is a sudden trembling of the limbs. I, myself,
+have several times experienced this foreboding, and there can scarcely
+be a more painful sensation. It is felt with particular severity by
+those who have already had the misfortune to have been exposed to the
+dangers of an earthquake.
+
+I will here only briefly mention the celebrated earthquake of 1746, as
+all its details are fully described in many publications. The reader
+need scarcely be reminded that it happened on the 28th of October, the
+day of St. Simon and St. Jude. During the night, between ten and eleven
+o'clock, the earth having begun to tremble, a loud howling was heard,
+and, in a few minutes, Lima became a heap of ruins. The first shock was
+so great, that the town was almost completely destroyed by it. Of more
+than 3000 houses, only twenty-one remained. Still more horrible was the
+destruction in the harbor of Callao. The movement of the earth had
+scarcely been felt there, when the sea, with frightful roaring, rushed
+over the shore, and submerged the whole town with its inhabitants. Five
+thousand persons were instantly buried beneath the waves. The Spanish
+corvette San Fermin, which lay at anchor in the port, was thrown over
+the walls of the fortress. A cross still marks the place where the stern
+of the vessel fell. Three merchant vessels, heavily laden, suffered the
+same fate. The other ships which were at anchor, nineteen in number,
+were sunk. The number of lives sacrificed by this earthquake has not
+been, with perfect accuracy, recorded.[38] Humboldt, in his Cosmos,
+mentions that during this earthquake a noise like subterraneous thunder
+was heard at Truxillo, eighty-five leagues north of Callao. It was first
+observed a quarter of an hour after the commotion occurred at Lima, but
+there was no trembling of the earth. According to the old chronicle
+writers, the earthquake of 1630 was more disastrous.
+
+The serious commotions which take place on the Peruvian coast appear to
+acquire progressively greater extension, but only in the southern and
+northern directions. A shock, of which Lima is the centre, though felt
+fifty leagues towards the north, and as far towards the south, may,
+nevertheless, be imperceptible in the easterly direction (towards the
+mountains) at the distance of ten or twelve leagues. This peculiarity is
+made manifest, not only by the terraqueous oscillations, but also by the
+undulations of the sound, which usually proceeds still further in a
+direction towards the south or the north.
+
+Slight shocks are usually only local, and are not felt beyond the limits
+of a few square miles.
+
+The atmospheric phenomena during and after earthquakes are very
+different. In general, the atmosphere is tranquil, but occasionally a
+stormy agitation is the harbinger of a change. I was unexpectedly
+overtaken by a violent commotion on the sand-flat between Chancay and
+Lima. The whole surface of the plain presented a kind of curling
+movement, and on every side small columns of sand rose, and whirled
+round and round. The mules stopped of their own accord, and spread out
+their legs as for support and to secure themselves against
+apprehended danger. The _arieros_ (mule-drivers) leaped from their
+saddles, threw themselves on their knees beside the animals, and
+prayed to heaven for mercy.
+
+The effect of earthquakes on the fertility of the soil is sometimes
+remarkable. Numerous observations tend to show that after violent
+commotions luxuriant lands often become barren wastes, and for several
+years produce no thriving vegetation. Several Quebradas in the province
+of Truxillo, formerly remarkable for their fertility in grain, were left
+fallow for twenty years after the earthquake of 1630, as the soil would
+produce nothing. Similar cases occurred at Supe, Huaura, Lima, and Yca.
+All kinds of grain appear to be very susceptible to the changes produced
+by earthquakes. Cases are recorded in which, after slight shocks, fields
+of maize in full bloom have withered; and in the course of a day or two
+the crops have perished.
+
+The causes of the frequent earthquakes on the coast of Lima are
+involved in an obscurity too deep to be unveiled. That they are
+connected with volcanic phenomena seems probable. Lima is more than
+ninety leagues distant from the nearest active volcano, that of
+Arequipa. But the earthquakes of the Peruvian capital are uniformly
+independent of any state of activity in that volcano, and it is
+certain that the town of Arequipa, which lies at the foot of the
+mountain, experiences fewer earthquakes than Lima. Of the six serious
+earthquakes, the dates of which I have mentioned, only that of 1687
+stands in connection with a decided shock in Arequipa, and an eruption
+of the volcano. Earthquakes are of rarer occurrence in the mountainous
+districts than on the coast, yet Huancavellica, Tarma, Pasco,
+Caramarca, have been visited by heavy shocks; and within a recent
+period the village Quiquijana, in the Province of Quipichanchi,
+Department of Cusco, suffered from a serious commotion. In a letter
+from an eye-witness I received the following account of it.
+
+"In November, 1840, the earth began to move faintly back and forward,
+and a dull, distant, subterraneous noise continued without interruption.
+The first powerful shock occurred on the 23d of December. During the
+whole month of January, 1841, heavy thunder prevailed, but without any
+motion of the earth. On February 11th, we again had a smart shock, and
+from that day the vibrations recommenced, which, strange enough, were
+always most violent on Mondays and Thursdays. The subterraneous noise
+resounded incessantly; but it was heard only in the village; for at the
+distance of half a league from it all was tranquil. The heaviest shocks
+were felt in a circuit within the radius of three leagues. From May 21st
+to June 2d, all was tranquil; after the last-mentioned date the
+vibrations recommenced, and frequently became heavy commotions. They
+continued until the middle of July, 1841. From that time we have not
+been disturbed, and we have now returned to the ruins of our village."
+
+The volcano of Arequipa, which is forty-five leagues distant from
+Quiquijana, manifested, during the whole of this time, no unusual
+phenomena, a circumstance which speaks forcibly against the idea of any
+local connection between the earthquake and the volcano.
+
+On most men earthquakes make a powerful and extraordinary impression.
+The sudden surprise, often in sleep, the imminent danger, the
+impossibility of escape, the dull subterraneous noise, the yielding of
+the earth under the feet,--altogether make a formidable demand on the
+weakness of human nature.
+
+Humboldt in the Cosmos truly observes--"What is most wonderful for us to
+comprehend is the undeception which takes place with respect to the kind
+of innate belief which men entertain of the repose and immovability of
+the terrestrial strata." And further on he says--"The earthquake appears
+to men as something omnipresent and unlimited. From the eruption of a
+crater, from a stream of lava running towards our dwellings, it appears
+possible to escape, but in an earthquake, whichever way flight is
+directed the fugitive believes himself on the brink of destruction!" No
+familiarity with the phenomenon can blunt this feeling. The inhabitant
+of Lima who, from childhood, has frequently witnessed these convulsions
+of nature, is roused from his sleep by the shock, and rushes from his
+apartment with the cry of "_Misericordia!_" The foreigner from the north
+of Europe, who knows nothing of earthquakes but by description, waits
+with impatience to feel the movement of the earth, and longs to hear
+with his own ears the subterraneous sounds which he has hitherto
+considered fabulous. With levity he treats the apprehension of a coming
+convulsion, and laughs at the fears of the natives. But as soon as his
+wish is gratified he is terror-stricken, and is involuntarily prompted
+to seek safety in flight.
+
+In Lima, the painful impression produced by an earthquake is heightened
+by the universality of the exercise of the devotions (_plegarias_) on
+such a calamity. Immediately on the shock being felt, a signal is given
+from the cathedral, and the long-measured ten-minute tollings of all the
+church bells summon the inhabitants to prayers.
+
+Taking a comprehensive view of the whole coast of Peru, we perceive
+that Lima lies in one of those oases which break the continuity of the
+extensive sand-flats. These valleys present themselves wherever a
+river, after a short course from the Cordilleras, falls into the sea;
+they are always fan-shaped widenings of the mountain ravines. The
+valley of Lima lies in the widest extension of the Quebrada of
+Mutucamas. This narrow gorge, which has its main direction from E.N.E.
+to W.S.W., widens at Cocachacra, and extends into San Pedro Mama,
+where the Quebrada of San Geronimo unites with it. It then runs down
+to the coast, extending more and more in width, and is intersected by
+the Rimac.[39] This river rises in two branches, the largest of which
+has its source in some small lagunes, in the upper part of Antarangra,
+on a height 15,600 feet above the level of the sea. The second and
+shorter branch takes its source from a small lake in the heights of
+Carampoma, flows through the valley of San Geronimo, and near San
+Pedro unites with the Rimac. The most considerable streams of the
+south-eastern confluence are those which rise in the heights of
+Carhuapampa, and near Tambo de Viso, flow into the main stream. During
+winter the Rimac is very inconsiderable, but when the rainy season
+sets in it swells greatly, and in the upper regions, particularly
+between Surco and Cocachacra, causes great devastations. In the lower
+part where the bed becomes broad and the banks are not much built on,
+no considerable damage occurs.
+
+Several small conduits are brought from the Rimac, some for giving
+moisture to fields, and others for filling the street trenches of Lima.
+The water for supplying the fountains of the Capital does not, however,
+come from the river, but from two springs situated 1-1/4 league from
+Lima in a thicket near an old Indian settlement, called Santa Rosa, in
+the valley of Surco. They are inclosed within a building called the
+Puello, or Atarrea, whence the waters are conveyed by a subterraneous
+trench to the Reservoir (Caja de Santa Tomas), from which it is
+distributed by pipes to 112 public and private fountains. During the
+insurrection of the Indians in 1781, which was instigated by the
+unfortunate Cacique Don José Gabriel Tupac Amaru, one of the sworn
+determinations of the participators in that very extensive conspiracy
+was to drive the Spaniards out of Lima by artifice or force. Among the
+numerous plans for accomplishing that object, I will mention two which
+have reference to the water of Lima. One scheme was to poison the whole
+of the inhabitants. For this purpose a rich Cacique of the vale of
+Huarochirin went to an apothecary near the bridge, and asked for two
+hundred weight of corrosive sublimate, saying that he would pay well for
+it. The apothecary had not entire confidence in the Indian, but he did
+not think it right to forego the opportunity of making a very profitable
+sale; so, instead of the sublimate, he made up the same quantity of alum
+for the Cacique and received the price he demanded. Next morning all the
+water in Lima was unfit for use. On examination it was found that the
+enclosure of the Atarrea was broken down, and the source saturated with
+alum. The offender remained undiscovered.
+
+The second plan was formed with more circumspection. The conspirators
+resolved on a certain day to send into the city a number of Indians, who
+were to conceal themselves on the roofs of the shops (_Pulperias_), in
+which quantities of firewood were kept for sale. The moment the
+cathedral struck the hour of midnight, the concealed Indians were to set
+fire to the wood. Another division of Indians was immediately to dam up
+the river at the convent of Santa Clara, and thereby lay the streets
+under water. During the unavoidable confusion, which must have taken
+place, the main body of the Indians was to enter the town and massacre
+all the whites. This well-combined plan was by mere accident discovered,
+when it was of course frustrated.
+
+The fertility of the soil round Lima is very great when irrigation is
+practicable. Where this cannot be accomplished, the earth withholds
+even the most scanty vegetation. The _riego_, or irrigation, is thus
+effected. On certain days the water conduits are closed, and the
+fields are laid under water. When there is a deficient supply of
+water, the trenches, or conduits, are not opened till the following
+day. When, however, the supply of water is abundant, the _riego_ takes
+place early every morning.
+
+As the same identical plants are cultivated along almost the whole
+coast, I will here notice them, to save the necessity of returning to
+them hereafter.
+
+COTTON is cultivated only in a few plantations in the immediate
+vicinity of Lima; but it abounds more in the northern districts,
+particularly in the department de la Libertad, in the coast province
+Piura, in Lambayeque, and in Truxillo. In the southern province, Yca,
+a considerable quantity is also reared for exportation. The brown
+cotton was chiefly cultivated in the time of the Incas. Most of the
+bodies found in the ancient graves on the coast are enveloped in
+this kind of cotton.
+
+The SUGAR CANE is cultivated with success in all plantations where
+there is sufficient moisture of soil; and of all the agricultural
+produce of the country, yields the greatest profit. The sugar estates
+lie on the sea-coast, or along the banks of rivers. The vertical limit
+of the sugar cane growth is on the western declivity of the
+Cordilleras, about 4500 feet above the level of the sea, at which
+height I saw fields covered with it. The largest plantations, however,
+do not rise above 1200 feet above the level of the sea; while those of
+the same extent on the eastern declivity are at the height of 6000
+feet. Within the last forty years the introduction of the Otaheitan
+cane has greatly improved the Peruvian plantations in quality, and has
+more especially increased the quantity of their produce; for the
+Otaheitan canes are found to yield proportionally one third more than
+the West India canes, which were previously cultivated.
+
+The preparation of the sugar is, as yet, conducted in a very rude and
+laborious manner. In most of the plantations the cane is passed through
+wooden presses with brass rollers. These machines are called _trapiches_
+or _ingenios_. They are kept in motion by oxen or mules. In some large
+estates water power is employed, and in San Pedro de Lurin a
+steam-engine has been put up, which certainly does the work quickly; but
+it often has to stand for a long time idle. A part of the sugar cane
+juice is used for making the liquor called guarapo, or distilled for
+making rum; for since the independence, the law which strictly
+prohibited the distillation of spirituous liquors in plantations has
+been repealed. The remainder is boiled down into a syrup, or further
+simmered until it thickens into cakes, called chancacas, or brown sugar.
+After a careful purification it is made into the white cakes called
+alfajores, or prepared as white sugar. In fineness of grain and purity
+of color it is inferior to the Havannah sugar, which, however, it
+exceeds in sweetness. The regular weight of the sugarloaf is two arobas;
+only for convenience of transport into the mountainous districts their
+weight is sometimes diminished. The consumption of sugar in the country
+is great and its export is considerable, but it goes only to Chile.
+
+Of the different kinds of grain, maize is most generally and most
+successfully cultivated in Peru. It grows on the sandy shore, in the
+fertile mountain valleys, and on the margin of the forest, where the
+warmth is great. There are several varieties of maize, which are
+distinguished one from another by the size of the head and by the form
+and appearance of the grain. The most common kinds on the coast
+are--1st, the _Mais Morocho_, which has small bright yellow or reddish
+brown grains; 2d, the _Mais Amarillo_, of which the grain is large,
+heart-shaped, solid and opaque; 3d, _Mais Amarillo de Chancay_, similar
+to the _Mais Amarillo_, but with a semi-transparent square-shaped grain,
+and an elongated head. The Morocho and Amarillo maize are chiefly
+planted in the eastern declivity of the Andes. They run up in stalks
+eight or nine feet high, and have enormously large heads. In one of them
+I counted seventy-five grains in a single row.
+
+Maize forms the bread of the Peruvians. It is almost the only sustenance
+of the Indians of the mountains, and is the principal food of the slaves
+on the coast. Like the potatoe in Europe, it is cooked in a variety of
+ways. Two of the most simple preparations of maize are those called
+_choclas_ and _mote_. _Choclas_ are the unripe maize heads merely soaked
+in warm water; they form a very agreeable and wholesome article of food.
+_Mote_ consists of ripe maize first boiled and then laid in hot ashes,
+after which the husks are easily stripped off.
+
+As to whether maize is indigenous to Peru, or when it was introduced
+there, much has already been written, and I shall refrain from entering
+into the investigation of the question here. I may, however, mention
+that I have found very well preserved ears of maize in tombs, which,
+judging from their construction, belong to a period anterior to the
+dynasty of the Incas; and these were fragments of two kinds of maize
+which do not now grow in Peru. If I believed in the transmigration and
+settlement of Asiatic races on the west coast of America, I should
+consider it highly probable that maize, cotton, and the banana, had been
+brought from Asia to the great west coast. But the supposed epoch of
+this alleged immigration must carry us back to the earliest ages; for,
+that the Incas were (as the greater number of inquirers into Peruvian
+history pretend) of Asiatic origin, is a mere vague hypothesis,
+unsupported by anything approximating to historical proof.
+
+Since the earthquake of 1687 the crops of maize on the Peruvian coast
+have been very inconsiderable. In the mountainous parts it is somewhat
+more abundant, but still far from sufficient to supply the wants of the
+country. Chile supplies, in return for sugar, the maize required in
+Peru. Of the other kinds of grain barley only is raised; but it does not
+thrive on the coast, and is cultivated successfully at the height of
+from 7000 to 13,200 feet above the level of the sea. The assertion of
+some travellers, that barley was known to the Peruvians before the
+arrival of the Spaniards, is groundless. It is true that barley is
+sometimes found in pots in Indian graves. Those graves, however, as I
+have had repeated opportunities of being convinced, belong, without
+exception, to modern times, chiefly to the seventeenth century.
+
+Potatoes are not planted on the coast, where, it appears, the climate
+and soil are unfavorable to them. In those parts they are small and
+watery. On the higher ridges which intersect the coast at short
+distances from the sea, the potatoe grows wild. I am inclined to believe
+that the root is indigenous in these parts, as well as in Chiloe and
+Chile, and that the ancient Peruvians did not obtain this root from the
+south, but that they removed it from their own high lands in order to
+cultivate it on a more favorable soil.[40] The best potatoe grows about
+twenty-two leagues from Lima, in Huamantanga, which is about 7000 feet
+above the level of the sea, to the north-west of the Quebrada of Canta.
+This potatoe is small and round, with a thin white skin, and when
+bisected the color is a clear bright yellow. It is called the _Papa
+amarilla_, and there is much demand for it in the markets, where it
+fetches a good price. The other potatoes come chiefly from the Quebrada
+of Huarochirin, and they are very well flavored.
+
+The Camotes (_Convolvulus batatas_, L.), not improperly called sweet
+potatoes, grow to a considerable size. There are two kinds of camotes,
+the yellow and the violet; the latter are called _Camotes moradas_.
+These two kinds are much liked for their excellent flavor. Beyond the
+height of 3500 feet above the level of the sea they cease to grow.
+
+The Aracacha (_Conium moschatum_, H. B. Kth.) grows on the coast, but it
+is more abundant on the projecting ridges of the Cordilleras, and on the
+eastern declivity of the Andes. It is a very agreeable and nutritive
+kind of tuberous vegetable, in flavor not unlike celery. It is cooked by
+being either simply boiled in water, or made into a kind of soup. In
+many districts the aracacha yields two crops in the year.
+
+The Yucca (_Jatropha manihot_) is one of the finest vegetables of
+Peru. The stalk of the plant is between five and six feet high, and
+about the thickness of a finger. The roots are from one to two feet
+long, somewhat of the turnip form. Internally they are pure white; but
+the external skin is tough, somewhat elastic, and of a reddish-brown
+color. The roots are the edible parts of the plant. They are very
+agreeable in taste, and easy of digestion. When raw they are hard and
+tough, and their taste somewhat resembles chestnuts. When boiled in
+water the root separates into fibres, and is rather waxy, but when
+laid in hot ashes it becomes mealy.
+
+In some parts of Peru the Indians prepare a very fine flour from the
+yucca, and it is used for making fine kinds of bread, and especially a
+kind of biscuits called _biscochuelos_. The yucca roots are not good
+after they have been more than three days out of the earth, and even
+during that time they must be placed in water, otherwise green or black
+stripes appear on them, which in the cooking assume a pale red color.
+Their taste is then disagreeable, and they quickly become rotten.
+
+To propagate the yucca the stalk is cut, particularly under the thick
+part, into span-long pieces, which are stuck obliquely into the earth.
+In five or six months the roots are fit for use, but they are usually
+allowed to remain some time longer in the earth. The stalks are
+sometimes cut off, and the roots left in the earth. They then put forth
+new leaves and flowers, and after sixteen or eighteen months they become
+slightly woody. The Indians in the Montaña de Vitoc sent as a present to
+their officiating priest a yucca, which weighed thirty pounds, but yet
+was very tender. On the western declivity of the Cordillera, the
+boundary elevation for the growth of the yucca is about 3000 feet above
+the level of the sea.
+
+Among the pulse there are different kinds of peas (_garbanzos_) on the
+coast; beans (_frijoles_), on the contrary, occupy the hilly grounds.
+All vegetables of the cabbage and salad kinds cultivated in Europe will
+grow in Peru. The climate, both of the coast and the hills, suits them
+perfectly; but the hot, damp temperature of the eastern declivity of the
+Andes is adverse to them. Numerous varieties of the genus _Cucurbita_
+are cultivated in the _chacras_, or Indian villages, on the coast. They
+are chiefly consumed by the colored population. I did not find them very
+agreeable to the taste. They are all sweetish and fibrous.
+
+Among the edible plants which serve for seasoning or spicery, I must
+mention the love-apple (_Tomate_), which thrives well in all the warm
+districts of Peru; and the Spanish pepper (_Aji_), which is found only
+on the coast and in the mild woody regions. There are many species of
+the pepper (_Capsicum annuum, baccatum, frutescens, &c._), which are
+sometimes eaten green, and sometimes dried and pounded. In Peru the
+consumption of aji is greater than that of salt; for with two-thirds of
+the dishes brought to table, more of the former than of the latter is
+used. It is worthy of remark that salt diminishes, in a very striking
+degree, the pungency of the aji; and it is still more remarkable that
+the use of the latter, which in a manner may be called a superfluity,
+has no injurious effect on the digestive organs. If two pods of aji,
+steeped in warm vinegar, are laid as a sinapism on the skin, in the
+space of a quarter of an hour the part becomes red, and the pain
+intolerable; within an hour the scarf-skin will be removed. Yet I have
+frequently eaten twelve or fifteen of these pods without experiencing
+the least injurious effect. However, before I accustomed myself to this
+luxury, it used to affect me with slight symptoms of gastritis. On the
+eastern declivity of the Cordilleras I found no capsicum at a greater
+height than 4800 feet above the level of the sea.
+
+Lucern (_Medicago sativa_), called by the natives _alfa_ or _alfalfa_,
+is reared in great abundance throughout the whole of Peru, as fodder for
+cattle. It does not bear great humidity, nor severe heat or cold; yet
+its elevation boundary is about 11,100 feet above the level of the sea.
+On the coast it flourishes very luxuriantly during the misty season; but
+during the months of February and March it is almost entirely dried up.
+The maisillo (_Paspalum purpureum_, R.) then supplies its place as
+fodder for cattle. In the mountainous districts it is also most abundant
+during the humid season; but, as soon as the first frost sets in, it
+decays, takes a rusty-brown color, and remains in a bad state until the
+beginning of the rainy season. On an average, the _alfalfa_ may be cut
+four times in the year; but in highlying districts only three times;
+and in humid soils on the coast, particularly in the neighborhood of
+rivers, five times. Once in every four or five years the clover-fields
+are broken up by the plough, and then sown with maize or barley. In the
+sixth year clover is again raised.
+
+The olive-tree is cultivated chiefly in the southern provinces of the
+coast. In flavor, its fruit approximates to the Spanish olive. That
+the oil is not so fine is probably owing to the bad presses which are
+used, and the rude manner in which the operation is performed. The
+olives (_Aceytunas_) are preserved in a peculiar manner. They are
+allowed to ripen on the tree, when they are gathered, slightly
+pressed, dried, and put up in small earthen vessels. By this process
+they become shrivelled and quite black. When served up at table pieces
+of tomato and aji are laid on them: the latter is an excellent
+accompaniment to the oily fruit. Some preserve them in salt water, by
+which means they remain plump and green.
+
+The castor-oil plant (_Ricinus communis_) grows wild, but it is also
+cultivated in many plantations. The considerable quantity of oil which
+is pressed out of the seeds is used unpurified in Lima for the street
+lamps, and also in the sugar plantations, for greasing the machines
+employed in the works. The purified Ricinus oil required for medicine is
+imported from England or Italy.
+
+The Piñoncillo tree (_Castiglionia lobata_, R.) is cultivated only about
+Surco, Huacho, and Lambayeque, in some of the Indian chacras; but it
+grows wild in considerable abundance. Its bean-like fruit, when roasted,
+has an agreeable flavor. When eaten raw, the etherial oil generated
+between the kernel and the epidermis is a strong aperient, and its
+effect can only be counteracted by drinking cold water. When an incision
+is made in the stem, a clear bright liquid flows out; but after some
+time it becomes black and horny like. It is a very powerful caustic, and
+retains its extraordinary property for years.
+
+The fruits of the temperate climates of Europe thrive but indifferently
+in the warm regions of the coast of Peru. Apples and pears are for the
+most part uneatable. Of stone fruits only the peach succeeds well. Vast
+quantities of apricots (called duraznos) grow in the mountain valleys.
+Of fifteen kinds which came under my observation, those called
+_blanquillos_ and _abridores_ are distinguished for fine flavor.
+Cherries, plums, and chestnuts I did not see in Peru, yet I believe the
+climate of the Sierra is very favorable to their growth. Generally
+speaking, the interior of the country is well suited to all the fruits
+and grain of central Europe; and doubtless many of our forest trees
+would flourish on those Peruvian hills which now present no traces of
+vegetation. But as yet no system of transplantation has been seriously
+set on foot. The praiseworthy attempts made by many Europeans, who have
+sent seeds and young plants to Peru, have failed of success, owing to
+the indifference of the natives to the advancement of those objects.
+
+All the fruits of southern Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm regions
+of Peru. Oranges, pomegranates, lemons, limes, &c., grow in incredible
+abundance. Though the trees bloom and bear fruit the whole year round,
+yet there are particular times in which their produce is in the greatest
+perfection and abundance. On the coast, for example, at the commencement
+of winter, and in the woody districts in the months of February and
+March, melons and Sandyas (_water melons_) are particularly fine.
+
+The figs are of two kinds: the one called _Higos_, and the other
+_Brevas_. In the former the pulp is red, in the latter it is white.
+They are usually large, very soft, and may be ranked among the most
+delicious fruits of the country. Fig-trees grow frequently wild in the
+neighborhood of the plantations and the Chacras: and the traveller may
+pluck the fruit, and carry away a supply for his journey; for, beyond
+a certain distance from Lima figs are not gathered, being a fruit not
+easy of transport in its fresh state; and when dried, it is not liked.
+Pomegranates and quinces seldom grow on the coast: they are chiefly
+brought to the Lima market from the neighboring Quebradas. The
+mulberry-tree flourishes luxuriantly and without cultivation; but its
+fruit is not thought worth gathering, and it is left as food for the
+birds. In the southern province of Yca, the cultivation of the vine
+has been attended by most successful results. In the neighborhood of
+Lima grapes are seen only in a few Huertas (_orchards_); but for
+size, sweetness, and aromatic flavor, there are no such grapes in any
+other part of the world.
+
+Of tropical fruits, the number is not so great in Peru as in the more
+northerly district of Guayaquil. But there are some Peruvian fruits, the
+delicious flavor of which cannot be excelled. One of these is the
+Chirimoya (_Anona tripetala_). Hanke, in one of his letters, calls it "a
+master-work of Nature." It would certainly be difficult to name any
+fruit possessing a more exquisite flavor.
+
+In Lima the Chirimoya is comparatively small, often only the size of an
+orange. Those who have tasted it only in Lima, can form but a very
+imperfect idea of its excellence. In Huanuco, its indigenous soil, it
+grows in the greatest perfection, and often attains the weight of
+sixteen pounds, or upwards. The fruit is of roundish form, sometimes
+pyramidal, or heart-shaped, the broad base uniting with the stem.
+Externally it is green, covered with small knobs and scales, and often
+has black markings like net-work spread over it. When the fruit is very
+ripe, it has black spots. The skin is rather thick and tough.
+Internally, the fruit is snow-white and juicy, and provided with a
+number of small seeds well covered with a delicate substance. The
+Chirimoyas of Huanuco are also distinguished from those of the coast by
+having only from four to six seeds; whereas on the coast they are found
+with from twenty-five to thirty. The question as to what the taste of
+this fruit may be compared with, I can only answer by saying, that it is
+incomparable. Both the fruit and flowers of the Chirimoya emit a fine
+fragrance, which, when the tree is covered with blossom, is so strong as
+to be almost overpowering. The tree which bears this finest of all
+fruits is from fifteen to twenty feet high. It has a broad flat top, and
+is of a pale-green color.
+
+The Palta (_Persea gatissima_, Gärt.) is a fruit of the pear form, and
+dark-brown in color. The rind is tough and elastic, but not very thick.
+The edible substance, which is soft and green, encloses a kernel
+resembling a chestnut in form and color. This fruit is very astringent
+and bitter, and on being cut, a juice flows from it which is at first
+yellow, but soon turns black. The taste is peculiar, and at first not
+agreeable to a foreigner; but it is generally much liked when the palate
+becomes accustomed to it. The fruit of the Palta dissolves like butter
+on the tongue, and hence it is called in some of the French colonies
+_beurre végétale_. It is sometimes eaten without any accompaniment, and
+sometimes with a little salt, or with oil and vinegar. The kernels make
+very good brandy. The Palta-tree is slender and very high, with a small
+dome-like top. On the eastern declivity of the Andes, I have seen some
+of these trees more than sixty feet high.
+
+The Platanos (_Bananas_) thrive well in most of the Peruvian
+plantations. They require great heat and humidity. They grow in the
+greatest perfection on the banks of small rivulets. On the coast the
+tree does not yield such abundance of fruit as in the woody regions,
+where it is not unusual to see a tree with three hundred heads of fruit
+lying one over another, like tiles on a roof. In the country adjacent to
+Lima, and also on other parts of the coast, three favorite species are
+cultivated. The _Platano de la Isla_, or of Otaheite, was introduced
+from that archipelago in 1769. The fruits are from three to four inches
+long, generally prismatic, as they grow thickly on the stem, and lie one
+over another. The skin is yellow, the fruit of a palish red, and rather
+mealy. The Limeños prefer this to any other species of the platano, and
+they consider it the most wholesome. The fruits of the _Platano Guineo_
+are not longer, but much thicker than those of the _Platano de la Isla_,
+but they are so full that they burst when quite ripe. They are straight
+and cylindrical in form, as they grow on the stem at some distance one
+from the other. They are of a bright yellow color, but near the stem
+spotted with black. The edible part is whiter and softer than that of
+the _Platano de la Isla_, to which it is greatly superior in flavor and
+aroma. The natives believe this fruit to be very unwholesome, and they
+maintain that drinking brandy after eating Platanos Guineos causes
+immediate death. This is, as my own often-repeated experiments have
+shown, one of the deep-rooted, groundless prejudices to which the
+Peruvians obstinately cling. On one of my excursions I had a controversy
+on this subject with some persons who accompanied me. To prove how
+unfounded their notions were, I ate some platanos, and then washing down
+one poison by the other, I immediately swallowed a mouthful of brandy.
+My Peruvian friends were filled with dismay. Addressing me alternately
+in terms of compassion and reproach, they assured me I should never
+return to Lima alive. After spending a very agreeable day, we all
+arrived quite well in the evening at Lima. At parting, one of my
+companions seriously observed that we should never see each other again.
+Early next morning they anxiously called to inquire how I was, and
+finding me in excellent health and spirits, they said:--"Ah! you see, an
+_herege de gringo_ (a heretic of a foreigner) is quite of a different
+nature from us." A piece of the Platano Guineo soaked in brandy retains
+its color unchanged; but the rib-like fibres which connect the rind with
+the pulp then become black, and imbibe a bitter taste.
+
+The fruit of the third kind of platano, the _Platano Largo_, is from six
+to eight inches long, rather narrow, and curved crescent-wise. The rind
+is of a light straw color, and when the fruit is very ripe it has large
+black spots. The edible part is of a whitish hue, harder and drier than
+that of the two species already described; and its flavor its quite as
+agreeable. Its fruit is less abundant than that of the Platano Guineo,
+and it requires longer time to become fully ripe. A fourth kind, which
+grows in the forest regions, I have never seen on the coast. It is the
+_Platano Altahuillaca_. It bears at most from twenty to twenty-five
+heads of fruit. The stem is more than two inches thick, and above an ell
+long. The color of the husk is light yellow, the enclosed substance is
+white, tough, and hard. In the raw state it is flavorless, but when
+roasted in hot ashes, or cooked with meat, it makes a fine dish.
+
+When the platanos of the uppermost row, that is, those which form the
+base of the conical-formed reflex cluster, begin to turn yellow, or, as
+the natives say, _pintar_, the whole is cut off, and hung up in an airy,
+shady situation, usually in an apartment of the Rancho, or hut, where it
+may quickly ripen. The largest fruits are cut off as soon as they are
+yellow and soft, and so the cutting goes on gradually up to the top, for
+they ripen so unequally that those at the base show symptoms of decay
+while those at the top are still hard and green. As soon as the
+_cabeza_, or cluster of fruit, is cut, the whole branch is immediately
+lopped off, in order to facilitate the shooting of the fresh sprouts.
+Each branch bears only one _cabeza_, and eight or ten months are the
+period usually required for its complete development.
+
+The platanos belongs indisputably to the most useful class of fruit
+trees, especially in regions where they can be cultivated extensively,
+for then they may very adequately supply the place of bread. In
+northern Peru and Guayaquil, the platano fruit is prepared for food in
+a variety of ways.
+
+Pine-apples (_Ananas_) are not much cultivated on the coast of Peru. The
+market of Lima was formerly entirely supplied with this fruit from the
+Montaña de Vitoc. When brought from thence they used to be cut before
+they were ripe, and packed on the backs of asses. The journey is of
+sixteen or twenty days' duration, and the road lies across two of the
+Cordilleras. After being several days in the cold snowy region of the
+Puna, the fruit came to Lima in a very indifferent state; but since the
+communication by steam navigation with Guayaquil, pine-apples are
+brought from the latter place in large quantities. They are large,
+succulent, and very sweet.
+
+The Granadilla (_Passiflora quadrangularis_) is about the size of an
+apple, but rather oblong. The skin is reddish-yellow, hard, and rather
+thick. The edible part is grey and gelatinous, and it contains numerous
+dark-colored seeds. The fruit is very agreeable, and in taste resembles
+the gooseberry, and is very cooling. The Granadilla is a shrub or bush,
+and it twines round the trunks of trees, or climbs up the walls of the
+Ranchos. It is less abundant on the coast than in the adjacent valleys.
+
+The Tunas are fruits of different species of Cactus. The husk, which is
+covered with sharp prickles, is green, yellow, or red in color, and is
+easily separated from the pulp of the fruit. When being plucked, the
+tunas are rubbed with straw to remove the prickles, which, however, is
+not always completely accomplished. It is therefore necessary to be
+cautious in handling the husks, for the small prickles cause
+inflammation when they get into the fingers.
+
+The Pacay is the fruit of a tree of rather large size (_Prosopis
+dulcis_, Humb.), with a rather low and broad top. It consists of a pod
+from twenty to twenty-four inches long, enclosing black seeds, which are
+embedded in a white, soft, flaky substance. This flaky part is as white
+as snow, and is the only eatable part of the fruit. It tastes sweet,
+and, to my palate at least, it is very unpleasant; however, the Limeños
+on the coast and the monkeys in the woods are very fond of the pacay.
+
+The Lucuma is produced only in the southern provinces of the coast of
+Peru, and is chiefly imported from the north of Chile. The fruit is
+round. The grey-brown husk encloses a fibrous, dry, yellow-colored
+fruit with its kernel.
+
+The Guayava (_Psidium pomiferum_) grows on a low shrub, chiefly in the
+valleys of the coast, and on the eastern declivity of the Andes. It is
+of the form and size of a small apple. The rind is bright, yellow, and
+thin. The pulp is either white or red, and is full of little egg-shaped
+granulations. Its flavor is pleasant, but not remarkably fine. In Lima
+it is not a favorite, for numerous insects lay their eggs in it, and,
+when the fruit is ripe, larvæ are found in it.
+
+The Pepino (a _cucurbitacea_) is grown in great abundance in the fields.
+The plant is only a foot and a half high, and it creeps on the ground.
+The fruit is from four to five inches long, cylindrical, and at both
+ends somewhat pointed. The husk is of a yellowish green color, with long
+rose-colored stripes. The pulp or edible part is solid, juicy, and
+well-flavored. The kernel lies in the middle, in a long-shaped furrow.
+By the natives the pepino is, and not altogether unreasonably, believed
+to be injurious. They maintain that this fruit is too cold in the
+stomach, and that a glass of brandy is necessary to counteract its
+injurious properties. This much is certain, that the pepinos are very
+indigestible, and that eating them frequently, or at improper times,
+brings on fits of illness.
+
+The Mani, or Earth Almond (_Arachis hypogæa_), is produced in the
+northern provinces. The plant is from a foot and a half to two feet
+long, and very leafy. The kernels have a grey, shrivelled husk: they
+are white, and contain much oil. When roasted and crushed, they are
+eaten with sugar.
+
+The Capulies (_Prunus capulin_, Ser.) grows in the open fields. In towns
+it is planted in gardens or in pots. The fruit is a little bigger than a
+cherry. It is of a deep yellow color, and has an acid taste. The
+capulies are not frequently eaten. On account of their very pleasant
+odor, they are used in making _Pucheros de_ flores, or with other
+odoriferous flowers, they are besprinkled with agua rica, and laid in
+drawers to perfume linen. The ladies of Lima wear them in their bosoms.
+The same uses are made of the Palillos (_Campomanesia lineatifolia_,
+R.), which grow on trees from twenty to thirty feet high. The bright
+yellow fruit is as large as a moderately-sized apple. The palillo emits
+an exceedingly agreeable scent, and is one of the ingredients used in
+making the perfumed water called _mistura_. When rubbed between the
+fingers, the leaves smell like those of the myrtle; but they have an
+acid and a stringent taste.
+
+The coast of Peru is poorly supplied with Palm-trees, either wild or
+cultivated. The Cocoa Palm is grown only in a few of the northern
+provinces, and the Date Palm chiefly about Yca. With a very little
+care, these trees would thrive excellently in all the oases of the
+coast of Peru.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 37: A great fire is a thing almost unknown in Lima. The houses
+are of brick, and seldom have any wooden beams, so there is little food
+for a fire. The only fire which I heard of in Lima was that of the 13th
+January, 1835, when the interior of the _Capilla del Milagro_ of San
+Francisco was destroyed. The repairs cost 50,000 dollars. On the 27th
+November, 1838, it was again solemnly consecrated.]
+
+[Footnote 38: The date of this catastrophe recalls the following passage
+in Schiller's William Tell:--
+
+          "'s ist heut Simons und Judä
+    Da ras't der See und will sein Opfer haben."
+
+          "'Tis the festival of Simon and Jude,
+    And the lake rages for its sacrifice."
+]
+
+[Footnote 39: RIMAC is the present participle of _rimay_, to speak, to
+prattle. The river and the valley were known by this name among all the
+ancient Indians. The oracle of a temple with an idol, which stood in the
+neighborhood of the present city of Lima, conferred the name. It is said
+that before the time of the Incas persons suspected of magic were
+banished to the valley of the Rimac, on which account it obtained the
+name of _Rimac-malca_, that is, the WITCHES-VALLEY. This account, which
+is given by some early travellers, requires farther historical and
+philological inquiry, before its correctness can be admitted.]
+
+[Footnote 40: The Quichua language has no word for potatoe, but in the
+Chinchayauyo language, which is spoken along the whole coast of Peru,
+the potatoe is called _Acsu_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+Robbers on the coast of Peru--The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo--The
+Corps of Montoneros--Watering Places near Lima--Surco, Atte and
+Lurin--Pacchacamac--Ruins of the Temple of the Sun--Difficulties of
+Travelling on the Coast of Peru--Sea Passage to Huacho--Indian
+Canoes--Ichthyological Collections--An old Spaniard's recollections
+of Alexander Von Humboldt--The Padre Requena--Huacho--Plundering of
+Burial Places--Huaura--Malaria--The Sugar Plantation at
+Luhmayo--Quipico--Ancient Peruvian Ruins--The Salinas, or Salt
+Pits--Gritalobos--Chancay--The Piques--Mode of extracting
+them--Valley of the Pasamayo--Extraordinary Atmospheric
+Mirrors--Piedras Gordas--Palo Seco.
+
+
+All the inhabited parts of the coast of Peru, especially the districts
+adjacent to Lima and Truxillo, are infested by robbers, and travelling
+is thereby rendered extremely unsafe. These banditti are chiefly runaway
+slaves (simarrones, as they are called), free negroes, zambos, or
+mulattos. Occasionally they are joined by Indians, and these latter are
+always conspicuous for the cruelties they perpetrate. Now and then a
+white man enters upon this lawless course; and, in the year 1839, a
+native of North America, who had been a purser in a ship of war, was
+shot in Lima for highway robbery. These robbers are always well mounted,
+and their fleet-footed steeds usually enable them to elude pursuit. It
+is no unfrequent occurrence for slaves belonging to the plantations to
+mount their masters' finest horses, and after sunset, when their work is
+over, or on Sundays, when they have nothing to do, to sally forth on
+marauding expeditions.
+
+Most of the highway robbers who infest the coast of Peru belong to an
+extensive and systematically-organized band, headed by formidable
+leaders, who maintain spies in the towns and villages, from whom they
+receive regular reports. They sometimes prowl about in parties of thirty
+or forty, in the vicinity of the capital, and plunder every traveller
+they encounter; but they are most frequently in smaller detachments. If
+they meet with resistance they give no quarter; therefore, it is most
+prudent to submit to be plundered quietly, even when the parties
+attacked are stronger than the assailants, for the latter usually have
+confederates at no great distance, and can summon reinforcements in case
+of need. Any person who kills a robber in self-defence must ever
+afterwards be in fear for his own life: even in Lima the dagger of the
+assassin will reach him, and possibly at the moment when he thinks
+himself most safe.
+
+Foreigners are more frequently waylaid than natives. Indeed, the rich
+and influential class of Peruvians are seldom subjected to these
+attacks,--a circumstance which may serve to explain why more stringent
+police regulations are not adopted.
+
+The most unsafe roads are those leading to Callao, Chorillos, and
+Cavalleros. This last place is on the way to Cerro de Pasco, whither
+transports of money are frequently sent. A few weeks before my departure
+from Lima a band of thirty robbers, after a short skirmish with a feeble
+escort, made themselves masters of a remittance of 100,000 dollars,
+destined for the mine-workers of Pasco. The silver bars from Pasco are
+sent to Lima without any military guard, for they are suffered to pass
+unmolested, as the robbers find them heavy and cumbrous, and they cannot
+easily dispose of them. These depredations are committed close to the
+gates of Lima, and after having plundered a number of travellers, the
+robbers will very coolly ride into the city.
+
+The country people from the Sierra, who travel with their asses to Lima,
+and who carry with them money to make purchases in the capital, are the
+constant prey of robbers, who, if they do not get money, maltreat or
+murder their victims in the most merciless way.[41] In July, 1842, I was
+proceeding from the mountains back to Lima, and, passing near the Puente
+de Surco, a bridge about a league and a half from Lima, my horse
+suddenly shied at something lying across the road. On alighting I
+found that it was the dead body of an Indian, who had been murdered,
+doubtless, by robbers. The skull was fractured in a shocking manner
+by stones. The body was still warm.
+
+The zambo robbers are notorious for committing the most heartless
+cruelties. In June, 1842, one of them attacked the Indian who was
+conveying the mail to Huacho. "Shall I," said the robber, "kill you or
+put out your eyes?" "If I must choose," replied the Indian, "pray kill
+me at once." The barbarian immediately drew forth his dagger and stuck
+it into the eyes of the unfortunate victim, and then left him lying on
+the sand. In this state the poor Indian was found by a traveller, who
+conveyed him to a neighboring village. The following anecdote was
+related to me by an Indian, in whose dwelling I passed a night, at
+Chancay:--About half a league from the village he met a negro, who
+advanced towards him, with musket cocked, and commanded him to halt. My
+host drew out a large riding pistol, and said, "You may be thankful that
+this is not loaded or you would be a dead man." The negro laughing
+scornfully, rode up and seized the Indian, when the latter suddenly
+fired the pistol, and shot him dead.
+
+When these Peruvian banditti are attacked by the military or the police,
+they defend themselves with desperate courage. If they can effect their
+escape they fly for concealment into the woods and thickets, which, if
+not too extensive, are surrounded and set on fire, so that the fugitives
+have no alternative but to surrender, or to perish in the flames.
+
+Within the last few years, two negroes, named Escobar and Leon, were
+daring leaders of banditti. Leon, who was originally a slave, commenced
+his career of crime by the murder of his master. He eluded the pursuit
+of justice, became a highway robber, and for many years was the terror
+of the whole province of Lima. The police vainly endeavored to secure
+him. Leon knew the country so well, that he constantly evaded his
+pursuers. When the price of 2000 dollars was set upon his head, he
+boldly entered Lima every evening and slept in the city. At length
+placards were posted about, calling on Leon's comrades to kill him, and
+offering to any one who might deliver him up dead into the hands of the
+police the reward of 1000 dollars and a pardon. This measure had the
+desired result, and Leon was strangled, whilst asleep, by a zambo, who
+was his godfather. The body was, during three days, exposed to public
+view in front of the cathedral.
+
+Another celebrated bandit was the zambo, Jose Rayo. He took an active
+part in several of the political revolutions; and having, during those
+commotions, been serviceable to the president, he was raised to the rank
+of a lieutenant-colonel, and made chief of the country police, called
+the _Partida montada del campo_. This post he still fills, and he is
+admirably well adapted to it, as experience has rendered him thoroughly
+acquainted with banditti life, and he knows every hiding-place in the
+country round Lima. Nevertheless he could not catch the negro Leon, or
+possibly he would not seize him, for Leon was his godfather, a
+relationship which is held sacred throughout all classes in Peru. When
+Rayo speaks of the president and ministers he always styles them _sus
+mejores amigos_ (his best friends). I fell in with him once, when
+travelling on the road to Chaclacayo, and rode in company with him as
+far as the Hacienda de Santa Clara. I found him exceedingly complaisant
+and courteous in his manners; but his true zambo nature was not wholly
+concealed beneath the smooth surface.
+
+Robbers, when captured and brought to Lima, undergo a very summary
+trial, and are then sentenced to be shot. The culprits have the
+privilege of choosing their place of execution, and they generally fix
+on the market-place. They are allowed the assistance of a priest for
+twelve hours prior to their death, and they are conducted from the
+chapel to the place of execution, carrying a bench, on which they sit to
+undergo the punishment. Four soldiers fire at the distance of three
+paces from the culprit; two aiming at his head, and two at his breast.
+On one of these occasions a singular instance of presence of mind and
+dexterity occurred a few years ago in Lima. A very daring zambo,
+convicted of highway robbery, was sentenced to death. He made choice of
+the Plaza de la Inquisicion as the scene of his execution. It was market
+time, and the square was crowded with people. The culprit darted around
+him a rapid and penetrating glance, and then composedly seated himself
+on the bench. The soldiers according to custom levelled their muskets
+and fired; but how great was the surprise, when the cloud of smoke
+dispersed, and it was discovered that the zambo had vanished. He had
+closely watched the movements of the soldiers, and when they pulled the
+triggers of their muskets, he stooped down, and the balls passed over
+his head. Then suddenly knocking down one of the guards who stood beside
+him, he rushed into the midst of the crowd, where some of his friends
+helped him to effect his escape.
+
+In time of war a corps is raised, consisting chiefly of highway robbers
+and persons who, by various offences against the laws, have forfeited
+their freedom or their lives. This corps is called the Montoneros, and
+they are very important auxiliaries when the coast is the theatre of the
+war. The Montoneros, not being trained in military manoeuvres, are not
+employed as regular cavalry, but only as outposts, scouts,
+despatch-bearers, &c. They are good skirmishers, and they harass the
+enemy by their unexpected movements; sometimes attacking in front and
+sometimes in the rear. They have no regular uniform, and their usual
+clothing consists of dirty white trousers and jacket, a poncho, and a
+broad-brimmed straw hat. Many of them are not even provided with shoes,
+and their spurs are fastened on their bare heels. Their arms consist
+of a short carbine and a sword. When the corps is strong, and is
+required for active service, it is placed under the command of a
+General of the Army. In 1838, General Miller, now British Consul at
+the Sandwich Islands, commanded a corps of 1000 Montoneros, who were
+in the service of Santa Cruz. They are held in the strictest
+discipline by their commanders, who punish theft with death. There is,
+however, one sort of robbery which they are suffered to commit with
+impunity, viz, horse-stealing. The horses obtained in this way are
+used for mounting the cavalry; and detachments of Montoneros are sent
+to the plantations to collect horses. They are likewise taken from
+travellers, and from the stables in the capital; but sometimes, after
+the close of the campaign, the animals are returned to their owners.
+When the war is ended the Montoneros are disbanded, and most of them
+return to their occupation as highway robbers.
+
+In all campaigns the Montoneros are sent forward, by one or two days'
+march in advance of the main army, either in small or large
+detachments. When they enter a village they experience no difficulty in
+obtaining quarters and provisions, for the inhabitants are not disposed
+to refuse anything that such visitors may demand. A troop of Montoneros
+is a picturesque, but, at the same time, a very fearful sight. Their
+black, yellow, and olive-colored faces, seared by scars, and expressive
+of every evil passion and savage feeling; their motley and tattered
+garments; their weary and ill-saddled horses; their short firelocks and
+long swords;--present altogether a most wild and disorderly aspect. The
+traveller, who suddenly encounters such a band, may consider himself
+exceedingly lucky if he escapes with only the loss of his horse.
+
+A universal panic pervades the city of Lima whenever a detachment of
+Montoneros enters within the gates. On every side are heard cries of
+"_Cierra puertas!_" (close the doors!) "_Los Montoneros!_" Every person
+passing along the streets runs into the first house he comes to, and
+closes the door after him. In a few moments the streets are cleared, and
+no sound is heard but the galloping of the Montoneros' horses.
+
+Within the distance of a few leagues from Lima there are several pretty
+villages, to which the wealthier class of the inhabitants of the capital
+resort in the summer seasons, for sea-bathing. The nearest, situated
+about three-quarters of a league from Lima, is Magdalena, where the
+Viceroy of Peru formerly had a beautiful summer residence. Miraflores,
+about midway between Lima and Chorillos, is a small village containing a
+plaza and some neatly-built houses. Though the heat is greater here than
+in the capital, yet the air is purer, and Miraflores may be regarded as
+the healthiest spot in the neighborhood of Lima. The sultry atmosphere
+is refreshed by the sea breezes. Surrounded by verdant though not
+luxuriant vegetation, and sufficiently distant from the marshes,
+Miraflores appears to combine within itself all that can be wished for
+in a summer residence. For asthmatic patients the air is particularly
+favorable. An old Spaniard of my acquaintance, who was engaged during
+the day in business in Lima, used to go every night to sleep at
+Miraflores: he assured me that if he slept a night in the capital he
+suffered a severe attack of asthma.
+
+Chorillos is a poor, ill-looking village. The streets are dirty and
+crooked, and the houses are mere ranchos. It is built close to the sea,
+on a steep sandy beach; but, though anything but a pleasant place,
+Chorillos is the favorite resort of the wealthy Limayan families. Not a
+tree is visible in the neighborhood of the village, and the unshaded
+rays of the sun are reflected with twofold power from the hot sand. A
+broad, steep road leads down to the bathing-place on the sea-beach,
+which is rough and shingly. A row of small huts, covered with matting,
+serve as dressing-rooms. Both ladies and gentlemen use bathing dresses,
+which are very neatly made of a kind of blue cloth. The ladies are
+accompanied by guides (_bañaderos_). These are Indians, who dwell in the
+village. In winter they employ themselves in fishing, and in summer they
+live by what they get from the visitors who resort to Chorillos. They
+are a good-looking, hardy race of people.
+
+The time for bathing is early in the morning. The interval between
+breakfast and dinner is devoted to swinging in the hammock, either in
+the sala or in the corridor. The afternoon and evening are spent on the
+promenade, and the later hours of the night at the gaming-table. The
+routine of the day's occupations and amusements is much the same as in
+most of the watering-places of Europe, excepting that, in the latter,
+the hammock is suspended by the chair in the reading-room and
+coffee-house, or the bench on the promenade. The sultry nights in
+Chorillos are rendered doubly unpleasant by the swarms of vermin which
+infest the houses. Fleas, bugs, mosquitoes and sancudos, combine to
+banish rest from the couch of even the soundest sleeper.
+
+Surco is situated about half a league from Chorillos, and further into
+the interior of the country. It is a poor but pleasant village,
+surrounded by tropical trees and luxuriant vegetation. The climate is
+not so hot as that of Lima or Chorillos. Surco is a very pretty spot,
+though seldom resorted to by the inhabitants of the capital; because it
+boasts neither baths nor gaming-tables.
+
+Two leagues eastward of Lima, in the direction of the mountains, is
+the village El Ate. It lies in a fertile valley, and enjoys a pure
+and equal temperature. It is much resorted to by invalids suffering
+from pulmonary disorders, which, if not cured, are at least relieved
+by the pure air.
+
+Lurin is situated five leagues south from the capital, and a quarter of
+a league from the Rio de Lurin, which intersects the Quebrada of
+Huarochirin. Fine gardens, and well-cultivated lands, impart beauty to
+the surrounding scenery. At Michaelmas Lurin is visited by many of the
+inhabitants of the capital, St. Michael being the patron saint of the
+place. The village stands about a thousand paces from the margin of the
+sea-shore, which is two miles distant from the rocky islands of
+Tarallones, Santo Domingo, and Pacchacamac. Prior to the Spanish
+conquest, the valley of Lurin was one of the most populous parts of the
+coast of Peru. The whole of the broad valley was then called
+Pacchacamac, because near the sea-shore and northward of the river,
+there was a temple sacred to the "Creator of the Earth."[42] Pacchacamac
+was the greatest deity of the Yuncas, who did not worship the sun until
+after their subjugation by the Incas. The temple of Pacchacamac was then
+dedicated to the sun by the Incas, who destroyed the idols which the
+Yuncas had worshipped, and appointed to the service of the temple a
+certain number of virgins of royal descent. In the year 1534, Pizarro
+invaded the village of Lurin: his troops destroyed the temple, and the
+Virgins of the Sun were dishonored and murdered.
+
+The ruins of the temple of Pacchacamac are among the most interesting
+objects on the coast of Peru. They are situated on a hill about 558
+feet high. The summit of the hill is overlaid with a solid mass of
+brick-work about thirty feet in height. On this artificial ridge stood
+the temple, enclosed by high walls, rising in the form of an
+amphitheatre. It is now a mass of ruins; all that remains of it being
+some niches, the walls of which present faint traces of red and yellow
+painting. At the foot, and on the sides of the hill, are scattered
+ruins which were formerly the walls of habitations. The whole was
+encircled by a wall eight feet in breadth, and it was probably of
+considerable height, for some of the parts now standing are twelve
+feet high, though the average height does not exceed three or four
+feet. The mania of digging for treasures every year makes
+encroachments on these vestiges of a bygone age, whose monuments
+are well deserving of more careful preservation.
+
+Travelling on the coast of Peru is difficult and tedious. The roads
+lead through plains of sand, where often not a trace of vegetation is
+to be seen, nor a drop of water to be found for twenty or thirty
+miles. It is found desirable to take all possible advantage of the
+night, in order to escape the scorching rays of a tropical sun; but
+when there is no moonlight, and above all, when clouds of mist obscure
+the directing stars, the traveller runs the risk of getting out of his
+course, and at daybreak, discovering his error, he may have to retrace
+his weary way. This extra fatigue may possibly disable his horse, so
+that the animal cannot proceed further. In such an emergency a
+traveller finds his life in jeopardy; for should he attempt to go
+forward on foot he may, in all probability, fall a sacrifice to
+fatigue and thirst. Numbers of beasts of burden sink every year under
+the difficulties of such a journey; and their bones serve to mark the
+direction of the road. Long journeys over these sand plains should be
+undertaken only with good and well-tried horses. For the most part the
+horses cannot stand hunger and thirst forty-eight hours without
+becoming so exhausted that the rider has the greatest difficulty in
+making them drag on; and if he is inconsiderate enough to force the
+animal to take a quicker pace, the horse lies down and dies. The mule,
+which more easily supports the difficulties of a severe journey on the
+sparest food, is, in Peru, the camel of the desert. Without mules, a
+long journey on most parts of the coast would be impracticable. The
+horse obeys the spur until he falls dead under the rider. Not so the
+mule: when too weary to journey onward he stands stock still, and
+neither whip nor spur will move him until he has rested. After that he
+will willingly proceed on his way. By this means the traveller has a
+criterion by which he can judge of the powers of his animal.
+
+Excursions along the coast have been greatly facilitated by the
+introduction of steam navigation, and travellers now eagerly avail
+themselves of that rapid and secure mode of conveyance. Even in sailing
+vessels voyages from south to north can be conveniently performed in
+consequence of the regularity of the tradewind.
+
+During my residence in Lima, in the commencement of the year 1841, I
+visited the port of Huacho, situated to the north. A packet bound to
+Panama had permission to touch at Huacho, without casting anchor, as she
+had to convey political prisoners under sentence of transportation to
+Panama. I was one of five passengers who landed at Huacho, and among the
+number was the pastor of the town, that very original individual, "the
+Cura Requena." The passage, which is usually made in fourteen hours,
+lasted two days and a half. Off the port we fell in with a Peruvian
+sloop of war, which, on our sailing from Callao, had been sent to watch
+us, and to stop the prisoners in case they attempted to escape. Our
+captain lay to, and we stepped into a boat. Our movements were
+observed from the shore, where, for some days, a report had prevailed
+that Santa Cruz was coming with Corsairs, to make a descent. The
+inhabitants believed that our ship must belong to that expedition.
+They were the more confirmed in their notion, inasmuch as the
+appearance of a sloop of war, which had sailed about for some hours in
+the bay, could not otherwise be explained. Accordingly the alarm bell
+was rung. The custom-house officers and the coast guards, headed by
+the port captain, and followed by a crowd of people, came down to the
+shore, some armed with muskets and pistols, others with swords and
+cudgels, to repel the intended attack.
+
+At the entrance to the port of Huacho the breakers are so dangerous that
+an ordinary-sized boat cannot put in. Landing is therefore effected in
+the small canoes of the Indians. When we approached the shore we made
+signals, and called loudly for canoes, but in vain. The dismayed
+Huachanos showed no inclination to assist their supposed enemies. Our
+captain, who was with us in the boat, said, that as a fresh wind from
+the shore was springing up he could wait no longer, and that he must
+take us with him to Panama. This very unpleasant piece of information
+prompted us to put into execution a plan which was suggested by despair.
+The tall, lank pastor, wrapped in the black ecclesiastical robe, called
+the _talar_, was placed at the prow, where he stood up, making signs of
+peace and friendship to the natives. This had the desired effect. The
+port captain had a good glass, with which he quickly recognized the
+marked features of the Cura, and several Indian boats were instantly
+despatched to convey us on shore. These Indian canoes consist of long
+narrow stumps of trees, hollowed longitudinally. On either side is
+nailed a _palo de balzas_, viz., a beam of a very porous kind of wood.
+One Indian sits forward, another more backward, each having a short
+wooden shovel-shaped oar, with which they strike the water right and
+left, and thus scull the boat onward. The passengers must crouch or
+kneel down in the middle, and dare not stir, for the least irregularity
+in the motion would upset the boat. We landed safely, and amused
+ourselves by referring to the mistake of the brave guardians of the
+coast. Horses were provided for us, and we rode to the town, which is
+situated at about half a league up the gently-rising coast.
+
+My principal occupation, during a six weeks' residence on this part of
+the coast, which is very rich in fishes, was to augment my
+ichthyological collection, and to make myself well acquainted with the
+environs of Huacho. Every morning, at five o'clock, I rode down to the
+shore, and waited on the strand to see the boats returning with what had
+been caught, during the night, by the fishers, who readily descried me
+at a distance, and held up, in their boat, such strange inhabitants of
+the deep as had come into their possession. I succeeded in making out,
+from several hundred individual specimens, one hundred and twenty
+distinct species of sea and river fish. But an unlucky fate hovered over
+this fine collection. The fishes were all put into a cask with brandy,
+which, by neglect of the commissary of the port, was left on the Mole at
+Callao, for several months, in the burning heat of the sun: in
+consequence its contents were utterly destroyed. A second collection was
+prepared, and immediately shipped for Europe, and in the packing the
+greatest care was observed. Nevertheless it arrived, after a voyage of
+fifteen months, in a state quite useless. Thus the fruits of much labor
+and a considerable expense were entirely lost.
+
+Huacho is a little village, which, since the war of Independence, has
+received the title of "city." It has more than 5000 inhabitants, of
+whom four-fifths are Indians and the rest mestizes. Very few whites
+have settled here. Among them I met an old lame Spaniard, "Don Simon,"
+who, at the beginning of the present century, accompanied the
+celebrated Alexander von Humboldt to the beds of salt situated a few
+miles to the south. In relating, with enthusiastic pleasure, his
+recollections of the youthful and indefatigable traveller, he told me
+that, some years ago, he had read through the book which Humboldt
+wrote on America, and he added, with great simplicity, "_pero, Señor,
+ahi he perdido los estribos_."[43]
+
+The natives employ themselves in fishing, agriculture, and the
+breeding of poultry. Most of the poultry brought to market in Lima
+comes from Huacho. Every Friday large caravan-like processions of
+Indian women repair to the capital with fowls, ducks, and turkeys.
+Fifteen or twenty are tied together by the feet, and make a sort of
+bunch; and two of such bunches are hung at the pommel of the saddle,
+so that one hangs down on either side of the horse. The chola[44] sits
+in the middle. Under this burthen the poor animal has to travel two
+days and a half. Only when the caravan halts does he enjoy the relief
+of being unsaddled and fed. Some of the Indians of Huacho work in the
+salt-pits. The women plait coarse straw hats, and a kind of mats
+called _petates_, which they carry to Lima for sale.
+
+The Huachanos cannot be ranked among the best classes of the Indians.
+They are malicious, revengeful, and knavish. Their character has
+evidently deteriorated amidst the numerous revolutions which preceded
+the establishment of the Republic, and the frequent passage of troops
+through the town. The Padre Requena sketched to me a terrible picture
+of his _Indios brutos_; but truly, under the guidance of such a
+shepherd, it were unreasonable to expect the flock to be very good.
+This venerable Cura was a fair type of the Peruvian priesthood. He was
+passionately fond of hunting, and for the enjoyment of that recreation
+he kept a number of excellent horses, and several packs of hounds,
+particularly _galgos_ (greyhounds), for some of which he paid 150 or
+200 dollars. In the most shameless way he violated the ecclesiastical
+vow of celibacy, and he was usually surrounded by several of his own
+children, who called him _uncle_, addressing him by the appellation of
+_tio_, the term usually employed in Peru to express that sort of
+relationship. The Padre used to boast of his alleged friendship with
+Lord Cochrane, in which he affected to pride himself very greatly. He
+died in a few weeks after his return to Huacho. He refused so long to
+make his confession, that the Indians, uttering furious menaces,
+assembled in crowds about his house. Some even compelled a priest to go
+in to him, to represent the awful consequences of his obstinacy. On the
+approach of death, he declared that the thought which most occupied him
+was his separation from his hounds, and when his hands were becoming
+cold he called to his negro to fetch a pair of buckskin hunting gloves,
+and desired to have them drawn on.
+
+In Peru the clergy have no fixed stipend. Their emoluments are derived
+from the fees and perquisites which their ecclesiastical functions bring
+in. For baptisms, marriages, and masses, fixed sums are established; but
+it is not so with burials, for which the priest receives a present
+proportional to the circumstances of the deceased. The interment of a
+poor person (_entierro baxo_) costs at least from eight to ten dollars,
+which sum is extorted from the survivors with the most unrelenting
+rigor. For the burial of a rich person (_entierro alto_) the sum of two
+hundred dollars is frequently paid. If a wealthy man should express in
+his will his desire for an _entierro baxo_, the priest sets this clause
+aside, and proceeds with the costly ceremonies, the payment for which is
+insured by the pious feelings of the family. Hence some of the richer
+_comunerias_, of which Huacho is one, yield to the priest annually from
+12,000 to 14,000 dollars. When a priest dies, the clergy of the
+neighboring villages meet and bury him with great pomp, free of any
+payment except a good banquet.
+
+A rich Indian of Huacho made a bargain with his countrymen that, on
+their paying him weekly a medio (the sixteenth part of a dollar), he
+would defray the expenses of their funerals. By this agreement he
+realized a considerable sum of money. The Cholos made it a condition
+that they should be buried in coffins, which is not common with the
+lower classes in Peru. The Indian complied with this condition. When a
+Cholo died, a coffin was sent to his residence. If too short, the corpse
+was bent and forced into it. The interment then took place according to
+the ritual of the Church. On the following night the Indian who had
+contracted for the burials repaired with a confidential servant to the
+churchyard, dug up the coffin, threw the body back into the grave, and
+carried off the coffin, with the _mortaja_ (the funeral garment), which
+served for the next customer. The contractor made each coffin last as
+long as the boards would hold together. This system, at all events,
+secured the Cholos against the danger of being buried alive.
+
+The churchyard of Huacho presents a revolting spectacle. A low wall
+surrounds a space of sandy ground, which is strewed with skulls, bones,
+fragments of burial clothes, and mutilated human bodies. The coffin
+plunderer, on replacing the corpse in the grave, merely throws some
+loose sand over it, and the consequence is that the remains of the dead
+frequently become the prey of dogs, foxes, and other carrion feeders.
+When the family of a deceased person can contribute nothing to defray
+the funeral expenses, the body is conveyed privately during the night to
+the churchyard. In the morning it is found half consumed.
+
+The environs of Huacho abound in fine fruit gardens, and productive
+Indian farms. The climate is healthful, though very hot. The vicinity of
+the sea and the convenience of good bathing would render it an agreeable
+place of residence, were it not infested with vermin. Fleas propagate in
+the sand in almost incredible multitudes, especially in the neighborhood
+of the Indian huts, and any person entering them is in a moment covered
+with hundreds of those tormentors. Bugs, too, swarm in the lime walls;
+though that description of vermin is less numerous in Huacho than in
+some of the more northern towns.
+
+In a fine valley, about two short leagues from Huacho, the little town
+of Huaura is situated on the bank of a river of the same name. This Rio
+de Huaura is formed by the union of two rivers. The larger of the two
+rises in the Cordillera de Paria, and flows through the wild ravine of
+Chuichin: the smaller river, called the Rio Chico de Sayan, rises from a
+lake of considerable size in the Altos de Huaquimarci. Both unite below
+the village of Sayan. In the vicinity of Huaura the river forms several
+marshes, in which malaria is generated. In very few places have I seen
+the stratum of malaria so distinctly separated from the atmosphere as
+here. It lies at an average about two, or two and a half feet above the
+marsh, and is carried over it by strong atmospheric currents. It is
+distinguished by a peculiar kind of opalization, and on certain
+changes of light it exhibits a yellowish tint. This is particularly
+perceptible in the morning, on coming down from the high grounds. The
+marshy plain then appears overhung with a thick color-changing sheet
+of malaria. Malignant intermittent fever and diseases of the skin are
+frequent in Huaura. The town is thinly peopled; the number of
+inhabitants being not more than 2000.
+
+A great sugar plantation, called El Ingenio, is situated at about a
+quarter of a league from Huaura. It formerly belonged to the Jesuits,
+but is now the property of a rich Lima family. The _trapiche_, or
+sugar-mill, is worked by a water-wheel, the first ever established in
+Peru, a circumstance of which the owner proudly boasts.
+
+The valley which opens here is magnificent, and to ride through it
+easterly eleven leagues towards Sayan is one of the finest excursions
+which can be made in Peru. Over this beautiful district are scattered
+many rich plantations. The one next in importance to El Ingenio is
+Acaray, which, though not very large, is most carefully cultivated:
+another, called Huillcahuaura, has a splendid building erected on it. In
+the middle of the valley is the extensive sugar plantation of Luhmayo.
+Near this place I saw, in a negro's hut, an ounce of immense size, which
+had been killed a few weeks previously. More than fifty Negroes and
+Indians had been engaged in subduing this ferocious animal, which was
+not killed until after a conflict of two days, in the course of which
+several negroes were dangerously wounded. This gigantic specimen
+measured, from the snout to the tip of the tail, eight feet three
+inches; the tail itself measuring two feet eight inches.
+
+At the sugar works of Luhmayo, notwithstanding the number of pipes, and
+other methods of supplying water, the cylinders are always worked by
+oxen, and are kept in motion day and night. I took a view of the works
+during the night, and the extraordinary picture I beheld will never be
+effaced from my memory. In the middle of the spacious building
+appropriated to the operations blazed a large fire, fed by the refuse
+of sugar canes. Around lay negroes, some asleep, and others muttering
+to each other in an under-tone. Here and there sat one perfectly
+silent, wrapped in his own reflections, and apparently brooding over
+some gloomy plan. The oxen paced slowly round the pole, which directed
+the movement of the cylinders; the animals alternately disappearing in
+the obscure background, and returning to the point where the glare of
+the fire, falling full upon them, lighted them up as if by the sudden
+effect of magic. Behind them stalked a tall black figure, driving them
+on with a rod made of brambles. Groups of children were busily
+employed in thrusting the full sugar canes between the cylinders; and
+after they were pressed, collecting together the sapless reeds, and
+piling them up in regular heaps.
+
+Next morning the person who officiated as medical superintendant of the
+plantation, showed me all the arrangements of the establishment. He gave
+me an account of his cures and operations, and told me that he often
+found it necessary to amputate, because the slaves purposely injure
+their fingers and arms in the _Phalangeles_ (machines) in order to
+disable themselves. The worthy Æsculapius had never in his life read a
+regular medical work. He had originally been an overseer of slaves,
+and had afterwards turned doctor. He informed me that some time before
+I saw him, ninety negroes, his patients, had died of small-pox in the
+space of nine months, whereby the owner of the plantation had lost
+45,000 dollars. The hospital was clean and well fitted up, but
+over-crowded with sick. Most of them died from intermitting fever, and
+from dropsy and rheumatism which followed it. Not a few of the male
+negroes suffer from a peculiar kind of cutaneous disease, which shows
+itself by large pustules on the arms and breast. After suppuration
+they dry and fall off, but leave indelible spots, which, on a black
+skin, are of a whitish color; on a brown skin, olive-green, and on a
+white skin, black. I never saw the disease in any other part of the
+country except in this valley. Negroes and persons of mixed blood are
+more subject to it than the whites.
+
+The two plantations on the east side of the valley are Chambara and
+Quipico. The latter is celebrated for the fine sugar it produces, and is
+also well known on account of the original character of its late
+proprietor, Castilla. When I rode into the court, I was in a moment
+surrounded by about fifty fine greyhounds, and from every side others
+came springing forward. This was but a remnant of Castilla's collection.
+He was passionately devoted to hunting, and generally kept from 200 to
+300 greyhounds, with which he rode out daily. A bell was rung at certain
+hours to collect the light-footed tribe to their meals. A gallows was
+erected in the court, where the intractable underwent capital punishment
+as a warning to the rest. One day when Castilla went out to hunt, he was
+joined in the chase by an Indian, who brought with him a common mongrel.
+This animal outstripped some of the greyhounds in speed, and quickly
+overtook the deer. Castilla immediately bought the dog, for which he
+gave the immense price of 350 dollars. A few days after he rode out to
+hunt with his best greyhounds, together with the newly-purchased dog.
+The pack being let loose, all the dogs set off in full chase, but the
+mongrel remained quietly beside the horses. On returning to the
+plantation, he was hung up on the gallows as a warning example.
+
+To the north of Huacho, the _Pampa del medio mundo_, a sand plain, seven
+leagues long, stretches out to the village of Supe. At short successive
+distances farther to the north are the villages of _Baranca_,
+_Pativilca_ (or rather Pati Huillca), and _la Fortaleza_. Then there
+intervenes a vast waste, which extends nearly to Huarmay. Between that
+village and the Port of Casma there is a similar long plain of sand.
+Thus do wastes, and fruitful valleys, alternate along the whole coast
+until near Tumbez, on the frontiers of the Republic of the Ecuador.
+
+The whole district is rich in memorable monuments of the time of the
+Incas. The most important are the remains of the palace of King Chimu
+Cancha, not far from the harbor of Huanchaco, and the ruins of
+Paramanca, near la Fortaleza. Doctor Unanue[45] is of opinion that the
+latter edifice was built to commemorate the peace between King Chimu
+Cancha and his conqueror, Capac Yupanqui; and that of two other
+buildings, one (the larger), situated towards the east, marks the
+dominions of the powerful Inca Pachacutec, and the other (the smaller),
+towards the west, indicates the territory of the conquered Chimu. This
+supposition is, in my opinion, quite erroneous. Independently of the
+plainly-recognizable character of those ruins, the construction of which
+shows them to have been fortifications, their situation bears evidence
+against the inference of Unanue. Supposing the larger building to have
+indicated the position of the Inca Empire, it ought to have been
+situated to the south, and the smaller building would have been to the
+north. The only passable road along the coast led between these two
+fortified hills; and by them the road on that side to the Kingdom of
+Chimu could be cut off. The Incas well knew, from experience, that the
+subdued populations, usually after a longer or a shorter time, again
+revolted, and endeavored to shake off their yoke, and therefore they
+were on their guard against such an occurrence. Capac Yupanqui must
+have greatly mistrusted an enemy so formidable as Chimu Cancha, who
+had only yielded after the most obstinate resistance, and it is no
+slight proof of this that Paramanca[46] was built as a fortress to
+hold the subjugated nations in check. It was not, however, built as a
+monument of victory, for such monuments were always erected in Cozco,
+the capital, and never on the field of battle. Etymology affords no
+solution of this question. Some write Paramonga, others Paramanca. I
+regard the latter as the most correct. Garcilaso de la Vega calls the
+valley Parmunca. In the Quichua dialect _Paramanca_[47] signifies a
+pot for rain. It is therefore possible that the name may indicate an
+allusion to heavy torrents of rain, which, though now unusual on this
+particular part of the coast, may have occurred in this basin-like
+valley after a great earthquake.
+
+Five leagues to the south of Huacho are the extensive _Salinas_, or salt
+pits, which supply Peru and Chile with excellent salt. They spread from
+the sea coast to the distance of half a league eastward, and present a
+most extraordinary aspect. On approaching them the traveller might fancy
+he beholds a field of glaciers, on which the sun's rays produce
+wonderful effects of variegated color.
+
+This salt is the produce of a natural evaporation of the sea water,
+which trickles through the porous stones of the coast, and fills every
+intervening hollow. The whole space is parcelled into divisions, called
+fields, from which, according to a definite regulation, square masses,
+weighing each one hundred pounds, are cut. In a few days the holes are
+again filled up with sea water, which, in the space of twelve to
+sixteen, or sometimes twenty to twenty-four months, being evaporated by
+the sun, leaves a precipitate completely filling up the square holes.
+The government has farmed the salinas to a private individual in Huacho,
+who keeps on the spot an overseer with the necessary number of
+laborers. This establishment is an inexhaustible source of wealth, and
+it can only be destroyed by a violent earthquake. In the bay on which
+the salinas border there is very convenient and secure anchoring
+ground, where coasters are constantly lying, ready to receive the
+salt, and convey it to any Peruvian or Chilean port. Most of the
+laborers employed in the salinas suffer from diseases of the skin and
+rheumatism. Water and provisions have to be brought from Huacho. The
+Indians, when they come from the mountains to convey salt, never take
+their llamas to the salinas. They go straight to Huacho, where the
+animals are loaded at the great depôts. Each llama carries the weight
+of one hundred pounds, which, however, is not, like ordinary burthens,
+laid on the bare back of the animal--beneath it is placed a layer of
+thick woollen cloth, called a _jerga_.
+
+The road southward from the Salinas runs, for the distance of nine
+leagues, through deep sand, chiefly along the sea-coast, and is bounded
+on the east by the _Lomas de Lachay_. Here flocks of strand snipes and
+flamingoes fly constantly before the traveller, as if to direct his
+course. In the _pescadores_ (fishermen's huts), five leagues from the
+Salinas, brackish water and broiled fish may be obtained, and sometimes
+even clover, which is brought hither, from the distance of several
+miles, to feed the hungry horses. From the pescadores the road crosses
+steep sand-hills, which rise from three to four hundred feet high, and
+fall with a declivity of more than sixty degrees towards the sea. The
+road leads along the side of these hills, and, where the ground is not
+firm, it is exceedingly dangerous. On a false step of the horse the
+ground yields beneath his hoof, and rolls down the declivity; but by due
+care the rider can easily recover a solid footing. There is on one of
+these hills a very large stone, which at a certain distance presents in
+color and form a deceptious similarity to an enormous-sized seal. Almost
+perpendicularly under it is a small bay, inhabited by a multitude of
+seals. The dull crashing sound made by the breakers on the shore,
+mingling with the howling of these animals, makes a gloomy impression on
+the traveller who is passing along the height above them, and creates a
+sort of shuddering sensation. The natives call this place and its sounds
+the _Grita Lobos_ (the Sea-dog's Howl). From this hilly ground the road
+descends into the fruitful valley of the _Pasamayo_, which contains two
+villages and eighteen plantations.
+
+Chancay, the principal town in this valley, is the residence of a
+sub-prefect. It is a league and a half from the river, and a short
+league from the sea, where there is an inconsiderable and not very safe
+port, which can only be entered by small vessels. The number of
+inhabitants is about 1200, chiefly Indians and Mulattos. Excellent
+fruits and vegetables, good beef, mutton, and poultry, and well-flavored
+fish, are found here in abundance. The houses are all of the poorest
+structure, and are sparingly and rudely furnished. In the neighboring
+farms, some of which are large, as Torreblanco, Pasamayo, &c., maize is
+extensively cultivated for exportation and for food to the swine, which
+are very numerous. In no other valley of Peru are there so many
+earth-fleas, or _piques_, as they are called, particularly about the
+plantations. The _pique_ is a small, white insect, which lives in sand,
+but fastens as a parasite on man and beast, more particularly on swine.
+It attacks man by penetrating the skin, for the most part under the
+toe-nails, where an egg is laid, from which a painful tumor is
+afterwards formed. Should this be neglected, the brood is developed, and
+penetrates further into the flesh. Then follow violent inflammations and
+imposthumes, which sometimes assume so serious a character that the
+amputation of the foot becomes necessary. While the _pique_ is
+penetrating there is no sensation of its presence; it is first felt on
+the development of the egg, and then it is still easy to remove the
+bag which contains it, and the mother with it. The Negresses
+accomplish this with great dexterity. They make an aperture in the
+skin by scratching it with a needle, and then they draw the bag out.
+Should it burst, they take out the egg with the needle; but this is a
+very delicate operation. I have always been able to do it more
+speedily and more securely with the lancet. The hole is commonly of
+the size of a bean, and hot cigar ashes are put into it to destroy any
+eggs or larvæ which may remain. These insects do not always confine
+themselves to the feet; they sometimes attack the body and the face,
+and it is in general extremely difficult for the patient to discover
+how or where he became acquainted with such troublesome companions. I
+once had six tumors, caused by broods of _piques_, on my right foot,
+and I could not trace the annoyance to any other cause than having
+stopped for a few minutes, while my horse was being saddled, in the
+_corral_, or yard, of a plantation.
+
+The road from Chancay to the Haciendas of Bisquira, Andahuasi, and the
+village of Sayan, extends in a northeasterly direction, through a dreary
+valley of sand, between rows of sterile hillocks of the most singular
+forms. I had once to travel along twelve leagues of this wearisome road,
+under the most oppressive heat of the sun. The mules were quite
+overcome, and when we reached the _Cuesta de los ahorcados_ (the hill of
+the hanged) they would not move another step. We had to descend and give
+them a long rest. We stretched ourselves under the bellies of the
+animals, the only shade we could get in this treeless waste. At last,
+after a very difficult journey, during which we lost ourselves in a
+marsh in the neighborhood of Bisquira, we arrived about midnight at
+Andahuasi. On this road, only two leagues from Chancay, near the
+Hacienda of Chancayllo, are situated the Colcas, most remarkable
+subterraneous structures, of the time of the Incas. According to
+tradition, they were built by the Yuncas, during the campaign of Capac
+Yupanqui against Chimu Cancha, as provision magazines for the numerous
+army, more than 120,000 strong.
+
+At the mouth of the Pasamayo, on the north bank, there are some salinas,
+which, however, are far more inconsiderable than those of Huacho.
+
+The first time I went from Huacho to Lima, I wished to pass over the
+whole road, twenty-eight leagues, in one uninterrupted ride; accordingly
+I left Huacho at two o'clock, P. M., in order that I might cross the
+great sand-flats during the night. A negro who knew the road accompanied
+me. We passed through Chancay at midnight. Some muleteers, lying before
+a hut, called to us, and warned us to stop, as the river had swelled
+very much. Nevertheless we proceeded onward, and by one o'clock we
+reached the Pasamayo, which, in consequence of the heavy rains from the
+mountains, had overflowed its banks. Several travellers had stretched
+themselves on the ground to wait for the morning light, and in the hope
+that the flood would by that time subside. No Chimbadores[48] were to be
+had. My negro guide looked at the water with dismay, and declared that
+he had never before witnessed so furious a swell. However, we had no
+time to lose, and I resolved to attempt the passage of the river.
+Trusting to my well tried horse, which had already carried me safely
+through many difficult coasting journeys, I cautiously rode into the
+river, which became deeper at every step. The overwhelming force of the
+stream was felt by my horse; and he presently lost his footing, though
+he still continued to struggle vigorously against the force of the
+current. At this juncture, some passing clouds obscured the moon, and I
+lost sight of a group of trees which, before leaving the opposite bank,
+I fixed my eye upon as a guiding beacon. Quite powerless, my horse
+and I were carried away by the stream, and driven against a rock in
+the middle of the river. I now heard the anxious outcries of my negro
+and the travellers on the bank, whilst the waves rose over my head.
+With a convulsive effort I pulled the bridle, and the horse then
+turning completely round, once more gained his solid footing. I then
+gave him the spur, and the courageous animal dashing again into the
+midst of the current, swam with me to the bank. I rode forward with my
+negro in search of a better fording-place, and after several fruitless
+attempts, we at length found one, and we crossed the river safely. The
+other travellers did not venture to follow our example, but called out
+begging us not to leave them behind. I sent the negro back on my horse
+to bring them over; and the noble animal went backward and forward no
+less than seven times without making one false step. After all this
+exertion, he bore me with unflagging spirit into Lima, where we
+arrived at noon on the following day.
+
+From the Pasamayo, the road runs for the space of two leagues
+tolerably level, and for the most part amidst plantations. Then
+succeed steep sandy hills, for the distance of about four leagues.
+The roads are very wearisome both to horse and rider, especially in
+the declivities towards the plains, where the horse is frequently
+over his knees in sand. In those parts there are also some
+extraordinary atmospheric mirrors, in which we beheld ourselves in
+reflection, riding over our own heads, and our figures magnified to
+gigantic proportions. Six leagues from Chancay, there are two wretched
+huts, forming the tambo, or inn, in which travellers obtain
+refreshment. From thence the road runs through a stony tract,
+partially strewn with large masses of rock, called the _Piedras
+gordas_, and leading to the marshes which surround the Copacahuana
+plantations. Two leagues further on is the river Chillon, which, like
+the Pasamayo, may generally be easily forded, but which swells
+furiously during heavy falls of rain. At a short distance behind the
+river, the road, called the Camino de Valles, joins that leading to
+Cerro de Pasco. About a league from Lima there is a place called _Palo
+seco_, which, like _Piedras gordas_, is a celebrated haunt of robbers.
+The traveller has reason to congratulate himself if he passes these
+two places without an attack.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 41: The Indians resort to very artful methods of hiding their
+money. They sometimes conceal it between the boards of the boxes in
+which their eggs are packed, or stitch it into the stuffing of their
+asses' saddles. They often submit to be killed rather than avow where
+their money is concealed.]
+
+[Footnote 42: The word Pacchacamac signifies _He who created the world
+out of nothing_. It is compounded of _Paccha_, the earth, and _camac_,
+the participle present of _caman_, to produce something from nothing.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Literally--"But there, sir, I lost the stirrups." Meaning
+that he did not understand it. The Spanish phrase, _Perder los
+estribos_, signifies to get confused or embarrassed.]
+
+[Footnote 44: _Chola_ is the common designation for an Indian female.
+The masculine is _Cholo_.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Nuevo dia del Peru. 1824.]
+
+[Footnote 46: According to some ancient authors Paramanca was built by
+King Chimu as a frontier fortress against the neighboring nations. There
+is some foundation for this view of the subject, as Chimu Cancha had,
+long before he was attacked by Capac Yupanqui, carried on war most
+fiercely with Cuyz Mancu, King of Pacchacama, and Chuquiz Mancu, King of
+Runahuanac (the present Lunahuana).]
+
+[Footnote 47: _Para_ (rain) _Manca_ (pot).]
+
+[Footnote 48: Guides, who conduct travellers across rivers, being well
+acquainted with the fords. They are also called Vadeadores.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+The Coast southward of Lima--Chilca--Curious Cigar cases made
+there--Yauyos--Pisco--Journey to Yca--A night on the Sand
+Plains--Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823--Vine Plantations at
+Yca--Brandy and Wine--Don Domingo Elias--Vessels for transporting
+Brandy (Botijas and odres)--Cruel mode of skinning Goats--Negro
+Carnival--Peculiar species of Guinea Pig--The Salamanqueja--Cotton
+Plantations--Quebrada of Huaitara--Sangallan--Guano--Retrospect of the
+Peruvian Coast--Rivers--Medanos--Winds--Change of Seasons--the
+Garuas--The Lomas--Mammalia--Birds--Amphibia.
+
+
+The coast, southward of Lima, is similar in aspect, climate, and
+character, to those parts north of the city which have just been
+described. Fruitful valleys, villages, and plantations, commodious
+sea-ports, and vast sandy wastes, alternate one with the other. Heat,
+sometimes almost insupportable, is succeeded by chilly and unhealthy
+mists; whilst here and there the scattered monuments of the wealth and
+greatness of bygone ages present a remarkable and painful contrast to
+present poverty and misery.
+
+Proceeding southward of Lima by way of Lurin, we arrive at Chilca, a
+wretched village situated on a soil which affords nothing to supply the
+wants of human existence. It appears an incomprehensible mystery that
+man should have fixed his abode on a spot where Nature has granted
+nothing for his nourishment, not even a drop of pure water; whilst at
+the distance of a few miles, luxuriant valleys offer, spontaneously,
+those products which the most laborious toil must fail to extort from
+the ungrateful soil of Chilca. The hope of wealth from commercial
+speculation or mining industry has peopled many inhospitable shores, and
+has raised populous towns on barren deserts; but at Chilca there are no
+such stimuli of interests. Nevertheless, they may possibly have existed
+in former ages, for the numerous ruins scattered around the village
+tend to confirm the opinion that the population was very extensive under
+the government of the Incas. The force of custom and of local attachment
+which frequently chains man to the spot where his progenitors have lived
+happily, is all that can bind the natives of Chilca to their miserable
+dwelling-place. In few villages, as in Chilca, have the Indians for more
+than 300 years so carefully avoided mixing with people of other races.
+They employ themselves in plaiting straw for hats and cigar-cases. The
+latter they make in a singularly beautiful style with white and colored
+straw, which they plait into various figures and patterns--sometimes
+into names, and even lines of poetry. Some of these cigar-cases sell for
+upwards of a hundred dollars. Fishing is a less profitable occupation to
+the people of Chilca, or, as they are called in the country, the
+Chilqueños; for, owing to the great distance, only certain kinds of fish
+can be sent to the Lima market. Near the village there is a bed of very
+strong red-colored salt, which is exported to the mountains, but which
+sells at a lower price than the salt of Huacho.
+
+Five leagues south of Chilca, on the river of the same name, lies the
+village called Cañete, which is the residence of a Sub-prefect. The very
+interesting province of Yauyos extends from this village in an easterly
+direction towards the Cordilleras. The inhabitants of this province are
+distinguishable by their faces and figures, and also by their manners
+and language, from the Indians of the coast and the mountains. In
+stature they are small. They have expanded foreheads, animated eyes,
+prominent cheek-bones, and wide mouths. Their limbs are slender, and
+their skin is of a swarthy brown. Their dialect, the Cauqui, contains
+many radical words of the Quichua language. After this nation was
+subjugated by the Incas their language was so intermixed with others,
+that it is now very difficult to trace out its origin. It appears to be
+totally different from the Chinchaysuyo language.
+
+Some very considerable sugar plantations, and several villages, lie
+between Cañete and Pisco. Among the villages, Lunahuana and Chincha
+(upper and lower) are celebrated for their great fertility. Two rivers,
+at the distance of five leagues from each other, flow in a parallel
+direction between Chincha and Pisco, and to their waters the valleys are
+indebted for their rich vegetation. On account of their width these
+rivers can only be passed with the assistance of Chimbadores, and many
+travellers annually perish in their incautious attempts to ford them.
+The little town of Pisco is on the left bank of the south river, and
+half a league from it there is a secure harbor with good anchoring
+ground. This town has acquired some importance by the exportation of
+brandy; and it has recently become more active and populous owing to the
+near vicinity of the Guano islands. The custom-house and the port
+captain's office are on the shore, where there is also a large building
+erected by Don Domingo Elias, for a brandy depôt. The little town of
+Pisco has suffered much from the plundering attacks of European pirates,
+from earthquakes, and more recently from the War of Independence.
+Several parts of it have been rebuilt. Within the few last years much
+has been done in the way of improving and ornamenting it. A broad trench
+has been dug round the town, serving the purpose of drainage, and
+thereby greatly contributing to preserve the health of the place. Pisco
+is merely the key to the large interior town of Yca, which is fourteen
+leagues distant. I visited it in the year 1842. The steamer conveyed me
+in eighteen hours from Callao to Pisco, where I hired horses and a
+guide. He was a Catalonian, who had frequently travelled to Yca.
+
+At three o'clock, P. M., we left Pisco. At first the road passed over
+very hard ground, then through deep sand, which continued till we got
+to Yca. Notwithstanding the heat, which in the month of February is
+insupportable, I was wrapped up in my woollen poncho. Experience had
+taught me that in the hotter districts the change of temperature which
+takes place at night, and causes fever, is least injurious when the
+traveller is protected in warm clothing. My Catalonian guide, who,
+with his arms covered merely by his shirt sleeves, nevertheless
+suffered greatly from the heat, could not comprehend why I had chosen
+such a dress. When I informed him that eleven days before I had, in
+the same clothing, passed a night on the Cordilleras, in the midst of
+snow, he shook his head in token of incredulity. Whilst the bell rang
+for evening prayers we rode into the Huilla Curin Plantation, which
+is surrounded by a charming grove of palm trees. We stopped for a few
+moments to gather some excellent figs. About midnight a heavy fog
+spread over the plain, and veiled from our sight a cross on the south,
+which had hitherto served to keep us in the right direction. We,
+however, advanced about a league farther. The Catalonian then often
+alighted to smell the sand, in order to ascertain whether we were
+taking the proper course. This is a very good practical method; for in
+deserts through which caravans frequently pass, the dung of the beasts
+of burthen mixed with the sand affords a sure indication of the track.
+When we had got about three quarters of a league farther on, we came
+close against a rock, which my guide--in whose acquaintance with the
+locality I had the most unbounded confidence--declared was quite
+unknown to him. There was therefore no doubt that we had got out of
+the right course. I lighted a cigar, and on examining, by its feeble
+light, my pocket compass, I discovered that instead of keeping to the
+south-east we had diverged to the west. As there was now no hope that
+the fog would clear away before day-break, we rolled ourselves in the
+warm sand, to await the coming morning.
+
+I afterwards learned that in this very spot numerous travellers had lost
+their way, and had perished of thirst. In the year 1823, a ship stranded
+on this coast, with three hundred and twenty dragoons on board, under
+the command of Colonel Lavalle. The soldiers succeeded in getting
+ashore, but thirty-six hours afterwards they were lost in this sandy
+desert. When intelligence of the shipwreck reached Pisco, a cavalry
+regiment was despatched to search for the sufferers, and to supply them
+with provisions and water; but when they were found it was discovered
+that one hundred and sixteen men had died from fatigue and thirst, and a
+few days after fifty more perished from exhaustion. It is generally
+supposed that a healthy man can live four or five days unsupplied with
+food and drink. In the temperate climate of Europe, and with bodily
+rest, this, perhaps, may be the case; but in the burning wastes of Peru
+to be deprived of nourishment for only forty-eight hours, and at the
+same time to wander about in deep sand, would be followed by certain
+death. Severe thirst is the most horrible of torments, especially when
+the body is surrounded by a medium altogether of an arid nature. At sea
+it can be much longer endured than on a surface of sand.
+
+When the grey dawn of morning appeared we again mounted our horses, and
+rode by my compass in the direction of E.S.E. After riding a few
+leagues, we turned an acute angle, which brought us into the main road,
+and we arrived that forenoon in Yca.
+
+On my return I so arranged my journey as to pass the night in Huilla
+Curin, where the horses were supplied with forage, consisting of the
+shoots and leaves of the Mastick-tree (_schinus molle_).
+
+Yca is a moderately large and very agreeably situated town. Like most of
+the larger towns on the coast it is peopled with inhabitants of all
+colors, particularly Mestizos. It is the residence of a sub-prefect and
+many rich planters. Scarcely anything but the vine is cultivated in the
+Haciendas of the environs; and this branch of husbandry contributes
+greatly to enrich the province. It is astonishing to see with what
+facility the vine thrives in a soil apparently so unfruitful. The young
+shoots are stuck into the sand almost half a foot deep, then tied up and
+left to themselves. They quickly take root and shoot forth leaves.
+Whilst the surrounding country bears the appearance of a desert, the
+vineyards of Yca are clothed in delightful verdure. The grapes are of
+superior quality, very succulent and sweet. The greater part are used
+for making brandy, which is extremely good and very well flavored. All
+Peru and a great part of Chile are supplied with this liquor from the
+Vale of Yca. The common brandy is called _Aguardiente de Pisco_, because
+it is shipped at that port. A kind of brandy of superior quality, and
+much dearer, made from Muscatel grapes, is called _Aguardiente de
+Italia_. It is distinguished by a very exquisite flavor. Very little
+wine is made at Yca. In some plantations they make a thick dark-brown
+kind, which is very sweet, and much liked by the Peruvians, though not
+very agreeable to a European palate. Only one planter, Don Domingo
+Elias,[49] the richest and most speculative cultivator on the whole
+coast, makes wine in the European manner. It is very like the wine of
+Madeira and Teneriffe, only it is more fiery, and contains a more
+considerable quantity of alcohol. Specimens which have been sent to
+Europe have obtained the unqualified approbation of connoisseurs. The
+flavor is considerably improved by a long sea voyage.
+
+The brandy, which is exported by sea, is put into large vessels made of
+clay, called _botijas_. In form they are like a pear, the broad ends
+being downwards. At the top there is a small aperture, which is
+hermetically closed with gypsum. The large _botija_ when filled weighs
+six or seven arobas. Two are a load for a mule. To the pack-saddle, or
+_aparejo_, two baskets are fastened, in which the _botijas_ are placed
+with the small ends downwards. These _botijas_ were formerly also used
+for conveying the brandy across the mountains; but, in consequence of
+the dangerous, slippery roads, over which the mules often fell, many
+were broken. Still greater damage was sustained at the springs and
+wells on the coast, for the poor animals, after their long journeys
+through the sandy wastes, rushed, on perceiving water, in full flight
+to the springs. As it happens that there is often room for only five
+or six mules, and from seventy to eighty were often pressing forward,
+a great number of the _botijas_ were unavoidably dashed to pieces in
+spite of all the caution the arrieros could exercise. The annual loss
+of brandy was immense, and to counteract this evil, bags of goatskin
+were introduced. These skins are now generally used for the
+conveyance of brandy across the mountains. The method of skinning the
+goats is the most horribly cruel that can be conceived. A negro hangs
+the living animal up by the horns, and makes a circular incision
+round his neck, which, however, goes no further than to the flesh. He
+then draws the skin from the body of the writhing animal, which
+utters the most frightful cries. When the skin is completely removed,
+and not till then, is the suffering animal killed. The negroes assert
+that the skin is most easily removed in this manner, and that the
+_odres_[50] become thereby more durable. It is to be hoped that
+humanely disposed planters will soon put an end to this barbarous
+and unreasonable practice.
+
+I happened to be in Yca at the time of the celebration of the negro
+carnival, which I will here briefly describe. In some of the principal
+streets of the town large arches are erected, and gaily decorated with
+ribbons. Round these arches negresses and mestizas dance, and endeavor
+to stop the negroes whilst riding at full gallop under the arches. The
+negroes start from the distance of about one hundred paces, and gallop
+straight to the boundary, where the women endeavor to seize the bridle,
+and to throw the rider from his saddle. The task of the men is to ride
+past the women without being stopped; and when they fail in so doing,
+they have to pay a fine, and are hooted into the bargain. It is hard to
+say which is most surprising;--the speed of the horses, the dexterity of
+the riders, or the courage of the negresses, who fearlessly throw
+themselves in the way of the galloping horses. During the race the
+negroes are pelted with unripe oranges and lemons, which, when thrown by
+the vigorous arm of a zamba, inflict a sufficiently heavy blow. I saw a
+negro gallop to and fro for the space of an hour, at full speed, and
+every time he passed under the arch he dexterously evaded the
+outstretched hands of the women; thus giving proof of uncommon bodily
+strength. While dashing at full speed through the arch of the bridge,
+and leaning forward on the horse's neck, he seized two negresses, one
+with each of his arms, and pulled them into the saddle beside him.
+
+The climate of Yca is hot, and not altogether healthy, for the torrents
+of rain which fall from the hills swell the river so as to make it
+overflow its lower bank, where marshes are formed, in which malaria is
+developed. Most of the plantations in the environs are more healthy.
+
+All the bushes in the vicinity of the town are inhabited by a kind of
+Guinea pig (_Cavia Cuttleri_, King). These animals are exceedingly
+numerous. After sunrise and towards evening, they leave their lurking
+places and play about in the grass. Upon the whole they are not shy,
+and they allow people to approach them pretty closely. The natives
+call this little animal the _Cui del Montes_, and they believe it to
+be the progenitor of the tame Guinea pig. This notion is, however,
+quite erroneous.
+
+Along the whole of the Peruvian coast there is found a small animal of
+the lizard kind, of which the natives are very much afraid. They call it
+the _Salamanqueja_. It lives in the fissures of walls, and is sometimes
+seen creeping along the lime plaster of houses. Its bite is believed to
+be mortal. From the descriptions given of this animal, I was curious to
+see it, and I commissioned some persons to procure me one. At last, an
+Indian brought me a specimen very much crushed, and I found that I had
+already got several of them in my collections. I now obtained more of
+them, and the natives beheld me with astonishment carrying them alive in
+my hand. Of the Salamanqueja there are two species, the _Diplodactylus
+lepidopygus_, Tsch., and the _Discodactylus phacophorus_, Tsch. They are
+nearly related to each other, being only distinguished by one species
+having an orifice in the thighs, serving as a passage for an issue from
+a gland which secretes a very acrid fluid. This little animal never
+bites; but it is possible that the fluid by touching a fresh wound, or
+scratch, may cause very serious consequences.
+
+To the south of Yca there are some large cotton plantations; the most
+considerable of which belong to Don Domingo Elias. The cotton for
+exportation is shipped at the port of San Nicolas. Many experienced
+captains of ships declare the bay of San Nicolas to be the safest and
+best along the whole of the western coast of South America.
+
+The Quebrada of Huaitara, which stretches to the east of Yca, is the
+principal channel of communication between this part of the coast and
+the rich mountain provinces of Jauja and Huancavelica, and from the
+latter places to Ayacucho and Cosco.
+
+Opposite to Pisco and Chinca there is a group of small islands, of which
+the largest, Sangallan, is six English miles distant from Pisco. These
+islands have of late years become celebrated on account of the great
+quantity of guano that has been exported from them.
+
+Guano (or according to the more correct orthography, Huanu)[51] is
+found on these islands in enormous layers of from 35 to 40 feet thick.
+The upper strata are of a greyish-brown color, which lower down becomes
+darker. In the lower strata the color is a rusty red, as if tinged by
+oxide of iron. The Guano becomes progressively more and more solid from
+the surface downward, a circumstance naturally accounted for by the
+gradual deposite of the strata, and the evaporation of the fluid
+particles. Guano is found on all the islands, and on most of the
+uninhabited promontories of the west coast of South America, especially
+in those parts within the tropics. I have often been assured that beds
+of Guano several feet high, covered with earth, are found inland at some
+distance from the sea; but I never met with any, and I have some doubt
+of the correctness of the statement. If, however, these inland strata
+really exist, I am inclined to believe that they can only be found on
+hilly ground; and in that case they afford strong evidence of a
+considerable elevation of the coast.
+
+Guano is formed of the excrements of different kinds of marine birds,
+as mews, divers, sheerbeaks, &c.; but the species which I can name
+with more precision are the following:--_Larus modestus_, Tsch.;
+_Rhinchops nigra_, Lin.; _Plotus Anhinga_, Lin.; _Pelecanus thayus_,
+Mol.; _Phalacrocorax Gaimardii_, and _albigula_, Tsch. (_Pelecanus
+Gaimardii_, Less., _Carbo albigula_, Brandt), and chiefly the _Sula
+variegata_, Tsch.
+
+The immense flocks of these birds as they fly along the coast appear
+like clouds. When their vast numbers, their extraordinary voracity, and
+the facility with which they procure their food, are considered, one
+cannot be surprised at the magnitude of the beds of Guano, which have
+resulted from uninterrupted accumulations during many thousands of
+years. I kept for some days a living _Sula variegata_, which I fed
+abundantly with fish. The average weight of the excrement daily was
+from 3-1/2 to five ounces. I have no doubt that when the bird is in a
+state of freedom the weight must be much greater, for these birds are
+constantly plunging into the sea, in order to devour the fishes which
+they find in extraordinary masses around all the islands. When an
+island is inhabited by millions of sea-birds, though two-thirds of
+the guano should be lost while flying, still a very considerable
+stratum would be accumulated in the course of a year.
+
+The marine birds nestle on the uninhabited islands, or on rocks near the
+shore; but they never settle on the flat beach, or any place distant
+from it inland. On this fact, I ground my conjecture that those beds of
+guano in the interior, which may have been removed from the shore by
+important elevations of the coast, are to be found only on hills.
+
+During the first year of the deposit the strata are white, and the guano
+is then called _Guano Blanco_. In the opinion of the Peruvian
+cultivators, this is the most efficacious kind. It is found in the Punta
+de Hormillos, on the islands of Islay, Jesus, Margarita, &c.
+
+As soon as the dealers in guano begin to work one of the beds, the
+island on which it is formed, is abandoned by the birds. It has also
+been remarked, that since the increase of trade and navigation, they
+have withdrawn from the islands in the neighborhood of the ports.
+
+Much has recently been written on the employment and utility of guano;
+but the manner in which it is applied as manure in Peru, seems to be but
+little known. The Peruvians use it chiefly in the cultivation of maize
+and potatoes. A few weeks after the seeds begin to shoot, a little
+hollow is dug round each root, and is filled up with guano, which is
+afterwards covered with a layer of earth. After the lapse of twelve or
+fifteen hours, the whole field is laid under water, and is left in that
+state for some hours. Of the _Guano Blanco_ a less quantity suffices,
+and the field must be more speedily and abundantly watered, otherwise
+the roots would be destroyed. The effect of this manure is incredibly
+rapid. In a few days the growth of a plant is doubled. If the manure be
+repeated a second time, but in smaller quantity, a rich harvest is
+certain. At least, the produce will be threefold that which would have
+been obtained from the unmanured soil.
+
+The haciendas of the valley of Chancay have, during the last fifty
+years, consumed annually from 33,000 to 36,000 bushels of guano brought
+from the islands of Chancha and Pisco. The price of the bushel of
+colored guano is one dollar and a quarter, and the price of the white
+from two to three dollars. The price has recently undergone many
+fluctuations, in consequence of the great exports to Europe.
+
+The employment of this kind of manure is very ancient in Peru; and there
+is authentic evidence of its having been used in the time of the Incas.
+The white guano was then chiefly found on the islands opposite to
+Chincha; so that for upwards of 600 years the deposit has been
+progressively removed from those islands without any apparent decrease
+of the accumulation. The uniformity of climate on a coast where there is
+not much rain, must contribute to render the Peruvian guano a more arid
+manure than the African, as fewer of the saline particles of the former
+being in solution, they are consequently less subject to evaporation.
+
+From 3° 35' to 21° 48' south latitude, a plain of sand, 540 leagues
+long, and varying from 3 to 20 leagues in breadth, stretches along the
+coast of the Pacific Ocean. It is intersected by chains of small
+hillocks, which, extending westward from the Cordilleras, gradually
+diminish in height, and either become blended with the plain, or form
+abrupt promontories, which project into the sea. Between the river Loa,
+which marks the southern frontier of the Peruvian coast, and the Tumbez,
+on the northern boundary, fifty-nine rivers, great and small, pass
+through the line of coast. Proceeding from the avalanches of the Andes
+or the small alpine lakes, they force their way through narrow
+mountain-valleys, irrigate the waste grounds, and then, after brief
+courses, flow into the great ocean.
+
+A fine light yellow drift sand covers hill and dale. It is only where
+rivers intersect the plain that oases of luxuriant vegetation are
+formed. The peril of traversing these plains is greatly increased by
+the movability of the sand and the _Medanos_. The strong winds raise
+immense clouds of dust and sand. The sand rises in columns of from
+eighty to a hundred feet high, which whirl about in all directions, as
+if moved by magic. Sometimes they suddenly overshadow the traveller, who
+only escapes from them by rapid riding.
+
+The medanos are hillock-like elevations of sand, some having a firm,
+others a loose base. The former, which are always crescent-shaped, are
+from ten to twenty feet high, and have an acute crest. The inner side is
+perpendicular, and the outer or bow side forms an angle with a steep
+inclination downward. When driven by violent winds, the medanos pass
+rapidly over the plains. The smaller and lighter ones move quickly
+forwards before the larger ones; but the latter soon overtake and crush
+them, whilst they are themselves shivered by the collision. These
+medanos assume all sorts of extraordinary figures, and sometimes move
+along the plain in rows forming most intricate labyrinths, whereby what
+might otherwise be visible in the distance is withdrawn from the view of
+the traveller. A plain often appears to be covered with a row of
+medanos, and some days afterwards it is again restored to its level and
+uniform aspect. Persons who have the greatest experience of the coast
+are apt to mistake their way, when they encounter these sand-hills.
+
+The medanos with immovable bases are formed on the blocks of rock which
+are scattered about the plain. The sand is driven against them by the
+wind, and as soon as it reaches the top point it descends on the other
+side until that is likewise covered; thus gradually arises a
+conical-formed hill. Entire hillock-chain with acute crests are formed
+in a similar manner. The small hillock-chain, by which the coast is
+intersected obliquely from east to west, is a boundary which arrests the
+progress of the wandering medanos; otherwise fruitful oases would soon
+be converted into barren sand-flats. A correct observation of these
+hillock-chains affords a most certain scale for ascertaining the
+direction of the prevailing wind. On their southern declivities are
+found vast masses of sand drifted thither by the mid-day gales. The
+northern declivity, though not steeper than the southern, is only
+sparingly covered with sand. If a hillock-chain somewhat distant from
+the sea extends in a line parallel with the Andes, namely from S.S.E. to
+N.N.W., the western declivity is almost entirely free of sand, as it is
+driven to the plain below by the southeast wind, which constantly
+alternates with the wind from the south.
+
+The movements and new formations in the deserts (like restorations
+from death to life) are only in full activity during the hot season;
+for then the parched sand yields to the slightest pressure of the
+atmosphere. In the cold season its weight increases by the absorption
+of humidity. The particles unite in masses, and more easily resist
+the wind. In the meantime the hillocks also acquire more firmness or
+compression by the increased weight which presses on them from above.
+
+In November, summer commences. The rays of the sun are refracted on the
+light grey sandy carpet, and are reflected back with scorching power.
+Every living thing which does not quickly escape from their influence is
+devoted to certain destruction. No plant takes root in the burning soil,
+and no animal finds food on the arid lifeless surface. No bird, no
+insect moves in the burning atmosphere. Only in the very loftiest
+regions, the king of the air, the majestic condor, may be seen floating,
+with daring wing, on his way to the sea coast. Only where the ocean and
+the desert blend with each other is there life and movement. Flocks of
+carrion crows swarm over the dead remains of marine animals scattered
+along the shore. Otters and seals impart life to the inaccessible rocks;
+hosts of coast birds eagerly pounce on the fish and mollusca cast on
+shore; variegated lizards sport on the sand hillocks; and busy crabs and
+sea spiders work their way by furrows through the humid coast.
+
+The scene changes in May. A thin veil of mist then overspreads the sea
+and the shore. In the following months the thickness of the mist
+increases, and it is only in October that it begins to disperse. In the
+beginning and at the end of the period called winter this mist commonly
+rises between nine and ten o'clock in the morning, and disappears about
+three, P.M. It is heaviest in August and September; and it then lies for
+weeks immoveable on the earth. It does not resolve into what may be
+properly called rain, but it becomes a fine minute precipitate which the
+natives call GARUA (thick fog or drizzling rain). Many travellers have
+alleged that there are places on the Peruvian coast which have been
+without rain for centuries. The assertion is to a certain degree
+correct, for there are many districts in which there never is rain
+except after an earthquake, and not always even then.
+
+Though the _garua_ sometimes falls in large drops, still there is
+this distinction between it and rain, that it descends not from
+clouds at a great height, but is formed in the lower atmospheric
+regions, by the union of small bubbles of mist. The average
+perpendicular height over which this fog passes does not exceed one
+thousand two hundred feet; its medium boundary is from seven to eight
+hundred feet. That it is known only within a few miles of the sea is
+a highly curious phenomenon; beyond those few miles it is superseded
+by heavy rains; and the boundary line between the rain and the mist
+may be defined with mathematical precision. I know two plantations,
+the one six leagues from Lima, the other in the neighborhood of
+Huacho: one half of these lands is watered by the garuas, the other
+half by rain, and the boundary line is marked by a wall.
+
+When the mists set in, the chain of hillocks (_Lomas_) bordering the
+sand-flats on the coasts undergoes a complete change. As if by a stroke
+of magic, blooming vegetation overspreads the soil, which, a few days
+previously, was a mere barren wilderness. Horses and cattle are driven
+into these parts for grazing, and during several months the animals find
+abundance of rich pasture. There is, however, no water; but they do not
+appear to suffer from the want of it, for they are always in good
+healthy condition on leaving the Lomas.
+
+In some parts of northern Peru, where the garuas are scanty, the
+fertility of the soil depends wholly on the mountain rains, for in
+summer most of the rivers are dried up. When there is a deficiency of
+rain, the cattle on the coast suffer greatly. A few years ago a
+haciendado, or cultivator, in the vale of Piura, lost 42,000 sheep;
+the usual flood, without which the necessary fodder could not be
+raised, did not come on at the proper time. At Piura there is such a
+total absence of dew, that a sheet of paper left for a whole night
+in the open air does not, in the morning, exhibit the smallest trace
+of humidity. In central and south Peru the moisture scarcely
+penetrates half an inch into the earth.
+
+In the oases the garuas are much heavier than in the adjacent wastes.
+Along the whole of the coast there is no rain, and no vegetation
+throughout a large circuit. The rain commences first in the north at
+Tumbez, and there extensive woods are seen. Towards the east it begins
+first in the valleys of the Cordilleras, which abound in vegetation.
+These very extraordinary phenomena remain as yet unexplained; they,
+however, merit the closest investigation of meteorologists.
+
+I may conclude this chapter by a brief view of the Fauna of the higher
+vertebral animals. In the region of the coast I have found twenty-six
+species of mammalia, only eight of which belong exclusively to the
+coast. Sixteen of the other species are to be found in the mountains or
+in the forests. The relation of this number to the whole of the mammalia
+of Peru is 1:4, 3. Distributed by single orders, they are in the
+following proportions:--Bats, four species, of which only one
+(_Vespertilio innoxius_, Gerv.) belongs to this region alone. Beasts of
+prey, ten kinds; among them one of the mephitic class, known to the
+natives by the name of _zorillo_, or _añash_; an otter (_Lutra
+chilensis_, Ben.); a fox (_Canis azaræ_, Pr. Max.), which abounds in the
+cotton plantations in the neighborhood of Lima and throughout all the
+Lomas, where he preys on the lambs; several of the feline race, among
+which are the two great American species--the puma and the ounce, which
+are seldom seen on the coast, but are considerably larger than those in
+the mountains. The American lion is timid, and shuns man. When caught
+young he is easily tamed. The Indians of the northern provinces
+sometimes bring these lions to Lima, and get money for showing them.
+They lead them by a string, or put them in large sacks, and carry them
+about on their backs, until a show-loving crowd assembles around them.
+The ounces are very bold and fierce. They penetrate into plantations,
+and attack children and horses. They very cunningly avoid the numerous
+snares laid for them by the Indians. An encounter with this animal is
+serious and dangerous. A hunt seldom ends without some of the pursuers
+being killed or wounded by the animal.
+
+I have already spoken of the seals. There are three kinds of didelphic
+or marsupial animals on the coast. The natives call them _mucamuca_.
+They live in bushes and shrubberies, and they often find their way into
+the store-rooms of the plantations.
+
+Of the great section of the _Rodentia_, I know of only seven species in
+Peru; but I have no doubt that this number might be doubled by a careful
+search in the valleys on the coast. The common house-mouse is very
+numerous in Lima. The brown rat appears seldom. It came to Peru only a
+few years ago; but there is reason to apprehend that it will soon be
+very numerous. Probably it has been imported by Hamburgh ships. In
+Callao I saw specimens of some that had been killed. I did not see the
+common black rat in Peru.
+
+The Armadillo (_Dasypus tatuay, Desm._, L.) is seldom seen. It is found
+in some of the Yucca and Camote plantations. The negroes eat it, and its
+flesh is said to be good.
+
+Of wild ruminating animals there is only one on the coast: it is a kind
+of Roe (_Cervus nemorivagus_, F. Cuv., the _venado_ of the natives). The
+venados chiefly inhabit the brushwood along the coast; but after sunset
+they visit the plantations, where they commit considerable damage. They
+are smaller than our European roe, and somewhat more brown. Englishmen
+at Lima go out to hunt them. The natives do not take much interest in
+the chase. This animal is also met with in the coldest regions of the
+Cordilleras; but it does not come down to the old forests, where the Red
+Deer (_Cervus rufus_, F. Cuv.) supplies its absence.
+
+In the woods which surround some of the plantations in the valleys of
+Lima, wild boars (_Chanchos Simarones_) are occasionally found. They are
+of immense size. At the plantation called the _Hacienda de Caraponga_,
+one was killed, of which the head alone was an ordinary burthen for a
+mule.
+
+The number of birds in this very extensive quarter of Peru (the marine
+and river fowl being excepted) is very inconsiderable. The scarcity of
+woods and high trees may probably account for this. Besides the carrion
+vulture, condors collect in great numbers on the shore to prey on the
+stranded whales. Falcons seldom appear, except the small Sparrow Hawk
+(_Falco sparverius_, L.), which is very numerous in Peru. One of the
+most common birds is the little Earth Owl (_Noctua urucurea_, Less.),
+which is met with in nearly all the old ruins scattered along the coast.
+The Pearl Owl (_Strix perlata_, L.) is bred in several plantations, as
+it is found useful in catching mice. Swallows are not very common; they
+do not nestle on the housetops, but on walls at some distance from
+towns. The Peruvians give them the euphonious name, _Palomitas de Santa
+Rosa_ (Santa Rosa's little pigeons). Among the singing-birds the Crowned
+Fly King (_Myoarchus coronatus_, Cab.) is the most distinguished. The
+head, breast, and belly of this bird are deep red, the wings and back
+very dark brown. He always plants himself on the highest point of a
+tree, flies perpendicularly upward, whirls about in the air singing, and
+drops down again straight to his former perch. The Limeños have given
+this elegant bird a very unbecoming name, which I need not repeat here.
+On some parts of the coast it is called _Saca-tu-real_ (draw out your
+real), because his song sounds like these words. Some fine Tanagers
+(_Tanagra frugilega_, Tsch.; _Tanagra analis_, Tsch.) visit the fruit
+gardens round Lima. I saw two birds, of the starling species, the
+red-bellied Picho (_Sturnella militaris_, Viell.), and the
+glossy-black Chivillo (_Cassicus palliatus_, Tsch.), which are kept
+in cages on account of their very melodious song. Three kinds of
+parrots, which abound in the valleys on the coast, commit great
+depredations in the maize fields. The largest (_Conurus tumultuosus_,
+Tsch.) is green, with a red forehead, and some red feathers scattered
+over the body. A second sort builds its nest chiefly on the sides of
+rocks (_Conurus rupicola_, Tsch.), and only occasionally visits the
+plantations. The third is the smallest, but at the same time the most
+beautiful of the whole (_Conurus sitophaga_, Tsch.). A fine green
+overspreads all the upper part of the body, a blue fringe borders the
+feathers of the wings; and a bright citron-yellow is diffused over
+the forehead, neck, breast, and belly. It is only seven inches long.
+Pigeons, large and small, swarm in such multitudes over the
+corn-fields, and in the environs, that they may almost be called the
+great plague of the country. One of the finest is the little
+_Turtuli_ (_Chaemepelia gracilis_, Tsch.), on the wing of which
+there is a row of very beautiful shining violet spots. The _Cuculi_,
+one of the largest pigeons, is a great favorite. It is kept much in
+cages. Its song, which is monotonous, yet very melodious, is kept up
+from the earliest hours of the morning until midday, and it begins
+again nearly at sunset. The song consists merely of a threefold
+repetition of _cu-cu-li_. After a pause, it resumes the song again.
+There are, however, some of those birds which repeat the _cuculi_
+oftener than thrice, and their price increases according to the
+number of their uninterrupted repetitions, which seldom exceed five
+or six. In Cocachacra, however, I heard one of these birds which
+repeated its _cuculi_ fourteen times. The owner would not sell it
+under fourteen gold ounces.
+
+The amphibia on the Peruvian coast are proportionally much better
+represented than the two foregoing classes. The gigantic tortoises
+(_Chelonia imbricata_ and _Ch. midas_, Schweig.) visit in great
+numbers the few little frequented inlets. The elephant tortoise
+(_Testudo Schweigeri_) is often found on some islands, and in the
+marshy mouths of several rivers.
+
+Two kinds of Crocodiles (_Champsa sclerops_ and _Ch. fissipes_, Wagl.)
+inhabit the Rio de la Chira. They grow to the length of fourteen
+or fifteen feet.
+
+Among the lizard class of reptiles, very large bright green Iguanas are
+found on the south coast; for instance, in the Caletas near Merillones,
+&c.; but there are great numbers of the land Agama, of which I found
+several new species, viz., _Steirolepis tigris_, _thoracica_,
+_quadrivittata_, _xanthostigma_, Tsch.; _Liolaemus elegans_, Tsch.;
+_Ctenoblepharys adspersa_, Tsch., &c., &c. I have already mentioned the
+Gecko, called the _Salamanqueja_.
+
+Serpents upon the whole are rather seldom seen. They belong to
+different kinds, some poisonous, some innoxious (for example,
+_Zacholus_, _Psammophis_, _Oxyrrhopus_, _Siphlophis_, _Ophis_, _Elaps_,
+&c., &c.). A very poisonous viper (_Echidna ocellata_, Tsch.) inhabits
+the sugar-cane fields. Its bite is almost instantaneously mortal.
+
+The genuine frog is not to be found on the coast, and of the bladder
+frog only two kinds are known (_Cystignathus roseus_ and _nodosus_,
+Dum. Bibr.). I have found three amphibia of the toad class. The Thorn
+toad (_Bufo spinulosus_, Wiegam.), which has its body thickly covered
+with a thorny kind of warts. The beautiful red spotted toad (_Bufo
+thaul_), and a very curious and ugly kind with a round, swelled out
+body, a loose skin, and a large bladder under the chin (_Anaxyrus
+melancholicus_, Tsch.). At night the cry of this animal is a discordant
+melancholy howl.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 49: Elias is eminent not only as an extensive landowner and
+cultivator, but as a statesman. During the revolution of 1843 and 1844,
+he was called upon to place himself at the head of the government. He
+discharged the duties of that high office with singular judgment and
+moderation. He and his lady are distinguished for their courteous and
+liberal hospitality; and many foreign visitors, like myself, look back
+with pleasure on the happiness they derived from the friendship of Don
+Domingo Elias.]
+
+[Footnote 50: An odre is a goat-skin prepared for carrying wine.]
+
+[Footnote 51: The original word is Huanu, which is a term in the
+Quichua dialect meaning "animal dung;" for example, _Huanacuhuanu_
+(excrement of the Huanacu). As the word is now generally used it is an
+abbreviation of _Pishu Huanu--Bird-dung_. The Spaniards have converted
+the final syllable _nu_ into _no_, as they do in all the words adopted
+from the Quichua which have the like termination. The European
+orthography _Guano_, which is also followed in Spanish America, is
+quite erroneous, for the Quichua language is deficient in the letter
+_G_, as it is in several other consonants. The _H_, in the commencement
+of the word, is strongly aspirated, whence the error in the orthography
+of the Spaniards, who have sadly corrupted the language of the
+Autochthones of Peru.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+Roads leading to the Sierra--Chaclacayo and Santa Iñes--Barometrical
+observations--San Pedro Mama--The Rio Seco--Extraordinary Geological
+Phenomenon--Similar one described by Mr. Darwin--Surco--Diseases
+peculiar to the Villages of Peru--The Verugas--Indian mode of treating
+the disorder--The Bird-catching Spider--Horse-Shoeing--Indian
+Tambos--San Juan de Matucanas--The Thorn-apple and the Tonga--The Tambo
+de Viso--Bridges--San Mateo--Passports--Acchahuari--Malady called the
+Veta--Its effects on horses--Singular tact and caution of
+Mules--Antarangra and Mountain Passes--Curious partition of
+Water--Piedra Parada--Yauli--Indian Smelting Furnaces--Mineral
+Springs--Portuguese Mine owners--Saco--Oroya--Hanging
+Bridges--Huaros--Roads leading from Oroya.
+
+
+From Lima two main roads lead to the Sierra or the mountains. One runs
+northward through the valley of Canta, in the direction of the rich
+silver mines of Cerro de Pasco; the other, taking a more southerly
+direction, passes through the Quebrada of Matucanas, to the villages of
+Tarma, Jauja, and Huancayo; and still further south, leads to
+Huancavelica, Ayacucho, and Cuzco. All the roads running from the coast
+to the Sierra, present a similarity of character. Taking an oblique
+direction from the margin of the coast, they run into one or other of
+the fan-shaped Cordillera valleys, all of which are intersected by
+rivers. Following the course of these rivers, the roads become steeper
+and steeper, and the valleys soon contract into mere ravines,
+terminating at the foot of the Cordillera. The traveller then threads
+his way up the acclivity, amidst stupendous masses of rock, until he
+reaches the lofty ridge. Then a gradual descent leads to the level
+heights, and thence into the deep mountain valleys.
+
+Former travellers having already described the route by way of Canta, I
+will here trace the course through the Quebrada of Matucanas. In so
+doing, I am enabled to present to the reader the results of some
+barometrical observations which are the more interesting, inasmuch as
+the Cordillera here advances more nearly to the coast than at any other
+point.
+
+The most easterly gate of the city of Lima (the Portada de Maravillas)
+opens upon a broad road, which runs directly eastward. At the distance
+of about a league and a half from the city, the road passes over a stone
+bridge called the _Puente de Surco_, a place famed for robbers. At this
+point the surrounding country presents a wild and dreary aspect. Ranges
+of grey and barren hills encompass the valley; the ground is for the
+most part covered with sand and gravel. Desolate remains of plantations
+and the ruins of habitations bear evidence of the life and activity that
+once animated this desert region, now abandoned by all save the fierce
+bandit and his victim, the solitary traveller.
+
+Along the margins of the river, patches of moor-ground here and there
+serve as pasture. Clover and maize are produced only in those parts
+where the soil is manured and artificially watered. Low brushwood and
+reeds, growing on the banks of the Rimac, supply firewood to the city of
+Lima, and are a source of profit to some of the plantation-owners in
+the valley. At Periachi, four leagues from the capital, the road takes
+a turn to north-east, and continues in that direction, with but little
+deviation, as far as the base of the Cordillera. Two leagues beyond
+Pariachi we reach Chaclacayo, a village containing about thirty
+miserable reed huts. The plantation of Santa Iñes, a little further
+on, is situated at 2386 feet above the level of the sea.[52] Mr.
+Maclean, an English merchant in Lima, who has sent many interesting
+Peruvian plants to the hothouses of England, and who has made some
+very attentive barometrical observations during a journey in the
+interior of the country, calculates the altitude of Chaclacayo at 2265
+feet above the sea.[53] Rivero makes it 2010 feet above that level.[54]
+The difference between these calculations is remarkable; and in more
+considerable altitudes the discrepancy is still more considerable, being
+sometimes as much as from eight to nine hundred feet. I am inclined to
+believe that it is attributable less to inaccuracy of observation than
+to the very imperfect instrument made use of by Rivero. Maclean's
+observations, with some trifling exceptions, correspond with mine. He
+used one of Fortin's barometers, and I one of Lefevre's, which, prior to
+my departure from Europe, had, during several weeks, been regulated at
+the observatory in Paris. Unluckily, this excellent instrument was
+injured by a fall from my horse, and I found it impossible to get it
+repaired. Some barometrical observations made by M. C. Gay, during a
+journey in Peru, in the years 1839-40, with one of Bunten's barometers,
+deviate very considerably from all those above mentioned. Between the
+calculations of Gay and Rivero there is an average difference of from
+six hundred to one thousand feet.
+
+On the road to Pasco, the Hacienda of Cavallero corresponds, in its
+distance from the capital, with the village of Chaclacayo, on the road I
+am here describing. At Chaclacayo wheat and sugar are cultivated. The
+sugar cane thrives well, and might be grown in greater quantity. In some
+of the coast districts I have seen the sugar cane cultivated at the
+height of 4500 feet above the sea; and I have seen it grow
+spontaneously, and attain perfect maturity, as high as 6800 feet.
+
+From Santa Iñes the road continues gradually ascending to the little
+village of San Pedro Mama, where the two rivers, San Mateo and Santa
+Olaya, unite and form the Rimac. The walls of mountain which enclose the
+valley here rise almost perpendicularly, and afford nestling-places for
+small, richly-plumed parrots (_Conurus rupicola_, Tsch.). I was much
+surprised to see these birds inhabiting the barren rocks, as the parrot
+always dwells in woody regions, and is found in other places only when
+on its passage. I know no other species of this family, save the one I
+have just mentioned, which permanently nestles on mountains.
+
+Three leagues beyond San Pedro lies the village of Cocachacra. It is a
+small and poor place, but is picturesquely situated, and enjoys a fine
+climate. Its name, signifying _coca-field_, or _plantation_, denotes
+that coca must formerly have been cultivated here. At present that
+plant is not grown in any part near the coast, as it requires a damp and
+very warm climate. Cocachacra is 5386 feet above the level of the sea.
+Maclean fixes the altitude of San Pedro Mama, Santa Olaya, and
+Cocachacra, at 5331 feet. Supposing this calculation to be correct with
+respect to the latter village, it cannot also apply to San Pedro Mama
+and Santa Olaya, which lie much lower. At the two last-mentioned places
+I made no barometrical observations.
+
+On the Pasco road the hamlet of Llanga is situated, at twelve leagues
+from Lima. On the other road Cocachacra is the same distance from the
+capital; but Cocachacra is about 2400 feet higher than Llanga. Between
+Cavallero and Llanga there is an interesting geological phenomenon,
+which I will here describe.
+
+At the distance of two leagues from Lima the road takes a turn. At first
+it runs direct north, or north-north-west; suddenly it turns to
+north-north-east, and advances along the bank of the river Chillon as
+far as Cavallero. From thence, with slight deviations, it continues in
+the same course to Llanga, but at a considerable distance from the
+river, as the latter takes a wide sweep northward. From Cavallero the
+road runs for the space of three leagues, still ascending, through a
+barren district, along the dry bed of a river, called the Rio Seco. The
+last half-league of the way is very steep, and leads to the ridge of a
+chain of hillocks running diagonally across the valley. The ground is
+strewed with fragments of porphyry and other kinds of rock, like the bed
+of the Rimac. On reaching the ridge of the line of hillocks, the
+traveller beholds on the other side a hollow basin, like the dry bed of
+a lake: a furrow, extending lengthwise through this hollow, is the
+continuation of the bed of the river which is intersected by the chain
+of hills. Descending into the valley, and again following the course of
+the Rio Seco to the distance of about three leagues, we reach the
+village of Alcocoto, and once more arrive on the bank of the Rio de
+Chillon.
+
+Here, therefore, we have evidence of the following remarkable facts,
+viz.:--that at some former period the river of Chillon flowed
+north-westward from Alcocoto to Cavallero, in the bed that is now
+dry; and that a chain of hills has been upheaved diagonally across the
+valley and the river. By this chain of hills the water, being dammed
+up, formed a lake; then it was again driven back; until the stream
+broke into a new course at Alcocoto, by which means the lake emptied
+itself, and, having no new supply of water, it dried up. Now the Rio
+de Chillon flows from Alcocoto to Cavallero, taking a wide turn, first
+westward, next south-westward, and lastly, direct south, until, at a
+sharp angle, it unites with the old bed of the river. The point of
+junction is a quarter of a mile from the Hacienda Cavallero. This is,
+however, not a solitary example of the course of a river being
+interrupted by the uplifting of a ridge of hills. A similar instance
+is mentioned by Mr. Darwin, who, however, did not see it himself, but
+who describes it as follows, from the observation of his countryman,
+Mr. Gill, the engineer:--
+
+"Travelling from Casma to Huaraz, not far distant from Lima, he (Mr.
+Gill) found a plain covered with ruins and marks of ancient cultivation,
+but now quite barren. Near it was the dry course of a considerable
+river, whence the water for irrigation had formerly been conducted.
+There was nothing in the appearance of the water-course to indicate that
+the river had not flowed there a few years previously; in some parts,
+beds of sand and gravel were spread out; in others, the solid rock had
+been worn into a broad channel, which in one spot was about forty yards
+in breadth, and eight feet deep. It is self-evident that a person
+following up the course of a stream will always ascend at a greater or
+less inclination. Mr. Gill, therefore, was much astonished, when walking
+up the bed of this ancient river, to find himself suddenly going down
+hill. He imagined that the downward slope had a fall of about forty or
+fifty feet perpendicular. We here have unequivocal evidence that a ridge
+had been uplifted right across the old bed of the stream. From the
+moment the river-course was thus arched the water must necessarily have
+been thrown back, and a new channel formed. From that period, also, the
+neighboring plain must have lost its fertilizing stream, and become a
+desert."[55]
+
+The inference here deduced is, that the rising took place at a period
+when the district was inhabited and cultivated by men. Of the period
+of the uplifting between Cavallero and Alcocoto I could discern no
+proofs. But the impression produced by the dry river bed involuntarily
+suggests the idea that, at no very distant period, it must have been
+the lodgment of a stream; for it is in all respects similar to the
+temporary dry river beds so frequently met with on the coast of Peru.
+
+I made repeated visits to the Rio Seco, and I always contemplated with
+wonder the curious deviation of the river's course. But I must candidly
+confess that during my abode in Peru, I did not venture to attribute
+that deviation to so partial an uplifting; for I was ignorant of the
+existence of any similar phenomenon which would have supported such an
+opinion. Now, however, the example referred to by the eminent English
+geologist, and which has its existence on the same coast of Peru, sets
+all my doubts at rest, and I am quite convinced of the correctness of
+Mr. Darwin's view of the subject.
+
+Having made this digression, I must now carry the reader back to
+Cocachacra. Pursuing the road to the distance of three leagues further,
+we arrive at San Geronimo de Surco. The valley in this part becomes more
+contracted; but on the whole its character is unchanged, with the
+exception that the mountains gradually become higher and steeper, and
+the soil less fertile. The road frequently runs along lofty walls of
+rock, or winds round sharp projections, which overhang deep chasms, in
+passing which the greatest precaution is requisite.
+
+In several of the valleys on the road from the coast to the Sierra, and
+above all in the valley of Surco, there are certain springs, the water
+of which the Indians never drink. When a stranger unguardedly approaches
+one of these springs for the purpose of quenching his thirst, he is
+saluted by warning cries of _Es agua de Veruga!_ (It is veruga water!)
+Even horses and mules are not suffered to refresh themselves at these
+springs, where the water is supposed to have the effect of producing a
+disorder called the _Verugas_. As the existence of this disease is not
+known in any other country, there appears ground for believing that it
+has its origin in certain local circumstances. The verugas first
+manifests itself by sore throat, pains in the bones, and other feverish
+symptoms. In the course of a few days an eruption of red-colored
+pimples, or boils, appears. These pimples sometimes increase in
+magnitude, till, in some parts of the body, they become nearly as large
+as an egg, and blood flows from them to such an excess, that the
+strength of the patient is exhausted, and consumption frequently
+follows. From the small verugas the flow of blood is greatest. I knew an
+instance of a half-caste Indian who from a small veruga below the ankle
+lost two pounds of blood.
+
+I was not able to trace this disease to any other cause than that which
+the Indians assign to it. At all events, it is certain that travellers
+who abstain from drinking the water of the condemned springs, escape the
+verugas; whilst those who only once taste such water, are attacked by
+the disorder. It is the same with mules and horses. One of my mules
+which drank veruga water was attacked by a large tumor on the leg. The
+disease is notoriously prevalent in the village of Santa Olaya.
+
+The medical treatment of the Verugas by the Indians is quite empirical.
+They administer to the patient the infusion of a plant which they call
+_Huajra-Huajra_; that is, Horn-Horn.[56] I never witnessed any
+convincing proof of its efficacy. Its operation appears to be merely
+sudorific. A preparation of white maize is also frequently given, and
+it has the effect of assisting the action of the skin. When the
+eruption of the verugas is tardy, a few spoonfuls of wine are found to
+be of great service. Sudorific and purifying medicines, together with
+cutting out the large verugas, and keeping the wounds for a time in a
+state of suppuration, have heretofore been found the best mode of
+treatment. An accurate chemical analysis of the water which the Indians
+declare to be _agua de veruga_, would be very desirable.[57]
+
+In the Quebrada of Canta, where the verugas are less common than in
+that of Matucanas, another disease, called the Uta, is of very frequent
+occurrence. The uta is a sort of cancer, and it is more fearful in its
+consequences than the verugas. Probably in no country in the world do
+so many local diseases prevail as in Peru. Every valley has its own
+peculiar disease, which frequently does not extend beyond the boundary
+of a few square miles, and is quite unknown in neighboring districts.
+The origin of these disorders is, doubtless, to be traced to certain
+mineral or vegetable influences as yet unknown. It is remarkable how
+unequally these baneful visitations affect the different races of the
+inhabitants. The Indians and the lighter classes of half-castes are
+most frequently attacked by the verugas; the whites are less liable to
+the disease, whilst the negroes and people of the darker shades of
+mixed blood seldom suffer from it. The Indians and the Chinos are
+particularly liable to the uta. The caracha, of which I have already
+spoken,[58] visits the Negroes, the Zamboes, and the Mulattoes; the
+lighter-complexioned races being much less liable to it.
+
+At Quibe I saw a bird-catching spider (_mygale_), of extraordinary large
+size. The back part of the body alone measured two inches. Being at some
+distance I supposed it to be one of the rodent animals, and I fired at
+it. To my mortification I discovered my mistake when too late, for the
+specimen was completely destroyed by the shot, and was useless for my
+collection. The Indians assured me that on the margin of the stream
+which flowed near the plantation many larger individuals were to be
+found; but I never saw another of such remarkable size as the one I
+inadvertently destroyed.
+
+San Geronimo de Surco is 6945 feet above the level of the sea. It is a
+long village, and is situated in one of the most fertile parts of the
+valley. The houses are detached one from another, and each is
+surrounded by a little chacra. This place may be regarded as the
+boundary-line between the coast and the Sierra. The climate is
+agreeable--rather hot than cold. Most of the coast plants thrive here
+with little culture. Bananas, chirimoyas, superb granadillas,
+pomegranates, camotes, &c., grow here in luxuriant abundance. Yuccas I
+did not see: their elevation boundary is lower. San Geronimo de Surco
+is infested with swarms of annoying insects, especially sancudos
+(_Culex molestus_, Kell.), and stinging flies (species of _Simoleum_),
+which banish sleep from the resting-place of the weary traveller.
+
+In this village there is an old Spaniard who keeps a tambo, and at the
+same time exercises the calling of a farrier. One of my horse's shoes
+being loose, I got him to fasten it on. For hammering in eight nails he
+made me pay half a gold ounce, and at first he demanded twelve dollars.
+He doubtless bore in mind the old Spanish proverb: "_Por un clavo se
+pierde una herradura, por una herradura un cavallo, por un cavallo un
+cavallero_,"[59] and he felt assured that I must have the damage repaired
+at any price. Shortly after my arrival in the Sierra I got myself
+initiated in the art of horse-shoeing, and constantly carried about with
+me a supply of horse-shoes and nails, a plan which I found was generally
+adopted by travellers in those parts. It is only in the larger Indian
+villages that farriers are to be met with, that is to say in places
+fifty or sixty leagues distant from each other.
+
+From Surco the road runs to the distance of two leagues tolerably
+level, and very close to the river, which, from Cocachacra, bears the
+name of Rio de San Mateo. The next village is San Juan de Matucanas, at
+a little distance from which there is a tambo, situated at the height
+of 8105 feet above the sea.[60] These tambos of the Sierra are wretched
+places, but the traveller may find in them shelter, and possibly some
+miserable kind of food. Even in Lima the tambos are not much better. In
+the capital a tambo affords the traveller the accommodation of a room,
+containing a table, a chair, and a bedstead; for it is always
+understood that he brings his mattress and bedding along with him. In
+the interior of the country the accommodation is limited to an empty
+space on the floor, just large enough to spread a mattress upon.
+Whenever the state of the weather permitted I always preferred sleeping
+in the open air. Even on a rainy night a lodging on the outside of the
+door is preferable to the interior of the hut, where Indians, negroes,
+dogs and pigs are all huddled together. In these tambos there is
+seldom any scarcity of brandy or chicha; but the hungry traveller
+sometimes cannot get even a potatoe or a bit of maize. Frequently, when
+the Indians really have provisions they will not produce them, because
+they are fearful of not being paid. This suspicion is pardonable
+enough; for when troops march through the villages the inhabitants are
+often cheated by the officers, and ill-treated into the bargain.
+Generally, in this part of the country, the people are civil, and will
+readily sell provisions if they are paid. Not so the Indians of the
+higher mountains eastward of the Cordillera. To the traveller's demand
+for something to eat, their uniform reply is "_Manam canchu_" (we have
+nothing); and it is often found necessary to resort to force in order
+to convert this monotonous answer into the more agreeable "_Ari
+conchu_" (here is something).
+
+Matucanas, which is rather a large village, lies on the left bank of the
+Rimac. The houses are of brick, and roofed with straw. The soil round
+this village is fertile, though not favorable to the growth of those
+plants which demand a very warm temperature. The agricultural produce is
+therefore limited to maize, wheat, lucerne (which is very abundant), and
+potatoes; the latter are sent in great quantities to the capital. The
+cactus grows on the hills, and its excellent fruit (_tunas_) forms also
+an article of trade.
+
+Beyond Matucanas the valley contracts into a narrow ravine no broader
+than the bed of the river, and it gradually assumes a wilder character.
+The way is difficult along the ridge of hills which borders the left
+bank of the river. The vegetation is less monotonous and scanty than in
+the valleys of the coast, and all the fissures of the hills are filled
+with verdure. The stunted willow (_Salix Humboldtii_, Wild.) grows along
+the banks of the river, and on the less steep declivities is seen the
+red thorn-apple (_Datura sanguinea_, R. Pav.). To the latter the natives
+give the names _Huacacachu_, _Yerba de Huaca_, or _Bovachevo_; and they
+prepare from its fruit a very powerful narcotic drink, called _tonga_.
+The Indians believe that by drinking the tonga they are brought into
+communication with the spirits of their forefathers. I once had an
+opportunity of observing an Indian under the influence of this drink.
+Shortly after having swallowed the beverage he fell into a heavy stupor:
+he sat with his eyes vacantly fixed on the ground, his mouth
+convulsively closed, and his nostrils dilated. In the course of about a
+quarter of an hour his eyes began to roll, foam issued from his
+half-opened lips, and his whole body was agitated by frightful
+convulsions. These violent symptoms having subsided, a profound sleep of
+several hours succeeded. In the evening I again saw this Indian. He was
+relating to a circle of attentive listeners the particulars of his
+vision, during which he alleged he had held communication with the
+spirits of his forefathers. He appeared very weak and exhausted.
+
+In former times the Indian sorcerers, when they pretended to transport
+themselves into the presence of their deities, drank the juice of the
+thorn-apple, in order to work themselves into a state of ecstasy. Though
+the establishment of Christianity has weaned the Indians from their
+idolatry, yet it has not banished their old superstitions. They still
+believe that they can hold communications with the spirits of their
+ancestors, and that they can obtain from them a clue to the treasures
+concealed in the _huacas_, or graves; hence the Indian name of the
+thorn-apple--_huacacachu_, or grave plant.
+
+A few miles beyond Matucanas there is a lateral valley, larger and more
+pleasant than the principal valley. It is called the Quebrada de Viso,
+and is watered by a little stream. At the point where this Quebrada
+forms a junction with the principal valley is situated the Tambo de
+Viso. It is 9100 feet above the level of the sea.[61] At this tambo the
+traveller may find a tolerable night's lodging for himself, and fodder
+for his horse. Here the river is crossed by a bridge, and the road then
+proceeds along the left bank of the river, after having been on the
+right bank all the way from Lima. The bridges across these mountain
+streams are always constructed at points where the river is most
+contracted by the narrow confines of the ravine. They consist merely of
+a few poles made of the trunk of the Maguay-tree (_Agave Americana_),
+and connected together by transverse ropes; the ropes being overlaid
+with twisted branches and pieces of hoops. These bridges are not more
+than three feet broad, and have no balustrades. When the space between
+the banks of the river is too long for the Maguay stems, strong ropes
+made of twisted ox-hides are substituted. In crossing these bridges
+accidents frequently happen, owing to the hoofs of the horses and mules
+getting entangled in the plaited branches along the pathway. A little
+way beyond San Mateo I narrowly escaped being precipitated, with my
+mule, into the rocky chasm forming the bed of the river.
+
+The road between Viso and San Mateo, a distance of about three
+leagues, is exceedingly difficult and dangerous. The ravine becomes
+narrowed to a mere cleft, between walls of mountain rising on either
+side to the height of more than a thousand feet; sometimes
+perpendicularly, and at other times inclining inwards, so as to form
+gigantic arches. The path runs along the base of these mountains,
+washed by the foaming waves of the stream; or it winds up the side of
+the precipice, over huge fragments of rock, which, being loosened by
+the rain, afford no secure footing for the heavily laden mules.
+Frequently these loosened blocks give way, and roll down into the
+valley. The journey from Viso to San Mateo is associated in my mind
+with the recollection of a most mortifying accident. A mass of rock,
+such as I have just described, gave way, and rolling down the
+precipice, hurled one of my mules into the foaming abyss. My most
+valuable instruments, a portion of my collections, my papers, and--to
+me an irreparable loss--a diary carefully and conscientiously kept for
+the space of fourteen months, were in a moment buried in the river.
+Two days afterward the current washed the dead mule ashore at
+Matucanas, but its load was irrecoverably lost.
+
+Every year many beasts of burthen, and even travellers, perish on this
+road. In the Tambo de Viso I met an officer who, with two of his sons,
+was coming from the Sierra. He had placed the youngest before him, and
+the other, a boy of ten years of age, was seated on the mule's
+crupper. When they were within about half a league from Viso, a huge
+mass of rock, rolling down from the mountain, struck the elder boy,
+and hurled him into the river. The afflicted father was anxiously
+seeking to recover the body of his lost child.
+
+San Mateo is on the right bank of the river, and is the largest
+village in this valley. It corresponds in situation with Culluay in
+the Quebrada of Canta; as Matucanas corresponds with the village of
+Obrajillo. San Mateo is 10,947 feet above the level of the sea.[62]
+The soil produces abundance of potatoes, Ocas (_Oxalis tuberosa_) and
+Ullucas (_Tropæolum tuberosum_). Maize ripens here perfectly, but the
+heads are small. The lucerne is also small, but very abundant; it is
+very much exposed to injury from the frost, and is only good for use
+during the five rainy months of the year. Five hundred feet higher,
+that is to say, about 11,500 feet above the sea, is the boundary
+elevation for the growth of lucerne.
+
+The spirit of hospitality, so generally prevalent among the Sierra
+Indians, does not seem to animate the Cholos of San Mateo. Their manners
+are rude and reserved, and they are very distrustful of strangers. As
+soon as a traveller enters the village, the Alcade and the Rejidores
+make their appearance, and demand his passport. If he cannot produce it,
+he may possibly be put upon a donkey, and conducted to the nearest
+Prefect, or may moreover run the risk of being ill-treated. But,
+fortunately, it is easy to escape such annoyances. Any scrap of printed
+or written paper will answer for a passport, as it rarely happens that
+either the Alcade or the Rejidores can read. On one occasion when my
+passport was demanded, I discovered I had lost it. Fortunately, I had in
+my pocket a bit of waste paper, which I had used instead of wadding in
+loading my gun. I ventured at all hazards to hand it to the Indian
+Rejidor, who having unfolded it stared very gravely at the words _Lucia
+di Lammermoor_, which he saw printed in large characters. It was the
+bill of the opera I had attended a few evenings before my departure from
+Lima. After examining the bill very attentively, and then scanning me
+very narrowly, the Rejidor returned the paper, with the observation that
+the passport was quite correct.
+
+From San Mateo the road runs for half a league through a gloomy
+ravine; and then suddenly takes a steep ascent up the side of the
+mountain, over fragments of stones, lying one above another like
+flights of steps. The stream dashes from rock to rock, covering the
+narrow path with foam, and washing away the blocks of stone which, in
+some of the most dangerous parts, serve as barriers along the edge of
+the precipice. On this road long trains of mules are frequently met
+coming from the Sierra. The traveller, at their approach, seeks some
+little recess into which he may creep, and there stand closely jammed
+against the mountain until the train passes by. This is attended by
+great loss of time, owing to the slow and cautious pace at which the
+mules proceed. On such a rencounter in a narrow mountain path, I was
+once obliged to wait for several hours, whilst two hundred mules
+passed by; and at the spot where I and my horse stood, the laden
+animals had scarcely space sufficient to set down their feet at the
+very edge of the pathway. In some places it is perfectly impossible
+either to go on one side or to turn back; and when horses or mules
+meet at these difficult points, one of the animals is obliged to
+plunge into the stream, before the other can have room to pass. The
+numerous curvatures of the road, and the projecting masses of
+mountain, render it impossible to see advancing objects in sufficient
+time to avoid collision.
+
+After having passed this difficult tract, which is called by the natives
+Cacray, we reach the summit of the acclivity down which the mountain
+stream descends. Here the valley presents quite the Sierra character. It
+is no longer confined within steep and rugged mountain walls, but runs
+in undulating contours along the bases of the hills, and gently ascends
+eastward towards the principal chain of the Cordillera. The road is
+sometimes on the right and sometimes on the left bank of the river. Two
+leagues beyond San Mateo lies Chicla, a miserable Indian village, which,
+according to Maclean's calculation, is 12,712 feet above sea level. In
+some of the more sheltered parts barley is planted; but it does not
+ripen, and is merely used as fodder (_Alcazer_). Chicla is the last
+place in this valley where the soil is in any degree capable of
+cultivation. Half a league further on, there are a few scattered Indian
+huts, called the village of Acchahuari. One of these huts is a tambo,
+which can never be forgotten by any unfortunate traveller who may have
+taken up his abode in it. Necessity several times compelled me to seek a
+night's lodging in this horrible tambo; but I never could remain in it
+till morning; and even amidst snow or rain I have been glad to get out,
+and take up my resting-place on the outside of the door. The hostess is
+a dirty old Indian woman, assisted by her daughter; and the hut is
+filthy beyond description. For supper, the old woman cooks a vile mess
+called _Chupe_, consisting of potatoes and water, mixed with Spanish
+pepper; but it is so dirtily prepared, that nothing but the most deadly
+hunger would induce any one to taste it. The beds consist of sheep-skins
+spread on the damp floor; and one bedchamber serves for the hostess, her
+daughter, her grandchildren, and the travellers; an immense woollen
+counterpane or blanket being spread over the whole party. But woe to the
+unwary traveller who trusts himself in this dormitory! He soon finds
+himself surrounded by enemies from whose attacks it is impossible to
+escape; for the hut is infested with vermin. Even should he withdraw
+into a corner, and make a pillow of his saddle, the annoyance pursues
+him. Add to all this a stifling smoke, and all sorts of mephitic
+exhalations, and troops of guinea-pigs who run about during the whole
+night, and gambol over the faces and bodies of the sleepers,--and it may
+readily be conceived how anxiously the traveller looks for the dawn of
+morning, when he may escape from the horrors of this miserable tambo.
+Acchahuari is 13,056 feet above the sea level. The climate is very
+ungenial. During the winter months, rain and snow fall without
+intermission; and even during the summer, heavy drifts of snow are not
+unfrequent. From April to July, the medium temperature during the night
+is 4° R.
+
+After passing Cacray the diminished atmospheric pressure begins to
+produce an effect on coast horses which have not been accustomed to
+travel in the Sierra. They are attacked with a malady called the _veta_,
+which shows itself by difficulty of breathing and trembling. The animals
+are frequently so overpowered that they are unable either to move or
+stand, and if they are not immediately unsaddled and allowed to rest
+they perish. The arrieros consider bleeding a cure for this malady. They
+sometimes slit the horse's nostrils, a remedy which is probably
+efficacious, as it enables the animal to inhale the air freely. Chopped
+garlic put into the nostrils is supposed to be a preventive of the veta.
+Mules are less liable to the malady probably because they ascend the
+acclivities more slowly than horses. The disease does not attack the
+native horses of the Sierra, for which reason they are better than the
+coast horses for mountain travelling. Mules, however, are preferable to
+either. It is wonderful with what tact and penetration the mule chooses
+his footing. When he doubts the firmness of the ground he passes his
+muzzle over it, or turns up the loose parts with his hoof before he
+ventures to step forward. When he finds himself getting into soft and
+marshy ground he stands stock still, and refuses to obey either stirrup
+or whip. If by accident he sinks into a morass, he makes a halt, and
+waits very contentedly until he receives assistance. But in spite of all
+this sagacity the traveller will not do well to resign himself wholly to
+the guidance of his mule. In ordinary cases these animals allow
+themselves to be guided, and sometimes they appear to think it more safe
+to trust to the bridle than to themselves. One of my mules frequently
+gave me curious proofs of this sort of calculation. When, in very
+difficult parts of the road, I dismounted, in order to walk and lead him
+by the bridle, I found it impossible to get the animal to move either by
+force or persuasion. He spread out his legs, fixed his hoofs firmly into
+the ground, and obstinately resisted all my endeavors to make him move.
+But as soon as I remounted he willingly obeyed every movement of the
+bridle. With this mule I could ride through marshes, which I could never
+do with any other. He appeared to reflect that, as I only dismounted
+when the road was unsafe, his life was in no less danger than mine.
+
+About a league beyond Acchahuari the valley is bounded by the
+principal chain of the Cordillera. The ascent may be gained by two
+different roads. One, the steeper of the two, runs southward, across
+the Piedra Parada; the other, on which the ascent is somewhat easier,
+takes an easterly direction, over Antarangra. We will first trace the
+latter course, which is the most frequented. At the extremity of the
+valley, and twenty-eight leagues from the capital, is situated the
+last village, Cashapalca, 13,236 feet above the sea. Its inhabitants
+are chiefly employed in mining. Formerly, vast quantities of silver
+were obtained here. But most of the mines are now either under water
+or exhausted, and the village, with its mine works, has dwindled into
+insignificance. Beyond Cashapalca there is a tract of marshy ground,
+which being passed, a narrow winding road of about two leagues leads
+up the acclivity. The soil is clayey, and thinly bestrewed with alpine
+grass, intermingled with syngenesious and cruciferous plants. Two
+plants which are called by the natives _mala yerba_ and _garban
+zillos_, and are a deadly poison to mules and horses, grow in great
+abundance here. The numerous skeletons of beasts of burthen seen along
+the road bear evidence of the fatal effects of those plants. Higher up
+the ascent the vegetation becomes more and more scanty, until at
+length it entirely disappears, and nothing is visible but the barren
+rock of the Sierra highlands.
+
+The last division of acclivity is called by the natives the Antarangra
+(copper rock). On it there is a small heap of stones, which I shall
+describe by and by, and a cross made of the stems of the _Baccharis_.
+From this point the traveller catches a distant glimpse of the
+heaven-towering summit of the Cordillera.
+
+I speedily mounted the ascent, and reached the goal of my journey.
+Here I found myself disappointed in the expectation I had formed of
+commanding an uninterrupted view over boundless space and distance.
+The prospect is greatly circumscribed by numerous rocky elevations,
+which spring up in every direction. The mountain passes running across
+the ridge of the Cordillera are bounded on all sides by rocks,
+sometimes not very high, but at other times rising to the elevation of
+1000 feet. The pass of Antarangra (also called Portachuelo del Tingo,
+or Pachachaca) is 15,600 above the sea.[63] Nevertheless it is, during
+a great part of the year, free from snow. Scarcely a quarter of a
+league further northward are the eternal glaciers, and they are
+several hundred feet lower than the Pass. That the Pass itself is not
+permanently covered with snow is a circumstance which may probably be
+accounted for by the direction of the atmospheric currents. The east
+winds penetrate into the deep recesses of the valleys, which are
+sheltered against the cold south wind by the adjacent mountain ridge.
+The passes have a gloomy character, and the rugged grandeur of the
+surrounding country presents an aspect of chaotic wildness and
+disorder. The ground is covered with huge masses of rock; and the
+ungenial fruitless soil is shunned alike by plants and animals. The
+thin tendrils of a lichen, here and there twining on a damp mass of
+stone, are the only traces of life. Yet the remains of human industry
+and activity are everywhere observable. On all sides are seen the deep
+cavities which formed the entrances to the now exhausted mines. These
+cavities are sometimes situated at elevated points of the almost
+inaccessible walls of rock, and are occasionally found in the level
+part of the valley, and close on the roadway. Instances have occurred
+of travellers being killed by falling into these holes, when they have
+been covered by thick falls of snow.
+
+It is curious to observe, on the Pass of Antarangra, the partition of
+the waters flowing into the two great oceans, the Atlantic and the
+Pacific. Scarcely thirty paces distant from each other there are two
+small lagunas. That situated most to the west is one of the sources of
+the Rio de San Mateo, which, under the name of the Rimac, falls into the
+Pacific. The other laguna, that to the eastward, sends its waters
+through a succession of small mountain lakes into the Rio de Pachachaca,
+a small tributary to the mighty Amazon river. It is amusing to take a
+cup of water from the one laguna and pour it into the other. I could not
+resist indulging this whim; and in so doing I thought I might possibly
+have sent into the Pacific some drops of the water destined for the
+Atlantic. But the whim, puerile as it may be, nevertheless suggests
+serious reflections on the mighty power of nature, which has thrown up
+these stupendous mountains from the bosom of the earth; and also on the
+testaceous animals found on these heights, memorials of the time when
+the ocean flowed over their lofty summits.
+
+From the ridge the road runs eastward along a branch of the principal
+mountain chain. This branch forms the southern boundary of a
+gently-sloping valley. The declivity is terrace-formed, and on each
+terrace there is a small clear lake. This series of lakes is called
+_Huascacocha_ (the chain of lakes). In their waters, as in most of the
+mountain rivers, there is found in great numbers a small species of
+shad-fish (_Pygidium dispar_, Tsch.). They are caught during the night
+in nets, or by lines, to which the bait is fastened by small
+cactus-thorns.
+
+The third in the series of the lagunas is called _Morococha_ (the
+colored lake). On its banks some buildings have been constructed, for
+the smelting of copper ore. The mines which yield this metal are on the
+southern declivity, close to the road leading down from the Cordillera.
+Formerly these mines were worked for silver, but were not found very
+productive of that metal. Now they are again actively worked, and copper
+is obtained from them. The working of the Peruvian copper mines has
+hitherto been much neglected, though copper ore is exceedingly abundant.
+
+The road from Morococha to Pachachaca is very uniform. The latter
+village, which is situated 12,240 feet above the level of the sea, was
+formerly a place of much greater importance than it now is. In its
+neighborhood there are a number of spacious buildings constructed at
+the time of the unfortunate English mining speculation. Most of them
+are only half finished. At the entrance of the village there is a
+large hacienda. In some of the apartments the flooring is of wood; a
+thing seldom seen in these parts, where the wood for such purposes
+must be brought from the eastern declivity of the Andes: the
+difficulty and expense attending this transport are so considerable,
+that a wooden floor is a great rarity in the habitations of the
+Cordillera. A mine belonging to the hacienda is situated five leagues
+north-west of Pachachaca, and yields rich silver ore; but a great
+part of it is at present under water, and its drainage would be a very
+difficult undertaking.
+
+Returning to the point where the two roads across the Cordillera
+separate at Cashapalca, we will now trace the route by way of Piedra
+Parada. This way is shorter than that by Antarangra, but the ascents
+are much steeper. The first objects met with by the traveller on this
+road are some Indian huts, called _yauliyacu_, and the ruined hacienda
+of San Rafael. These being passed, the ascent continues over broken
+masses of rock. About 15,200 feet above the sea there is a huge block
+of mountain, called the Piedra Parada, close against which a chapel
+was formerly erected; the mountain forming the back wall of the
+structure. Now there is merely an iron cross, fixed on the upper part
+of the block of mountain. On this spot the Archbishop used formerly to
+celebrate mass, when he was on his rounds through the diocese. The
+chapel was destroyed by lightning, and has not been rebuilt. The pass
+of the Piedra Parada is 16,008 feet above the sea, and is always
+covered with snow. Travellers frequently lose their way in this pass,
+an accident which befel me in March, 1842, when I was proceeding alone
+by that route. Being overtaken by a violent fall of snow, I could
+scarcely see a few paces before me. After wandering about for several
+hours, my horse became weary, and I began to despair of extricating
+myself from the dreary plains of snow. Late in the evening I reached a
+little valley, where, sheltered by some rocks, I passed the night. On
+the following morning I renewed my journey, and after considerable
+exertion I arrived at an Indian hut, where I obtained such directions
+as enabled me to recover the right course.
+
+The eastern declivity of the Pass of Piedra Parada is steeper than that
+of Huascacocha. After a difficult ride of about two leagues, we reach
+first the valley, and then the village of Yauli. The village lies at the
+height of 13,100 feet above the sea, and consists of about one hundred
+and fifty miserable huts, affording habitations for between twelve and
+fourteen thousand Indians, most of whom are employed in mining.
+
+The Cordillera, in the neighborhood of Yauli, is exceedingly rich in
+lead ore, containing silver. Within the circuit of a few miles, above
+eight hundred shafts have been made, but they have not been found
+sufficiently productive to encourage extensive mining works. The
+difficulties which impede mine-working in these parts are caused
+chiefly by the dearness of labor and the scarcity of fuel. There being
+a total want of wood, the only fuel that can be obtained consists of
+the dried dung of sheep, llamas, and huanacus. This fuel is called
+_taquia_. It produces a very brisk and intense flame, and most of the
+mine-owners prefer it to coal. The process of smelting, as practised
+by the Indians, though extremely rude and imperfect, is nevertheless
+adapted to local circumstances. All European attempts to improve the
+system of smelting in these districts have either totally failed, or
+in their results have proved less effective than the simple Indian
+method. Complicated furnaces made after European models are
+exceedingly expensive, whilst the natives can construct theirs at the
+cost of fifty or sixty dollars each. These Indian furnaces can,
+moreover, be easily erected in the vicinity of the mines, and when the
+metal is not very abundant the furnaces may be abandoned without any
+great sacrifice. For the price of one European furnace the Indians may
+build more than a dozen, in each of which, notwithstanding the paucity
+of fuel, a considerably greater quantity of metal may be smelted than
+in one of European construction.
+
+About half a league beyond Yauli there are upwards of twenty mineral
+springs, all situated within a circuit of a quarter of a mile. Several
+of them contain saline properties. One is called the _Hervidero_ (the
+whirlpool). It is in the form of a funnel, and at its upper part is
+between ten and twelve feet diameter. Its surface is covered with
+foam. The temperature of the water is only 7° C. higher than the
+atmosphere. Some of these springs are tepid and sulphuric; and the
+temperature of one of them is as high as 89° C. Near some of the
+springs quadrangular basins have been constructed for baths, which are
+said to be very efficacious in cutaneous and rheumatic complaints. The
+climate of Yauli is exceedingly rigorous. In summer the medium
+temperature of the night is 8° C., but the days are mild. In winter,
+on the other hand, the night is +1° C., and the day scarcely +3° C.,
+as the sky is continually overhung with thick clouds, which disperse
+themselves in continual falls of snow. I passed several weeks in Yauli
+and in the wild country around it, and during that time I made many
+valuable additions to my natural history collection.
+
+The distance between Yauli and Pachachaca is two leagues. The road
+descends gently along the right bank of the Rio de Yauli, which forms
+the principal source of the Rio de Oroya. In this direction, as well as
+in other parts adjacent to Yauli, there are numerous remains of mining
+works, formerly the property of Portuguese. These works were destroyed
+at the time of the persecution of the Portuguese in Peru, when the
+consul, Juan Bautista, was hanged by the Inquisition, in Lima. Over
+those events there hangs a veil of mystery, which will probably never be
+removed. The Portuguese were the most powerful and intelligent
+mine-owners in Peru, and their prosperity excited the envy of the
+Spanish viceroy. A number of Portuguese emigrants, who came from
+Brazil, to settle in the Peruvian province of Maynas, furnished the
+viceroy with a ground of complaint, real or pretended. He set forth
+that the Portuguese of the eastern parts of South America intended to
+make themselves masters of Peru, and conjointly with the Inquisition
+he commenced coercive measures against them. Their consul was accused
+of heresy, condemned and hanged, and the emigrants were pursued and
+put to death. Some of them escaped into the forests, where they were
+massacred by the Indians, and only a very few succeeded in getting
+back to Brazil. Many of the wealthy Portuguese mine-owners, seeing the
+danger that threatened them, sank their vast treasures in lakes, or
+buried them in retired places in the plains. These treasures consisted
+chiefly of smelted ore and silver coin, and only a very small portion
+was afterwards discovered. Thus were these active and intelligent
+mine-owners sacrificed, either to a chimerical and unfounded
+suspicion, or to a feeling of avarice, which, after all, failed in
+attaining its object. The consequences were disastrous to the country.
+Peruvian mining has never recovered the prosperity which it enjoyed
+under the management of the Portuguese.
+
+Between Yauli and Pachachaca the way is difficult, and without an
+accurate knowledge of the route, the traveller is likely to lose his
+way, and may even incur the danger of sinking in the marshes which
+spread along the bank of the river. From Pachachaca a broad and gentle
+sloping valley conducts to La Oroya, a distance of about three leagues.
+In the range of mountains forming the southern boundary of this valley,
+the river winds its way through deep ravines. About half a league from
+Pachachaca there is a ford where the road divides; one division passing
+over the steep mountains of Yanaclara to Jauja, and the other running
+into the wild valleys of Huayhuay. Midway between Pachachaca and La
+Oroya there is a small, miserable Indian village called Saco, which is
+seldom visited by travellers, as it is difficult to procure in it the
+commonest necessaries of food. In this place there is a natural bridge
+across the river, which has worked out a bed for itself beneath the
+rocks. At several points along the course of this river I observed
+similar bridges of rock, but this one only is passable for horses.
+
+La Oroya lies on the left bank of the river of that name, and
+communicates with the right bank by means of a large hanging bridge
+(Puente de Soga). These bridges are composed of four ropes (sogas) made
+of twisted cow-hide, and about the thickness of a man's arm. The four
+ropes are connected together by thinner ones of the same material,
+fastened over them transversely. The whole is covered with branches,
+straw, and roots of the Agave tree. On either side, a rope rather more
+than two feet above the bridge serves as a balustrade. The sogas are
+fastened on each bank of the river by piles, or riveted into the rock.
+During the long continuous rains these bridges become loose and require
+to be tightened; but they are always lower in the middle than at the
+ends, and when passengers are crossing them they swing like hammocks. It
+requires some practice, and a very steady head, to go over the soga
+bridges unaccompanied by a Puentero.[64] However strongly made, they are
+not durable; for the changeableness of the weather quickly rots the
+ropes, which are made of untanned leather. They frequently require
+repairing, and travellers have sometimes no alternative but to wait for
+several days until a bridge is passable, or to make a circuit of 20 or
+30 leagues. The Puente de Soga of Oroya is fifty yards long, and one and
+a half broad. It is one of the largest in Peru; but the bridge across
+the Apurimac, in the province of Ayacucho, is nearly twice as long, and
+it is carried over a much deeper gulf.
+
+Another curious kind of bridge is that called the Huaro. It consists
+of a thick rope extending over a river or across a rocky chasm. To
+this rope are affixed a roller, and a strong piece of wood formed
+like a yoke, and by means of two smaller ropes, this yoke is drawn
+along the thick rope which forms the bridge. The passenger who has to
+cross the Huaro is tied to the yoke, and grasps it firmly with both
+hands. His feet, which are crossed one over the other, rest on the
+thick rope, and the head is held as erectly as possible. All these
+preliminaries being completed, an Indian, stationed on the opposite
+side of the river or chasm, draws the passenger across the Huaro. This
+is altogether the most disagreeable and dangerous mode of conveyance
+that can possibly be conceived. If the rope breaks, an accident of no
+unfrequent occurrence, the hapless traveller has no chance of escaping
+with life, for being fastened, he can make no effort to save himself.
+Horses and mules are driven by the Indians into the river, and are
+made to swim across it, in doing which they frequently perish,
+especially when being exhausted by a long journey, they have not
+strength to contend against the force of the current.
+
+The village of Oroya, about a quarter of a mile from the bridge, is
+built on a declivity, and according to Maclean's calculation is 12,010
+feet above the level of the sea. It contains fifty-one miserable huts,
+which are the habitations of about two hundred Indians. From Oroya
+several roads branch off into the different mountain districts. The most
+frequented is that over the level height of Cachi-Cachi to Jauja. Along
+this road there are extensive tracts of ground covered with calcareous
+petrifactions. Another road leading to Tarma passes by the ancient Inca
+fortress Huichay. A third, and much frequented road is that by way of
+Huaypacha, and from thence to Junin and Cerro de Pasco.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 52: All these calculations are by English feet.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Jardine and Selby's Annals of Natural History.]
+
+[Footnote 54: Nivelacion barometrica desde el Callao hasta Pasco, por el
+camino de Obrajillo, y desde el mismo lugar hasta la capital por via de
+Tarma, hecha y calculada por Mariano Eduardo Rivero y Usturitz in
+Memorial de Ciencias naturales, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Darwin's Journal, p. 350]
+
+[Footnote 56: The Spaniards term this plant _Uña de gato_ (Cat's-claw),
+the stalk being furnished with hooked thorns resembling claws.]
+
+[Footnote 57: For further information relative to this disease, see my
+communication to Wunderlich and Roser's "_Archiv für Physiologische
+Heilkunde_."]
+
+[Footnote 58: See page 153.]
+
+[Footnote 59: By a nail is lost a shoe, by a shoe a horse, and by a
+horse a rider.]
+
+[Footnote 60: According to Maclean, the elevation of Matucanas is 8026
+feet above the level of the sea. I presume that this calculation
+refers to the village itself, which is situated about the eighth of a
+league from the tambo, and lies much lower.]
+
+[Footnote 61: According to Maclean's calculation, the Tambo de Viso is
+9072 feet above the sea.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Maclean states the elevation to be 10,984 feet above
+the sea. Rivero makes it 9570, and Gay 10,408 feet. Gay's is the only
+measurement which in any manner corresponds with mine and Maclean's.
+In general Gay's calculations are between 600 and 800 feet higher
+than ours.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Maclean makes it 15,543 feet; Gay, 15,924 feet; and Rivero,
+only 14,608 feet above the level of the sea.]
+
+[Footnote 64: The _Puenteros_ (Bridge Guides) are Indians who assist
+travellers in crossing these dangerous bridges.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+The Cordillera and the Andes--Signification of the terms--Altitude
+of the Mountains and Passes--Lakes--Metals--Aspect of the
+Cordillera--Shattered Rocks--Maladies caused by the diminished
+Atmospheric Pressure--The Veta and the Surumpe--Mountain Storms--The
+Condor--Its habits--Indian mode of Catching the Bird--The Puna or
+Despoblado--Climate--Currents of Warm Air--Vegetation--Tuberous
+Plant called the Maca--Animals of the Puna--The Llama, the Alpaco,
+the Huanacu and the Vicuña--The Chacu and the Bolas--Household
+Utensils of the Ancient Peruvians--The Viscacha and the
+Chinchilla--Puna Birds and Amphibia--Cattle and Pasture--Indian
+Farms--Shepherds' Huts--Ancient Peruvian Roads and
+Buildings--Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna.
+
+
+Two great mountain chains, running parallel with each other, intersect
+Peru in the direction from S.S.W. to N.N.E. The chain nearest the coast
+of the Pacific is at the average distance of from sixty to seventy
+English miles from the sea. The other chain takes a parallel direction
+but describes throughout its whole course a slight curve eastward. These
+two ranges of mountain are called the Cordilleras, or the Andes: both
+terms being used indiscriminately. Even the creoles of Peru confound
+these two terms, sometimes calling the western chain by one name, and
+sometimes by the other. Nevertheless, a strict distinction ought to be
+observed:--the western chain should properly be called the Cordillera,
+and the eastern chain the Andes. The latter name is derived from the
+Quichua word Antasuyu; _Anta_ signifying metal generally, but especially
+copper, and _Suyu_ a district; the meaning of Antasuyu, therefore, is
+the metal district. In common parlance, the word Suyu was dropped, and
+the termination _a_ in _Anta_ was converted into _is_. Hence the word
+_Antis_, which is employed by all old writers and geographers; and even
+now is in common use among the Indian population of Southern Peru. The
+Spaniards, according to their practice of corrupting the words of the
+Quichua language, have transformed Antis into _Andes_, and they apply
+the name without distinction to the western and the eastern chain of
+mountains.[65]
+
+The old inhabitants of Peru dwelt chiefly along the base of the eastern
+mountain chain, where they drew from the mines the metal which afforded
+material for their tasteful and ingenious workmanship: those mountains
+consequently retained the name of Antis or Andes. In the time of the
+Incas, both chains were called Ritisuyu (Snow-Districts). The Spaniards,
+on the invasion of the country, advancing from the sea-coast, first
+arrived at the western mountains, and to them they gave the name of
+_Cordillera_, the term commonly employed in the Spanish language, to
+designate any mountain chain. Most of the earlier travellers and
+topographists named the western chain the _Cordillera de los Andes_, and
+regarded it as the principal chain, of which they considered the eastern
+mountains to be merely a branch. To the eastern range of mountains they
+gave the name of _Cordillera Oriental_. I will here strictly observe the
+correct denominations, calling the western chain the Cordillera, or the
+coast mountains; and the eastern chain the Andes, or the inner
+Cordillera.
+
+These two great mountain chains stand in respect to height in an inverse
+relation one to the other; that is to say, the greater the elevation of
+the Cordillera, the more considerable is the depression of the Andes. In
+South Peru the ridge of the Cordillera is considerably lower than that
+portion of the Andes which stretches through Bolivia. The medium height
+of the Cordillera in South Peru is 15,000 feet above the sea; but here
+and there particular points rise to a much more considerable elevation.
+The medium height of the Andes is 17,000 feet above the sea. In central
+Peru the Cordillera is higher than the Andes. There the altitude of the
+latter along the body of the chain is 13,000 feet above the sea: on the
+ridge there are a few points some hundred feet higher. Between Pasco
+and Loxas the average height of the Cordillera is between 11,000 and
+12,000 feet above the sea; and the average elevation of the Andes at the
+corresponding point is about 2000 feet lower.
+
+The passes do not run through valleys, but always over the ridges of the
+mountains. The highest mountain passes are the Rinconada (16,452 feet
+above the sea); the Piedra Parada (16,008 feet); the Tingo (15,600
+feet); the Huatillas (14,850 feet); the Portachuelo de la Viuda (14,544
+feet); the Altos de Toledo (15,530 feet); and the Altos de los Huesos
+(14,300 feet). In both chains there are innumerable small lakes; these
+are met with in all the mountain passes, and most of them are the
+sources of small rivers.
+
+Both the mountain chains, as well as their lateral branches, are rich in
+metallic produce; but in the principal mountains gold is rare. Some rich
+mines on the coast, and in the province of Arequipa, are now nearly
+exhausted. Wash gold is plentiful in the rivers of North Peru, but it is
+not carefully collected. Silver, which constitutes the principal wealth
+of Peru, is found in greatest abundance in the principal chains, viz.,
+in Northern and Central Peru, in the Cordillera; and in Southern Peru in
+the Andes. It presents itself in all forms and combinations, from the
+pure metal to the lead-ore mixed with silver. Even in the highest
+elevations, in parts scarcely trodden by human footsteps, rich veins of
+silver are discovered. It is scarcely possible to pass half a day in
+these regions without encountering new streaks. Quicksilver is likewise
+found, but in such small quantities, that the gain does not pay the
+labor of the miners. The only quicksilver vein of any magnitude is at
+Huancavelica. Both mountain chains are very rich in copper-ore; but it
+is extracted only from the Cordillera, for the distance of the Andes
+from the coast renders the transport too expensive. The lead and iron
+mines, though amazingly prolific, are not worked; the price of the metal
+being too low to pay the labor.
+
+The Cordillera presents an aspect totally different from that of the
+Andes. It is more wild and rugged, its ridge is broader, and its summits
+less pyramidical. The summits of the Andes terminate in slender sharp
+points like needles. The Cordillera descends in terraces to the level
+heights, whilst the slope of the Andes is uniform and unbroken. The
+summits of the calcareous hills which stretch eastward from the great
+chain of the Cordillera are broken and rugged. Large cubical blocks of
+stone become detached from them, and roll down into the valleys. In the
+Quebrada of Huari near Yanaclara, which is 13,000 feet above the sea, I
+collected among other fragments of rock some of a species which is found
+at Neufchatel in Switzerland. This disintegration, which is the effect
+of protracted rain and cold, imparts to the mountain ridges the most
+singular and beautiful forms; their fantastic outlines appearing like
+the work of human hands. Imagination may easily picture them to be
+monuments of the time of the Incas; for viewed from a distance, they
+look like groups of giants or colossal animals. In former times the
+Indians viewed these masses of rock with devout reverence, for they
+believed them to be the early inhabitants of the earth whom Pacchacamac
+in his anger transformed to stone. I may here notice some very curious
+forms of rock which have long been a subject of controversy among
+Peruvian travellers. On the road leading from Ayacucho to Huancavelica,
+on the level height of Paucara, about a league beyond the village of
+Parcos, there is a considerable number of sand-stone pyramids from eight
+to twenty-two feet high. They are of a reddish-white color; but in many
+places the inclemency of the weather has overspread them with a blackish
+crust. They are detached one from another. Ulloa, in his _Noticias
+Americanas_, after fully describing these pyramids, declares himself
+doubtful whether they are the work of man or of nature. He inclines to
+regard them as human creations, and suggests that they may possibly have
+been the tombs of distinguished curacas and caciques; but he admits that
+he is not acquainted with any similar monuments in Peru. As each pyramid
+consists of only one block of stone, and all are very regularly shaped,
+Ulloa is not indisposed to believe that the Indians possessed the secret
+art of melting stone. These blocks are, however, of sand-stone, and
+their fractures are the result of the inclemency of the weather. They
+are all pyramidal-shaped, and tolerably equal in size. In several of
+them the points are as sharp and regular as though they had been wrought
+by the chisel of the sculptor. These curious pyramids cover the plateau
+along a distance of more than two miles: sometimes standing closely
+together, and sometimes at considerable distances apart. The whole line
+of chalk and slate mountains extending from Ayacucho to Huancavelica is
+shattered, and presents similar, though less regular detritus.
+
+I have, in my last chapter, observed that the Cordillera is the point
+of partition between the waters of the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans.
+All the waters of the eastern declivity of the Cordillera--all those
+which have their source on the level heights and on the western
+declivity of the Andes,--flow from thence in the direction of the east,
+and work their way through the eastern mountain chain. Throughout the
+whole extent of South America there is not a single instance of the
+Cordillera being intersected by a river; a fact the more remarkable
+because in Southern Peru and Bolivia, the coast chain is lower than the
+Andes. This interesting phenomenon, though it has deeply engaged the
+attention of geologists, has not yet been satisfactorily explained. I
+concur in the view taken by Mr. Darwin, who observes that it would be
+too rash to assign to the eastern chain of Bolivia and Central Chile, a
+later origin than the western chain (the nearest the Pacific), but that
+the circumstance of the rivers of a lower mountain chain having forced
+their way through a higher chain seems, without this supposition, to be
+enigmatical. Mr. Darwin is of opinion that the phenomenon is assignable
+to a periodical and gradual elevation of the second mountain line (the
+Andes); for a chain of islets would at first appear, and as these were
+lifted up, the tides would be always wearing deeper and broader
+channels between them.
+
+In the heights of the Cordillera the effect of the diminished
+atmospheric pressure on the human frame shows itself in intolerable
+symptoms of weariness and an extreme difficulty of breathing. The
+natives call this malady the _Puna_ or the _Soroche_; and the Spanish
+Creoles give it the names of _Mareo_ or _Veta_. Ignorant of its real
+causes they ascribe it to the exhalations of metals, especially
+antimony, which is extensively used in the mining operations. The first
+symptoms of the veta are usually felt at the elevation of 12,600 feet
+above the sea. These symptoms are vertigo, dimness of sight and
+hearing, pains in the head and nausea. Blood flows from the eyes, nose,
+and lips. Fainting fits, spitting of blood, and other dangerous
+symptoms, usually attend severe attacks of veta. The sensations which
+accompany this malady somewhat resemble those of sea-sickness, and hence
+its Spanish name _mareo_. But sea-sickness is unaccompanied by the
+distressing difficulty of breathing experienced in the veta. This
+disorder sometimes proves fatal, and I once witnessed a case in which
+death was the result. Inhabitants of the coast and Europeans, who for
+the first time visit the lofty regions of the Cordillera, are usually
+attacked with this disorder. Persons in good health and of a spare habit
+speedily recover from it, but on plethoric and stout individuals its
+effects are frequently very severe. After an abode of some time in the
+mountainous regions, the constitution becomes inured to the rarefied
+atmosphere. I suffered only two attacks of the veta; but they were very
+severe. The first was on one of the level heights; and the second on the
+mountain of Antaichahua. The first time I ascended the Cordillera I did
+not experience the slightest illness, and I congratulated myself on
+having escaped the veta; but a year afterwards I had an attack of it,
+though only of a few hours' duration. The veta is felt with great
+severity in some districts of the Cordillera, whilst in others, where
+the altitude is greater, the disorder is scarcely perceptible. Thus it
+would seem that the malady is not caused by diminished atmospheric
+pressure, but is dependent on some unknown climatic circumstances. The
+districts in which the veta prevails with greatest intensity are, for
+the most part, rich in the production of metals, a circumstance which
+has given rise to the idea that it is caused by metallic exhalations.
+
+I have already described the effect of the Puna climate on beasts of
+burthen. Its influence on some of the domestic animals is no less severe
+than on the human race. To cats, it is very fatal, and at the elevation
+of 13,000 feet above the sea those animals cannot live. Numerous trials
+have been made to rear them in the villages of the upper mountains, but
+without effect; for after a few days' abode in those regions, the
+animals die in frightful convulsions; but when in this state they do not
+attempt to bite. I had two good opportunities of observing the disease
+at Yauli. Cats attacked in this way are called, by the natives,
+_azorochados_, and antimony is alleged to be the cause of the distemper.
+Dogs are also liable to it, but it visits them less severely than cats,
+and with care they may be recovered.
+
+Another scourge of the traveller in the Cordillera, is the disease
+called the _Surumpe_. It is a violent inflammation of the eyes, caused
+by the sudden reflection of the bright rays of the sun on the snow. By
+the rarefied air and the cutting wind, the eyes, being kept in a
+constant state of irritation, are thereby rendered very susceptible to
+the effects of the glaring light. In these regions the sky is often
+for a time completely overshadowed by snow clouds, and the greenish
+yellow of the plain is soon covered by a sheet of snow: then suddenly
+the sun's rays burst through the breaking clouds, and the eyes,
+unprepared for the dazzling glare, are almost blinded. A sharp burning
+pain is immediately felt, and it speedily increases to an intolerable
+degree. The eyes become violently inflamed, and the lids swell and
+bleed. The pain of the surumpe is the most intense that can be
+imagined, and frequently brings on delirium. The sensation resembles
+that which it may be imagined would be felt if cayenne pepper or
+gunpowder were rubbed into the eyes. Chronic inflammation, swelling of
+the eyelids, dimness of sight, and even total blindness are the
+frequent consequences of the surumpe. In the Cordillera, Indians are
+often seen sitting by the road-side shrieking in agony, and unable to
+proceed on their way. They are more liable to the disease than the
+Creoles, who, when travelling in the mountains, protect their eyes by
+green spectacles and veils.
+
+Heavy falls of snow in the Cordillera are usually accompanied by
+thunder and lightning. During five months of the year, from November to
+March, storms are of daily occurrence. They begin, with singular
+regularity, about three o'clock in the afternoon, and continue until
+five or half-past five in the evening. After that time storms of
+thunder and lightning never occur; but the falls of snow sometimes
+continue till midnight. As evening approaches, cold mists are drifted
+from the mountain-tops down upon the plains; but they are dispersed by
+the rays of the morning sun, which in a few hours melt the snow. The
+furious tempests in these regions exceed any idea that can be formed
+of them, and can only be conceived by those who have witnessed them.
+Some of these mountain districts have acquired an ominous character for
+storms; Antaichahua is one of the places to which this sort of fearful
+celebrity belongs. For hours together flash follows flash, painting
+blood-red cataracts on the naked precipices. The forked lightning darts
+its zig-zag flashes on the mountain-tops, or, running along the ground,
+imprints deep furrows in its course; whilst the atmosphere quivers
+amidst uninterrupted peals of thunder, repeated a thousandfold by the
+mountain echoes. The traveller, overtaken by these terrific storms,
+dismounts from his trembling horse, and takes refuge beneath the
+shelter of some overhanging rock.
+
+In these sterile heights, Nature withholds her fostering influence
+alike from vegetable and animal life. The scantiest vegetation can
+scarcely draw nutriment from the ungenial soil, and animals shun the
+dreary and shelterless wilds. The condor alone finds itself in its
+native element amidst these mountain deserts. On the inaccessible
+summits of the Cordillera that bird builds its nest, and hatches its
+young in the months of April and May. Few animals have attained so
+universal a celebrity as the condor. That bird was known in Europe, at
+a period when his native land was numbered among those fabulous
+regions which are regarded as the scenes of imaginary wonders. The
+most extravagant accounts of the condor were written and read, and
+general credence was granted to every story which travellers brought
+from the fairy land of gold and silver. It was only at the
+commencement of the present century that Humboldt overthrew the
+extravagant notions that previously prevailed respecting the size,
+strength, and habits of that extraordinary bird.
+
+The full-grown condor measures, from the point of the beak to the end
+of the tail, from four feet ten inches to five feet; and from the tip
+of one wing to the other, from twelve to thirteen feet. This bird feeds
+chiefly on carrion: it is only when impelled by hunger that he seizes
+living animals, and even then only the small and defenceless, such as
+the young of sheep, vicuñas, and llamas. He cannot raise great weights
+with his feet, which, however, he uses to aid the power of his beak.
+The principal strength of the condor lies in his neck and in his feet;
+yet he cannot, when flying, carry a weight exceeding eight or ten
+pounds. All accounts of sheep and calves being carried off by condors
+are mere exaggerations. This bird passes a great part of the day in
+sleep, and hovers in quest of prey chiefly in the morning and evening.
+Whilst soaring at a height beyond the reach of human eyes, the
+sharp-sighted condor discerns his prey on the level heights beneath
+him, and darts down upon it with the swiftness of lightning. When a
+bait is laid, it is curious to observe the numbers of condors which
+assemble in a quarter of an hour, in a spot near which not one had been
+previously visible. These birds possess the senses of sight and smell
+in a singularly powerful degree.
+
+Some old travellers, Ulloa among others, have affirmed that the plumage
+of the condor is invulnerable to a musket-ball. This absurdity is
+scarcely worthy of contradiction; but it is nevertheless true that the
+bird has a singular tenacity of life, and that it is seldom killed by
+fire-arms, unless when shot in some vital part. Its plumage,
+particularly on the wings, is very strong and thick. The natives,
+therefore, seldom attempt to shoot the condor: they usually catch him by
+traps or by the laso, or kill him by stones flung from slings, or by the
+_Bolas_. A curious method of capturing the condor alive is practised in
+the province of Abancay. A fresh cow-hide, with some fragments of flesh
+adhering to it, is spread out on one of the level heights, and an Indian
+provided with ropes creeps beneath it, whilst some others station
+themselves in ambush near the spot, ready to assist him. Presently a
+condor, attracted by the smell of flesh, darts down upon the cow-hide,
+and then the Indian, who is concealed under it, seizes the bird by the
+legs, and binds them fast in the skin, as if in a bag. The captured
+condor flaps his wings, and makes ineffectual attempts to fly; but he is
+speedily secured, and carried in triumph to the nearest village.
+
+The Indians quote numerous instances of young children having been
+attacked by condors. That those birds are sometimes extremely fierce is
+very certain. The following occurrence came within my own knowledge,
+whilst I was in Lima. I had a condor, which, when he first came into my
+possession, was very young. To prevent his escape, as soon as he was
+able to fly, he was fastened by the leg to a chain, to which was
+attached a piece of iron of about six pounds weight. He had a large
+court to range in, and he dragged the piece of iron about after him all
+day. When he was a year and a half old he flew away, with the chain and
+iron attached to his leg, and perched on the spire of the church of
+Santo Tomas, whence he was scared away by the carrion hawks. On
+alighting in the street, a Negro attempted to catch him for the purpose
+of bringing him home; upon which he seized the poor creature by the ear,
+and tore it completely off. He then attacked a child in the street (a
+negro boy of three years old), threw him on the ground, and knocked him
+on the head so severely with his beak, that the child died in
+consequence of the injuries. I hoped to have brought this bird alive to
+Europe; but, after being at sea two months on our homeward voyage, he
+died on board the ship in the latitude of Monte Video.
+
+Between the Cordillera and the Andes, at the height of 12,000 feet
+above the sea, there are vast tracts of uninhabited table-lands. These
+are called in the Quichua language the _Puna_; and the Spaniards give
+them the name of the _Despoblado_ (the uninhabited). These table-lands
+form the upper mountain regions of the South American Highlands. They
+spread over the whole extent of Peru, from north-west to south-east, a
+distance of 350 Spanish miles, continuing through Bolivia, and
+gradually running eastward into the Argentine Republic. With reference
+to geography and natural history, these table-lands present a curious
+contrast to the _Llanos_ (plains) of South America, situated on the
+other side of the Andes to the north-east. Those boundless deserts,
+full of organic life, are, like the Puna, among the most interesting
+characteristics of the New World.
+
+The climate of these regions is not less rigorous than that of the high
+mountain ridges. Cold winds from the west and south-west, blow nearly
+all the year round from the ice-topped Cordillera; and for the space of
+four months these winds are daily accompanied by thunder, lightning, and
+snow-storms. The average state of the thermometer during the cold season
+(which is called summer, because it then seldom snows) is, during the
+night, -5° R.; and at midday, +9° 7´ R. In winter the mercury seldom
+falls during the night below freezing point, and it continues between
++1° and 0° R.; but at noon it ascends only to 7° R. It is, however,
+quite impossible to determine with precision the medium temperature of
+these regions. For the space of a few hours the heat will frequently
+vary between 18° and 20° R. The transition is the more sensibly felt on
+the fall of the temperature, as it is usually accompanied by
+sharp-biting winds, so keen, that they cut the skin on the face and
+hands. A remarkable effect of the Puna wind is its power of speedily
+drying animal bodies, and thereby preventing putridity. A dead mule is,
+in the course of a few days, converted into a mummy; not even the
+entrails presenting the least trace of decomposition.
+
+It frequently happens that, after being long exposed to these cold
+winds, the traveller enters warm atmospheric currents. These warm
+streams are sometimes only two or three paces, and at other times,
+several hundred feet broad. They run in a parallel direction with each
+other, and one may pass through five or six of them in the course of a
+few hours. On the level heights between Chacapalpa and Huancavelica, I
+remarked that they were especially frequent during the months of August
+and September. According to my repeated observations, I found that these
+warm streams chiefly follow the direction of the Cordillera; namely,
+from S.S.W. to N.N.E. I once travelled the distance of several leagues
+through a succession of these currents of warm air, none of which
+exceeded seven-and-twenty paces in breadth. Their temperature was 11° R.
+higher than that of the adjacent atmosphere. It would appear they are
+not merely temporary, for the mule-drivers can often foretel with
+tolerable accuracy where they will be encountered. The causes of these
+phenomena well merit the investigation of meteorologists.
+
+The aspect of the Puna is singularly monotonous and dreary. The
+expansive levels are scantily covered with grasses of a yellowish-brown
+hue, and are never enlivened by fresh-looking verdure. Here and there,
+at distant intervals, may be seen a few stunted Queñua trees
+(_Polylepis racemosa_, R. P.), or large patches of ground covered with
+the Ratanhia shrub[66] (_Krameria triandria_, R. P.). Both are used by
+the Indians as fuel, and for roofing their huts.
+
+The cold climate and sterile soil of the Puna are formidable impediments
+to agriculture. Only one plant is cultivated in these regions with any
+degree of success. It is the _maca_, a tuberous root grown like the
+potatoe, and like it used as an article of food. In many of the Puna
+districts the maca constitutes the principal sustenance of the
+inhabitants. It has an agreeable, and somewhat sweetish flavor, and when
+boiled in milk it tastes like the chestnut. As far as I am aware this
+plant has not been mentioned by any traveller, nor has its botanical
+character yet been precisely determined. Possibly it is a species of
+Tropæolum, but of this I am uncertain. The root is about the size of a
+large chestnut. Macas may be kept for more than a year, if, after being
+taken from the earth, they are left a few days to dry in the sun, and
+then exposed to the cold. By this means they become shrivelled and very
+hard. From these dried macas, the Indians prepare a sort of soup or
+rather syrup, which diffuses a sweet, sickly sort of odor, but which,
+when eaten with roasted maize, is not altogether unpalatable. The maca
+thrives best at the height of between 12,000 and 13,000 feet above the
+sea. In the lower districts it is not planted, for the Indians declare
+it to be flavorless when grown there. Besides the maca barley is reared
+in the Puna. I saw there fields of barley 13,200 feet above the sea. It
+does not, however, attain full maturity, seldom even shoots into ears,
+and is cut whilst green as fodder for horses.
+
+But poor and scanty as is the vegetation of the Puna, the animal
+kingdom is there richly and beautifully represented. Those regions are
+the native home of the great Mammalia, which Peru possessed before
+horses and black cattle were introduced by the Spaniards. I allude to
+the llama and his co-genera the alpaco, the huanacu, and the vicuña.
+On these interesting animals I will subjoin a few observations.[67]
+The two first are kept as domestic animals; the llama perfectly, and
+the alpaco partially tame.
+
+The llama measures from the sole of the hoof to the top of the head, 4
+feet 6 to 8 inches; from the sole of the hoof to the shoulders, from 2
+feet 11 inches to 3 feet. The female is usually smaller and less strong
+than the male, but her wool is finer and better. The color is very
+various; generally brown, with shades of yellow or black; frequently
+speckled, but very rarely quite white or black. The speckled brown llama
+is in some districts called the moromoro.
+
+The young llamas are left with the dam for about the space of a year,
+after which time they are removed and placed with flocks. When about
+four years old, the males and females are separated; the former are
+trained to carry burthens, and the latter are kept in the pastures of
+the level heights. Most of the flocks of llamas are reared in the
+southern Puna provinces, viz.:--Cuzco and Ayacucho, and from thence
+they are sent to the silver mines of North Peru. The price of a strong
+full-grown llama is from three to four dollars; but if purchased in
+flocks in the provinces above named, they may be had for one and a
+half or two dollars each. Shortly after the conquest the price of one
+of these animals was between eighteen and twenty ducats; but the
+increase of horses, mules, and sheep, lowered their value. The burthen
+carried by the llama should not exceed one hundred and twenty-five
+pounds, and the animal is seldom laden with more than a
+hundred-weight. When the llama finds his burthen too heavy he lies
+down, and cannot be made to rise until some portion of the weight is
+removed from his back. In the silver mines the llamas are of the most
+important utility, as they frequently carry the metal from the mines
+in places where the declivities are so steep that neither asses nor
+mules can keep their footing.
+
+The Indians frequently proceed with large flocks of llamas to the coast,
+to procure salt. Their daily journeys are short, never exceeding three
+or four leagues; for the animals will not feed during the night, and
+therefore they are allowed to graze as they go, or to halt for a few
+hours at feeding-time. When resting they make a peculiar humming noise,
+which, when proceeding from a numerous flock at a distance, is like a
+number of Æolian harps sounding in concert.
+
+A flock of laden llamas journeying over the table-lands is a beautiful
+sight. They proceed at a slow and measured pace, gazing eagerly around
+on every side. When any strange object scares them, the flock
+separates, and disperses in various directions, and the arrieros have
+no little difficulty in reassembling them. The Indians are very fond
+of these animals. They adorn them by tying bows of ribbon to their
+ears, and hanging bells round their necks; and before loading, they
+always fondle and caress them affectionately. If, during a journey,
+one of the llamas is fatigued and lies down, the arriero kneels beside
+the animal, and addresses to it the most coaxing and endearing
+expressions. But notwithstanding all the care and attention bestowed
+on them, many llamas perish on every journey to the coast, as they are
+not able to bear the warm climate.
+
+Some old travellers have stated that the Indians employ the llama for
+riding and for draught; but these accounts are quite erroneous. It
+sometimes happens that when crossing a river an Indian lad, to avoid
+getting wet, may mount on the back of one of the llamas; but in such a
+case, he immediately dismounts on reaching the opposite bank. The flesh
+of the llama is spongy, and not agreeable in flavor. Its wool is used
+for making coarse cloths.
+
+The alpaco, or paco, is smaller than the llama. It measures from the
+lower part of the hoof to the top of the head only three feet three
+inches, and to the shoulders two feet and a half. In form it resembles
+the sheep, but it has a longer neck and a more elegant head. The fleece
+of this animal is beautifully soft and very long; in some parts it is
+four or five inches in length. Its color is usually either white or
+black; but in some few instances it is speckled. The Indians make
+blankets and ponchos of the alpaco wool. It is also frequently exported
+to Europe, and it sells at a good price in England. The alpacos are kept
+in large flocks, and throughout the whole of the year they graze on the
+level heights. At shearing time only they are driven to the huts. They
+are in consequence very shy, and they run away at the approach of a
+stranger. The obstinacy of the alpaco is remarkable. When one of these
+animals is separated from the flock, he throws himself on the ground,
+and neither force nor persuasion will induce him to rise;--sometimes
+suffering the severest punishment rather than go the way the driver
+wishes. Few animals seem to require so imperatively the companionship of
+its own species, and it is only when brought to the Indian huts very
+young, that the alpacos can be separated from their flocks.
+
+The largest animal of this family is the huanacu. It measures five feet
+from the bottom of the hoof to the top of the head, and three feet three
+inches to the shoulders. In form it so nearly resembles the llama, that
+until a very recent period, zoologists were of opinion that the llama
+was an improved species of the huanacu, and that the latter was the
+llama in its wild state. In the "Fauna Peruana" I have explained the
+erroneousness of this opinion, and described the specific differences
+existing between the two animals. On the neck, back, and thighs the
+huanacu is of a uniform reddish-brown color. The under part of the body,
+the middle line of the breast, and the inner side of the limbs are of a
+dingy white. The face is dark grey, and the lips of a clear white. Of
+the huanacus there are not those varieties which are found among the
+llamas and the alpacos. The wool is shorter and coarser than that of the
+llama, and it is of nearly uniform length on all parts of the body.
+
+The huanacus live in small herds of five or seven, seldom exceeding
+the latter number. In some districts they are very shy, and retreat
+when any one approaches. If taken very young they may be tamed; but
+they are always ready to fall back into their wild state. It is with
+great difficulty they can be trained as beasts of burthen. In the
+menageries of Europe, huanacu brought from Chile are frequently
+represented to be llamas.
+
+The vicuña is a more beautiful animal than any of those just
+described. Its size is between that of the llama and the alpaco. It
+measures from the sole of the foot to the top of the head four feet
+one inch, and two and a half feet to the shoulders. The neck is longer
+and more slender than in either of the other relative species; and
+from them the vicuña is also distinguished by the superior fineness of
+its short, curly wool. The crown of the head, the upper part of the
+neck, the back, and thighs, are of a peculiar reddish-yellow hue,
+called by the people of the country _color de vicuña_. The lower part
+of the neck, and the inner parts of the limbs, are of a bright ochre
+color, and the breast and lower part of the body are white.
+
+During the rainy season the vicuña inhabits the ridges of the
+Cordillera, where some scanty vegetation is to be found. It never
+ventures up to the naked rocky summits, for its hoofs being accustomed
+only to turfy ground, are very soft and tender. It lives in herds,
+consisting of from six to fifteen females, and one male, who is the
+protector and leader of the herd. Whilst the females are quietly
+grazing, the male stands at the distance of some paces apart, and
+carefully keeps guard over them. At the approach of danger he gives a
+signal, consisting of a sort of whistling sound, and a quick movement of
+the foot. Immediately the herd draws closely together, each animal
+anxiously stretching out its head in the direction of the threatening
+danger. They then take to flight; first moving leisurely and cautiously,
+and then quickening their pace to the utmost degree of speed; whilst the
+male vicuña who covers the retreat frequently halts, to observe the
+movements of the enemy. The females, with singular fidelity and
+affection, reward the watchful care of their protector. If he is wounded
+or killed, they gather round him in a circle, uttering their shrill
+tones of lamentation, and they will suffer themselves to be captured or
+killed, rather than desert him by pursuing their flight. The neigh of
+the vicuña, like that of the other animals of its class, resembles a
+short, sharp whistle. But when the shrill sound vibrates through the
+pure Puna air, the practised ear can readily distinguish the cry of the
+vicuña from that of the other animals of the same family.
+
+The Indians seldom employ fire-arms in hunting the vicuñas. They catch
+them by what they term the _chacu_. In this curious hunt, one man at
+least belonging to each family in the Puna villages takes a part, and
+women accompany the train, to officiate as cooks to the hunters. The
+whole company, frequently amounting to seventy or eighty individuals,
+proceeds to the Altos (the most secluded parts of the Puna), which are
+the haunts of the vicuñas. They take with them stakes, and a great
+quantity of rope and cord. A spacious open plain is selected, and the
+stakes are driven into the ground in a circle, at intervals of from
+twelve to fifteen feet apart, and are connected together by ropes
+fastened to them at the height of two or two and a half feet from the
+ground. The circular space within the stakes is about half a league in
+circumference, and an opening of about two hundred paces in width is
+left for entrance. On the ropes by which the stakes are fastened
+together the women hang pieces of colored rags, which flutter about in
+the wind. The chacu being fully prepared, the men, some of whom are
+mounted on horseback, range about within a circuit of several miles,
+driving before them all the herds of vicuñas they meet with, and forcing
+them into the chacu. When a sufficient number of vicuñas is collected,
+the entrance is closed. The timid animals do not attempt to leap over
+the ropes, being frightened by the fluttering rags suspended from them,
+and, when thus secured, the Indians easily kill them by the _bolas_.
+These bolas consist of three balls, composed either of lead or stone;
+two of them heavy, and the third rather lighter. They are fastened to
+long, elastic strings, made of twisted sinews of the vicuña, and the
+opposite ends of the strings are all tied together. The Indian holds the
+lightest of the three balls in his hand, and swings the two others in a
+wide circle above his head; then, taking his aim at the distance of
+about fifteen or twenty paces, he lets go the hand-ball, upon which all
+the three balls whirl in a circle, and twine round the object aimed at.
+The aim is usually taken at the hind legs of the animals, and the cords
+twisting round them, they become firmly bound. It requires great skill
+and long practice to throw the bolas dexterously, especially when on
+horseback: a novice in the art incurs the risk of dangerously hurting
+either himself or his horse, by not giving the balls the proper swing,
+or by letting go the hand-ball too soon.
+
+The vicuñas, after being secured by the bolas, are killed, and the flesh
+is distributed in equal portions among the hunters. The skins belong to
+the Church. The price of a vicuña skin is four reals. When all the
+animals are killed, the stakes, ropes, &c., are packed up carefully, and
+conveyed to another spot, some miles distant, where the chacu is again
+fixed up. The hunting is continued in this manner for the space of a
+week. The number of animals killed during that interval varies according
+to circumstances, being sometimes fifty or sixty, and at other times
+several hundred. During five days I took part in a chacu hunt in the
+Altos of Huayhuay, and in that space of time 122 vicuñas were caught.
+With the money obtained by the sale of the skins a new altar was erected
+in the church of the district. The flesh of the vicuña is more tender
+and better flavored than that of the llama. Fine cloth and hats are made
+of the wool. When taken young, the vicuñas are easily tamed, and become
+very docile; but when old, they are intractable and malicious. At Tarma
+I possessed a large and very fine vicuña. It used to follow me like a
+dog whenever I went out, whether on foot or on horseback.
+
+The frequent hunting seems not to have the effect of diminishing the
+numbers of these animals. If in the vicinity of the villages where
+chacus are frequently established, they are less numerous than in
+other parts, it is because, to elude the pursuit of the hunters, they
+seek refuge in the Altos, where they are found in vast numbers.
+Several modern travellers have lamented the diminution of the vicuñas,
+but without reason. In former times those animals were hunted more
+actively than at present.
+
+Under the dynasty of the Incas, when every useful plant and animal was
+an object of veneration, the Peruvians rendered almost divine worship
+to the llama and his relatives, which exclusively furnished them with
+wool for clothing, and with flesh for food. The temples were adorned
+with large figures of these animals made of gold and silver, and their
+forms were represented in domestic utensils made of stone and clay.
+In the valuable collection of Baron Clemens von Hügel at Vienna, there
+are four of these vessels, composed of porphyry, basalt, and granite,
+representing the four species, viz., the llama, the alpaco, the
+huanacu, and the vicuña. These antiquities are exceedingly scarce, and
+when I was in Peru I was unable to obtain any of them. How the ancient
+Peruvians, without the aid of iron tools, were able to carve stone so
+beautifully, is inconceivable.
+
+Besides the animals above mentioned, several others peculiar to the Puna
+are deserving of remark. Among these are the Tarush (_Cervus
+antisiensis_, Orb.); the timid roe, which inhabits the high forests
+skirting the Andes; the Viscacha (_Lagidium peruanum_, May, and _L.
+pallipes_, Benn.), and the Chinchilla (_Eriomys Chinchilla_, Licht.),
+whose skin supplies the beautiful fur so much prized by the ladies of
+Europe. The viscachas and chinchillas resemble the rabbit in form and
+color, but they have shorter ears and long rough tails. They live on the
+steep rocky mountains, and in the morning and evening they creep out
+from their holes and crevices to nibble the alpine grasses. At night the
+Indians set before their holes traps made of horse-hair, in which the
+animals are easily caught. The most remarkable of the beasts of prey in
+these high regions is the Atoc (_Canis Azaræ_, Pr. Max.). It is a
+species of fox, which is found throughout the whole of South America.
+The warmer Puna valleys are inhabited by the Cuguar (_Felis concolor_,
+L.), or, as the Indians call it, the Poma. When driven by hunger, this
+animal ventures into the loftiest Puna regions, even to the boundary of
+the eternal snow. The wild Hucumari (_Ursus ornatus_, Fr. Cuv.) but
+seldom wanders into the cold Puna. The hucumari is a large black bear,
+with a white muzzle and light-colored stripes on the breast.
+
+Of the numerous Puna birds, the majority of which may be classed as
+water-fowl, I will notice only a few of the most characteristic. Next
+to the condor, the most remarkable bird of prey is the Huarahuau, or
+the Aloi (_Polylorus megalopterus_, Cob.),[68] one of the gyr-falcon
+species. This bird, which is a constant inhabitant of the level
+heights, preys on the carcases of dead horses, mules, &c., but never
+attempts to meddle with living animals. It is very harmless, and has
+so little timidity, that it suffers itself to be approached near
+enough to be knocked down with a stick. The Acacli, or Pito (_Colaptes
+rupicola_, Orb.), flutters about the mountains; it is a woodpecker,
+brown-speckled, with a yellow belly. This bird is seen in very great
+numbers, and it is difficult to imagine how it procures food in the
+Puna, where there are no insects. All the other woodpecker species
+exclusively confine themselves to woody regions.
+
+The thickets of rushy grass are inhabited by the Pishacas, or Yutu, a
+species of partridge (_Tinamotis Pentlandii_, Vig.) which the Indians
+catch by dogs. These dogs of the Puna Indians are a peculiar race
+(_Canis Ingæ_, Tsch.). They are distinguished by a small head, a
+pointed muzzle, small erect ears, a tail curling upwards, and a thick
+shaggy skin. They are in a half-wild state, and very surly and
+snappish. They furiously attack strangers, and even after having
+received a deadly wound they will crawl along the ground, and make an
+effort to bite. To white people they appear to have a particular
+antipathy; and sometimes it becomes rather a venturous undertaking for
+a European traveller to approach an Indian hut, for these mountain
+dogs spring up to the sides of the horse, and try to bite the rider's
+legs. They are snarlish and intractable even to their masters, who are
+often obliged to enforce obedience by the help of a stick. Yet these
+dogs are very useful animals for guarding flocks, and they have a keen
+scent for the pishacas, which they catch and kill with a single bite.
+
+There is a very curious little bird in the Puna, about the size of a
+starling. Its plumage is exceedingly pretty, being on the back brown,
+striped with black; on the throat grey, with two dark stripes, and on
+the breast white. This bird has the remarkable peculiarity of making a
+monotonous sound at the close of every hour, during the night. The
+Indians call it the Ingahuallpa, or Cock of the Inga (_Thinocorus
+Ingæ_, Tsch.), and they associate many superstitious notions with its
+regular hourly cry. The Puna morasses and lagunas are animated by
+numerous feathered inhabitants. Among them is the huachua (_Chloephaga
+melanoptera_, Eyt.), a species of goose. The plumage of the body is
+dazzlingly white, the wings green, shading into brilliant violet, and
+the feet and beak of a bright red. The Licli (_Charadrius resplendens_,
+Tsch.) is a plover, whose plumage in color is like that of the huachua,
+but with a sort of metallic brightness. There are two species of ibis
+which belong to the Puna, though they are occasionally seen in some of
+the lower valleys. One is the Bandurria (_Theristocus melanopis_,
+Wagl.), and the other is the Yanahuico (_Ibis Ordi_, Bonap.). On the
+lagunas swim large flocks of Quiullas (_Larus serranus_, Tsch.), white
+mews, with black heads and red beaks, and the gigantic water-hen
+(_Fulica gigantea_, Soul.). The plumage of the latter is dark-grey, and
+at the root of the red beak there is a large yellow botch, in the form
+of a bean, whence the Indians give this bird the name of _Anash sinqui_,
+or bean nose. Among the few amphibia found in these regions one is
+particularly remarkable. It is a small kind of toad (_Leiuperus
+viridis_, Tsch.), and inhabits the boundaries of the perpetual snow.
+
+The grasses of the Puna are used as fodder, and in many of the sheltered
+valleys there are farms (_Haciendas de Ganado_), where large herds of
+cattle are reared. The owners of some of these farms possess several
+thousand sheep, and from four to five hundred cows. During the rainy
+season the cattle are driven into the Altos. They graze in those high
+regions, often at the altitude of 15,000 feet above the sea. When the
+frost sets in they are brought down to the marshy valleys, and they
+suffer much from insufficiency of pasture. From the wool of the sheep a
+coarse kind of cloth, called Bayeta, is made in the Sierra. Some of this
+wool is exported, and is much prized in Europe. The old black cattle and
+sheep are slaughtered, and their flesh, when dried, is the principal
+food of the inhabitants of the Puna, particularly of the mining
+population. The dried beef is called _Charqui_, and the mutton is called
+_Chalona_. The bulls graze in the remote Altos, and most of them are
+reserved for the bull fights in the Sierra villages. As they seldom see
+a human being they become exceedingly wild; so much so that the herdsmen
+are often afraid to approach them. In the daytime they roam about marshy
+places, and at nightfall they retire for shelter beneath some
+overhanging rock. These animals render travelling in many parts of the
+Puna extremely dangerous, for they often attack people so suddenly as to
+afford no time for defence. It is true they usually announce their
+approach by a deep bellow; but the open plain seldom presents any
+opportunity for escape. On several occasions a well-aimed shot alone
+saved me from the attack of one of these ferocious bulls.
+
+The walls of the haciendas are of rough unhewn stone. They are divided
+into large square rooms, always damp, cold, and uninhabitable. Beneath
+the straw roofs there usually hang long rows of the stuffed skins of
+foxes; for every Indian who kills an old fox receives, by way of
+reward, a sheep, and for a young one a lamb. The Cholos are therefore
+zealous fox-hunters, and they may possibly succeed in altogether
+extirpating that animal which in some districts is so numerous as to
+be a perfect scourge.
+
+As the sheep, even in the dry season, find pasture more easily than the
+horned cattle, they are left during the whole year in the higher parts
+of the Puna, under the care of Indian shepherds. At night they are
+driven into _cerales_, large square roofless buildings, and are guarded
+by dogs. The shepherds make a practice of every year burning the dry
+grass of the Puna, in order to improve the growth of the fodder. A Puna
+fire does not, however, present the imposing spectacle of the prairie
+fires, as described by travellers in North America, possibly because the
+Puna straw is shorter, and is always somewhat damp.
+
+The dwellings of the shepherds are built in the same rude style which
+characterizes all the huts in the Puna, and they impress the European
+traveller with a very unfavorable notion of the intelligence of the
+people. The architecture of these huts consists in laying down some
+large stones, in a circle of about eight or ten feet in diameter, by
+way of a foundation. These stones are covered with earth or turf, and
+then with successive layers of stones and earth, until the wall
+attains the height of about four feet: at the point most sheltered
+from the wind, an opening of a foot and a half or two feet high serves
+as a door. On this low circular wall rests the roof, which is formed
+in the following manner. Six or eight magay[69] poles are fastened
+together, so as to form a point at the top. Over these poles thin
+laths are laid horizontally, and fastened with straw-bands, and the
+whole conical-formed frame-work is overlaid with a covering of Puna
+straw. As a security against the wind, two thick straw-bands are
+crossed over the point of the roof, and at their ends, which hang down
+to the ground, heavy stones are fastened. The whole fabric is then
+completed. The hut at its central point is about eight feet high; but
+at the sides, no more than three and a half or four feet. The entrance
+is so low, that one is obliged to creep in almost bent double; and
+before the aperture hangs a cow-hide, by way of a door.
+
+Internally these huts present miserable pictures of poverty and
+uncleanliness. Two stones serve as a stove, containing a scanty fire fed
+by dry dung (_buñegas_), and turf (_champo_). An earthen pot for cooking
+soup, another for roasting maize, two or three gourd-shells for plates,
+and a porongo for containing water, make up the catalogue of the goods
+and chattels in a Puna hut. On dirty sheep-skins spread on the ground,
+sit the Indian and his wife, listlessly munching their coca; whilst the
+naked children roll about paddling in pools of water formed by continual
+drippings from the roof. The other inhabitants of the hut are usually
+three or four hungry dogs, some lambs, and swarms of guinea-pigs.
+
+From all this it will readily be imagined that a Puna hut is no very
+agreeable or inviting retreat. Yet, when worn out by the dangers and
+fatigues of a long day's journey, and exposed to the fury of a
+mountain storm, the weary traveller, heedless of suffocating clouds of
+smoke and mephitic odors, gladly creeps into the rude dwelling. Taking
+up his resting-place on the damp floor, with his saddle-cloth for a
+pillow, he is thankful to find himself once again in a human
+habitation, even though its occupants be not many degrees elevated
+above the brute creation.
+
+In the Puna there are many remains of the great high road of the Incas,
+which led from Cuzco to Quito, stretching through the whole extent of
+Peru. It was the grandest work that America possessed before European
+civilisation found its way to that quarter of the world. Even those who
+are unacquainted with the wise dominion of the ancient Peruvian
+sovereigns, their comprehensive laws, and the high civilisation they
+diffused over the whole country, must by this gigantic work be impressed
+with the highest idea of the cultivation of the age; for
+well-constructed roads may always be regarded as proofs of a nation's
+advancement. There is not in Peru at the present time any modern road
+in the most remote degree comparable to the Incas' highway. The best
+preserved fragments which came under my observation were in the
+Altos, between Jauja and Tarma. Judging from these portions, it would
+appear that the road must have been from twenty-five to thirty feet
+broad, and that it was paved with large flat stones. At intervals of
+about twelve paces distant one from another there is a row of smaller
+stones, laid horizontally and a little elevated, so that the road
+ascended, as it were, by a succession of terraces. It was edged on
+each side by a low wall of small stones.
+
+Other remains of ancient Peru, frequently met with in these parts, are
+small buildings, formerly used as stations for the messengers who
+promulgated the commands of the Incas through all parts of the country.
+Some of these buildings are still in a tolerably good state of
+preservation. They were always erected on little hillocks, and at such
+distances apart, that from each station the nearest one on either side
+was discernible. When a messenger was despatched from a station a signal
+was hoisted, and a messenger from the next successive station met him
+halfway, and received from him the despatch, which was in this manner
+forwarded from one station to another till it reached its destination. A
+constant communication was thus kept up between the capital and the most
+distant parts of the country. A proof of the extraordinary rapidity with
+which these communications were carried on is the fact, recorded on
+unquestionable authority, that the royal table in Cuzco was served with
+fresh fish, caught in the sea near the Temple of the Sun in Lurin, a
+distance of more than 200 leagues from Cuzco.
+
+The messenger stations have by some travellers been confounded with
+the forts, of which remains are met with along the great Inca road. The
+forts were buildings destined for totally different purposes. They were
+magazines for grain, and were built by the Incas to secure to their
+armies in these barren regions the requisite supplies of food. Vestiges
+of these forts are frequently seen in the Altos of Southern and Central
+Peru. They are broad round towers, usually built against a rocky
+declivity, and with numerous long apertures for the admission of air.
+
+Even the broad level heights in which no trace of human habitations is
+discoverable, have been excavated by the mercenary Peruvian mestizos and
+creoles in search of hidden treasures. Their faith in the existence of
+concealed riches is founded on the following tradition. When the last
+reigning Inca, Atabiliba or Atahuallpa, was made prisoner by Don
+Francisco Pizarro, in Caxamarca, he proposed to ransom himself from the
+Spanish commander. The price he offered for his liberty was to fill with
+gold the cell in which he was confined, to the height of a certain line
+on the wall, which Pizarro marked with his sword. The cell, it may be
+mentioned, was twenty-two feet long and seventeen broad. A quantity of
+gold which the Inca ordered to be collected in Caxamarca and its
+vicinity, when piled up on the floor of the cell, did not reach above
+halfway to the given mark. The Inca then despatched messengers to Cuzco
+to obtain from the royal treasury the gold required to make up the
+deficiency; and accordingly eleven thousand llamas were despatched from
+Cuzco to Caxamarca, each laden with one hundred pounds of gold. But ere
+the treasure reached its destination, Atahuallpa was hanged by the
+advice of Don Diego de Almangra and the Dominican monk Vicente de
+Valverde. The terror-stirring news flew like wild-fire through the land,
+and speedily reached the convoy of Indians, who were driving their
+richly-laden llamas over the level heights into Central Peru. On the
+spot where the intelligence of Atahuallpa's death was communicated to
+them, the dismayed Indians concealed the treasure, and then dispersed.
+
+Whether the number of the llamas was really so considerable as it is
+stated to have been, may fairly be doubted; but that a vast quantity
+of gold was on its way to Caxamarca, and was concealed, is a
+well-authenticated fact. That the Indians should never have made any
+attempt to recover this treasure is quite consistent with their
+character. It is not improbable that even now some particular
+individuals among them may know the place of concealment; but a
+certain feeling of awe transmitted through several centuries from
+father to son, has, in their minds, associated the hidden treasure
+with the blood of their last king, and this feeling doubtless prompts
+them to keep the secret inviolate.
+
+From traditionary accounts, which bear the appearance of probability,
+it would appear that the gold was buried somewhere in the Altos of Mito,
+near the valley of Jauja. Searches have frequently been made in that
+vicinity, but no clue to the hiding-place has yet been discovered.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 65: Some derive the word Andes from the people called Antis,
+who dwelt at the foot of these chains of mountains. A province in the
+department of Cuzco, which was probably the chief settlement of that
+nation, still bears the name of Antas.]
+
+[Footnote 66: From the most remote times the Ratanhia has been employed
+by the Indians as a medicine. It is one of their favorite remedies
+against spitting of blood and dysentery. Most of the Ratanhia exported
+to Europe is obtained in the southern provinces of Peru, particularly in
+Arica and Islay. The extract which is prepared in Peru, and which was
+formerly sent in large quantities to Europe, is now scarcely an object
+of traffic. For several years past no Ratanhia has been shipped from
+Callao, and but very little from Truxillo.]
+
+[Footnote 67: More lengthened information respecting them may be found in
+the "Fauna Peruana." I have there noted all their specific varieties,
+and have corrected the erroneous accounts given of them by some previous
+travellers.]
+
+[Footnote 68: _Phalcoboenus montanus_, Orb.]
+
+[Footnote 69: The Magay is the stem of the American Agave. It has a sort
+of spungy sap; but it is covered externally with a strong tough bast.
+The Magay supplies the inhabitants of Upper Peru with an excellent kind
+of light and strong building wood.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+Cerro de Pasco--First discovery of the Mines--Careless mode of working
+them--Mine Owners and Mine Laborers--Amalgamating and
+Refining--Produce of the Mines--Life in Cerro de Pasco--Different
+Classes of the Population--Gaming and Drunkenness--Extravagance and
+Improvidence of the Indian Mine Laborers--The Cerro de San
+Fernando--Other Important Mining Districts in Peru--The Salcedo
+Mine--Castrovireyna--Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of
+Peru--Rich Mines secretly known to the Indians--Roads leading from
+Cerro de Pasco--The Laguna of Chinchaycocha--Battle of Junin--Indian
+Robbers--A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds.
+
+
+Having traversed the long and difficult route from the capital of Peru,
+by way of the wild Cordillera to the level heights of Bombon, and from
+thence having ascended the steep winding acclivities of the mountain
+chain of Olachin, the traveller suddenly beholds in the distance a large
+and populous city. This is the celebrated Cerro de Pasco, famed
+throughout the world for its rich silver mines. It is situated in 10°
+48' S. latitude and 76° 23' W. longitude, and at the height of 13,673
+feet above the sea level. It is built in a basin-shaped hollow,
+encircled by barren and precipitous rocks. Between these rocks difficult
+winding roads or paths lead down to the city, which spreads out in
+irregular divisions, surrounded on all sides by little lagunes, or
+swamps. The pleasing impression created by the first view of Cerro de
+Pasco from the heights is very greatly modified on entering the town.
+Crooked, narrow, and dirty streets are bordered by rows of
+irregularly-built houses; and miserable Indian huts abut close against
+well-built dwellings, whose size and structure give a certain European
+character to the city when viewed from a distance. Without bestowing a
+glance on the busy throng which circulates through the streets and
+squares, the varied styles of the buildings sufficiently indicate to the
+observer how many different classes of people have united together to
+found, in the tropics, and on the very confines of the perpetual snow, a
+city of such magnitude, and of so motley an aspect. The wild barrenness
+of the surrounding scenery, and the extreme cold of the rigorous
+climate--the remote and solitary position of the city--all denote that
+one common bond of union must have drawn together the diversified
+elements which compose the population of Cerro de Pasco. And so it
+really is. In this inhospitable region, where the surface of the soil
+produces nothing, nature has buried boundless stores of wealth in the
+bowels of the earth, and the silver mines of Cerro de Pasco have drawn
+people from all parts of the world to one point, and for one object.
+
+History relates that about two hundred and fifteen years ago an Indian
+shepherd, named Huari Capcha, tended his flocks on a small pampa to the
+south-east of the Lake of Llauricocha, the mother of the great river
+Amazon. One day, when the shepherd had wandered farther than usual from
+his hut, he sought a resting-place on a declivity of the Cerro de
+Santiestevan, and when evening drew in he kindled a fire to protect
+himself against the cold; he then lay down to sleep. When he awoke on
+the following morning, he was amazed to find the stone beneath the ashes
+of his fire melted and turned to silver. He joyfully communicated the
+discovery to his master, Don Jose Ugarte, a Spaniard, who owned a
+hacienda in the Quebrada de Huariaca. Ugarte forthwith repaired to the
+spot, where he found indications of a very rich vein of silver ore,
+which he immediately made active preparations for working. In this mine,
+which is distinguished by the name of _La Descubridora_ (the
+discoverer), silver is still obtained. From the village of Pasco, about
+two leagues distant, where already productive mines were worked, several
+rich mine owners removed to Llauricocha; here they sought and discovered
+new veins, and established new mining works. The vast abundance of the
+ore drew new speculators to the spot; some to work the mines, and others
+to supply the necessary wants of the increasing population. In this
+manner was rapidly founded a city, which, at times when the produce of
+metal is very considerable, counts 18,000 inhabitants.
+
+In Cerro de Pasco there are two very remarkable veins of silver. One of
+them, the Veta de Colquirirca, runs nearly in a straight line from north
+to south, and has already been traced to the length of 9,600 feet, and
+the breadth of 412; the other vein is the Veta de Pariarirca, which
+takes a direction from east-south-east to west-north-west, and which
+intersects the Veta de Colquirirca precisely, it is supposed, under the
+market-place of the city. Its known extent is 6,400 feet in length, and
+380 feet in breadth. From these large veins numberless smaller ones
+branch off in various directions, so that a net-work of silver may be
+supposed to spread beneath the surface of the earth. Some thousand
+openings or mouths (_bocaminas_) are the entrances to these mines. Most
+of these entrances are within the city itself, in small houses; and some
+are in the dwellings of the mine-owners. Many of them are exceedingly
+shallow, and not more than five hundred deserve the name of shafts. All
+are worked in a very disorderly and careless way; the grand object of
+their owners being to avoid expense. The dangerous parts in the shafts
+are never walled up, and the excavations proceed without the adoption
+of any measures of security. The consequence is, that accidents caused
+by the falling in of the galleries are of frequent occurrence; and
+every year the lives of numbers of the Indian miners are sacrificed. A
+melancholy example of the effects of this negligence is presented by
+the now ruined mine of Matagente (literally _Kill People_), in which
+three hundred laborers were killed by the falling in of a shaft. I
+descended into several of the mines, among others into the
+_Descubridora_, which is one of the deepest, and I always felt that I
+had good reason to congratulate myself on returning to the surface of
+the earth in safety. Rotten blocks of wood and loose stones serve for
+steps, and, where these cannot be placed, the shaft, which in most
+instances runs nearly perpendicular, is descended by the help of rusty
+chains and ropes, whilst loose fragments of rubbish are continually
+falling from the damp walls.
+
+The mine laborers, all of whom are Indians, are of two classes. One
+class consists of those who work in the mines all the year round without
+intermission, and who receive regular wages from the mine owners;--the
+other class consists of those who make only temporary visits to Cerro de
+Pasco, when they are attracted thither by the _boyas_.[70] This latter
+class of laborers are called _maquipuros_. Most of them come from the
+distant provinces, and they return to their homes when the boya is at an
+end. The mine laborers are also subdivided into two classes, the one
+called _barreteros_, whose employment consists in breaking the ore; and
+the other called _hapires_, or _chaquiris_, who bring up the ore from
+the shaft. The work allotted to the hapires is exceedingly laborious.
+Each load consists of from fifty to seventy-five pounds of metal, which
+is carried in a very irksome and inconvenient manner in an untanned
+hide, called a capacho. The hapire performs his toilsome duty in a state
+of nudity, for, notwithstanding the coldness of the climate, he becomes
+so heated by his laborious exertion, that he is glad to divest himself
+of his clothing. As the work is carried on incessantly day and night,
+the miners are divided into parties called _puntas_, each party working
+for twelve successive hours. At six o'clock morning and evening the
+_puntas_ are relieved. Each one is under the inspection of a mayor-domo.
+When a mine yields a scanty supply of metal, the laborers are paid in
+money; the barreteros receiving six reals per day, and the hapires only
+four. During the _boyas_ the laborers receive instead of their wages in
+money, a share of the ore. The Indians often try to appropriate to
+themselves surreptitiously pieces of ore; but to do this requires great
+cunning and dexterity, so narrowly are they watched by the mayor-domos.
+Nevertheless, they sometimes succeed. One of the hapires related to me
+how he had contrived to carry off a most valuable piece of silver. He
+fastened it on his back, and then wrapping himself in his poncho, he
+pretended to be so ill, that he obtained permission to quit the mine.
+Two of his confederates who helped him out, assisted him in concealing
+the treasure. The _polvorilla_, a dark powdery kind of ore, very full of
+silver, used to be abstracted from the mines by the following stratagem.
+The workmen would strip off their clothes, and having moistened the
+whole of their bodies with water, would roll themselves in the
+_polvorilla_ which stuck to them. On their return home they washed off
+the silver-dust and sold it for several dollars. But this trick being
+detected, a stop was soon put to it, for, before leaving the mines, the
+laborers are now required to strip in order to be searched.
+
+The operation of separating the silver from the dross is performed at
+some distance from Cerro de Pasco, in haciendas, belonging to the great
+mine owners. The process is executed in a very clumsy, imperfect, and at
+the same time, a very expensive manner. The amalgamation of the
+quicksilver with the metal is effected by the tramping of horses. The
+animals employed in this way are a small ill-looking race, brought from
+Ayacucho and Cuzco, where they are found in numerous herds. The
+quicksilver speedily has a fatal effect on their hoofs, and after a few
+years the animals become unfit for work. The separation of the metals is
+managed with as little judgment as the amalgamation, and the waste of
+quicksilver is enormous. It is computed that on each mark of silver,
+half a pound of quicksilver is expended. The quicksilver, with the
+exception of some little brought from Idria and Huancavelica, comes from
+Spain in iron jars, each containing about seventy-five pounds weight of
+the metal. In Lima the price of these jars is from sixty to 100 dollars
+each, but they are occasionally sold as high as 135 or 140 dollars.
+Considering the vast losses which the Peruvian mine owners sustain by
+the waste of quicksilver and the defective mode of refining, it may
+fairly be inferred, that their profits are about one-third less than
+they would be under a better system of management.
+
+In Cerro de Pasco there are places called _boliches_, in which the
+silver is separated from the dross by the same process as that practised
+in the _haciendas_, only on a smaller scale. In the _boliches_ the
+amalgamation is performed, not by horses but by Indians, who mix the
+quicksilver with the ore by stamping on it with their feet for several
+hours in succession. This occupation they usually perform barefooted,
+and the consequence is, that paralysis and other diseases caused by the
+action of mercury, are very frequent among the persons thus employed.
+The owners of the _boliches_, who are mostly Italians, are not mine
+proprietors. They obtain the metal from the Indians, who give them their
+_huachacas_[71] in exchange for brandy and other articles. On the other
+hand, the owners of the _boliches_ obtain the money required for their
+speculations from capitalists, who make them pay an enormous interest.
+Nevertheless, many amass considerable fortunes in the course of a few
+years; for they scruple not to take the most unjust advantage of the
+Indians, whose laborious toil is rewarded by little gain.
+
+The law requires that all the silver drawn from the mines of Cerro de
+Pasco shall be conveyed to a government smelting-house, called the
+_Callana_, there to be cast into bars of one hundred pounds weight, to
+be stamped, and charged with certain imposts. The value of silver in
+Cerro de Pasco varies from seven to eight dollars per mark. The standard
+value in Lima is eight dollars and a half.
+
+It is impossible to form anything like an accurate estimate of the
+yearly produce of the mines of Cerro de Pasco; for a vast quantity of
+silver is never taken to the Callana, but is smuggled to the coast,
+and from thence shipped for Europe. In the year 1838, no less than
+85,000 marks of contraband silver were conveyed to the sea port of
+Huacho, and safely shipped on board a schooner. The quantity of silver
+annually smelted and stamped in the Callana is from two to three
+hundred thousand marks--seldom exceeding the latter amount. From 1784
+to 1820, 1826, and 1827, the amount was 8,051,409 marks; in the year
+1784 it was 68,208 marks; and in 1785, 73,455 marks. During seventeen
+years it was under 200,000 marks; and only during three years above
+300,000. The produce of the mines is exceedingly fluctuating. The
+successive revolutions which have agitated the country have tended
+very considerably to check mining operations. On the overthrow of
+Santa Cruz, Don Miguel Otero, the most active and intelligent mine
+owner of Cerro de Pasco, was banished; an event which had a very
+depressing influence on all the mining transactions of that part of
+South America. Within the last few years, however, mining has
+received a new impetus, and attention has been directed to the
+adoption of a more speedy and less expensive system of amalgamation.
+
+As a place of residence Cerro de Pasco is exceedingly disagreeable;
+nothing but the pursuit of wealth can reconcile any one to a long
+abode in it. The climate, like that of the higher Puna, is cold and
+stormy. The better sort of houses are well built, and are provided
+with good English fire-places and chimneys. But however comfortably
+lodged, the new comer cannot easily reconcile himself to the
+reflection that the earth is hollow beneath his feet. Still less
+agreeable is it to be awakened in the night by the incessant hammering
+of the Indian miners. Luckily earthquakes are of rare occurrence in
+those parts: it would require no very violent shock to bury the whole
+city in the bosom of the earth.
+
+Silver being the only produce of the soil, the necessaries of life are
+all exceedingly dear in the Cerro, as they have to be brought from
+distant places. The warehouses are, it is true, always plentifully
+supplied even with the choicest luxuries; but the extortion of venders
+and the abundance of money render prices most exorbitant. The market
+is so well supplied with provisions that it may vie with that of Lima.
+The products of the coast, of the table-lands and the forests, are all
+to be procured in the market of Cerro de Pasco; but the price demanded
+for every article is invariably more than double its worth. House
+rents are also extravagantly high; and the keep of horses is
+exceedingly expensive.
+
+The population of Cerro de Pasco presents a motley assemblage of human
+beings, such as one would scarcely expect to find in a city situated
+at 14,000 feet above the sea, and encircled by wild mountains. The Old
+and the New Worlds seem there to have joined hands, and there is
+scarcely any nation of Europe or America that has not its
+representative in Cerro de Pusco. The Swede and the Sicilian, the
+Canadian and the Argentinian, are all united here at one point, and
+for one object. The inhabitants of this city may be ranked in two
+divisions, viz., traders and miners--taking both terms in their most
+comprehensive sense. The mercantile population consists chiefly of
+Europeans or white Creoles, particularly those who are owners of large
+magazines. The keepers of coffee houses and brandy shops are here, as
+in Lima, chiefly Italians from Genoa. Other shops are kept by the
+Mestizos, and the provision-dealers are chiefly Indians, who bring
+their supplies from remote places.
+
+The mining population may be divided into mine owners (_mineros_) and
+Indian laborers. The majority of the mineros are descendants of the old
+Spanish families, who, at an early period, became possessors of the
+mines, whence they derived enormous wealth, which most of them
+dissipated in prodigal extravagance. At the present time, only a very
+few of the mineros are rich enough to defray, from their own resources,
+the vast expense attending the operations of mining. They consequently
+raise the required money by loans from the capitalists of Lima, who
+require interest of 100 or 120 per cent., and, moreover, insist on
+having bars of silver at a price below standard value. To these hard
+conditions, together with the custom that has been forced upon the
+miners of paying their laborers in metal, at times when it is very
+abundant, may be traced the cause of the miserable system of
+mine-working practised in Cerro de Pasco. To liquidate his burthensome
+debts the minero makes his laborers dig as much ore as possible from the
+mine, without any precautions being taken to guard against accidents.
+The money-lenders, on the other hand, have no other security for the
+recovery of their re-payment than the promise of the minero, and a
+failure of the usual produce of a mine exposes them to the risk of
+losing the money they have advanced.
+
+Under these circumstances it can scarcely be expected that the character
+and habits of the minero should qualify him to take a high rank in the
+social scale. His insatiable thirst for wealth continually prompts him
+to embark in new enterprises, whereby he frequently loses in one what he
+gains in another. After a mine has been worked without gain for a series
+of years, an unexpected _boya_ probably occurs, and an immense quantity
+of silver may be extracted. But a minero retiring on the proceeds of a
+boya is an event of rare occurrence. A vain hope of increasing fortune
+prompts him to risk the certain for the uncertain: and the result
+frequently is, that the once prosperous minero has nothing to bequeath
+to his children but a mine heavily burthened with debt. The
+persevering ardor of persons engaged in mining is truly remarkable.
+Unchecked by disappointment, they pursue the career in which they have
+embarked. Even when ruin appears inevitable, the love of money subdues
+the warnings of reason, and hope conjures up, from year to year,
+visionary pictures of riches yet to come.
+
+Joined to this infatuated pursuit of the career once entered on, an
+inordinate passion for cards and dice contributes to ruin many of the
+mineros of Cerro de Pasco. In few other places are such vast sums staked
+at the gaming-table; for the superabundance of silver feeds that
+national vice of the Spaniards and their descendants. From the earliest
+hours of morning cards and dice are in requisition. The mine owner
+leaves his silver stores, and the shop-keeper forsakes his counter, to
+pass a few hours every day at the gaming-table; and card-playing is
+the only amusement in the best houses of the town. The mayordomos,
+after being engaged in the mines throughout the whole day, assemble
+with their comrades in the evening, round the gaming-table, from which
+they often do not rise until six in the morning, when the bell summons
+them to resume their subterraneous occupations. They not unfrequently
+gamble away their share of a boya before any indication of one is
+discernible in the mine.
+
+The working class of miners is composed of Indians, who throng to Cerro
+de Pasco from all the provinces, far and near, especially when boyas are
+expected. At times, when the mines are not very productive, the number
+of Indian laborers amounts to between three and four thousand; but when
+there is a great supply of metal, the ordinary number of mine-workers is
+more than tripled. The Indians labor with a degree of patient industry,
+which it would be vain to expect from European workmen similarly
+circumstanced. This observation applies to the hapires in particular.
+Content with wretched food, and still more wretched lodging, the hapire
+goes through his hard day's work, partaking of no refreshment but coca,
+and at the end of the week (deduction being made for the food, &c.,
+obtained on credit from the minero), he, possibly, finds himself in
+possession of a dollar. This sum he spends on his Sunday holiday in
+chicha and brandy, of which he takes as much as his money will pay
+for, or as he can get on credit. When excited by strong drinks, such
+as maize beer, chicha, and brandy, to which they are very much
+addicted, the Indian miners are exceedingly quarrelsome. The laborers
+belonging to the different mines go about the streets rioting and
+attacking each other, and they frequently get involved in dangerous
+affrays. No Sunday or Friday passes over without the occurrence of
+battles, in which knives, sticks, and stones are used as weapons; and
+the actors in these scenes of violence inflict on each other severe
+and often fatal wounds. Any effective police interference to quell
+these street riots, is out of the question.
+
+When an unusually abundant produce of the mines throws extra payment
+into the hands of the mine laborers, they squander their money with the
+most absurd extravagance, and they are excellent customers to the
+European dealers in dress and other articles of luxury. Prompted by a
+ludicrous spirit of imitation, the Indian, in his fits of drunkenness,
+will purchase costly things which he can have no possible use for, and
+which he becomes weary of, after an hour's possession. I once saw an
+Indian purchase a cloak of fine cloth, for which he paid ninety-two
+dollars. He then repaired to a neighboring pulperia,[72] where he drank
+till he became intoxicated, and then, staggering into the street, he
+fell down, and rolled in the kennel. On rising, and discovering that his
+cloak was besmeared with mud, he threw it off, and left it in the
+street, for any one who might choose to pick it up. Such acts of
+reckless prodigality are of daily occurrence. A watchmaker in Cerro de
+Pasco informed me that one day an Indian came to his shop to purchase
+a gold watch. He showed him one, observing that the price was twelve
+gold ounces (204 dollars), and that it would probably be too dear for
+him. The Cholo paid the money, and took the watch; then, after having
+examined it for a few minutes, he dashed it on the ground, observing
+that the thing was of no use to him. When the Indian miner possesses
+money, he never thinks of laying by a part of it, as neither he nor
+any of his family feel the least ambition to improve their miserable
+way of life. With them, drinking is the highest of all gratifications,
+and in the enjoyment of the present moment, they lose sight of all
+considerations for the future. Even those Cholos who come from distant
+parts of the country to share in the rich harvest of the mines of
+Cerro de Pasco, return to their homes as poor as when they left them,
+and with manners and morals vastly deteriorated.
+
+Besides the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which in point of importance are
+nowise inferior to those of Potosi, there are numerous very rich mining
+districts in Peru. Among the most prolific may be ranked the provinces
+of Pataz, Huamanchuco, Caxamarca, and Hualgayoc. In this last-named
+province is situated the Cerro de San Fernando, on which Alexander Von
+Humboldt has conferred so much celebrity. The rich silver veins were
+discovered there in the year 1771; and there are now upwards of 1400
+bocaminas. On the insulated mountain the veins of metal intersect each
+other in every direction, and they are alike remarkable for being easily
+worked and exceedingly prolific. The mines of Huantaxaya, situated on
+the coast in the neighborhood of Iquique, were also very rich, and the
+silver obtained from them was either pure or containing a very slight
+admixture of foreign substances. They yielded an incredible quantity of
+metal, but they were speedily exhausted; and are now totally barren. The
+chains of hills in the southern districts of Peru contain a multitude of
+very rich mines, of which the most remarkable are those of San Antonio
+de Esquilache, Tamayos, Picotani, Cancharani, and Chupicos; but owing to
+bad working and defective drainage, many of the veins are in a very
+ruinous state, and the metal drawn from them bears no proportion to the
+quantity they contain. The Salcedo mine is very celebrated for the vast
+abundance of its produce, and the tragical end of its original owner.
+
+Don Jose Salcedo, a poor Spaniard, who dwelt in Puno, was in love with a
+young Indian girl, whose mother promised, on condition of his marrying
+her daughter, that she would show him a rich silver mine. Salcedo
+fulfilled the condition, obtained possession of the mine, and worked it
+with the greatest success. The report of his wealth soon roused the envy
+of the Count de Lemos, then viceroy of Peru, who sought to possess
+himself of the mine. By his generosity and benevolence Salcedo had
+become a great favorite with the Indian population, and the viceroy took
+advantage of this circumstance to accuse him of high treason, on the
+ground that he was exciting the Indians against the Spanish government.
+Salcedo was arrested, tried, and condemned to death. Whilst he was in
+prison, he begged to be permitted to send to Madrid the documents
+relating to his trial, and to appeal to the mercy of the king. He
+proposed, if the viceroy would grant his request, that he would pay him
+the daily tribute of a bar of silver, from the time when the ship left
+the port of Callao with the documents, until the day of her return. When
+it is recollected that at that period the voyage from Callao to Spain
+occupied from twelve to sixteen months, some idea may be formed of the
+enormous wealth of Salcedo and his mine. The viceroy rejected this
+proposition, ordered Salcedo to be hanged, and set out for Puno to take
+possession of the mine.[73]
+
+But this cruel and unjust proceeding failed in the attainment of its
+object. As soon as Salcedo's death-doom was pronounced, his
+mother-in-law, accompanied by a number of relations and friends,
+repaired to the mine, flooded it with water, destroyed the works, and
+closed up the entrance so effectually that it was impossible to trace it
+out. They then dispersed; but some of them, who were afterwards
+captured, could not be induced, either by promises or tortures, to
+reveal the position of the mouth of the mine, which to this day remains
+undiscovered. All that is known about it is that it was situated in the
+neighborhood of Cerro de Laycacota and Cananchari.
+
+Another extraordinary example of the productiveness of the Peruvian
+mines, is found at San Jose, in the department of Huancavelica. The
+owner of the mines of San Jose requested the viceroy Castro, whose
+friend he was, to become godfather to his first child. The viceroy
+consented, but at the time fixed for the christening, some important
+affair of state prevented him from quitting the capital, and he sent
+the vice-queen to officiate as his proxy. To render honor to his
+illustrious guest, the owner of the San Jose mines laid down a triple
+row of silver bars along the whole way (and it was no very short
+distance), from his house to church. Over this silver pavement the
+vice-queen accompanied the infant to the church, where it was
+baptized. On her return, her munificent host presented to her the
+whole of the silver road, in token of his gratitude for the honor she
+had conferred on him. Since that time, the mines and the province in
+which they are situated have borne the name of Castrovireyna. In most
+of these mines the works have been discontinued. Owing to defective
+arrangements, one of the richest of these mines fell in, and 122
+workmen were buried in the ruins. Since that catastrophe, the Indians
+refuse to enter the mines. Many stories are related of spirits and
+apparitions said to haunt the mines of Castrovireyna. I was surprised
+to hear these tales, for the imagination of the Indian miners is not
+very fertile in the creation of this sort of superstitious terrors.
+
+Notwithstanding the enormous amount of wealth, which the mines of Peru
+have already yielded, and still continue to yield, only a very small
+portion of the silver veins has been worked. It is a well-known fact,
+that the Indians are aware of the existence of many rich mines, the
+situation of which they will never disclose to the whites, nor to the
+detested mestizos. Heretofore mining has been to them all toil and
+little profit, and it has bound them in chains from which they will not
+easily emancipate themselves. For centuries past, the knowledge of some
+of the richest silver mines has been with inviolable secresy transmitted
+from father to son. All endeavors to prevail on them to divulge these
+secrets have hitherto been fruitless. In the village of Huancayo, there
+lived, a few years ago, two brothers, Don Jose and Don Pedro Yriarte,
+two of the most eminent mineros of Peru. Having obtained certain
+intelligence that in the neighboring mountains there existed some veins
+of pure silver, they sent a young man, their agent, to endeavor to gain
+further information on the subject. The agent took up his abode in the
+cottage of a shepherd, to whom, however, he gave not the slightest
+intimation of the object of his mission. After a little time, an
+attachment arose between the young man and the shepherd's daughter, and
+the girl promised to disclose to her lover the position of a very rich
+mine. On a certain day, when she was going out to tend her sheep, she
+told him to follow her at a distance, and to notice the spot where she
+would let fall her _manta_; by turning up the earth on that spot, she
+assured him he would find the mouth of a mine. The young man did as he
+was directed, and after digging for a little time, he discovered a mine
+of considerable depth, containing rich ore. Whilst busily engaged in
+breaking out the metal, he was joined by the girl's father, who
+expressed himself delighted at the discovery, and offered to assist
+him. After they had been at work for some hours, the old Indian handed
+to his companion a cup of chicha, which the young man thankfully
+accepted. But he had no sooner tasted the liquor than he felt ill, and
+he soon became convinced that poison had been mixed with the beverage.
+He snatched up the bag containing the metal he had collected, mounted
+his horse, and with the utmost speed galloped off to Huancayo. There,
+he related to Yriarte all that had occurred, described as accurately
+as he could the situation of the mine, and died on the following
+night. Active measures were immediately set on foot, to trace out the
+mine, but without effect. The Indian and all his family had
+disappeared, and the mine was never discovered.
+
+In Huancayo there also dwelt a Franciscan monk. He was an inveterate
+gamester, and was involved in pecuniary embarrassments. The Indians in
+the neighborhood of his dwelling-place were much attached to him, and
+frequently sent him presents of poultry, cheese, butter, &c. One day,
+after he had been a loser at the gaming-table, he complained bitterly of
+his misfortunes to an Indian, who was his particular friend. After some
+deliberation, the Indian observed, that possibly he could render him
+some assistance; and, accordingly, on the following evening, he brought
+him a large bag full of rich silver ore. This present was several times
+repeated; but the monk, not satisfied, pressed the Indian to show him
+the mine from whence the treasure was drawn. The Indian consented, and
+on an appointed night he came, accompanied by two of his comrades, to
+the dwelling of the Franciscan. They blindfolded him, and each in turn
+carried him on his shoulders to a distance of several leagues, into the
+mountain passes. At length they set him down, and the bandage being
+removed from his eyes, he discovered that he was in a small and somewhat
+shallow shaft, and was surrounded by bright masses of silver. He was
+allowed to take as much as he could carry, and when laden with the rich
+prize, he was again blindfolded, and conveyed home in the same manner as
+he had been brought to the mine. Whilst the Indians were conducting him
+home, he hit on the following stratagem. He unfastened his rosary, and
+here and there dropped one of the beads, hoping by this means to be
+enabled to trace his way back on the following day; but in the course of
+a couple of hours his Indian friend again knocked at his door, and
+presenting to him a handful of beads, said, "Father, you dropped your
+rosary on the way, and I have picked it up."
+
+When I was in Jauja, in the year 1841, an Indian whom I had previously
+known, from his having accompanied me on one of my journeys in the
+Sierra, came to me and asked me to lend him a crow-bar. I did so, and
+after a few days, when he returned it, I observed that the end was
+covered with silver. Some time afterwards I learned that this Indian had
+been imprisoned by order of the sub-prefect, because he had offered for
+sale some very rich silver ore, and on being questioned as to where he
+had obtained it, his answer was that he found it on the road; a tale,
+the truth of which was very naturally doubted. The following year, when
+I was again in Jauja, the Indian paid me another visit. He then informed
+me that he had been for several months confined in a dark dungeon and
+half-starved, because the sub-prefect wanted to compel him to reveal the
+situation of a mine which he knew of, but that he would not disclose the
+secret, and adhered firmly to the statement he had made of having found
+the ore. After a little further conversation, he became more
+communicative than I had any reason to expect, though he was fully
+convinced I would not betray him. He confessed to me that he actually
+knew of a large vein containing valuable silver, of which he showed me a
+specimen. He further told me that it was only when he was much in want
+of money that he had recourse to the mine, of which the shaft was not
+very deep; and, moreover, that after closing it up, he always carried
+the loose rubbish away to a distance of some miles, and then covered
+the opening so carefully with turf and cactus, that it was impossible
+for any one to discern it. This Indian dwelt in a miserable hut, about
+three leagues from Jauja, and his occupation was making wooden stirrups,
+which employment scarcely enabled him to earn a scanty subsistence. He
+assured me it was only when he was called upon to pay contributions,
+which the government exacts with merciless rigor, that he had recourse
+to the mine. He then extracted about half an aroba of ore, and sold it
+in Jauja, in order to pay the tax levied on him.
+
+I could quote many well-authenticated instances of the same kind; but
+the above examples sufficiently prove the reluctance of the Indians to
+disclose the secret of their hidden treasures, and their indifference
+about obtaining wealth for themselves. It is true that the Indians are
+not, in all parts of the country, so resolutely reserved as they are in
+Huancayo and Jauja, for all the most important mines have been made
+known to the Spaniards by the natives. But the Peruvian Indians are
+composed of many different races, and though all were united by the
+Incas into one nation, yet they still differ from each other in manners
+and character. The sentiment of hatred towards the whites and their
+descendants has not been kept up in an equal degree among them all. In
+proportion as some are friendly and social with the Creoles, others
+are reserved and distrustful. In general, the Indians regard with
+unfriendly feelings those whites who seek to trace out new mines; for
+they cherish a bitter recollection of the fate of Huari Capcha, the
+discoverer of the mines of Cerro de Pasco, who, it is said, was thrown
+into a dungeon by the Spaniard, Ugarte, and ended his days in
+captivity. I have not met with any proofs of the authenticity of this
+story, but I frequently heard it related by the Indians, who referred
+to it as their justification for withholding from the whites any
+directions for finding mines.
+
+But to return to Cerro de Pasco. That city has, by its wealth, become
+one of the most important in the Peruvian Republic; and under improved
+legislation, and a judicious mining system, it might be rendered still
+more prosperous and fully deserving of its title of "Treasury of
+Peru." Though from its situation Cerro de Pasco is cut off from the
+principal lines of communication with other parts of Peru, yet the
+city is itself the central point of four roads, on which there is
+considerable traffic. Westward runs the road to Lima, through the
+Quebrada of Canta, by which all the silver that is not contraband is
+transported to the capital. The silver, when melted into bars, is
+consigned to the care of the mule-drivers, merely on their giving a
+receipt for it; and in this manner they are sometimes entrusted with
+loads of the value of several hundred thousand dollars, which they
+convey to Lima unattended by any guards or escort. There is, however,
+no danger of their being plundered; for the robbers do not take the
+stamped bars of silver. The silver specie, on the other hand, which is
+sent from Lima, is escorted by a military guard as far as Llanga or
+Santa Rosa de Quibe. The escort is not, however, very adequate to
+resist the highway robbers, consisting of numerous bands of armed
+negroes. On the east is the road running through the Quebrada de
+Huarriaca to the town of Huanuco and the Huallaga Forests. The road on
+the north of Cerro de Pasco leads to the village of Huanuco el Viejo,
+one of the most remarkable places of Peru, being full of interesting
+ruins of the time of the Incas. From Huanuco the road leads to Huaraz,
+and from thence to the north coast. The south road passes over the
+level heights to Tarma, Jauja, and the other southern provinces.
+
+From the village of Pasco two roads diverge, the one leading to Lima,
+the other to Tarma. The former crosses the Pampa of Bombon and the
+Diezmo, and continues onward to the Pass of La Viuda. The latter leads
+by way of the Tambo Ninacaca, and the village of Carhuamayo[74] to
+Junin, passing near a very large lake, situated at the height of 13,000
+feet above the sea. This lake is the Laguna de Chinchaycocha,[75] which
+is twelve leagues long, and at its utmost breadth measures two leagues
+and a half. It is the largest of the South American lakes, next to the
+Laguna de Titicaca, which is eighty-four English miles long and
+forty-one broad. As the lake of Chinchaycocha loses by various outlets
+much more water than it receives from its tributary sources, it is
+evident that it must be fed by subterraneous springs. Its marshy banks
+are overgrown by totora (_Malacochæte Totora_), and are inhabited by
+numerous water fowl. The Indians entertain a superstitious belief that
+this lake is haunted by huge, fish-like animals, who at certain hours of
+the night leave their watery abode to prowl about the adjacent pasture
+lands, where they commit great havoc among the cattle. The southwestern
+end of the lake is intersected by a marshy piece of ground, interspersed
+with stones, called the Calzada, which forms a communication between the
+two banks of the lake. At the distance of about half a league from the
+lake is a village, which, under the Spanish domination, was called
+Reyes. Adjacent to it is the celebrated Pampa of Junin, which, on the
+24th of August, 1824, was the scene of a battle between the Spanish
+forces, commanded by General Canterac, and the insurgents, headed by Don
+Simon Bolivar. The result of this battle had an important influence on
+the destiny of Peru. It is generally believed that treachery in the
+Spanish army threw the victory into the hands of the insurgents. A few
+days prior to the battle Bolivar is said to have received, from the
+Spanish camp, a letter in cypher, which he transmitted for explanation
+to his minister, Monteagudo, in Cerro de Pasco. The answer received
+from the minister was, that the letter recommended Bolivar to attack
+the enemy without a moment's delay, for that on the part of the
+Spaniards the victory was insured to him. The bearer of the letter is
+still living, and he does not deny that he was in the secret of the
+whole plot. The insurgents were victorious, and in commemoration of
+their triumph they gave to the village of Reyes, and to the whole
+province, the name of Junin, calling them after the plain on which the
+battle was fought.
+
+From Junin, the road runs to the distance of eight leagues across a
+difficult level height, to Cacas, a hamlet containing only a few
+huts. From thence, it is continued three leagues further, through
+several narrow Quebradas, and finally terminates in the beautiful
+valley of Tarma.
+
+Many of the Indians in the neighborhood of Cerro de Pasco, especially
+those who dwell in the Puna, in the direction of Cacas, infest the roads
+for the purpose of plunder. They conceal themselves behind the rocks,
+where they lie in wait for travellers, whom they severely wound, and
+sometimes even kill, by stones hurled from their slings. When great
+boyas occur in the mines of the Cerro, these roads are so unsafe that it
+is not prudent to travel, except in well-armed parties. The solitary
+traveller who seeks a night's lodging in one of the Puna huts, exposes
+himself to great peril; for the host not unfrequently assassinates his
+sleeping guest. Nor is there much greater security in villages, such as
+Junin and Carhuamayo. Only a few years ago, the bodies of three
+travellers were found in the house of the Alcalde of Junin, the
+principal authority in the village. The travellers had sought shelter
+for the night, and were inhumanly murdered. Every year persons known to
+have been travelling in these parts, mysteriously disappear, and there
+is every reason to believe they have been murdered by the Indians. Many
+of these Indians are mine laborers, who, for their incorrigible
+turpitude, have been banished from the Cerro, and who live by pillage.
+
+I will close this chapter with a brief description of four-and-twenty
+hours which I passed during a journey in the wildest part of the Puna
+region.
+
+On the 12th of January, 1840, having passed the night in the hut of a
+Puna shepherd, I awoke next morning at day-break. The sun was just
+beginning to cast a light tinge of red on the snow-capped tops of the
+Cordillera. Through the aperture in the roof of the hut, which served
+the purpose of a chimney, there penetrated a feeble light, just
+sufficient to show the misery and poverty that prevailed in the interior
+of the habitation. I rose from the resting-place on which, only a few
+hours previously, I had stretched myself exhausted by cold and fatigue,
+and raising the cow-hide, which closed the doorway of the hut, I crept
+out to make preparations for the continuance of my journey.
+
+I saddled my mule, and put into one of the saddle-bags a small supply
+of food. Whilst I was thus engaged, one of those fierce little dogs
+which are domiciled in every Indian hut, slily watched my movements;
+and though he had rested at the foot of my bed during the night, yet he
+was only prevented, by the repeated threats of his master, from making
+an attack upon me. My Indian host handed me my gun; I paid for my
+night's lodging by a few reals and some paper cigars; and having asked
+him to direct me on my way, I rode off whilst he was expressing his
+gratitude, and his kind wishes in the words, "_Dios lo pague!_"
+
+The sky was overhung by a thick mist, and the snow which had fallen
+during the night covered the ground as far as the eye could reach. On my
+way I met an old Indian woman driving her sheep. The bleating flock
+moved slowly on, leaving a deep furrow in the snow, and seeming
+impatient till the genial sun should dispel the mist and dissolve the
+white covering which overspread their scanty pasture. A little further
+on I met the son of this same Indian shepherdess. He and his dog were
+busily engaged in catching partridges, destined to be sold on the
+following Sunday, in the nearest village.
+
+My road lay along a gentle acclivity, interspersed with rocks and
+swamps, which often obliged me to make wide detours. The swamps (or as
+the natives call them, _Attoladeros_) are dangerous enemies to
+travellers in the Puna, who, with their horses and mules, sometimes
+sink into them and perish. Even in the most open parts of the country
+it is not easy to discern the swamps, and the ground often sinks
+beneath the rider where he least expects it. At length the sun began to
+disperse the mist, and the snow gradually melted beneath his burning
+rays. Inspired with new vigor, I took a survey of the wild solitude
+around me. I was now on one of the level heights, about 14,000 feet
+above the sea. On both sides arose the high Cordillera summits crowned
+with eternal ice; detached peaks here and there towering to the skies.
+Behind me lay, deep and deeper, the dark valleys of the lower mountain
+regions, which, with the scarcely discernible Indian villages, receded
+in the distance, till they blended with the line of the horizon. Before
+me stretched the immeasurable extent of the level heights, at intervals
+broken by ridges of hills. It seemed as though here, in the snow plains
+of the Cordillera, Nature had breathed out her last breath. Here life
+and death meet together as it were to maintain the eternal struggle
+between being and annihilation.
+
+How little life had the sun yet wakened around me! The dull yellow Puna
+grass, scarcely the length of one's finger, blended its tint with the
+greenish hue of the glaciers. Advancing further on my onward course, how
+joyfully I greeted as old acquaintance the purple gentiana and the
+brown calceolaria! With what pleasure I counted the yellow blossoms of
+the echino-cactus! and presently the sight of the ananas-cactus pictured
+in my mind all the luxuriance of the primeval forests. These cacti were
+growing amidst rushes and mosses and syngeneses, which the frost had
+changed to a rusty brown hue. Not a butterfly fluttered in the rarefied
+atmosphere; no fly nor winged insect of any kind was discernible. A
+beetle or a toad creeping from their holes, or a lizard warming himself
+in the sun, are all that reward the search of the naturalist.
+
+As I journeyed onward, animate life awakened in rich variety around me.
+Birds, few in species, but numerous in individuals, everywhere met my
+view. Herds of vicuñas approached me with curious gaze, and then on a
+sudden fled with the swiftness of the wind. In the distance I observed
+stately groups of huanacus turning cautiously to look at me, and then
+passing on. The Puna stag (_tarush_) slowly advanced from his lair in
+the mountain recesses, and fixed on me his large, black, wondering eyes;
+whilst the nimble rock rabbits (_viscachas_) playfully disported and
+nibbled the scanty herbage growing in the mountain crevices.
+
+I had wandered for some hours admiring the varieties of life in this
+peculiar alpine region, when I stumbled against a dead mule. The poor
+animal had probably sunk beneath his burthen, and had been left by his
+driver to perish of cold and hunger. My presence startled three
+voracious condors, which were feeding on the dead carcass. These kings
+of the air proudly shook their crowned heads, and darted at me furious
+glances with their blood-red eyes. Two of them rose on their giant
+wings, and in narrowing circles hovered threateningly above my head,
+whilst the third, croaking fiercely, kept guard over the booty. I
+cocked my gun in readiness for defence, and cautiously rode past the
+menacing group, without the least desire of further disturbing their
+banquet. These condors were the only hostile animals I encountered in
+this part of the Puna.
+
+It was now two o'clock in the afternoon, and I had ridden on a
+continuous though gradual ascent since sunrise. My panting mule
+slackened his pace, and seemed unwilling to mount a rather steep ascent
+which we had now arrived at. To relieve him I dismounted, and began
+walking at a rapid pace. But I soon felt the influence of the rarefied
+atmosphere, and I experienced an oppressive sensation which I had never
+known before. I stood still for a few moments to recover myself, and
+then tried to advance; but an indescribable oppression overcame me. My
+heart throbbed audibly; my breathing was short and interrupted. A
+world's weight seemed to lie upon my chest; my lips swelled and burst;
+the capillary vessels of my eyelids gave way, and blood flowed from
+them. In a few moments my senses began to leave me. I could neither see,
+hear, nor feel distinctly. A grey mist floated before my eyes, and I
+felt myself involved in that struggle between life and death which, a
+short time before, I fancied I could discern on the face of nature. Had
+all the riches of earth, or the glories of heaven, awaited me a hundred
+feet higher, I could not have stretched out my hand towards them.
+
+In this half senseless state I lay stretched on the ground, until I felt
+sufficiently recovered to remount my mule. One of the Puna storms was
+now gathering, thunder and lightning accompanied a heavy fall of snow,
+which very soon lay a foot deep on the ground. In a short time I
+discovered that I had missed my way. Had I then known the Puna as well
+as I afterwards did, I should have shaped my course by the flight of
+birds. But unluckily I pursued the fresh track of a herd of vicuñas,
+which led me directly into a swamp. My mule sank, and was unable to
+extricate himself. I was almost in despair. Nevertheless, I cautiously
+alighted, and with incredible difficulty I succeeded in digging out with
+a dagger the mud in which the animal's legs were firmly fixed, and at
+length I got him back to a solid footing. After wandering about in
+various directions, I at length recovered the right path, which was
+marked by numerous skeletons protruding above the snow. These were the
+remains of beasts of burthen, which had perished on their journeys; a
+welcome, though an ominous guide to the wandering traveller. The clouds
+now suddenly separated, and the blazing light of the tropical sun glared
+dazzlingly on the white plain of snow. In a moment I felt my eyes
+stricken with _surumpe_.
+
+Suffering the most violent pain, and tormented by the apprehension of
+blindness, I with great difficulty pursued my way. My mule could
+scarcely wade through the sward, which was becoming more and more
+thick; and night was advancing. I had lost all feeling in my feet, my
+benumbed fingers could scarcely hold the bridle, and I well knew that
+the nearest point at which I could obtain the shelter of a human
+habitation was eight German miles distant. I was beginning to give
+myself up for lost, when I observed a cave beneath an overhanging rock.
+Mother Nature, in whose service I had undertaken my long and perilous
+wanderings, at that critical juncture, provided for me a retreat,
+though in one of her rudest sheltering places. I entered the cave,
+which protected me securely against the wind and the snow. Having
+unsaddled my mule, I made a bed of my saddle clothes and poncho. I tied
+the animal to a stone, and whilst he eagerly regaled himself with the
+little grass that was not buried beneath the snow, I satisfied my
+hunger with some roasted maize and cheese.
+
+Exhausted by the fatigue of the day, I lay down to sleep; but no sooner
+had I fallen into a slumber, than I was awaked by a violent smarting
+in my eyes, occasioned by the _surumpe_. There was no longer any hope
+of sleep. The night seemed endless. When the dawn of morning appeared,
+I made an effort to open my eyes, which were closed with coagulated
+blood. On looking around me I beheld all the horror of my situation. A
+human corpse had served for my pillow. Shuddering I went in search of
+my mule, for I was eager to hurry from this dismal spot; but my misery
+was not yet at an end. The poor beast lay dead on the ground; in his
+ravenous hunger he had eaten of the poisonous _garbancillo_. What
+could I do! In despair I turned back to the cave.
+
+The sun had now fully risen, and his genial rays diffused warmth over
+this frozen region. Somewhat roused by the reviving light and life
+around me, I began to examine the body of my lifeless companion. Haply,
+thought I, he may be one of my own race; a traveller who has perished
+of cold and hunger. No. He was a half-caste Indian, and many deadly
+wounds on his head showed that he had died of the slings of Indian
+robbers, who had stripped him even of his clothes, and concealed the
+body in the cave.
+
+I seized my gun and shot a rock rabbit, then collecting some fuel, I
+kindled a fire, and roasted the little animal, which afforded me a no
+very savory breakfast. I then waited patiently in the hope that some
+timely help would deliver me from my dreary situation.
+
+It was about noon. I heard a monotonous short cry. With joy I
+recognized the well-known sound. I climbed up the nearest rock, and
+looking down into a hollow, I perceived two Indians whom I had seen the
+day before, driving their llamas to the nearest mine works. I prevailed
+on them, by the gift of a little tobacco, to let me have one of their
+llamas to carry my luggage, and having strewed a few handfuls of earth
+on the corpse of the murdered man, I departed. The scene of the
+incidents above described was the Cave of Leñas, in the Altos which
+lead southward to the Quebrada of Huaitara.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[Footnote 70: A mine is said to be in _boya_ when it yields an
+unusually abundant supply of metal. Owing to the great number of mines
+in Cerro de Pasco, some of them are always in this prolific state.
+There are times when the _boyas_ bring such an influx of miners to
+Cerro de Pasco that the population is augmented to double or triple its
+ordinary amount.]
+
+[Footnote 71: Huachacas are the portions of ore which are distributed
+among the Indians at the time of the _boyas_, instead of their wages
+being paid in money.]
+
+[Footnote 72: A shop in which chicha, brandy, &c., are vended.]
+
+[Footnote 73: The date of Salcedo's death was May, 1669.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Ninacaca is 12,853 feet, and Carhuamayo 13,087 feet above
+the sea level.]
+
+[Footnote 75: It is also called the Laguna de Reyes, and the Laguna de
+Junin.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+The Sierra--Its Climate and Productions--Inhabitants--Trade--Eggs
+circulated as money--Mestizos in the Sierra--Their Idleness and Love of
+Gaming and Betting--Agriculture--The Quinua Plant, a substitute for
+Potatoes--Growth of Vegetables and Fruits in the Sierra--Rural
+Festivals at the Seasons of Sowing and Reaping--Skill of the Indians in
+various Handicrafts--Excess of Brandy-Drinking--Chicha--Disgusting mode
+of making it--Festivals of Saints--Dances and Bull-Fights--Celebration
+of Christmas-Day, New-Year's Day, Palm Sunday, and Good
+Friday--Contributions levied on the Indians--Tardy and Irregular
+Transmission of Letters--Trade in Mules--General Style of Building in
+the Towns and Villages of the Sierra--Ceja de la Montaña.
+
+
+The Peruvian highlands, or level heights, described in a previous
+chapter under the designation of the Puna, are intersected by numerous
+valleys situated several thousand feet lower than the level heights,
+from which they totally differ in character and aspect. These valleys
+are called the Sierra. The inhabitants of Lima usually comprehend under
+the term Sierra, the whole interior of Peru, and every Indian who is not
+an inhabitant of the coast, or of the forest regions, is called by them
+a _Serrano_. But strictly speaking, the Sierra includes only the valleys
+between the Cordillera and the Andes, and I shall here use the term in
+its more limited and proper sense.
+
+In the Sierra there are only two seasons throughout the year. The winter
+or rainy season commences in October; but the rains are neither so heavy
+nor so continuous as in the forest districts. The falls of rain seldom
+last longer than two or three days in succession. Storms of thunder and
+lightning are very frequent in the Sierra; they are not accompanied by
+snow as in the Puna, but often by hail. The thermometer never falls
+below +4° R., and during the daytime it is on the average at +11° R. In
+April the summer season sets in, bringing with it an uninterrupted
+succession of warm bright days. The nights in summer are colder than in
+winter. In a summer night the thermometer will sometimes fall below
+freezing point, and the cold is often very severe. About noon the heat
+is oppressive, though the average heat of the day does not exceed 13, 9°
+R. During the summer season the horizon is frequently obscured by heavy
+dark clouds, which seldom break over the valleys, but continue frowning
+over the hills. The natives call these portentous clouds _Misti
+Manchari_ (terror of the whites),[76] because the inhabitants of the
+coast always regard them as indicative of stormy weather.
+
+The climate of the Sierra favors the natural fruitfulness of the soil,
+which richly repays the labor of the husbandman; but plants, peculiar to
+the warm tropical regions, do not thrive well here. Prior to the
+European emigration to Peru, only maize, quinua (_Chenopodium Quinoa_,
+L.), and a few tuberous roots were grown in the Sierra; but since the
+Spanish conquest, the European cereals, lucerne, and various kinds of
+vegetables are cultivated with perfect success. But the eye of the
+traveller seeks in vain for those stately forests which clothe the
+mountainous districts of Europe; the barren acclivities afford nurture
+only for the agave-tree, and some very large species of cactus. Groups
+of willow trees (_Salix Humboldtii_), which attain the height of about
+twenty or twenty-five feet, together with the quinua-tree, form here and
+there little thickets on the banks of rivers.
+
+These regions, so favored by nature, have from the earliest period
+been the chosen dwelling-places of the Peruvians; and therefore in the
+Sierra, which, measured by its superficies, is not of very great
+extent, the population has increased more than in any other part of
+Peru. The valleys already contain numerous towns, villages, and
+hamlets, which would rise in importance, if they had greater facility
+of communication one with another. But they are surrounded on all
+sides by mountains, which can be crossed only by circuitous and
+dangerous routes. The few accessible pathways are alternately up
+rugged ascents, and down steep declivities; or winding through narrow
+ravines, nearly choked up by broken fragments of rock, they lead to
+the dreary and barren level heights.
+
+The Serranos, or inhabitants of the Sierra, especially those who dwell
+in the smaller villages, are chiefly Indians. In the towns and larger
+villages, the mestizos are numerous. The whites are very thinly
+scattered over the Sierra; but many of the mestizos are very anxious to
+be thought white Creoles. A rich serrano, who bears in his features the
+stamp of his Indian descent, will frequently try to pass himself off to
+a foreigner for an old Spaniard. Here, even more than on the coast, the
+mestizo is ambitious to rank himself on a level with the white, whilst
+he affects to regard the Indian as an inferior being.
+
+The few Spaniards who reside in the Sierra are men who have served in
+the Spanish army, and who, at the close of the war of independence,
+settled in that part of Peru. Many of them keep shops in the towns and
+villages, and others, by advantageous marriages, have become the
+possessors of haciendas. Those who have enriched themselves in this way
+are remarkable alike for ignorance and pride, and give themselves the
+most ludicrous airs of assumed dignity. The Creoles are the principal
+dealers in articles of European commerce. They journey to Lima twice or
+thrice a year to make their purchases, which consist in white and
+printed calicoes, woollen cloths, hard-wares, leather, soap, wax, and
+indigo. In the Sierra, indigo is a very considerable article of traffic:
+the Indians use a great quantity of it for dyeing their clothes; blue
+being their favorite color. Wax is also in great demand; for in the
+religious ceremonies, which are almost of daily occurrence, a vast
+quantity of tapers is consumed. The principal articles of traffic
+produced by the natives are woollen ponchos and blankets, unspun colored
+wool, saddle-cloths, stirrups and horseshoes. The last-named articles
+are purchased chiefly by the arrieros of the coast. It may seem strange
+that stores of horseshoes should be kept ready made; but so it is; for
+though in Europe we make the shoe to fit the hoof, yet in Peru it is the
+practice to cut the hoof to fit the shoe. On Yca brandy more money is
+expended than on every other article of trade combined. The quantity of
+that spirit annually transported to the Sierra exceeds belief. To see
+the Indians on Sundays and festival days thronging to the shops of the
+spirit dealers, with their jugs and bottles, one might fairly presume
+that more brandy is drunk in the Sierra in one day, than in many of the
+towns of Europe in a year. In some parts--for example, in the province
+of Jauja--hens' eggs are circulated as small coin, forty-eight or fifty
+being counted for a dollar. In the market-place and in the shops the
+Indians make most of their purchases with this brittle sort of money:
+one will give two or three eggs for brandy, another for indigo, and a
+third for cigars. These eggs are packed in boxes by the shop-keepers,
+and sent to Lima. From Jauja alone, several thousand loads of eggs are
+annually forwarded to the capital.
+
+Most of the mestizos possess little estates (_chacras_), the produce of
+which, consisting of grain, vegetables and clover, is disposed of in the
+towns of the Sierra, or in the mining districts of the Puna. As the
+profits arising from the chacras usually suffice to provide their owners
+with a comfortable subsistence, the mestizos pass their lives in
+idleness and pleasure. They spend the chief portion of the day in the
+true Spanish style, gossiping in groups in the streets, and wrapped in
+their mantles. When the state of the weather does not admit of this sort
+of out-door lounging the time is passed in gaming or cock-fighting. This
+latter diversion is no less in favor in the Sierra than in Lima. Such
+enormous bets are laid at these cock-fights, that the losses frequently
+entail ruin on persons of tolerably good fortune.
+
+The agriculture of the Sierra is wholly consigned to the Indians, who
+either cultivate their own lands, or for very poor wages labor for the
+mestizos. In September, the ground is ploughed and prepared for sowing,
+which operation is performed in October, and the reaping takes place in
+April or May. By this means the seed is left in the ground throughout
+all the rainy season. In February violent frost frequently comes on
+during the night, by which the seed is so much injured that the harvest
+fails, and the scarcity occasions severe suffering and even famine. When
+the cold clear nights create apprehensions of damage to the seed, the
+people form themselves into processions, and go through the villages
+and towns imploring the mercy of Heaven. In the dead of the night it is
+no unusual thing to be aroused by the ringing of bells. The inhabitants
+then get up and hurry to church, where the solemn processions are
+formed. Penitents clothed in sackcloth go through the streets, scourging
+themselves; and the Indians, in their native language, utter prayers and
+offer up vows to Heaven. For the space of some hours an incessant
+movement and agitation pervade the streets, and when day begins to dawn
+the people return to their homes, trembling between hope and fear. The
+fate of the Indians, when their harvest fails them, is indeed truly
+miserable, for, abstemious as they are, they can scarcely procure
+wherewith to satisfy their hunger. In the year 1840, which was a period
+of scarcity, I saw the starving Indian children roaming about the
+fields, and eating the grass like cattle.
+
+Maize is the species of grain most extensively cultivated in the Sierra:
+it is of excellent quality, though smaller than that grown on the coast.
+Wheat, though it thrives well, is cultivated only in a very limited
+quantity, and the bread made from it is exceedingly bad. The other
+species of European grain, barley excepted, are unknown to the Serranos.
+To compensate for the want of them, they have the quinua (_Chenopodium
+Quinoa_, L.), which is at once a nutritious, wholesome, and pleasant
+article of food. The leaves of this plant, before it attains full
+maturity, are eaten like spinach; but it is the seeds which are most
+generally used as food. They are prepared in a variety of ways, but most
+frequently boiled in milk or in broth, and sometimes cooked with cheese
+and Spanish pepper. The dried stems of the quinua are used as fuel.
+Experiments in the cultivation of this plant have been tried in some
+parts of Germany, and with considerable success. It would appear,
+however, that its flavor is not much liked; a circumstance rather
+surprising to the traveller who has tasted it in Peru, where it is
+regarded in the light of a delicacy. It were to be wished that the
+general cultivation of the quinua could be introduced throughout Europe;
+for during the prevalence of the potatoe disease this plant would be
+found of the greatest utility. It is a well-known fact that potatoes and
+tea, two articles now in such universal use, were not liked on their
+first introduction into Europe. The quinua plant, which yields a
+wholesome article of food, would thrive perfectly in our hemisphere,
+and, though in its hitherto limited trial it has not found favor, there
+is no reason to conclude that it may not at a future time become an
+object of general consumption.
+
+Four kinds of tuberous plants are successfully cultivated in the Sierra;
+viz., the potatoe, the ulluco, the oca, and the mashua. Of potatoes
+there are several varieties, and all grow in perfection. The ulluco
+(_Tropæolum tuberosum_) is smaller than the potatoe, and is very various
+in its form, being either round, oblong, straight, or curved. The skin
+is thin, and of a reddish-yellow color, and the inside is green. When
+simply boiled in water it is insipid, but is very savory when cooked as
+a _picante_. The oca (_Oxalis tuberosa_) is an oval-shaped root; the
+skin pale red, and the inside white. It is watery, and has a sweetish
+taste; for which reason it is much liked by the Peruvians. The mashua is
+the root of a plant as yet unknown to botanists. It is cultivated and
+cooked in the same manner as those already described. In form, however,
+it differs from them all. It is of a flat pyramidal shape, and the lower
+end terminates in a fibrous point. It is watery, and insipid to the
+taste; but is nevertheless much eaten by the Serranos. As the mashua
+roots will not keep, they are not transported from the places in which
+they are grown, and, therefore, are not known in Lima. The Indians use
+the mashua as a medicine: they consider it an efficacious remedy in
+cases of dropsy, indigestion, and dysentery.
+
+The vegetables and fruits of Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm
+Sierra valleys; yet but few of them have been transplanted thither, and
+those few are but little esteemed. Some of the cabbage and salad
+species, together with onions, garlic, and several kinds of pulse, are
+all that are cultivated. It is remarkable that in these regions no
+indigenous fruit-trees are to be seen. The only fruit really belonging
+to the Sierra is the Tuna. In some of the sheltered ravines, or, as they
+are called, Quebradas, oranges, lemons, and granadillas flourish at the
+height of 10,000 feet above sea level. The fruits which have been
+transplanted from Europe are for the most part indifferent, as not the
+least care is bestowed on their cultivation. The effect of this neglect
+is particularly obvious in apples, pears, and damson-plums. Cherries and
+chestnuts are unknown in these parts; but on the other hand, peaches and
+apricots (_duraznos_) grow in amazing abundance, and many very fine
+species are found, especially in the southern provinces. Excursions to
+the _duraznales_ (apricot gardens), in the months of April and May, to
+eat the ripe fruit fresh plucked from the trees, are among the most
+favorite recreations of the Serranos. Some of the Sierra districts are
+celebrated throughout Peru for their abundance of fruit. This luxuriance
+is particularly remarkable in several of the deep valleys, for instance,
+in Huanta; but, strictly speaking, these deep valleys partake less of
+the character of the Sierra than of the higher forest regions.
+
+The periods of sowing and reaping are celebrated by the Indians with
+merry-making, a custom which has descended from the time of the Incas,
+when those periods corresponded with the two great divisions of the
+year. Even a scanty harvest, an event of frequent occurrence, occasions
+no interruption to these rustic festivals. Bands of music, consisting of
+trumpets, fiddles, and flutes, play whilst the corn is cut down, and
+during their work, the laborers freely regale themselves with chicha,
+huge barrels of which are placed for their unrestrained use. The
+consequence is, that they are almost continually intoxicated; and yet
+whilst in this state it is no unusual thing to see them dancing with
+heavy loads of sheaves on their heads. Their dinner is cooked in the
+fields, in large pots and kettles, and to partake of it they all sit
+down on the ground in rows, one behind another. The wheat and barley
+when cut are spread out in little heaps on the ground, and, instead of
+thrashing, the grain is pressed out of the ears by the tramping of
+horses, the animals being driven round and round in a circle. As soon as
+this process is ended, the agents of the Government and the priests make
+their appearance to claim the tithes.
+
+In the larger villages and towns of the Sierra, the Indians frequently
+employ themselves in handicrafts, in some of which they attain a high
+degree of perfection, for they are not wanting either in talent or in
+mechanical dexterity. As goldsmiths they are remarkably skilful, and in
+this branch of industry they produce work which, for taste and
+exquisite finish, cannot be excelled in the capitals of Europe. The
+various kinds of vessels and figures of silver wire (_filigranas_), made
+by the cholos in Ayacucho, have always been favorite articles of
+ornament in Spain. The Indians of Jauja are very skilful in working
+iron, and the objects of their workmanship are much esteemed throughout
+Peru. Of leather also they make various things in very beautiful style;
+and saddle-cloths, bridles, &c., of their manufacture are much more
+elegant and infinitely cheaper than those made in Lima. In Cuzco and the
+adjacent provinces many of the Indians evince considerable talent in
+oil-painting. Their productions in this way are, of course, far from
+being master-pieces; but when we look on the paintings which decorate
+their churches, and reflect that the artists have been shut out from the
+advantages of education and study; and moreover, when we consider the
+coarse materials with which the pictures have been painted, it must be
+acknowledged that they indicate a degree of talent, which, if duly
+cultivated, would soar far above mediocrity. In Tarma and its
+neighborhood the natives weave an exquisitely fine description of
+woollen cloth. They make ponchos of vicuña wool, which sell for 100 or
+120 dollars each, and which are equal to the finest European cloth.
+The beauty of these Indian textures is truly wonderful, considering
+the rude process of weaving practised by the natives. They work
+various colors, figures, and inscriptions in the cloth, and do all
+this with a rapidity which equals the operations of ordinary looms.
+The most valuable textures they weave are those produced from the wool
+of the vicuña and the alpaco. They likewise make very fine textures of
+cotton and silk. It is curious that the Indians of each province have
+some particular branch of industry to which they exclusively apply
+themselves, to the neglect of all others.
+
+The Serranos are a very sociable people. In the towns they keep up a
+continual round of evening parties, in which singing and dancing are
+favorite amusements; but on these occasions they indulge in
+brandy-drinking to a terrible excess. As soon as a party is assembled,
+bottles and glasses are introduced, and each individual, ladies as well
+as gentlemen, drinks to the health of the company. For a party of thirty
+or more persons, not more than three or four glasses are brought in, so
+that one glass is passed repeatedly from hand to hand, and from mouth to
+mouth. The quantity of brandy drunk at one of the evening parties called
+in the Sierra _Jaranas_, is almost incredible. According to my
+observation, I should say that a bottle to each individual, ladies
+included, is a fair average estimate, the bottles being of the size of
+those used in Europe for claret. In the year 1839, whilst I was residing
+for a time in one of the largest towns of the Sierra, a ball was given
+in honor of the Chilian General Bulnes; on that occasion the brandy
+flowed in such quantities, that, when morning came, some members of the
+company were found lying on the floor of the ball-room in a state of
+intoxication. These facts naturally create an impression very
+unfavorable to the inhabitants of the Sierra; but a due allowance must
+be made for the want of education and the force of habit on the part of
+those who fall into these excesses. These people possess so many
+excellent moral qualities, that it would be unjust to condemn them
+solely on account of these orgies. The Serrano is far from being
+addicted to habitual drunkenness, notwithstanding his intemperate use of
+strong drinks amidst the excitement of company.
+
+But if the vice of excessive drinking be occasionally indulged in among
+the better class of people of the Sierra, it is much more frequent among
+the Indian inhabitants. Every one of their often-recurring festivals is
+celebrated by a drinking bout, at which enormous quantities of brandy
+and chicha are consumed. In some districts of the Sierra the chicha is
+prepared in a peculiar and very disgusting manner by the Indians.
+Instead of crushing the _jora_ (dried maize-grain) between two stones,
+which is the usual method, the Indians bruise it with their teeth. For
+this purpose a group of men and women range themselves in a circle round
+a heap of _jora_; each gathers up a handful, chews it, and then ejects
+it from the mouth into a vessel allotted for its reception. This mass,
+after being boiled in water, and left to ferment, is the much admired
+_chicha mascada_ (that is to say, _chewed chicha_), the flavor of which
+is said to surpass that of the same beverage made in any other way. But
+they who have been eye-witnesses of the disgusting process, and who bear
+in mind various other preparations of Indian cookery in which the teeth
+perform a part, require some fortitude ere they yield to the pressing
+invitation of the hospitable Serrano, and taste the proffered nectar.
+
+When it is wished to make the chicha particularly strong and well
+flavored, it is poured into an earthen jar along with several pounds of
+beef. This jar is made perfectly air-tight, and buried several feet deep
+in the ground, where it is left for the space of several years. On the
+birth of a child it is customary to bury a _botija_ full of chicha,
+which, on the marriage of the same child, is opened and drunk. This
+chicha has a very agreeable flavor, but is so exceedingly potent, that a
+single glass of it is sufficient to intoxicate a practised
+chicha-drinker, or, as they say in the country, a _chichero_.
+
+Every village in the Sierra has its own tutelary saint, whose festival
+is celebrated with great solemnity. Bull-fights and dances constitute
+the principal diversions on these occasions. These dances are relics of
+the _Raymí_ or monthly dances, by which the Incas used to mark the
+divisions of time; and they are among the most interesting customs
+peculiar to these parts of Peru. The dancers wear dresses similar to
+those worn by the ancient Peruvians when they took part in the _Raymí_.
+Their faces and arms are painted in various colors, and they wear
+feather caps and feather ponchos. They have bracelets and anklets, and
+they are armed with clubs, wooden swords, and bows and arrows. Their
+music, too, is also similar to that of their forefathers. Their
+instruments consist of a sort of pipe or flute made of reed, and a drum
+composed simply of a hoop with a skin stretched upon it. To the
+inharmonious sound of these instruments, accompanying monotonous Quichua
+songs, the dances commence with those solemn movements with which the
+Incas used to worship the sun: they then suddenly assume a more joyous
+character, and at last change to the wild war-dance, in which the mimic
+contest, stimulated by copious libations of chicha, frequently ends in a
+real fight. In the larger towns, where the Mestizo portion of the
+population predominates, these dances are discouraged, and in course of
+time they will probably be entirely discontinued, though they are
+scrupulously adhered to by the Indians.
+
+On festival days, bull-fights constitute the most favorite popular
+diversion. In the Sierra this barbarous sport is conducted with even
+more recklessness and cruelty than in the _Corridas_ of Lima. Every
+occasion on which an entertainment of this sort takes place is attended
+with loss of life, and sometimes the sacrifice both of men and horses is
+very considerable. During my residence in Jauja, fourteen Indians and
+nineteen horses were killed or seriously wounded in a bull-fight; yet
+catastrophes of this kind appear to make no impression on the people.
+
+Some of the church festivals are celebrated by the Indians of the
+Sierra, in a manner which imparts a peculiar coloring to the religious
+solemnities. In the midnight mass on Christmas Eve, they imitate in the
+churches the sounds made by various animals. The singing of birds, the
+crowing of cocks, the braying of asses, the bleating of sheep, &c., are
+simulated so perfectly, that a stranger is inclined to believe that the
+animals have assembled in the temple to participate in the solemnity. At
+the termination of the mass, troops of women perambulate the streets,
+during the remainder of the night. Their long black hair flows loosely
+over their bare shoulders; and in their hands they carry poles with
+long fluttering strips of paper fixed to the ends of them. They
+occasionally dance and sing peculiarly beautiful melodies, accompanied
+by a harp, a fiddle, and a flute; and they mark the measure of the
+music by the movement of their poles.
+
+The celebration of Christmas-day is marked by the appearance of what are
+termed the _Negritos_. These are Indians, with their faces concealed by
+hideous negro masks. Their dress consists of a loose red robe, richly
+wrought with gold and silver thread, white pantaloons, and their hats
+are adorned with waving black feathers. In their hands they carry gourd
+bottles, painted in various gay colors, and containing dried seeds.
+Whilst they sing, the _Negritos_ shake these gourds, and mark the time
+by the rattling of the dried seeds. They perform the dances of the
+Guinea negroes, and imitate the attitudes and language of a race which
+they hold in abhorrence and contempt. For the space of three days and
+nights these negritos parade the streets, entering the houses and
+demanding chicha and brandy, with which the inhabitants are glad to
+supply them, to avoid violence and insult.
+
+On New Year's Day other groups of mummers, called _Corcobados_,
+perambulate the streets. They are enveloped in cloaks of coarse grey
+woollen cloth, their head-gear consists of an old vicuña hat, with a
+horse's tail dangling behind. Their features are disguised by ludicrous
+masks with long beards; and, bestriding long sticks or poles, they move
+about accompanied by burlesque music. Every remarkable incident that has
+occurred in the families of the town during the course of the year, is
+made the subject of a song in the Quichua language; and these songs are
+sung in the streets by the _Corcobados_. Matrimonial quarrels are
+favorite subjects, and are always painted with high comic effect in
+these satirical songs. The Corcobados go about for two days; and they
+usually wind up their performances by drinking and fighting. When two
+groups of these Corcobados meet together, and the one party assails with
+ridicule anything which the other is disposed to defend, a terrible
+affray usually ensues, and the sticks which have served as hobby-horses,
+are converted into weapons of attack.
+
+In order to facilitate the conversion of the idolatrous Indians, the
+Spanish monks who accompanied Pizarro's army, sought to render the
+Christian religion as attractive as possible in the eyes of the heathen
+aborigines of Peru. With this view they conceived the idea of
+dramatizing certain scenes in the life of Christ, and having them
+represented in the churches. In the larger towns these performances have
+long since been discontinued, but they are still kept up in most of the
+villages of the Sierra; indeed the efforts made by enlightened
+ecclesiastics for their suppression, have been met with violent
+opposition on the part of the Indians.
+
+On Palm Sunday, an image of the Saviour seated on an ass is paraded
+about the principal streets of the town or village. The Indians strew
+twigs of palm over the animal, and contend one with another for the
+honor of throwing their ponchos down on the ground, in order that the
+ass may walk over them. The animal employed in this ceremony is, when
+very young, singled out for the purpose, and is never suffered to carry
+any burthen save the holy image. He is fed by the people, and at every
+door at which he stops, the inmates of the house pamper him up with the
+best fodder they can procure. The ass is looked upon as something almost
+sacred, and is never named by any other appellation than the _Burro de
+Nuestro Señor_ (our Lord's ass). In some villages I have seen these
+animals so fat that they were scarcely able to walk.
+
+Good Friday is solemnized in a manner the effect of which, to the
+unprejudiced foreigner, is partly burlesque and partly seriously
+impressive. From the early dawn of morning the church is thronged with
+Indians, who spend the day in fasting and prayer. At two in the
+afternoon a large image of the Saviour is brought from the sacristy and
+laid down in front of the altar. Immediately all the persons in the
+church rush forward with pieces of cotton to touch the wounds. This
+gives rise to a struggle, in which angry words and blows are
+interchanged; in short, there ensues a disgraceful scene of uproar,
+which is only checked by the interposition of one of the priests. Order
+being restored, the sacred image is fixed on the cross by three very
+large silver nails, and the head is encircled by a rich silver crown. On
+each side are the crosses of the two thieves. Having gaped at this
+spectacle to their hearts' content, the cholos retire from the church.
+At eight in the evening they reassemble to witness the solemn ceremony
+of taking down the Saviour from the cross. The church is then
+brilliantly lighted up. At the foot of the cross stand four white-robed
+priests, called _los Santos Varones_ (the holy men), whose office it is
+to take down the image. At a little distance from them, on a sort of
+stage or platform, stands a figure representing the Virgin Mary. This
+figure is dressed in black, with a white cap on its head. A priest, in a
+long discourse, explains the scene to the assembled people, and at the
+close of the address, turning to the Santos Varones, he says, "Ye holy
+men, ascend the ladders of the cross, and bring down the body of the
+Redeemer!" Two of the Santos Varones mount with hammers in their hands,
+and the priest then says, "Ye holy man, on the right of the Saviour,
+strike the first blow on the nail of the hand, and take it out!" The
+command is obeyed, and no sooner is the stroke of the hammer heard, than
+deep groans and sounds of anguish resound through the church; whilst the
+cry of "_Misericordia! misericordia!_" repeated by a thousand imploring
+voices, produces an indescribable sensation of awe and melancholy. The
+nail is handed to one of the priests standing at the foot of the altar,
+who transfers it to another, and this one in his turn presents it to the
+figure of the Virgin. To that figure the priest then turns and addresses
+himself, saying: "Thou afflicted mother, approach and receive the nail
+which pierced the right hand of thy holy Son!" The priest steps forward
+a few paces, and the figure, by some concealed mechanism, advances to
+meet him, receives the nail with both hands, lays it on a silver plate,
+dries its eyes, and then returns to its place in the middle of the
+platform. The same ceremony is repeated when the two other nails are
+taken out. Throughout the whole performance of these solemnities, an
+uninterrupted groaning and howling is kept up by the Indians, who at
+every stroke of the hammer raise their cries of _Misericordia!_ These
+sounds of anguish reach their climax when the priest consigns the body
+of the Saviour to the charge of the Virgin. The image is laid in a
+coffin tastefully adorned with flowers, which, together with the figure
+of the Virgin Mary, is paraded through the streets. Whilst this
+nocturnal procession, lighted by thousands of wax tapers, is making the
+circuit of the town, a party of Indians busy themselves in erecting
+before the church door twelve arches decorated with flowers. Between
+every two of the arches they lay flowers on the ground, arranging them
+in various figures and designs. These flower-carpets are singularly
+ingenious and pretty. Each one is the work of two cholos, neither of
+whom seems to bestow any attention to what his comrade is doing; and
+yet, with a wonderful harmony of operation, they create the most
+tasteful designs--arabesques, animals, and landscapes, which grow, as it
+were by magic, under their hands. Whilst I was in Tarma, I was at once
+interested and astonished to observe on one of these flower-carpets the
+figure of the Austrian double eagle. On inquiry I learned from an Indian
+that it had been copied from the quicksilver jars, exported from Idria
+to Peru. On the return of the procession to the church, a hymn, with
+harp accompaniment, is sung to the Virgin, as the figure is carried
+under the arches of flowers. The bier of the Saviour is then deposited
+in the church, where it is watched throughout the night.
+
+On the following morning, at four o'clock, the ceremony of hanging Judas
+takes place in front of the church. A figure of Judas, the size of
+life, is filled with squibs and crackers, and is frequently made to bear
+a resemblance to some obnoxious inhabitant of the place. After the match
+is applied to the combustible figure, the cholos dance around it, and
+exult in the blowing up of their enemy.
+
+In the Sierra, as well as on the coast, the priests are usually the
+tyrants rather than the guardians of their flocks; and they would
+frequently be the objects of hatred and vengeance but for the
+deep-rooted and almost idolatrous reverence which the Indians cherish
+for priestcraft. It is disgusting to see the Peruvian priests, who
+usually treat the Indians like brutes, behaving with the most degrading
+servility when they want to get money from them. The love of the Indians
+for strong drinks is a vice which the priests turn to their own
+advantage. For the sake of the fees they frequently order religious
+festivals, which are joyfully hailed by the Indians, because they never
+fail to end in drinking bouts.
+
+Added to the ill treatment of the priests, the Indians are most unjustly
+oppressed by the civil authorities. In the frequent movements of troops
+from one place to another, they are exposed to great losses and
+vexations. They are compelled to perform the hardest duties without
+payment, and often the produce of their fields is laid under
+contribution, or their horses and mules are pressed into the service of
+the military. When intelligence is received of the march of a battalion,
+the natives convey their cattle to some remote place of concealment in
+the mountains, for they seldom recover possession of them if once they
+fall into the hands of the soldiery.
+
+Every fortnight a mail is despatched with letters from Lima to Tarma,
+Jauja, Huancavelica, Ayacucha, Cuzco, and into Bolivia; another
+proceeds to the northern provinces; a third to Arequipa and the
+southern provinces; and every week one is despatched to Cerro de
+Pasco. In Lima, the letter-bag is consigned to the charge of an
+Indian, who conveys it on the back of a mule to the next station,[77]
+where it is received by another Indian; and in this manner, handed
+from cholo to cholo, the letter-bag traverses the whole of its
+destined route, unaccompanied by an official courier. As soon as the
+mail arrives at a station, a flag is displayed at the house of the
+post-master, to intimate to those who expect letters that they may
+receive them; for they are not sent round to the persons to whom they
+are addressed, and it is sometimes even a favor to get them three or
+four days after their arrival. The Peruvian post is as tardy as it is
+ill-regulated. On one of my journeys, I started from Lima two days
+after the departure of the mail. On the road I overtook and passed the
+Indian who had charge of the letters, and, without hurrying myself, I
+arrived in Tarma a day and a half before him. Ascending the
+Cordillera, I once met an Indian very leisurely driving his ass before
+him with the mail-bag fastened to its back. Between the towns which do
+not lie in the regular line of route, there is no post-office
+communication; for example, between Pasco and Caxamarca, or between
+Pasco and Tarma, or Jauja; and when it is wished to despatch letters
+from one to another of these towns, private messengers must be
+employed. The consequence is, that business, which in Europe would be
+conducted through the medium of correspondence, can be arranged only
+by personal communication in Peru. Travelling is difficult, but not
+very expensive, as every one possesses horses or mules.
+
+The best mules employed in the Sierra are obtained from the province
+of Tucuman in Buenos Ayres. Formerly the arrieros used annually to
+bring droves of several thousand mules through Bolivia and the
+Peruvian Sierra, selling as many as they could on the way, and taking
+to Cerro de Pasco those that remained unsold. During the Spanish
+domination, the mule trade was in the hands of the Government, to
+whose agents it afforded ample opportunity for the exercise of
+injustice and extortion. It was one of the most oppressive of the
+_repartimientos_.[78] Every Indian was compelled to purchase a mule,
+and was not allowed even the privilege of choosing the animal. The
+mules were distributed by the authorities, and were tied to the doors
+of the houses for whose occupants they were destined. After the
+distribution of the mules, a collector went round to receive the
+payment. During the war in Buenos Ayres the traffic in mules suffered
+very considerably. For the space of twelve years not a mule had been
+brought from that part of South America to Peru, when in 1840 the
+Tucumanians revisited the Sierra with their droves of mules. They were
+joyfully welcomed by the Serranos, who gave good prices for the
+animals, and since then the traffic has begun to revive.
+
+In tracing the characteristic features of the Sierra, I have as far as
+possible confined myself to generalities, and I will not now weary the
+reader by entering upon a minute description of particular towns and
+villages. All are built pretty nearly after one model. The large
+quadrangular Plaza is closed on three of its sides with buildings, among
+which there is always the Government house (_cabildo_), and the public
+jail; the fourth side is occupied by a church. From this Plaza run in
+straight lines eight streets, more or less broad, and these streets are
+crossed at right angles by others; all presenting the same uniformity as
+in Lima. The houses are roomy, surrounded by court-yards, and consist of
+a ground-floor and a story above, but very frequently of the
+ground-floor only. The walls are of brick, and the roofs are tiled.
+The churches are in very bad taste, with the exception of a few in the
+larger towns, which have a good appearance externally, and are richly
+decorated within. The smaller Indian villages are poor and dirty, and
+are built with little attention to regularity. But even in them the
+quadrangular Plaza is never wanting, and at least four straight
+streets issue from it.
+
+The Sierra is by far the most populous part of Peru. The banks of the
+rivers flowing through the fertile valleys are thickly clustered with
+villages, which give a peculiar charm to the landscape, doubly pleasing
+to the eye of the traveller who comes from the barren parts of the
+country. The cultivated lands afford evidence of progressive
+improvement, and it is easy to imagine the flourishing condition to
+which this country might arrive with increased population.
+
+From the Sierra two separate roads lead to the eastern declivity of the
+Andes. One lies along the banks of the mountain rivers, and the other
+passes over the ridges of the mountains. The first way is very
+difficult, and scarcely practicable, for in some parts the streams flow
+through narrow ravines, bordered on each side by perpendicular rocks,
+and occasionally their course is hidden amidst impenetrable forests. The
+other way, across the mountains, leads again into the Puna region, and
+from thence over the steep ridges of the Andes to their barren summits.
+Descending from these summits, we arrive on the sharp ridges of one of
+the many side branches of the Puna Cordillera, which run eastward. The
+Peruvians call these sharp mountain ridges _Cuchillas_ (knives). After
+crossing the Andes, and descending a few hundred feet lower, in the
+direction of the east, the traveller beholds a country totally different
+from that which he left on the western declivity of the mountains. On
+the eastern side the soil is richly covered with vegetation. From the
+cuchillas the road ascends to some higher ridges, crowned with stunted
+trees and brushwood, which, gradually spreading upward, blend with the
+high forests. These wooded ridges are called by the natives _Ceja de la
+Montaña_ (the mist of the mountains). In these regions the climate is
+generally more mild than in the Sierra, for the mercury never falls to
+freezing point, and in the middle part of the day it never rises so
+high as in the warm Sierra valleys. Throughout the whole year the
+_Ceja de la Montaña_ is overshadowed by thick mists, rising from the
+rivers in the valleys. In the dry season these mists are absorbed by
+the sun's rays, but in winter they float in thick clouds over the
+hills, and discharge themselves in endless torrents of rain. The damp
+vapors have an injurious effect on the health of the inhabitants of
+these districts, which are, however, very thinly populated, as the
+constant moisture unfits the soil for the cultivation of anything
+except potatoes. The pure alpine air of the Puna is preferred by the
+Indians to the vapory atmosphere of the Ceja.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 76: The Indians apply the designation _Misti_, meaning
+_Mestizo_, to all persons except Indians or Negroes, whether they be
+Europeans or White Creoles.]
+
+[Footnote 77: The distance from one station to another varies from six
+to twelve miles.]
+
+[Footnote 78: _Repartimientos_ (literally, distributions) were the
+compulsory sale of articles by the provincial authorities.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+Road to the Primeval Forests--Barbacoas, or Indian Suspension
+Bridges--Vegetation--Hollow Passes--Zoology--the
+Montaña--Plantations--Inhabitants--Trade in Peruvian Bark--Wandering
+Indians--Wild Indians or Indios Bravos--Languages, Manners, and
+Customs of the Indios Bravos--Dress--Warlike Weapons and Hunting
+Arms--Dwellings--Religion--Physical formation of the Wild Indian
+Tribes--Animals of the Aboriginal Forests--Mammalia--Hunting the
+Ounce--Birds--Amphibia--Poisonous Serpents--Huaco--Insects--Plants.
+
+
+Leaving Ceja de la Montaña, we will trace the route to the Aboriginal
+forests, which extend eastwardly from the bases of the Andes. The whole
+plain is overspread by a thick veil of mist, which does not disperse
+until about noon, and then an undulating dark green canopy clouds the
+vapory atmosphere. A European, whose heart throbs at the bare idea of
+one of those vast virgin forests, gazes anxiously forward on the
+boundless distance, and finds the pace of his cautious mule too tardy
+for his impatient hopes and wishes. He beholds in perspective the goal
+of his long journey. Nature, in all her virginal freshness and grandeur,
+opens to his astonished eyes, and he feels a sensation of delight he
+never before experienced. Regardless of present toil and danger, he sees
+only the pleasure to come. But he is soon drawn back to cool reality,
+and is forcibly reminded of the truth, that every enjoyment must be
+earned by labor. The road is broken, narrow, and steep; over the woody
+sides of the hill it is easily passable; but as soon as it begins to
+descend, it presents all those difficulties which have been
+interestingly described by the early travellers in Peru. The scanty
+population of the surrounding districts, the native listlessness of the
+Indians, and their indifference to the conveniences of life, are
+obstacles to the making of roads which might be passable without
+difficulty and danger. However, where nature from the state of the
+country has compelled man to establish a communication, it is executed
+in the most rude and unsatisfactory manner. A most decided proof of this
+is apparent in the bridges called _barbacoas_, which are constructed
+where the way is through a _derumbo_, or a small narrow mountain-pass,
+or where there is an obstruction caused by a rock which cannot be passed
+circuitously. The barbacoas are constructed in the following manner.
+Stakes from three to three and a half feet long are driven into the
+ground, or into the crevices of rocks. Over the ends of these stakes are
+fastened strong branches of trees, the interstices are filled up with
+mud, and the whole is covered by a sort of matting composed of plaited
+branches and reeds. If the ground admits of it, which is seldom the
+case, a pile of stones is built up beneath the barbacoa, extending to at
+least one half its breadth. When it is considered that there is,
+probably, on the one side of this bridge, a rock inclining at a very
+acute angle, or an almost perpendicular declivity of a hill of loose
+earth, and that on the other side there yawns a deep abyss against which
+there is not the least protection, the traveller may well be pardoned if
+he shudders as he passes over the creaking and shaking barbacoa. These
+fragile bridges are often so much worn, that the feet of the mules slip
+through the layers of mud and reeds, and whilst making efforts to
+disengage themselves, the animals fall over the edge of the barbacoa,
+and are hurled into the chasm below, dragging down the crazy structure
+along with them. In consequence of these accidents, the way is often for
+weeks, or even months, impassable.
+
+In the construction of these rude bridges, I observed that the Indians,
+in their simplicity, always faithfully copy their great instructress,
+nature. The majority of the plants growing in these regions belong, if I
+may use the expression, to an aërial vegetation. The small, gnarled,
+low-branched trees, have often scarcely one half of their roots in the
+earth: the other half spreads over the surface of the soil; then winding
+round the roots or branches of some neighboring plant, fastens on it,
+and intimately uniting with it, forms a kind of suspension bridge, over
+which the intertwining of numerous luxuriant climbing plants makes a
+strong, impenetrable network. All the trees and shrubs are covered with
+innumerable parasites, which, in the higher regions, are met with in
+their smaller forms, as lichens, mosses, &c.; but lower down, in the
+course of the various transformations they undergo, they appear in
+larger development.
+
+The whole vegetable kingdom here is stamped by a peculiar character. It
+presents immense fulness and luxuriance: it spreads widely, with but
+little upward development, rising on the average only a few feet above
+the earth. Trees, shrubs, and tendrils, in endless complication of
+color, entwine together, sometimes fostering, sometimes crushing each
+other. Out of the remains of the dead arises a new generation, with an
+increase of vital impulse. It seems as though the ice-crowned Andes
+looked down with envy on the luxuriant vegetation of the forests, and
+sought to blight it by sending down cold, nightly winds. The low
+temperature of the night counteracts that extreme development which
+the humidity of the soil and the great heat of the day promote. But
+what the vegetation loses in upward growth it gains in superficial
+extension, and thereby it secures more protection against the
+ever-alternating temperature.
+
+The further we descend the eastern declivity, the more difficult becomes
+the way. During the rainy season deep fissures are worked out by the
+flow of waters; the ground is slippery and full of holes. The sides of
+these hollow passes are often so close together that the rider cannot
+keep his legs down on each side of his mule, and is obliged to raise up
+his feet and thrust them forward. When beasts of burthen, coming in
+opposite directions, meet in these places, the direst confusion ensues,
+and frequently sanguinary conflicts arise among the Indians. The weaker
+party are then obliged to unload their mules, and the poor beasts are
+dragged backward by their hind legs, until they reach a point at which
+there is sufficient space for the others to pass. When I was proceeding
+through one of these cavities on Christmas-eve, 1840, I encountered a
+heavily laden ass coming down a steep declivity. Ere I had time to leap
+from my saddle, the ass came direct upon me with such force that my
+horse was driven backwards by the concussion, and I was thrown. Ten
+months afterwards, another encounter of the same kind threatened me with
+a similar disaster, and to save myself I had no alternative but to shoot
+the ass. The Indian who was driving the animal neglected the usual
+warning cry, given by the arrieros when they enter those dangerous
+passes, and he was regardless of my repeated calls desiring him to stop.
+
+In some steep places, with the view of improving the roads, the Indians
+lay down large stones in the form of steps; but to ride over these rude
+flights of steps is no easy task, for the stones are small, and are
+placed at the distance of a foot and a half or two feet apart. The mule
+begins by placing his hind feet on the first stone, then springing
+forward he reaches the third stone with his fore feet, at the same time
+placing his hind feet to the second. By this manoeuvre the mule's body
+is kept at full stretch, and the rider is obliged to lean forward over
+the animal's neck to avoid being thrown head-foremost by the violent
+jerks when the mule springs from step to step. It is absolute torture
+to ride down a descent of five or six leagues, along a road such as I
+have just described: willingly would the harassed rider dismount and
+pursue his course on foot; but were he to attempt to do so, the mule
+would stand stock still. I have already remarked the singular
+obstinacy with which the mules refuse to proceed when their riders
+dismount, and it sometimes gives rise to very comical scenes. On my
+way to Vitoc, I was passing through a ravine in which the uprooted
+trunk of a tree was resting slantwise against a rock. Though there was
+not room for me to ride under it, yet there was sufficient space to
+allow my mule to pass, and I accordingly dismounted; but all my
+efforts to drive the animal forward were fruitless. I had no
+alternative but to ride close up to the tree, then spurring the mule,
+I quickly slipped out of the saddle, and seizing the trunk of the
+tree, I hung to it until the mule had passed on.
+
+No less difficult and dangerous are the steep declivities over loamy
+soils, which are frequently met with in these districts. On them the
+mule has no firm footing, and is in danger of slipping down at every
+step. But the wonderful instinct of these animals enables them to
+overcome the difficulty. They approximate the hind and fore feet in
+the manner of the Chamois goat, when he is about to make a spring, and
+lowering the hinder part of the body in a position, half sitting half
+standing, they slide down the smooth declivity. At first this sliding
+movement creates a very unpleasant feeling of apprehension, which is
+not altogether removed by frequent repetitions. Accidents frequently
+occur, in which both mule and rider are mortally injured.
+
+There is more variety of animals in these regions than in the
+mountainous parts; but they have few peculiarities of character. The
+swift-footed roe of the Cordillera roams here and dwells in the
+thickets, avoiding the warm forest. The dark brown coati (_Nasua
+montana_, Tsch.) howls, and digs at the roots of trees in search of
+food; the shy opossum crawls fearfully under the foliage; the lazy
+armadillo creeps into his hole; but the ounce and the lion seldom
+stray hither to contest with the black bear (_Ursus frugilegus_,
+Tsch.) the possession of his territory. The little hairy tapir
+(_Tapirus villosus_, Wagn.) ventures only at twilight out of his close
+ambush to forage in the long grass.
+
+Of the birds there is not much variety of species; but all are
+remarkable for gay-colored plumage. Among the most characteristic of
+these districts are the red-bellied tanagra (_Tanagra igniventris_,
+Orb.), the fire-colored pyranga (_Phoenisoma bivittata_, Tsch.), two
+species of the crow, one of which is of a fine blue color (_Cyanocorax
+viridicyanus_, G. R. Gray), the other green on the back and bright
+yellow on the belly (_Cyanoc. peruanus_, Cab.). The Indians call the
+latter _Quienquien_, as it utters a sort of screaming sound resembling
+these syllables. Individual birds belonging to the Penelope family (_P.
+rufiventris_ and _adspersa_, Tsch.) and the green pepper-eater
+(_Pteroglossus cæruleo-cinctus_, Tsch., _Pt. atrogularis_, Sturm.) are
+found in the lower forests.
+
+Proceeding still further downward we at length reach the _Montaña_. The
+Peruvians apply this name to the vast aboriginal forests which extend
+across the whole country from north to south along the eastern foot of
+the Andes. Those which lie higher, and in which the spaces between the
+lofty trees are overgrown with thick masses of bushes and twining
+plants, are called by the natives simply _Montañas_. Those which are
+free from these intermediate masses of vegetation they call _Montañas
+reales_ (royal mountains). At first sight they produce the impression of
+a virgin forest of oaks.
+
+The distance from the Ceja to the district properly called the Montaña
+is very various at different points. In some parts it takes six or
+eight days' hard riding; in other directions the traveller may, in the
+morning, leave the snow-covered Puna huts, and at sunset, on the
+uninhabited margin of the primeval forest, he may taste pine-apples
+and bananas of his own gathering. Such a day certainly deserves to
+form an epoch in his life; for in the course of a few hours he passes
+through the most opposite climates of the earth, and the gradual
+progression of the development of the vegetable world is spread out in
+visible reality before him.
+
+The Montañas of Peru are, in general, but thinly peopled with Christian
+Indians. They are employed either in cultivating their own fields, or in
+working as day-laborers in the great plantations. The productions of the
+haciendas consist chiefly of sugar, coffee, maize, coca, tobacco,
+oranges, bananas, and pine-apples, which are sent to the Sierra. The
+cultivation of bark, balsams, gums, honey and wax, also occupies a
+great number of Indians.
+
+The plantation buildings stand on rising grounds. The walls are
+constructed of reeds, the interstices being filled up with loam, and the
+roofs are of straw or palm leaves. Around the buildings are the fields
+allotted to cultivation, in which the soils favorable to the production
+of certain plants are selected. The coffee usually grows round the
+house, and an adjacent building contains the store-rooms. The
+fruit-trees grow along the margins of the maize fields; marshy ground
+is selected for the sugar fields; in the vicinity of brooks and
+streams the useful banana flourishes; the pine-trees are ranged in
+rows on the hot, dry declivities, and the coca is found to thrive best
+in warm, hollow dells.
+
+As the humidity of the atmosphere, added to the multitudes of insects,
+mice and rats, prevents any lengthened preservation of provisions, the
+cultivators sell or exchange them as speedily as possible; hence arises
+a very active intercourse in business between the Montañas and the
+Sierra. The mountain Indians bring llamas, dried meat, potatoes, bark,
+and salt, to exchange for fruit; it is very seldom that any money
+circulates in this traffic. Only the owners of plantations sell their
+productions for ready money, with which they purchase, in the upland
+towns, European goods, particularly printed and plain cottons, coarse
+woollen stuffs, knives, hatchets, fishing-tackle, &c.; with these goods
+they pay their laborers, charging them for every article five or even
+six times its value. As there is throughout these forest regions a great
+want of men, the plantation owners endeavor to get the few Indians who
+settle voluntarily on their property, fixed to it for ever. They sell
+them indispensable necessaries at an extravagant price, on condition of
+their paying for them by field labor.
+
+I have seen an Indian give five days' labor, from six o'clock in the
+morning to sunset, for a red pocket-handkerchief, which in Germany would
+not be worth four groschen. The desire to possess showy articles, the
+necessity of obtaining materials for his wretched clothing, or
+implements to enable him, in his few free hours, to cultivate his own
+field, and, above all, his passion for coca and intoxicating drinks, all
+prompt the Indian to incur debt upon debt to the plantation owner. The
+sugar-cane is seldom used in the forest plantations for making sugar.
+The juice is usually converted into the cakes called _chancacas_, which
+have been already mentioned, or it is made into _guarapo_, a strong
+liquor, which the Indians spare no effort to procure. When they begin to
+be intoxicated, they desire more and more of the liquor, which is
+readily given, as it is the interest of the owners to supply it. After
+some days of extreme abstinence they return to their work, and then the
+Mayordomo shows them how much their debt has increased, and the
+astonished Indian finds that he must labor for several months to pay it;
+thus these unfortunate beings are fastened in the fetters of slavery.
+Their treatment is, in general, most tyrannical. The Negro slave is
+far more happy than the free Indians in the haciendas of this part of
+Peru. At sunrise all the laborers must assemble in the courtyard of
+the plantation, where the Mayordomo prescribes to them their day's
+work, and gives them the necessary implements. They are compelled to
+work in the most oppressive heat, and are only allowed to rest thrice
+for a few minutes, at times fixed, for chewing their coca and for
+dinner. For indolence or obstinacy they suffer corporal punishment,
+usually by being put into a kind of stocks, called the CEPO, in which
+the culprit stands from twelve to forty-eight hours, with his neck or
+legs fixed between two blocks of wood.
+
+The labor of bringing the forest lands into a productive state is one of
+the severest tasks in the Montañas, and it can only be performed in the
+hottest season of the year. As the soil is always moist, and the
+vegetation full of sap, the trees must be cut down about the end of the
+rainy season, and after drying for some months they are burned; but they
+are seldom brought into a state of such aridity as to be destroyed by
+the action of the fire. This is a considerable obstruction to the
+progress of raising plants; for the seed must be sown between the felled
+trees, which are perhaps only half-charred, and are still damp. In
+consequence of this, the practice is, in the first year, to plant maize
+at the places where the burnt trees are laid; the maize grows in almost
+incredible abundance, and the result is a singularly rich harvest, after
+which, part of the burned wood is removed. The same process is renewed
+after every harvest, until all the burnt trees are cleared off and a
+free field gained for the cultivation of the perennial plants.
+
+Far more fortunate than the Indians who are neighbors of the
+plantations, are those who live far back in the interior of the
+forests, and who, in consequence of their great distance from any
+settlement, seldom have intercourse with the civilized world. Content
+with what bounteous nature offers them, and ignorant of the wants of
+more refined life, they seek nothing beyond such things as they can,
+without any great efforts, obtain in the districts in which they
+dwell. There they plant their little patches of ground, the care of
+which is consigned to the women. The men takes their bows and arrows
+and set out on hunting expeditions, during which they are for weeks,
+often months, absent from their homes. The rainy season drives them
+back to their huts, where they indulge in indolent repose, which is
+only occasionally suspended when they are engaged in fishing. The
+return of the sunny sky draws them out again on their expeditions, in
+which they collect a sufficient supply of food for the year.
+
+But wherever these Indians have settled on the banks of great rivers,
+the trading intercourse produces an alteration in their mode of life.
+Europeans and Creoles then try to create among them, as among the
+plantation Indians, a desire to satisfy unnecessary wants, and thereby
+they are induced to collect the valuable productions of the forests.
+In the loftier districts of the Montañas the Peruvian bark is found:
+the lower and more marshy places produce the sarsaparilla, and a sort
+of wood for dyeing called _Llangua_. This last-named article has not
+yet found its way to Europe.
+
+In the month of May the Indians assemble to collect the Peruvian bark,
+for which purpose they repair to the extensive Cinchona woods. One of
+the party climbs a high tree to obtain, if possible, an uninterrupted
+view over the forest, and to spy out the _Manchas_, or spots where there
+are groups of Peruvian bark trees. The men who thus spy out the trees
+are called _Cateadores_, or searchers. It requires great experience to
+single out, in the dark leaf-covered expanse, the Cinchona groups merely
+by the particular tint of the foliage, which often differs but very
+little from that of the surrounding trees. As soon as the cateador has
+marked out and correctly fixed upon the mancha, he descends to his
+companions, and leads them with wonderful precision through the almost
+impenetrable forest to the group. A hut is immediately built, which
+serves as a resting-place during night, and is also used for drying
+and preserving the bark. The tree is felled as near the root as
+possible, divided into pieces, each from three to four feet long, and
+with a short curved knife a longitudinal incision is made in the bark.
+After a few days, if the pieces are found to be getting dry, the bark
+already incised is stripped off in long slips, which are placed in the
+hut, or in hot weather laid before it to dry. In many parts,
+particularly in the central and southern districts of Peru, where the
+moisture is not very great, the bark is dried in the forest, and the
+slips are packed in large bundles. In other districts, on the
+contrary, the bark is rolled up green, and sent to the neighboring
+villages, where it is dried. Towards the end of September the
+_Cascarilleros_[79] return to their homes.
+
+In the more early periods of South American history, the bark was a
+principal article of Peruvian commerce. Since the commencement of the
+present century its value has, however, considerably diminished, chiefly
+in consequence of adulterated and inferior kinds, which are supplied
+from other quarters, perhaps also on account of the more frequent use of
+quinine; for in the production of the alkaloids less bark is employed
+than was formerly used in substance. During the war of independence the
+bark trade received its death-blow, and for the space of several years
+scarcely more than a few hundred-weights of bark were exported from
+Peru. The Montañas of Huanuco, which once furnished all the apothecaries
+of Europe with the "divine medicine," are beginning again to yield
+supplies. From the roots of the felled trees a vigorous after-growth has
+commenced. In the Montañas of Huamalies a kind of bark is found, the
+nature of which is not yet defined by botanists; and from the Montañas
+of Urubamba comes the highly esteemed _Cascarilla de Cuzco_, which
+contains an alkaloid, named _Cusconin_.[80] Possibly the medicinal
+bark may again become a flourishing branch of trade for Peru, though
+it can never again recover the importance which was attached to it a
+century ago. During my residence in Peru, a plan was in agitation for
+establishing a quinine manufactory at Huanuco. The plan, if well
+carried out, would certainly be attended with success. There is in
+Bolivia an establishment of this kind conducted by a Frenchman; but
+the quinine produced is very impure. The inhabitants of the Peruvian
+forests drink an infusion of the green bark as a remedy against
+intermitting fever. I have found it in many cases much more
+efficacious than the dried kind, for less than half the usual dose
+produces, in a short time, convalescence, and the patient is secure
+against returning febrile attacks.
+
+A class of Indians who live far back in the heart of the woods of
+Southern Peru and Bolivia employ themselves almost exclusively in
+gathering balsams and odorous gums from resinous plants, many of which
+are burned in the churches as incense. They also collect various
+objects, supposed to be sympathetic remedies, such as the claws of the
+tapir, against falling sickness; and the teeth of poisonous snakes
+which, carefully fixed in leaves, and stuck into the tubes of rushes,
+are regarded as powerful specifics against headache and blindness.
+Various salves, plasters, powders, seeds, roots, barks, &c., to each of
+which is attributed some infallible curative power, are prepared and
+brought to market by the Indians. When the rainy season sets in they
+leave the forest and proceed in parties to the mountainous country. On
+these occasions, contrary to the general custom of the Indians, the men,
+not the women, carry the burthens. They are accompanied by the women as
+far as the Sierra; for the loads, which are often very heavy, graze the
+backs of the men who carry them, and the women then act as surgeons. The
+injured part is first carefully washed with copaiba balsam, moistened,
+then covered with leaves fixed on with small strips of leather, overlaid
+with the hide of some forest animal. These operations being performed,
+the loads are again fastened on the backs of the Indians. In their
+native forests these people wear but little clothing. Their dress is
+limited to a sort of loose tunic without sleeves for the women, and for
+the men merely a piece of cloth fastened round the waist. They go
+barefooted; but they paint their feet and legs with the juice of the
+Huito (_Genipa oblongifolia_, R. Pav.) in such a manner that they seem
+to be wearing half-boots. The juice of the Huito has the effect of
+protecting them against the stings of insects. The coloring adheres so
+strongly to the skin that it cannot be washed off by water; but oil
+speedily removes it. In the Sierra these Indians put on warmer clothing,
+and on their feet they wear a kind of boots called _aspargetas_, made of
+the plaited tendrils of plants.
+
+The stock of balsams and drugs being disposed of, the Indians, after a
+few months' absence, return to their homes. Some of them, however,
+wander to the distance of two or three hundred leagues from their native
+forests, traversing the greater part of Peru, and even visiting Lima,
+carrying large flask gourds filled with balsams. These wandering tribes
+seek frequent contact with other nations. They are not distrustful and
+reserved, but, on the contrary, annoyingly communicative. It is not easy
+to discover the cause of this exception, or to ascertain the time when
+the Indians began to travel the country as physicians and apothecaries.
+The earliest writers on the oldest epochs of Peruvian history make no
+mention of this race of medical pedlars.
+
+The Indians here alluded to all profess Christianity, and must, as
+_Indios Christianos_, in strict correctness, be distinguished from the
+wild Indians, _Indios Bravos_, who exclusively inhabit the eastern
+Montañas of Peru, towards the frontiers of Brazil. These Indios Bravos
+comprehend numerous tribes, each of which has its own customs, religion,
+and also, in general, its own language. Only very few of them are known,
+for since the overthrow of the missions there is little communication
+with them. Respecting the Indios Bravos who inhabit the Montañas of
+Southern Peru, I have been unable to collect any accurate information.
+They remain quite unknown, for impenetrable wilds intervene between them
+and the civilized world, and seldom has a European foot ventured into
+their territory. The wild Indians in Central Peru are most set against
+the Christians, particularly those called Iscuchanos, in the Montaña de
+Huanta, and those known by the name of Chunchos, in the Montaña de
+Vitoc. The Iscuchanos sometimes maintain with the inhabitants of Huanta
+a trade of barter; but this intercourse is occasionally interrupted by
+long intervals of hostility, during which the Iscuchanos, though rather
+an inoffensive race, commit various depredations on the Huantanos;
+driving the cattle from the pastures, carrying off the produce of the
+soil, and spreading terror throughout the whole district. Some years
+ago, when the inhabitants of Huanta had assembled for the procession of
+the Festival of Corpus Christi, a troop of Iscuchanos came upon them
+with wild bulls, turning the infuriated animals against the procession,
+which was dispersed, and many of the Huantanos were killed or severely
+wounded. These Iscuchanos are so favored by the locality of the district
+they inhabit, that even were a military expedition sent to drive them
+farther back into the woods, it would probably be unsuccessful.
+
+The Chunchos are far more dangerous, and are one of the most formidable
+races of the Indios Bravos. They inhabit the most southern part of the
+Pampa del Sacramento (the terra incognita of Peru), and chiefly the
+district through which flow the rivers Chanchamayo and Perene. Those
+regions are inhabited by a great number of tribes, most of which are
+only known by name. The frontier neighbors of the Chunchos are the
+sanguinary Campas or Antes who destroyed the missions of Jesus Maria in
+Pangoa, and who still occasionally pay hostile visits to San
+Buenaventura de Chavini, the extreme Christian outpost in the Montaña de
+Andamarca. The savage race of the Casibos, the enemies of all the
+surrounding populations, inhabit the banks of the river Pachitea. This
+race maintains incessant war with all the surrounding tribes, and
+constantly seeks to destroy them. According to the accounts of the
+missionaries, they, as well as the Antes and Chunchos, are still
+cannibals, and undertake warlike expeditions for the purpose of
+capturing prisoners, whom they devour. After the rainy season, when
+the Simirinches, the Amapuahas, or Consbos, hunt in the western
+forests, they often fall into the hands of the Casibos, who imitate in
+perfection the cries of the forest animals, so that the hunters are
+treacherously misled, and being captured, are carried off as victims.
+Many horrible accounts of this barbarous tribe were related by the
+missionaries centuries ago, when romantic stories and exaggerations of
+every kind were the order of the day; but the most recent
+communications of the missionaries from Ocopa confirm the fact, that
+in the year 1842, the Casibos continued to be savage Anthropophagi. It
+is worthy of remark that they never eat women, a fact which some may
+be inclined to attribute to respect for the female sex. It is,
+however, assignable to a different feeling. All the South American
+Indians, who still remain under the influence of sorcery and
+empiricism, consider women in the light of impure and evil beings, and
+calculated to injure them. Among a few of the less rude nations this
+aversion is apparent in domestic life, in a certain unconquerable
+contempt of females. With the Anthropophagi the feeling extends,
+fortunately, to their flesh, which is held to be poisonous.
+
+The languages spoken by the wild Indian tribes are very various. From
+the Marañon to Omaguas, Quichua, the language of the Incas, is spoken.
+On the left bank of the Ucayali the dialect of the Panos prevails. On
+the right bank the Cascas, the Sinabus, and the Diabus, preserve their
+own idioms, which are so different that those races are reciprocally
+unable to communicate with each other. On Upper Ucayali evidences of
+common origin are said to be apparent between the Simirinches, Campas,
+Runaguas, and Mochobos. But on this subject no accurate conclusions
+can be formed; for the accounts given by the missions in early periods
+were very imperfect, and most of the races are so intractable that it
+has since been impossible to collect correct information. According
+to the accounts of travelled missionaries which I had the opportunity
+of examining in the convent of Ocopa, it appears that, besides the
+Quichua, the idioms spoken by the Panos, Cascas, Simirinches, and the
+Chunchos, may be set down as dialects of decidedly different origins.
+
+The mode of living among all these Indians is very much the same. War
+and hunting in summer, and repairing their warlike weapons in winter,
+are the occupations of the men. The women cultivate the fields, lay up
+the stores of provisions, fish, spin and cook. Their clothes are of the
+most simple kind. Many of the races wear no clothing, and have their
+bodies wholly or partially bedaubed with paint. The men of some races
+wear a kind of shirt without sleeves, and the women a petticoat reaching
+from the waist to the knees. These garments are made of cotton obtained
+from the uncultivated tree _Bombax_, and their color is white, blue, or
+red. The custom of boring the ears, the nose, and the under lip, for the
+insertion of some ornament, is much practised, particularly by the
+Panos, Shipeos, and Pirras. They paint their bodies, but not exactly in
+the tattoo manner; they confine themselves to single stripes. The Sensis
+women draw two stripes from the shoulder, over each breast, down to the
+pit of the stomach; the Pirras women paint a band in the form of a
+girdle round the waist, and they have three of a darker color round each
+thigh. These stripes, when once laid on, can never be removed by
+washing. They are made with the unripe fruit of one of the Rubiacaceæ.
+Some tribes paint the face only; others, on the contrary, do not touch
+that part; but bedaub with colors their arms, feet, and breasts.
+
+In hunting, bows and arrows are the principal weapons used by the
+Indians. In war they use, besides bows and arrows, clubs and a kind of
+sword made of wood. The arrows are reeds, five or six feet long, and
+of the thickness of a finger. The point is of very hard wood, and is
+strongly barbed by notches and with sharp fish teeth about three
+inches long. To the other extremity of the arrow colored feathers are
+always affixed.
+
+Among many Indians, particularly in the western and northern districts
+of the Pampa del Sacramento, the _Pocuna_ is a weapon much used in
+hunting. It is made of a long reed, and measures eight or ten, or even
+more, feet. At one end are fixed two teeth of a javali, or white-lipped
+peccary (_Dicotyles labiatus_), on which the reed is rested when taking
+aim. The arrows, which are only one and a half or two inches long, are
+made of the thick part of a strong cactus stem. In general their small
+arrows are poisoned, for otherwise the wound would be too inconsiderable
+to kill even a little bird. The poison for arrows differs almost with
+every tribe, and very mysterious ceremonies are observed at its
+preparation. On this account the art of preparing it, and the
+ingredients employed, are only very partially known to Europeans. Their
+elements are obtained from several plants not yet defined botanically,
+among which the _Apihuasca_ and poison capsicum are much resorted to.
+Infusions of the leaves of a very strong kind of tobacco, and of the
+Sanaño (_Tabernæmontana Sanaño_, R. P.), and of Euphorbiaceæ, are also
+taken. Some modern travellers, contrary to the testimony of the oldest
+writers on Peru, have asserted that no animal substance is employed in
+the poison for arrows. I am, however, enabled to state, on the authority
+of an Indian who had himself often made the poison, that not only the
+black and very poisonous emmet (_Cryptacereo atrato affin_), but also
+the teeth of the formidable serpent, known to the Indians by the name of
+Miuamaru or Jergon (_Lachesis picta_, Tsch.), are used for that purpose.
+
+The wound of the poisoned arrow is fatal and rapid. Men and large
+mammalia die in about four or five minutes after receiving the wound;
+the smaller mammiferous animals and birds, in two minutes. The blow-reed
+sends these deadly arrows with great certainty to the distance of
+thirty-two or thirty-six paces. Hunting with the blow-reed must be long
+practised in order to acquire dexterity in its use, and great caution is
+requisite to avoid being self-wounded by the small sharp arrows. An
+example came to my knowledge in the case of an Indian who let an arrow
+fall unobserved from his quiver; he trod upon it, and it penetrated the
+sole of his foot; in a very short time he was a corpse.
+
+The club called _Matusino_ is four or five feet long, and is encircled
+in a spiral form at the thick end, by a row of deer's horns. A single
+long horn is fastened in the centre, the chief use of which is to
+stick it in the earth when the club is rested. Only a few races of
+upper and lower Ucayali and the Sensis use this formidable weapon,
+which is very inconvenient and obstructive in passing through thick
+forests. The _macana_, or wooden sword, is made of strong _chunta_.
+The color of this wood is a deep blackish brown; it is very hard and
+heavy, and is always used for implements which require great
+durability and strength. The macana is about four feet long, one inch
+thick, and from five to six inches broad; towards the hilt end the
+breadth is about three inches, and it is rounded. It is so well cut
+and polished, that a sabre scarcely excels it in sharpness. The weapon
+is so heavy that it requires both hands to wield it.
+
+There are not only offensive, but also defensive, weapons. One of the
+latter is the _viche_, a very simple shield, one and a half or two feet
+in diameter. It consists of a strong frame of twisted creeping plants,
+over which the skin of a deer or tapir is stretched and fastened with
+twine. On the inside there are two holds for the arm; the edge is
+adorned with colored feathers.
+
+The Indians of the races above noticed seldom live in villages, but
+chiefly in huts scattered through the forests. Sometimes they construct
+a few of their dwellings near together, and so form a hamlet. Their huts
+are either quadrangular, oblong, or circular. The walls consist of
+strong stems of trees, bound together by twining plants; and the roof is
+of palm leaves laid over a skeleton of reeds. The entrance, which is on
+the side opposite to the prevailing wind, is left open, and but seldom
+protected by a door. At Chanchamayo I saw a very simple kind of hut
+among the Chunchos. It resembled an open umbrella with the handle stuck
+in the earth. The single wall, which also formed its roof, consisted of
+eight long reeds: they spread out below in the form of a fan, standing
+obliquely on the earth, and fastened to three stems of trees. On this
+simple skeleton were laid lengthways the leaves of the omero, a kind of
+palm. A strong stem fixed firmly in the earth, extended obliquely to the
+middle of the inner side of the wall, and two thinner stems on each
+side, served as supports for this frail building. According to the
+direction of the wind the hut is turned round.
+
+The Indian huts all stand detached from each other, and they are seldom
+divided internally into apartments. They occupy very little ground,
+never more than sixty square feet of superficies. In the principal
+settlement of an Indian race, the huts are scattered over a circuit of
+some miles in the forests.
+
+Any form of government is a thing quite unknown to most of the Indios
+Bravos of Peru. Uniformity of speech, manners, and arms, unite together
+a number of Indians, who thus form a race, but there is among them no
+bond of subjection, or of duty to any government, either voluntarily
+chosen, or self-constituted. Among the inhabitants of Lower Ucayali,
+however, the oldest, or the bravest individuals of each race are either
+publicly, or silently recognised as chiefs. Respect to age prevails only
+among a few of the races, as the Setebos, Mayorhunas, and Panos. Among
+others, as the Campos, Casibos, and Cunchos, the old are put to death.
+It is a general custom of the wild Indians to kill their aged prisoners
+immediately on their being captured.
+
+Social meetings among these races are of rare occurrence. Gloomy,
+reserved, and distrustful, the Indian is only at ease in the circle he
+has himself formed. When, however, the general interest of the race is
+in question, then he comes boldly forward in support of the whole. The
+usual assemblages are for the arrangement of long hunting excursions,
+and warlike expeditions. The departures and the returns are celebrated
+by tumultuous feasts, in which intoxicating drinks flow freely. Most of
+the liquors are prepared from Yucca, or the fruits of the Chunta, called
+the _Mazato_, or other species of palms. In the most remote forests, and
+among the most insulated tribes, the preparation of intoxicating liquors
+is known; and there certainly is not in all South America an Indian race
+which is not familiar with it. Wild dances form part of the
+entertainments, and the banquet usually ends with a sanguinary battle.
+
+Marriage in most races is celebrated socially, but not among those in
+which polygamy prevails. The formula observed on the occasion differs in
+different tribes; in some the union is effected under painful ceremonies
+to the bride, in others with fasting and penitential torments to the
+bridegroom. In general the Indian selects a wife for himself. In the
+greater number of tribes a maiden is set up as a prize, and the young
+men commence a life or death contest for her. The oldest warriors are
+arbitrators, and from their hands the conqueror receives the prize. This
+is the practice among the inhabitants of the Rio de Santa Catalina. With
+them, as well as with most of the tribes of Western Ucayali, the birth
+of a child is festively celebrated. The oldest individuals of the race
+assemble to receive the child, which is repeatedly blown on to drive
+demons and sickness away from it; the name of an animal is then given
+to it, and, according to Don Pedro Beltran, the witnesses of the
+ceremony mark with a wooden pencil some hieroglyphic characters on two
+leaves, which are carefully preserved, and on the death of the Indian,
+deposited in the grave with him.
+
+The dead are buried in the huts. The survivors having testified their
+sorrow by a melancholy howl three times repeated, leave the place and
+build a new residence for themselves in a distant district. They break
+in pieces all the household furniture of the deceased, but they bury
+with him his warlike weapons and his agricultural implements, under the
+conviction that he will use them in the place to which he is going. A
+peculiar custom among several races is this: the oldest son cuts a
+piece from the heel of his deceased father, which he hangs round his
+neck, and wears as a sacred relic. Some of the tribes on the Perene
+and Capanegua do not, like most wild nations, respect the remains of
+the dead, but throw the bodies into the forest unburied, to be
+devoured by beasts of prey.
+
+Very little is correctly known of the religion of the Peruvian Indios
+Bravos. All believe in the existence of superior beings, and distinguish
+them as good and evil; and they are accordingly venerated from
+gratitude, or from fear. The former they regard as beneficent; but the
+latter as having the power of bringing into exercise all the destroying
+forces of nature. These people, therefore, find in the sky, in the air,
+and on the earth, objects for their adoration. Certain constellations
+are regarded as favorable phenomena, while others are looked at with a
+secret horror. The sun is by all gladly worshipped, more particularly by
+the descendants of those who in early times stood in connexion with the
+Incas. On the other hand, they pay but a reluctant tribute to the moon,
+perhaps because by its pale light fearful images are reflected around
+them in the forests, and because its phases are to them involved in
+impenetrable mystery. They ascribe thunder and lightning to demoniacal
+influences, and to the same origin they attribute certain winds which
+have an injurious influence on their health. But their religious notions
+are not connected exclusively with the phenomena of nature, which are to
+them inexplicable. With all their ideas on surrounding nature, two
+conflicting principles are invariably connected, one of which is
+believed to be beneficial, the other injurious to them. In the animals
+of the forest, the plants, the stones, in everything, they trace these
+beneficent or demoniacal powers. Every idea, every action is with them a
+consequence of the influence of one of these two powers, and free will
+is impossible. Though a rude materialism cripples the intelligence of
+these Indians, yet they seem to be sensible of the connexion between
+that which is perceptible to their senses, and something
+higher--something beyond the sphere of corporeal perception. But of the
+nature of this higher something they have no comprehension, nor do they
+endeavor to render to themselves any account of it. They are satisfied
+with an obscure idea of the difference between the visible and the
+invisible; but still this idea is so contracted that they always give to
+the spiritual a corporeal form: and they attribute to natural objects
+with which they come most in contact, the possession of good or evil
+qualities, thus assigning to them the nature of spiritual beings.
+
+None of these tribes appear, as yet, to have advanced so far as to be
+impressed with the persuasion that the whole of nature is guided by
+unchangeable laws over which one will presides. In general, they have
+no idea of a spiritual unity, and are utter strangers to the knowledge
+of one God. They all, however, believe in the immortality of the soul.
+They see the lifeless body, they have certain proof that the earthly
+integument is no longer the abode of the soul; but, as they can form
+no notion of anything spiritual entirely self-existent, they imagine
+that their dead will, in new life, appear under a new bodily form. The
+several tribes differ greatly in their belief of the nature of the
+metamorphoses which they expect to take place. Those who look forward
+to the re-appearance of the deceased in human life, bury with the men
+hunting and agricultural instruments; but their notions even on this
+head are not very clear, and when questioned on the subject their
+answers are very confused. They say that they are going to a very
+beautiful place, far from their present dwelling; but, according to
+their conception, it appears that the place, though distant, is still
+on earth. Those races who believe in metamorphoses into the forms of
+the lower animals, are persuaded that the dead in their new forms will
+inhabit the woods around their homes, and avenge the wrongs they have
+suffered during life. This is the belief of the inhabitants of Upper
+Ucayali and Pachitea.
+
+In considering the physical formation of the wild Indians, we may class
+them according to their natural divisions, viz., the inhabitants of the
+more highly situated lands, or mountains, and those of the low hot flat
+country. The former dwell on the eastern side of the hill-chain,
+dividing the river territory of the Huallaga and Ucayali, and spreading
+to the banks of the Chauchamayo, Perene, and Apurimac. These are the
+Iscuchanos. They are rather tall and generally slim; their limbs are
+vigorous; their hands and feet small, and in walking their toes are much
+turned in. The head is proportionally large, with very strong bones; the
+forehead is low, the eyes small and animated, the nose large and rather
+sharp, the cheek-bones a little prominent. The mouth is not large, and
+the lips are delicately formed, but often disfigured by ornaments. The
+ears are small, quite the reverse of those of the Indians of the flat
+lands. The pointed chin is only sparingly covered with beard, which does
+not appear until advanced age, and on the cheeks there is none. The hair
+of the head is long, stiff, and of a brilliant black. Many of the tribes
+dye their hair; the Chunchos dye it red, and the Antis are said to dye
+it blue; as to the latter color it appears to me improbable, but I
+mention it on the authority of Friar Leceta. The skin is fine and soft,
+the color a deep rusty brown. In speaking of the South American Indians,
+it is usual to describe their skin as copper color, but this term is
+incorrect, for there certainly is no single tribe to which it might be
+perfectly applicable. It appears to me that the color of all is much
+fainter, and tending more to brown or yellow. "Rusty brown," if the
+expression may be used, appears to me far more descriptive.
+
+The second natural section of the wild Indians inhabits the northern
+part of the Pampa del Sacramento, the banks of the Ucayali, and of the
+Marañon. They are smaller than those just described. There is a
+certain peculiarity in the make of these people; for though they are
+broad over the shoulders yet their chests are flat, and their shoulder
+blades lie low. Their limbs are lank, and their hands rather small;
+the soles of the feet are broad and flat. The face is broad, the eyes
+long shaped, the pupil deeply set, the nose is flat, with large
+oblique nostrils, and the cheek-bones are prominent. The mouth is
+wide, the lips thick, and among some tribes the mouth and nose are
+very close together. The chin is small and round, the ears large and
+standing out from the head. The hair and beard of these Indians are
+the same as in those of the hilly country. The color of the skin
+varies much; in some it is a light reddish brown; in others, a kind of
+yellow, very like that of the Mongols. The women of all these tribes
+are exceedingly ugly, and far from corresponding with the picture a
+European imagination might form of the daughters of the aboriginal
+forests. These women soon become old, for they not only fulfil female
+duties, but execute the greater part of those severer labors which
+ought to fall to the share of the stronger sex.
+
+To the above outline sketch of the human inhabitants of the aboriginal
+forests, I will now add some description of the animal world, as it came
+under my observation in those luxuriant regions.
+
+Unlike the peaceful repose which presides over animal life on the level
+heights, are the constant aggressions and combats which prevail in the
+forest regions. There the strong attack the weak, and the cunning
+inveigle the unwary: strength and intelligence, caution and instinct,
+are unceasingly in active operation. The variegated forms and colors
+which meet the eye, and the multifarious cries and tones which resound
+through the woods, form, altogether, the most singular contrast. The
+gold-feathered colibri hums lightly through the air, soaring over the
+heavy, sombre-colored tapir. The sprightly singing-bird pours forth his
+melodious chants amidst the thick foliage of the aged trees, whilst the
+fierce ounce, prowling for his prey, growls as he passes over their
+enormous, spreading roots. Slowly do the eye and the ear learn to
+distinguish individuals in the vast mass of apparent chaotic confusion,
+and to recognise quickly fleeting forms, or distant resounding sounds.
+
+The whole of the animal world is here developed to the view, and it
+would be difficult to assign the predominance to any one class. Yet,
+perhaps, the variegated feathered tribe is relatively most extensively
+represented. The number of the mammalia is also important. They are
+seldom seen by the hunter during the day, but twilight draws them from
+their hiding-places.
+
+Troops of monkeys skip from tree to tree, looking timidly around, and
+uttering mournful howls. Among them are swarms of the black marimonda
+(_Ateles_), with slender long arms and red-brown or black faces; in some
+the faces are encircled with white hair (_Ateles marginatus_, Geoff.),
+which gives them a striking resemblance to an old negro. Next is seen a
+group of silver-grey monkeys (_Lagothrix Humboldtii_, Geoff.), stalking
+over heaps of broken branches and twigs in search of a resting-place.
+These monkeys, which are the largest in South America, are about three
+feet high, and are bold and vicious. When wounded they take a position
+of defence against the hunter, struggling, and uttering loud cries, upon
+which their companions hasten down from the trees to assist them. But
+soon a short stifled cry is heard: it is the cry of mortal convulsion.
+That sound drives them instantly back, and they disperse in wild flight.
+The sly sayu ventures to approach the dwellings of men, where he
+plunders maize fields with incredible dexterity. The delicate
+silky-haired monkey, shivering at every cool breeze or shower of rain,
+and starting at the slightest noise, creeps for shelter into the
+thicket, where he lies peeping with his penetrating eyes in the
+direction of the apprehended danger.
+
+At sunset swarms of bats flutter through field and forest in all
+directions, and greedily devour the insects which in the twilight awaken
+to full activity. Some of these bats (_Phyllostoma hastatum_, Geoff.)
+are remarkable for their expanse of wing, which measures nearly two
+feet. Others are distinguished for ugliness and for their offensive
+smell. These latter fly into the Indian huts at night and greatly annoy
+the inhabitants, who cannot get rid of them by fire or smoke, or any
+other means, until at the midnight hour they retire of their own accord.
+Not less troublesome are the leaf-nosed bats (_Phyllostoma_), which
+attack both man and beast. This bat rubs up the skin of his victim, from
+which he sucks the blood. The domestic animals suffer greatly from the
+nocturnal attacks of these bats, and many are destroyed by the
+exhaustion consequent on the repeated blood-sucking. The blood drawn by
+the bat itself does not exceed a few ounces; but if, when satisfied, it
+drops down to the ground, or flies away, the wound continues to bleed
+for a long time, and in the morning the animal is often found in a very
+weak condition, and covered with blood. One of my mules, on which a
+leaf-nosed bat made a nightly attack, was only saved by having his back
+rubbed with an ointment made of spirits of camphor, soap and petroleum.
+The blood-suckers have such an aversion to the smell of this ointment
+that on its application they ceased to approach the mule. These bats are
+very mischievous in the plantations of the forests, where beasts of
+burden and horned cattle are exposed to their attacks. Whether they
+venture to assail man has been a much disputed question. Several
+travellers declare that they do not. I may, however, mention a case
+which occurred within my own knowledge. A bat (_Ph. erythromos_, Tsch.)
+fastened on the nose of an Indian lying intoxicated in a plantation, and
+sucked so much blood that it was unable to fly away. The slight wound
+was followed by such severe inflammation and swelling that the features
+of the Cholo were not recognisable.
+
+Many beasts of prey, and among them some of formidable strength and
+fierceness, make havoc among the other animals of the forests. In the
+lofty Montañas the black bear (_U. frugilegus_, Tsch.) roams as wild as
+his fellow-depredator of the Cordillera. He often enters the maize
+fields of the Indians, breaks the stalks of the plants and drags the
+green tops away to his hole. When this bear cannot obtain his customary
+vegetable food, consisting chiefly of the fruits of a pandanea
+(_Phytelephas_), he watches for the deer and wild boars, or attacks the
+oxen employed to turn the machinery in the sugar-mills: he has even
+been known to assail solitary travellers. The lively coatis traverse the
+forests in flocks. They collect round the roots of trees and search for
+the larvæ of insects; light-footed, they climb up bush and tree to find
+birds' nests, and feast on the eggs and the young. With a monotonous
+howl, not unlike that made by some dogs on a clear moonlight night, the
+yellow-breasted glutton (_Galictis barbara_, Wieg.), the omeyro of the
+Indians, announces his presence. But the most fierce of all these wild
+forest animals are those of the feline class. The spotless dark-grey
+yaguarundi, not much larger than the wild cat of Europe, pursues all
+kinds of birds, particularly the pigeon, the partridge, and the
+penelope. The oscollo (_F. celidogaster_, Tem.), the uturunca (_F.
+pardalis_, L.), and the long-tailed, yellowish-grey tiger-cat (_F.
+macrourura_, Pr. M.), all lie in wait, not only for the weaker mammalia,
+but sometimes they even venture into the plantations and kill dogs and
+poultry. The maneless Mexican Lion (the puma) roams through the upper
+regions of the forest, where he has almost undisputed hunting-ground. He
+fearlessly assails victims who cannot effectually defend themselves,
+such as the horse, the mule, and the ass, and he tears large pieces of
+flesh from their ribs; but he does not venture to meddle with oxen. He
+shuns men, and in the forest he even flies from the unarmed Indian. I
+fired at a very large puma, which immediately fled, roaring loudly.
+When severely wounded and driven into a corner, this animal frequently
+commences a combat of despair, and sometimes kills the hunter. The
+puma measures in length about four feet, and in height more than two
+feet. More direful than any of the felines mentioned above is the
+sanguinary ounce,[81] which possesses vast strength, and is of a most
+savage disposition. Though the favorite haunts of this animal are the
+expansive Pajonales, yet he frequently takes up his abode in the
+vicinity of villages and plantations, spreading terror among the
+inhabitants. Far from being intimidated at the sight of men, he often
+attacks individuals, and when pressed by hunger is not afraid, even
+in broad daylight, to slip into the forest villages in order to carry
+off food, and the booty, when once seized, is not easily recovered.
+
+An amusing example of this occurred in the Montaña of Vitoc. An Indian
+one night heard his only pig squeaking loudly, as if in pain. He
+hastened to the door of his hut to see what was the matter, and he
+discovered that an ounce had seized the pig by the head, and was
+carrying it off. The Cholo, who determined to make an effort to recover
+his property, seized the pig by the hind legs, and endeavored to drag it
+from the grasp of the robber. This contest was kept up for some time,
+the ounce, with his eyes glaring in the darkness, holding fast the head
+of the pig, and the Indian pulling it hard by the legs. At length the
+Indian's wife came to the door of the hut with a lighted fagot, and the
+scared ounce, with terrible howlings, slowly retired to the forest. In
+general the Indians have a great dread of these animals, and seldom
+venture singly into the parts they frequent. The ounce hunter is the
+only one who ventures to approach them. He is armed with a long spear,
+with which he gives the ferocious animal a death-blow. He lets the ounce
+come within a few paces of him without making the least show either of
+flight or attack. If, however, the stroke he aims does not immediately
+reach the seat of life, the hunter, in general, becomes the victim of
+his bold attempt. Before he can stand on his defence, the wounded ounce
+drags him to the ground, and tears the flesh from his bones.
+
+Sometimes the villagers collect their dogs together for a general hunt.
+They drive the ounce into a place from whence there is no escape, or
+often up a tree, where they shoot him with long arrows sent from their
+bows or blow-tubes. In a few places snares are laid, or large holes are
+dug, and a sharp-pointed stake is stuck in the middle, covered with
+stalks and branches of trees, on which the bait is laid. The ounce is,
+however, too cunning to be easily caught in traps, and it is only when
+pressed by hunger that he can be tempted by a bait. In some districts
+the ounces have increased so greatly, and done so much damage, that the
+natives have been compelled to remove and settle in other places. I need
+only refer to the Quebrada of Mayunmarca, in the Montaña of Huanta,
+near the road to Anco. There once stood the little village of Mayumarca,
+which has been abandoned for more than a hundred years, as it was found
+that the jaguars annually decimated the inhabitants; this Quebrada is
+still in such bad repute that not a single Indian will venture into it.
+
+There is a black variety of the ounce, by many erroneously regarded as a
+distinct species. It has the identical marks of the common jaguar, or
+ounce, only its color is a dark, blackish-brown, whereby the whole of
+the black spots are rendered indistinct. On the lower banks of the
+Ucayali and the Marañon this dark variety is more frequently met with
+than in the higher forests; in the Montañas of Huanta and Urubamba it is
+also not uncommon. It is upon the whole larger, stronger, and more
+daring than the lighter kind, and I have actually seen many black
+skins which exceeded the usual length; but of specific distinctions
+there is no indication. The superstitious Indians assign extraordinary
+powers to everything that departs from the common course; the black
+ounce is, accordingly, supposed to possess singular properties. The
+yana chinca holds a prominent place in the religious ceremonies of
+some of the Indian races.
+
+Turning from these fierce natives of the forest, we will now take a
+glimpse at the peaceful inhabitants of those umbrageous regions. In
+the hollow stems of trees, or among their canopied branches, are found
+the timid marsupial animals (_Did. impavida_, and _noctivaga_, Tsch.).
+These animals remain in obscure holes until the sun sinks beneath the
+horizon, when they slip out in search of insects and fruit. Not
+unfrequently they penetrate into the slightly guarded Indian huts,
+creeping into every corner, until at last they are caught in traps
+baited with pieces of banana and pine-apple. The lofty
+_Terebinthaceæ_, with their walnut-like fruit, are inhabited by
+swarms of squirrels, which strongly remind the European of his own
+woods. Numbers of the mouse family, from the small tree-mouse
+(_Drymomys parvulus_, Tsch.) to the large, loathsome, spinous rat
+(_Echinomys leptosoma_, Wagn.) swarm over all the Montañas, and love
+to approximate to the dwellings of man. These animals destroy the
+gathered harvest, and even in these remote regions they become a
+plague. It is a striking fact, that certain animals are almost
+inseparable from man. They keep with him, or follow him wherever he
+settles. The mouse genus is one of these. On the coast, mice are not
+the same as on the mountains, and in the forests they are again
+different. Everywhere they leave their original dwelling-places, which
+they exchange for an abode with man. As the mouse and the rat attack
+the gathered fruits of the earth, the agouti preys on those yet
+standing in the field. These animals are seldom found in the depths of
+the forest, but more frequently on its edge near the chacras of the
+Indians. Shortly before sunset they leave the thickets, and stealthily
+repair to the maize, yucca, and anana fields, where they scratch up the
+root and eat the grain and fruit; but the slightest noise drives them
+back to their holes. In the deeper recesses of the forest resounds the
+monotonous, drawling cry of the sloth. Here we have a symbol of life
+under the utmost degree of listlessness, and of the greatest
+insensibility in a state of languid repose. This emblem of misery fixes
+itself on an almost leafless bough, and there remains defenceless; a
+ready prey to any assailant. Better defended is the scale-covered
+armadillo, with his coat of mail. Towards evening he burrows deep holes
+in the earth, and searches for the larvæ of insects, or he ventures out
+of the forest, and visits the yucca fields, where he digs up the
+well-flavored roots. The ant-eater rakes up with his long curved claws
+the crowded resorts of ants, stretches out his long, spiral, and
+adhesive tongue, into the midst of the moving swarm, and draws it back
+covered with a multitude of crawling insects.
+
+In the soft marshy grounds, or in the damp shady recesses of the
+forests, the heavy tapir reposes during the heat of the day; but when
+the fresh coolness of evening sets in, he roves through the forest,
+tears the tender twigs from the bushes, or seeks food in the
+grass-covered Pajonales. Sometimes a multitude of tapirs sally from the
+forests into the cultivated fields, to the great alarm of the Indians. A
+broad furrow marks the tract along which they have passed, and the
+plants they encounter in their progress are trampled down or devoured.
+Such a visit is particularly fatal to the coca fields; for the tapirs
+are extremely fond of the leaves of the low-growing coca plant, and they
+often, in one night, destroy a coca field which has cost a poor Indian
+the hard labor of a year.
+
+Flocks of the umbilical hog, or peccary, traverse the level Montañas. If
+one of them is attacked by the hunter, a whole troop falls furiously on
+him, and it is only by promptly climbing up a tree that he can escape;
+then, whizzing and grunting, they surround the stem, and with their
+snouts turn up the earth round the root, as if intending to pull down
+the tree and so get at their enemy. The stag lurks in the thicket to
+withdraw from the eyes of the greedy ounce; but towards evening he
+leaves his hiding place, and sometimes strays beyond the boundary of the
+forest; he ventures into the maize fields of the plantations, where he
+tarries until night is far advanced.
+
+The same diversity of nature and habits is seen in the numerous hosts of
+birds that inhabit the leafy canopies of the forest. On the loftiest
+trees, or on detached rocks, eagles, kites, and falcons, build their
+eyries. The most formidable of these birds of prey, both for boldness
+and strength, the _Morphnus harpyia_, Cab., darts down on the largest
+animals, and fears not to encounter the fiercest inhabitants of the
+forest. The owl (_Noctua_, _Scops_, _Strix_), and the goat-milker
+(_Caprimulgus_, _Hydropsalis_, _Chordiles_), fly with softly flapping
+wings to their hunting quarters to surprise their victims while asleep.
+In the hilly parts of the Montañas the black ox-bird (_Cephalopterus
+ornatus_, Geoff.), the _Toropishu_ of the Indians, fills the forest with
+his distant bellow, similar to the roaring of a bull. The _Tunqui_[82]
+inhabits the same district. This bird is of the size of a cock; the body
+is bright red, but the wings are black. The head is surmounted by a tuft
+of red feathers, beneath which the orange bill projects with a slight
+curve. It lives sociably with other birds in thickets, or among Cinchona
+trees, the fruit of which is part of its food. Its harsh cry resembles
+the grunt of the hog, and forms a striking contrast to its beautiful
+plumage. Numberless fly-catchers and shrikes (_Muscicapidæ_ and
+_Laniadæ_) hover on tree and bush, watching for the passing insects,
+which they snatch up with extraordinary dexterity. Finches twitter on
+the summits of the loftiest trees beyond the reach of the hunter's shot:
+they are distinguished, like the _Ampelidæ_, who, however, live amongst
+the lower bushes, by the lively and almost dazzling colors of their
+feathers. In modest plumage of cinnamon-brown, with head and neck of
+dark olive, the _Organista_[83] raises, in the most woody parts of the
+forest, her enchanting song, which is usually the prognostic of an
+approaching storm. The tender, melancholy strains and the singular
+clearness of the innumerable modulations charm the ear of the astonished
+traveller, who, as if arrested by an invisible power, stops to listen to
+the syren, unmindful of the danger of the threatening storm. On old
+decayed stumps of trees the busy creeper[84] and the variegated
+woodpecker are seen pecking the insects from under the loose bark, or by
+their tapping bring them out of their concealed crevices; while the
+red-tailed potter-bird (_Opetiorynchus ruficandus_, Pr. Max.) builds his
+dwelling of potter's clay, or loam, as firmly as if it were destined to
+last for ever. The pouched starlings[85] hang their nests, often four or
+five feet long, on the slender branches of trees, where they swing to
+and fro with the slightest breath of wind. Like a dazzling flash of
+colored light the colibri (humming-bird) appears and disappears. No
+combination of gorgeous coloring can exceed that which is presented in
+the plumage of the golden-tailed humming or fly-bird (_Trochilus
+chrysurus_, Cuv.) which haunts the warm primeval forests, but it is
+still more frequently found in the pure atmosphere of the ceja-girded
+Montañas. The silky cuckoo (_Trogon heliothrix_, Tsch.) retires into the
+thickest masses of foliage, from which its soft rose-colored plumage
+peeps out like a flower. The cry of the voracious chuquimbis[86]
+accompanies the traveller from his first steps in the Montañas to his
+entrance into the primeval forests, where he finds their relative, _Dios
+te de_.[87] This bird accompanies its significant cry by throwing back
+its head and making a kind of rocking movement of its body. The Indians,
+who are always disposed to connect superstitious ideas with the natural
+objects they see around them, believe that some great misfortune will
+befall any one who may shoot this bird, because it utters the sacred
+word, _Dios_. Long trains of green parrots fill the air with their noisy
+chattering. One kind of these birds (_Ps. mercenarius_, Tsch.) is
+remarkable for regular migrations. Every morning they sally forth in
+flocks from the upper to the lower forests, where they pass the day, and
+they regularly return before sunset to their roosting-places. From year
+to year these parrots leave their night quarters daily at the same hour,
+and return with equal punctuality before sunset. This regularity of
+departing and returning has caused the natives to give them the name of
+_Jornaleros_ (day-laborers). From the depth of the forests sounds often
+arise which resemble human voices, and the astonished hunter then
+believes that he is in the vicinity of his companions, or, perhaps, of
+hostile Indians. He eagerly listens, and it is only when well acquainted
+with the sounds of the winged inhabitants of the woods that he can
+recognise the melancholy tones of the wood-pigeons (_C. infuscata_,
+Licht.; _C. melancholica_, Tsch.). When day begins to depart, groups of
+the pheasant-like Hachahuallpa[88] assemble, and with the cry of _Ven
+acá_, _Ven acá_,[89] summon their distant companions.
+
+Not only are the trees of the forests peopled with myriads of birds,
+but the earth has also its feathered inhabitants, who seldom soar
+above the level of the soil. They build their nests among the roots
+and fallen branches, and depend for movement more on their feet than
+on their wings. Among those members of the winged tribe, who show no
+disposition to soar into the regions of air, we find here the
+turcassa, a pigeon with richly-shaded plumage; the beautifully
+speckled toothed fowl (_Odontophorus speciosus_, Tsch.), and
+short-tailed grass fowl, or crake,[90] whose flesh when cooked is
+delicately white and finely flavored. In marshy places and on the
+slimy banks of rivers, the jabiru (_Mycteria americana_, L.) loves to
+wade, together with the rose-colored spoon-bill (_Platalea ajaja_,
+L.); the fish-devouring ibis (_Tantalus loculator_, L.), the
+curved-billed snipe (_Rhynchoea Hilærea_, Val.), the party-colored
+cranes, plovers, land-rails, shrites, and even sea-swallows.[91] In
+the rivers there are ducks: these birds are, perhaps, carried down by
+the currents from the Andes, or, possibly, they fly in great trains
+from the inner waters of Brazil.
+
+Of the amphibia in the principal forests of Peru, only the great
+fresh-water tortoise (_Hydraspis expansa_, Fitz.) is useful to the
+natives. On the sandy banks of rivers this animal buries its eggs, from
+which the Indians extract oil: its flesh, also, supplies well-flavored
+food. All other animals of this class are objects of terror, or at least
+of aversion, to the Indians. In the warm sand of the river banks, lies
+the lazy caiman.[92] He keeps his jaws wide open, only closing them to
+swallow the innumerable flies which he catches on his tongue. To the
+helplessness of these animals when on land, the natives have to be
+thankful that they are not the most dangerous scourges of the forest: in
+water, their boldness and swiftness of motion are fearful. The number of
+lizards here is not great, nor do they attain so considerable a size as
+in other equatorial regions. The serpents are to be feared, and on
+approaching them, it is not easy to decide at the first view whether
+they belong to a poisonous or innoxious species. In the forests, where
+the fallen leaves lie in thick, moist layers, the foot of the hunter
+sinks deep at every step. Multitudes of venomous amphibia are hatched
+in the half-putrescent vegetable matter, and he who inadvertently steps
+on one of these animals may consider himself uncommonly fortunate if he
+can effect his retreat without being wounded. But it is not merely in
+these places, which seem assigned by nature for their abode, that
+loathsome reptiles are found: they creep between the roots of large
+trees, under the thickly interwoven brushwood, on the open grass plots,
+and in the maize and sugar-cane fields of the Indians: nay, they crawl
+even into their huts, and most fortunate is it for the inhabitants of
+those districts that the number of the venomous, compared with the
+innoxious reptiles, is comparatively small. Of the poisonous serpents,
+only a few kinds are known whose bite is attended with very dangerous
+consequences. The _Miuamaru_, or _Jergon_ (_Lachesis picta_, Tsch.), is,
+at most, three feet long, with a broad, heart-shaped head, and a thick
+upper lip. It haunts the higher forests, while in those lower down his
+place is filled by his no less fearful relative _Flammon_ (_Lachesis
+rhombeata_, Prince Max.), which is six or seven feet in length. These
+serpents are usually seen coiled almost in a circle, the head thrust
+forward, and the fierce, treacherous-looking eyes glaring around,
+watching for prey, upon which they pounce with the swiftness of an
+arrow; then, coiling themselves up again, they look tranquilly on the
+death-struggle of the victim. It would appear that these amphibia have
+a perfect consciousness of the dreadful effect of their poisonous
+weapon, for they use it when they are neither attacked nor threatened,
+and they wound not merely animals fit for their food, but all that
+come within their reach. More formidable than the two snakes just
+described, but happily much less common, is the brown, ten-inch long
+viper.[93] It is brown, with two rows of black circular spots. The
+effect of its bite is so rapid, that it kills a strong man in two or
+three minutes. So convinced are the natives of its inevitably fatal
+result, that they never seek any remedy; but immediately on receiving
+the wound, lay themselves down to die. In the Montañas of Pangoa this
+viper abounds more than in any other district, and never without
+apprehension do the Cholos undertake their annual journey for the coca
+harvest, as they fear to fall victims to the bite of this viper. The
+warning sound of the rattlesnake is seldom heard in the hot Montañas,
+and never in the higher regions.
+
+Nature, who in almost all things has established an equilibrium,
+supplies the natives with remedies against the bite of the serpent. One
+of the cures most generally resorted to is the root of the amarucachu
+(_Polianthes tuberosa_, L.), cut into slips and laid upon the wound.
+Another is the juice of the creeping plant called vejuco de huaco
+(_Mikania Huaco_, Kth.), which is already very widely celebrated. This
+latter remedy was discovered by the negroes of the equatorial province,
+Choco. They remarked that a sparrow-hawk, called the _huaco_, picked up
+snakes for its principal food, and when bitten by one it flew to the
+vejuco and ate some of the leaves. At length the Indians thought of
+making the experiment on themselves, and when bitten by serpents they
+drank the expressed juice of the leaves of the vejuco, and constantly
+found that the wound was thereby rendered harmless. The use of this
+excellent plant soon became general; and in some places the belief of
+the preservative power of the vejuco juice was carried so far that men
+in good health were inoculated with it. In this process some spoonfuls
+of the expressed fluid are drunk, and afterwards some drops are put into
+incisions made in the hands, feet, and breast. The fluid is rubbed into
+the wounds by fresh vejuco leaves. After this operation, according to
+the testimony of persons worthy of credit, the bite of the poisonous
+snake fails for a long time to have any evil effect. Besides the two
+plants mentioned above, many others are used with more or less favorable
+results. The inhabitants of the Montaña also resort to other means,
+which are too absurd to be detailed here; yet their medicines are often
+of benefit, for their operation is violently reactive. They usually
+produce the effect of repeated emetics, and cause great perspiration.
+There is much difference in the modes of external treatment of the
+wound, and burning is often employed. I saw an Indian apply to his
+wife's foot, which had been bitten, a plaster, consisting of moist
+gunpowder, pulverised sulphur, and finely-chopped tobacco, mixed up
+together. He laid this over the wounded part and set fire to it. This
+application, in connexion with one of the nausea-exciting remedies taken
+inwardly, had a successful result.
+
+Innoxious snakes[94] wind on tendrilled climbing plants, or lie like
+necklaces of coral on the brown decayed leaves (_Elap. affinis_, Fitz.).
+Where the branches of rivers enter the gloomy forests and form little
+narrow lagunes, over which the high trees spread in vaulted cupolas
+almost impervious to the light of day, there dwells the powerful giant
+snake (_Eunectes murinus_, Wagl.), called by the Indians, in their
+figurative language, _yacumaman_, "mother of the waters." Stretched in
+listless repose, or winding round the stem of an old tree, bathing her
+tail in the cool lagune, she watches wistfully for the animals of the
+forest who come to the waters to quench their thirst. Whilst she gazes
+at her distant prey, the fascinating power of her eyes seems to subdue
+the trembling victim, and, unable even to attempt escape, he falls an
+easy sacrifice.
+
+The amphibia of the frog species, which lie concealed in silent repose
+during the day, raise, after sunset, their far-sounding voices. The
+violet colored throat-bladder (_Cystignathus silvestris_, Tsch.)
+maintains his loud, uniform croak beneath the bushes, or penetrates into
+the huts of the inhabitants. The _trapichero_, or sugar-mill frog, is a
+large species, almost half a foot in length. Its croak resembles very
+much the grating sound caused by the working of a sugar mill, for which
+reason the natives have given it the name of trapichero, or the
+_sugar-miller_. The croaking of these frogs, whose manifold tones blend
+together in confused union, augments not a little the distressing
+dreariness of a forest night.
+
+Of the numerous species of insects which swarm in these regions, few are
+remarkable for beauty; but many fix attention by their peculiar habits.
+The bites and stings of numbers of them are very dangerous, and it
+requires much caution to guard against their attacks.
+
+Variegated butterflies flutter noiselessly among the spreading branches
+of the trees, or sun themselves on the warm masses of fallen leaves. The
+most remarkable of these butterflies is the large atlas, whose
+brilliant blue tints shine out with lustrous radiance in the dim light
+of the forest. Along the banks of rivers, and especially in hot marshy
+spots, small musquitoes swarm. The bite of this animal produces an
+intolerable burning sensation, and often causes considerable
+inflammation. But more troublesome, and also much more numerous, are the
+stinging-flies (_sancudos_). On my first arrival in the Montaña, I lay
+several days exceedingly ill in consequence of severe swelling of the
+head and limbs, caused by the bites of these insects. To the inhabitant
+of the forest the sancudos are an incessant torment. In no season of the
+year, in no hour of the day or night, is there any respite from their
+attacks. Rubbing the body with unctuous substances, together with the
+caustic juices of certain plants, and at night enclosing one's self in a
+tent made of _tucuyo_ (cotton cloth), or palm-tree bast, are the only
+means of protection against their painful stings. The clothes commonly
+worn are not sufficient, for they are perforated by the long sting of
+the larger species, particularly of the much-dreaded
+_huir-pasimi-sancudo_ (Lip-gnat). Regularly every evening at twilight
+fresh swarms of these mischievous insects make their appearance.
+
+The ticks (_ixodes_) are a class of insects destined by nature for the
+suction of plants; but they often forsake trees, shrubs, and grasses, to
+fasten on man and other animals. With their long sharp stings they make
+punctures, in which they insert their heads, and thereby occasion very
+painful sores. These insects appear to have no preference for any
+particular class of animals. They are often found on the hair of dead
+mammalia, and among the feathers of birds which have been shot; even the
+toad, the frog, and the scaly lizard are not spared by them. Much more
+troublesome than these insects are the antanas, which are not visible to
+the naked eye. They penetrate the surface of the skin, and introduce
+themselves beneath it, where they propagate with incredible rapidity;
+and when some thousands of them are collected together, a blackish spot
+appears, which quickly spreads. If these insects are not destroyed when
+they first introduce themselves into the punctures, they multiply with
+incalculable rapidity, destroying the skin, and all the tender parts in
+contact with it. Washing with brandy, which is often found to be a
+remedy against the less mischievous isancos, is not sufficient for the
+removal of the antanas. For their extirpation the only effectual remedy
+is frequently bathing the part affected with a mixture of spirits of
+wine and corrosive sublimate.
+
+Who can describe the countless myriads of ants which swarm through the
+forests? Every shrub is full of creeping life, and the decayed
+vegetation affords harbor for some peculiar kinds of these insects.
+The large yellow _puca-çiçi_ is seen in multitudes in the open air,
+and it even penetrates into the dwellings. This insect does not bite,
+but its crawling creates great irritation to the skin. The small black
+_yana-çiçi_, on the contrary, inflicts most painful punctures. A very
+mischievous species of stinging ant is the black _sunchiron_. This
+insect inflicts a puncture with a long sting, which he carries in the
+rear of his body. The wound is exceedingly painful, and is sometimes
+attended by dangerous consequences. My travelling companion, C. Klee,
+being stung by one of these ants, suffered such severe pain and
+fever, that he was for a short while delirious. A few nights
+afterwards, a similar attack was made on myself during sleep. It
+suddenly awoke me, and caused me to start up with a convulsive
+spring. I must confess that I never, in my whole life, experienced
+such severe pain as I did at that moment.
+
+A most remarkable phenomenon is exhibited by the swarms of the species
+called the _ñaui-huacan-çiçi_,[95] the great _wandering ant_. They
+appear suddenly in trains of countless myriads, and proceed forward in
+a straight direction, without stopping. The small, the weak, and the
+neuters are placed in the centre, while the large and the strong flank
+the army, and look out for prey. These swarms, called by the natives
+_Chacus_, sometimes enter a hut and clear it of all insects, amphibia,
+and other disagreeable guests. This work being accomplished, they again
+form themselves into a long train, and move onwards. The united force
+of these small creatures is vast, and there is no approach to the
+fabulous, when it is related that not only snakes, but also large
+mammalia, such as agoutis, armadillas, &c., on being surprised by
+them, are soon killed. On the light dry parts of the higher Montañas we
+find the large conical dwellings of the termes so firmly built, that
+they are impenetrable even to rifle shot. They sometimes stand singly,
+sometimes together, in long lines. In form they strongly resemble the
+simple, conical Puna huts.
+
+Before leaving the animal kingdom of these forest regions, which I have
+here sketched only briefly and fragmentally, I must notice two insects,
+the _Cucaracha_ and the _Chilicabra_, species of the Cockroach
+(_Blatta_). They are exceedingly numerous and troublesome. The
+Cucaracha, which more particularly infests the deep regions of the
+forest, is an inch and a half long, and above half an inch broad; it is
+reddish brown, with a yellow neck. The Chilicabra, though smaller, is
+more mischievous, by reason of its greater numbers. They settle in the
+huts, where they destroy provisions, gnaw clothes, get into beds, and
+into the dishes at meal time. These insects defy every precaution that
+can be taken against their tormenting attacks. Luckily, nature has
+provided enemies for their destruction. Among these is a small reddish
+yellow ant, called by the Indians, the _Pucchu-çiçi_, a useful member
+of the ant family, for it pursues and destroys the mischievous
+cockroaches. There is also a very elegant little bird, called the
+_Cucarachero_ (_Troglodytes audax_, Tsch.) which wages war against
+these insects. On seizing one of them it first bites off the head, then
+devours the body, and throws away the tough wings. These operations
+being completed, it hops to the nearest bush, and tunes its melodious
+song, the sounds of which closely resemble the words "_Acabe la
+tarea!_" a name which the Indians give to this bird.[96] I could yet
+fill many pages with descriptions of insects which are dangerous or
+troublesome, and among them are included the julus, measuring six
+inches in length, the large black and red scorpion, not forgetting the
+numerous poisonous wasps and the cicadas. However, those which have
+been noticed will suffice to afford an idea of the ever-active
+movements of animal life in the forests.
+
+Willingly would I take a view of the vegetation of the virgin forests,
+and attempt to sketch its progressive developments and alternations
+from the hilly Montañas of the eastern declivities of the Andes to the
+humid level banks of the larger rivers; but I do not feel myself
+competent to undertake a labor to which former travellers intimately
+acquainted with the world of plants have already rendered full
+justice.[97] Being devoted to the study of zoology, and,
+unfortunately, too little familiar with botany, I have confined myself
+to a description of the general impression produced by the luxuriant
+growth of the soil, without entering into the individualities of the
+vegetation. In the more highly situated Montañas, where the cinchona
+is found in the place of its nativity, the gigantic orchidæ, the
+numerous fern plants, the tree-like nettles, the wonderful bignonias,
+and the numerous, impenetrable complications of climbing plants,
+powerfully rivet the attention of the observer. Lower down, in the
+lighter forest soil, amidst numerous shrubs and climbers, the eye
+delights to dwell on the manifold forms of the stately palm, on the
+terebinthaceæ, on the thickly-leaved balsam-yielding leguminosæ, on
+the luxuriant laurels, on the pandaneæ or the large-leaved heliconias,
+and on the solaneæ, with their gigantic blossoms and thousands of
+flowers. Descending still further, the flat lands of the forest assume
+a dark and gloomy aspect. The massive foliage of trees overarches
+stems which are the growth of centuries, and form a canopy almost
+impervious to the light of day. On the slimy soil no small shrub
+uprears its head, no flowering plant unfolds its blossom. The mighty
+trees stand alone, and erect in rows, like gravestones in a
+churchyard; and the child of darkness--the rapidly-shooting
+mushroom--finds genial nurture on the warm humid earth.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 79: Bark-gatherers. The Peruvians call the bark
+_cascarilla_, and they point out the distinctions of a great number of
+species and varieties.]
+
+[Footnote 80: From Cuzco, the ancient residence of the Incas. It was
+discovered by the French chemists Corriol and Pelletier, in the
+Cascarilla which is shipped in Arica; hence this alkaloid is also
+called _Aricin_.]
+
+[Footnote 81: The Indian name for this animal is _Chaque chinca_. The
+black variety _Yana chinca_ is called by the Spaniards _Tigre_ or
+_Yaguar_.]
+
+[Footnote 82: _Rupicola peruviana_, Ch. Dum. The color of the female
+is reddish brown, and she is named by the natives _Tunqui mulato_; the
+male is called _Tunqui Colorado_. In some parts of the Montaña the
+_Cephalopterus ornatus_ is called _Yana Tunqui_. Thus, even the
+Indians have observed the relationship of these birds, which, classed
+according to our system of natural history, actually belong to one
+family, the _Ampelidæ_. Their affinity is indicated very correctly by
+the Indian name.]
+
+[Footnote 83: The Organistas of Peru, Brazil, and Guiana, &c.,
+mentioned by so many travellers, all belong to the family of the
+Troglodytinæ, to the two genera, _Troglodytes_, Vieill, and
+_Cyphorhinus_, Cab. The Peruvian Organista above alluded to, is the
+_Troglodytes leucophrys_, Tsch. In Guiana it appears to be the
+_Cyphorhinus carinatus_, Cab.]
+
+[Footnote 84: _Xenops_, _Anabates_, _Dendrocolaptes_, and many other
+kinds of _Capito_ and _Picus_.]
+
+[Footnote 85: These are different kinds of _Cassicus_ and _Icterus_.]
+
+[Footnote 86: Kinds of Pteroglossus. Those most frequently met with in
+the Montañas are the _Pt. atrogularis_, Sturm; _Pt. coeruleocinctus_,
+Tsch. (_Aulacorhynchus_, Orb.); and _Pt. Derbianus_, Gould.]
+
+[Footnote 87: _Dios te de_ signifies _May God give it thee_. The sound
+which is interpreted, _Dios te de_ resembles very much the cry of most
+of the Toucans, or pepper-eaters.]
+
+[Footnote 88: Several kinds of Penelope.]
+
+[Footnote 89: The cry of this bird closely resembles the Spanish words
+_Ven acá_ (Come hither).]
+
+[Footnote 90: Seven species of Crypturus.]
+
+[Footnote 91: _Sterna erythrorhynchos_, Prince Max., _St.
+magnirostris_, Licht.]
+
+[Footnote 92: _Champsa fissipes, sclerops et nigra_, Wagl.]
+
+[Footnote 93: _Echidna ocellata_, Tsch. This is the only species of the
+viper family belonging to South America, as yet known.]
+
+[Footnote 94: _Sphenocephalus melanogenys_, Tsch.; _Lygophis Reginae_,
+Wagl.; _L. taeniurus_, Tsch.; _L. elegans_, Tsch.]
+
+[Footnote 95: From _ñaui_, the eye, _huacay_, to cry, and _çiçi_, the
+ant;--so called by the Indians, because the pain of its numerous stings
+brings tears into the eyes.]
+
+[Footnote 96: "_Acabe la tarea_" may be translated "_My task is
+finished_." But the Indians are not very consistent in their
+interpretations of the song of the _Cucarachero_; for in some districts,
+they contend that it repeats the words--_Casa te Soltera_, "_Go and get
+married, Maiden_."]
+
+[Footnote 97: A. von Humboldt, von Martius, and, in particular, Pöppig,
+who has published a narrative of his journey through Peru, distinguished
+by its precision, and written in a style so elegant and simple that its
+perusal affords the utmost interest and pleasure.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+Montaña of San Carlos de Vitoc--Villages--Hacienda of Maraynioc--the
+Coca Plant--Mode of Cultivating and Gathering it--Mastication of
+Coca--Evil Consequences of its excessive Use--Its Nutritious
+Qualities--Indian Superstitions connected with the Coca
+Plant--Suggestions for its Introduction in the European
+Navies--Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo--The Chunchos--Missions
+to Cerro de la Sal--Juan Santos Atahuallpa--The Franciscan
+Monks--Depopulation of Vitoc.
+
+
+The Montaña of San Carlos de Vitoc is, without exception, one of the
+most interesting districts of Peru. It has on the one side, and at a
+short distance, the populous villages of the Sierra, and on the other it
+borders on the forests, through which the wild Indians range in their
+hunting excursions. It was formerly the principal key to the missionary
+stations of the Pampa del Sacramento, the Chanchamayo, Perenc, and Upper
+Ucayali. It is only twenty leagues distant from Tarma, from whence the
+road leads through the fertile valley Acobamba, to Palca. Eastward of
+the latter place are the ruins of a fort, which in former times must
+have been a place of considerable importance. The wild Indians have
+repeatedly made hostile sallies from their forests, and it is only by
+this bulwark, which, with four small field-pieces, completely defends
+the narrow valley, that they have been checked in their advance on
+Tarma. An exceedingly steep path runs about a league and a half up the
+acclivity; then, becoming somewhat more level, it extends to the base of
+the crest, which at that part is about 14,000 feet above the level of
+the sea. Here the aspect of the Andes is by no means so imposing as that
+of the Cordillera, for the glaciers and steep rocky summits are wanting.
+The highest peaks rise only about 200 feet above the crest. As in the
+Cordillera, the eastern declivity inclines much more gently than the
+western, but the road is marshy, and is interspersed with large
+hollows, into which the mules often fall and are killed. After passing
+over the Andes, two leagues further, we come to the hacienda
+Maraynioc, where numerous herds of cattle are kept. Round the hacienda
+there are potato plantations, and the potatoes reared here are so
+excellent, that they are celebrated throughout the whole Sierra. Every
+morning the sky is obscured by heavy clouds; it rains regularly two days
+in the week, and there are frequent falls of snow; yet notwithstanding
+this excessive humidity, a bad harvest is an event never to be
+apprehended. The cultivation of maize is, however, found to be
+impracticable here, for soon after germination the ears rot. A small
+stream flows past the hacienda, and after a course of about three
+leagues, it reaches the Montaña de Vitoc. Formerly, the road ran close
+along the bank of this stream, but in consequence of the repeated
+depopulation of Vitoc, it became neglected, and at length impassable.
+The way is now over the Cuchillo, or sharp edge of a mountain ridge, and
+it must be at least four times longer than the course formerly taken.
+From Maraynioc the road proceeds, for the length of a league, through a
+valley overgrown with brushwood, and then rises to a lateral branch of
+the Andes, which is almost as high as the main chain. The Indians call
+this ridge, _Manam rimacunan_ ("Thou shall not speak!"), for a heavy
+wind, accompanied by drifting snow, blows constantly, and renders it
+scarcely possible to open the mouth to utter a word. From Manarimacunan,
+downwards, to the lower Montaña, the road passes over stones laid in
+_echelon_ form, and through a very slippery hollow way, which descends
+rapidly downward, and is surrounded by almost impenetrable woods; the
+only open and level place is the field of Chilpes, which is a few
+hundred paces long.
+
+Here it is highly interesting to contemplate the rapid increase of
+vegetation, and the varied changes in the animal world. From the brink
+of a ridge where only feeble vegetation can be seen, we descend a few
+leagues and speedily find ourselves in the region of the Cinchona tree,
+and in the evening we are among lofty palms. The first human dwellings
+seen on entering the Montaña are half a dozen small huts, forming the
+hamlet Amaruyo, formerly called Sibis, and immediately after we come to
+the village of Vitoc. It consists of about fifty wretched huts, and has
+a small church, in which worship is performed twice a year for the
+inhabitants of the whole valley.
+
+Vitoc is surrounded by two rivers, which unite in a sharp angle, called
+the Tingo, and which separate the valley from the territory of the wild
+Indians. The valley is deep, and the surrounding heights are broken by
+many quebradas. The soil is very fruitful, and the locality is less than
+some others infested with troublesome insects; yet it is but scantily
+peopled, for, besides the two villages and the Hacienda of Maraynioc,
+already mentioned, it contains only a few scattered chacras. The
+inhabitants of this, the most favored district of the Montañas, scarcely
+amount to 200. The villagers employ themselves chiefly in the
+cultivation of pines, which are sent to Lima. The Indians of Palca and
+Tapo bring them potatoes, salt, and butcher's meat, for which the
+villagers exchange their pine-apples. The fruit is conveyed by asses
+to the coast, where, however, it seldom arrives in good condition. The
+other productions of the Montaña are maize, oranges, bananas, paltas,
+Spanish pepper, &c.; but these articles are sold only in the Sierra.
+Each inhabitant of the village cultivates his own piece of ground,
+which he can enlarge when he pleases; but these people are too
+indolent to devote themselves seriously to agriculture. It is only
+when the governor in Tarma compels them to pay the annual
+contribution, that they make an effort to augment their earnings; they
+then seek a market for the products of their cultivation, and sell
+them for ready money. Vitoc and some of the villages in its
+neighborhood form altogether only one ecclesiastical community, whose
+pastor lives in Tarma the whole year round. He goes to Pucara only
+once in six or eight months, to read a couple of masses, and to
+solemnize marriages and christenings, but chiefly to collect fees for
+burials which may have taken place during his absence.
+
+The plantation of Pacchapata is of considerable extent, but produces
+very little. The system of repartimientos, already described, by which
+the poor Indian is kept in a state of slavery by advances of clothing,
+meat, brandy, &c., is practised in this hacienda to a great extent. The
+laborer who is set down in the plantation-book as a debtor for ten or
+twelve dollars, has a good chance of remaining during the rest of his
+life a tributary slave; for if he tries by prolonged labor to relieve
+himself from the debt the owner of the plantation causes brandy to be
+made, and this is too great a temptation to be resisted by an Indian.
+The butcher's meat given to the laboring Indians in general consists of
+_Chalonas_, that is, the dried flesh of sheep which have died in the
+haciendas of the hilly districts. For a meagre, tough, unwholesome
+chalona the Indian has to add a dollar and a half or two dollars to his
+debt, while a living sheep in the Sierra would not cost half the price.
+It is the same with other articles furnished by the haciendas. European
+importations, such as can be purchased at very low prices in the Sierra,
+are sold at high profits by the owners of plantations to the poor
+Indians, who have to repay them by long and severe labor.
+
+At Pacchapata, besides maize, yuccas, and fruits, sugar, coffee, and
+coca are also cultivated. The sugar-cane grows in abundance, and is of
+good quality. An excellent kind of coffee is grown here; the bean is
+slightly globular, and its color is a greenish blue. In former times the
+viceroy used to send the coffee of Vitoc as a highly-esteemed present to
+the court of Madrid. The coca is also very fine, and yields three
+harvests in the year; which, however, is only the case in a few of the
+Montañas, as, for example, at Pangoa and Huanta. I may here subjoin
+some notice of this highly interesting plant.
+
+The coca (_Erythroxylon coca_, Lam.) is a shrub about six feet in
+height, with bright green leaves and white blossoms. The latter are
+succeeded by small scarlet berries. It is raised from the seed, in
+garden-beds called _almazigas_. When the young shoots are one and a half
+or two feet high, they are removed to regularly laid out coca fields
+(_cocales_), where they are planted at the distance of about three spans
+from each other. The coca requires humidity; therefore, during the first
+year or two after it is planted in the fields, maize is sown between the
+_matas_, or young shoots, to screen them from the too great influence of
+the sun. When the leaves are ripe, that is to say, when on being bent
+they crack or break off, the gathering commences. The leaves are
+stripped from the branches, a task usually performed by women, and it
+requires great care lest the tender leaves and young twigs should be
+injured. In some districts, the Indians are so very careful in
+gathering the coca, that, instead of stripping off the leaves, they cut
+them from the stem by making an incision with their nails. The plant
+thus rendered leafless is soon again overgrown with verdant foliage.
+After being gathered, the leaves are spread out on coarse woollen cloths
+and dried in the sun. The color of the leaves when dried is a pale
+green. The drying is an operation which likewise demands great care
+and attention, for if the leaves imbibe damp, they become dark
+colored, and then they sell for a much lower price than when they are
+green. The dry coca is finely packed in woollen sacks, and covered
+with sand. These sacks are of various sizes and colors, in different
+parts of the Montañas. In Huanuco they are grey or black, and when
+filled weigh from 75 to 80 pounds. In Vitoc they are grey and white,
+and contain 150 pounds. In Huanta and Anco they are small in size, and
+black or brown in color, and contain merely one aroba. In the Montañas
+of Urubamba, Calca, and Paucartambo, the coca leaves are put into
+small baskets called _cestos_, and covered with sand. Great care is
+also requisite in the carriage of the coca, for if damp be allowed to
+penetrate the sack, the leaves become hot, or as the natives express
+it, _Se calientan_, and are thereby rendered useless.
+
+The Indians masticate the coca. Each individual carries a leathern
+pouch, called the _huallqui_, or the _chuspa_, and a small flask gourd,
+called the _ishcupuru_. The pouch contains a supply of coca leaves, and
+the gourd is filled with pulverised unslaked lime. Usually four times,
+but never less than three times a day, the Indian suspends his labor,
+for the purpose of masticating coca. This operation (which is termed
+_chacchar_ or _acullicar_) is performed in the following manner: some of
+the coca leaves, the stalks having been carefully picked off, are
+masticated until they form a small ball, or as it is called an
+_acullico_. A thin slip of damp wood is then thrust into the
+_ishcupuru_, or gourd, and when drawn out some portion of the powdered
+lime adheres to it. The _acullico_, or ball of masticated coca leaves,
+is, whilst still lying in the mouth, punctured with this slip of wood,
+until the lime mixing with it, gives it a proper relish, and the
+abundant flow of saliva thus excited is partly expectorated and partly
+swallowed. When the ball ceases to emit juice, it is thrown away, and
+a new one is formed by the mastication of a fresh mouthfull of coca
+leaves. In Cerro de Pasco, and in places still further south, the
+Indians use, instead of unslaked lime, a preparation of the pungent
+ashes of the quinua (_Chenopodium Quinua_, L.). This preparation is
+called _Llucta_ or _Llipta_. In using it a piece is broken off and
+masticated along with the _acullico_. In some of the Montaña regions
+the Llucta is made from the ashes of the musa root. The application of
+the unslaked lime demands some precaution, for if it comes in direct
+contact with the lips and gums, it causes a very painful burning.
+During a fatiguing ride across the level heights, where, owing to the
+cold wind, I experienced a difficulty of respiration, my Arriero
+recommended me to chew coca, assuring me that I would experience great
+relief from so doing. He lent me his _huallqui_, but owing to my
+awkward manner of using it, I cauterized my lips so severely that I
+did not venture on a second experiment.
+
+The flavor of coca is not unpleasant. It is slightly bitter, aromatic,
+and similar to the worst kind of green tea. When mixed with the ashes of
+the musa root it is somewhat piquant, and more pleasant to European
+palates than it is without that addition. The smell of the fresh dried
+leaves in a mass is almost overpowering; but this smell entirely goes
+when they are packed in the sacks. All who masticate coca have a very
+bad breath, pale lips and gums, greenish and stumpy teeth, and an ugly
+black mark at the angles of the mouth. An inveterate _coquero_, or coca
+chewer, is known at the first glance. His unsteady gait, his
+yellow-colored skin, his dim and sunken eyes encircled by a purple ring,
+his quivering lips and his general apathy, all bear evidence of the
+baneful effects of the coca juice when taken in excess. All the mountain
+Indians are addicted more or less to the practice of masticating coca.
+Each man consumes, on the average, between an ounce and an ounce and a
+half per day, and on festival days about double that quantity. The
+owners of mines and plantations allow their laborers to suspend their
+work three times a day for the _chacchar_, which usually occupies
+upwards of a quarter of an hour; and after that they smoke a paper
+cigar, which they allege crowns the zest of the coca mastication. He
+who indulges for a time in the use of coca finds it difficult, indeed
+almost impossible, to relinquish it. This fact I saw exemplified in
+the cases of several persons of high respectability in Lima, who are
+in the habit of retiring daily to a private apartment for the purpose
+of masticating coca. They could not do this openly, because among the
+refined class of Peruvians the chacchar is looked upon as a low and
+vulgar practice, befitting only to the laboring Indians. Yet,
+Europeans occasionally allow themselves to fall into this habit; and I
+knew two in Lima, the one an Italian and the other a Biscayan, who
+were confirmed coqueros in the strictest sense of the word. In Cerro
+de Pasco there are societies having even Englishmen for their members,
+which meet on certain evenings for the chacchar. In these places,
+instead of lime or ashes, sugar is served along with the coca leaves.
+A member of one of these clubs informed me that on the few first
+trials the sugar was found very agreeable, but that afterwards the
+palate required some more pungent ingredient.
+
+The operation of the coca is similar to that of narcotics administered
+in small doses. Its effects may be compared to those produced by the
+thorn-apple rather than to those arising from opium. I have already
+noticed the consequences resulting from drinking the decoction of the
+datura.[98] In the inveterate coquero similar symptoms are observable,
+but in a mitigated degree. I may mention one circumstance attending the
+use of coca, which appears hitherto to have escaped notice: it is,
+that after the mastication of a great quantity of coca the eye seems
+unable to bear light, and there is a marked distension of the pupil. I
+have also observed this peculiarity of the eye in one who had drunk a
+strong extract of the infusion of coca leaves. In the effects
+consequent on the use of opium and coca there is this distinction,
+that coca, when taken even in the utmost excess, never causes a total
+alienation of the mental powers or induces sleep; but, like opium, it
+excites the sensibility of the brain, and the repeated excitement,
+occasioned by its intemperate use after a series of years, wears out
+mental vigor and activity.
+
+It is a well known fact, confirmed by long observation and experience,
+that the Indians who regularly masticate coca require but little food,
+and, nevertheless, go through excessive labor with apparent ease. They,
+therefore, ascribe the most extraordinary qualities to the coca, and
+even believe that it might be made entirely a substitute for food.
+Setting aside all extravagant and visionary notions on the subject, I am
+clearly of opinion that the moderate use of coca is not merely
+innoxious, but that it may even be very conducive to health. In support
+of this conclusion, I may refer to the numerous examples of longevity
+among Indians who, almost from the age of boyhood, have been
+in the habit of masticating coca three times a day, and who in the
+course of their lives have consumed no less than two thousand seven
+hundred pounds, yet, nevertheless, enjoy perfect health.[99] The food of
+the Indians consists almost exclusively of vegetable substances,
+especially roasted maize and barley converted into flour by crushing,
+which they eat without the admixture of any other substance. The
+continued use of this farinaceous food occasions severe obstructions,
+which the well known aperient qualities of the coca counteract, and many
+serious diseases are thereby prevented. That the coca is in the highest
+degree nutritious, is a fact beyond dispute. The incredible fatigues
+endured by the Peruvian infantry, with very spare diet, but with the
+regular use of coca; the laborious toil of the Indian miner, kept up,
+under similar circumstances, throughout a long series of years;
+certainly afford sufficient ground for attributing to the coca leaves,
+not a quality of mere temporary stimulus, but a powerful nutritive
+principle. Of the great power of the Indians in enduring fatigue with no
+other sustenance than coca, I may here mention an example. A Cholo of
+Huari, named Hatun Huamang, was employed by me in very laborious
+digging. During the whole time he was in my service, viz., five days and
+nights, he never tasted any food, and took only two hours' sleep
+nightly. But at intervals of two and a half or three hours, he regularly
+masticated about half an ounce of coca leaves, and he kept an acullico
+continually in his mouth. I was constantly beside him, and therefore I
+had the opportunity of closely observing him. The work for which I
+engaged him being finished, he accompanied me on a two days' journey of
+twenty-three leagues across the level heights. Though on foot, he kept
+up with the pace of my mule, and halted only for the _chacchar_. On
+leaving me, he declared that he would willingly engage himself again for
+the same amount of work, and that he would go through it without food if
+I would but allow him a sufficient supply of coca. The village priest
+assured me that this man was sixty-two years of age, and that he had
+never known him to be ill in his life.
+
+The Indians maintain that coca is the best preventive of that difficulty
+of respiration felt in the rapid ascents of the Cordillera and the Puna.
+Of this fact I was fully convinced by my own personal experience. I
+speak here, not of the mastication of the leaves, but of their decoction
+taken as a beverage. When I was in the Puna, at the height of 14,000
+feet above the level of the sea, I drank, always before going out to
+hunt, a strong infusion of coca leaves. I could then during the whole
+day climb the heights and follow the swift-footed wild animals without
+experiencing any greater difficulty of breathing than I should have felt
+in similar rapid movement on the coast. Moreover, I did not suffer from
+the symptoms of cerebral excitement or uneasiness which other travellers
+have observed. The reason perhaps is, that I only drank this decoction
+in the cold Puna, where the nervous system is far less susceptible than
+in the climate of the forests. However, I always felt a sense of great
+satiety after taking the coca infusion, and I did not feel a desire for
+my next meal until after the time at which I usually took it.
+
+By the Peruvian Indians the coca plant is regarded as something sacred
+and mysterious, and it sustained an important part in the religion of
+the Incas. In all ceremonies, whether religious or warlike, it was
+introduced, for producing smoke at the great offerings, or as the
+sacrifice itself. During divine worship the priests chewed coca leaves,
+and unless they were supplied with them, it was believed that the favor
+of the gods could not be propitiated. It was also deemed necessary that
+the supplicator for divine grace should approach the priests with an
+_Acullico_ in his mouth. It was believed that any business undertaken
+without the benediction of coca leaves could not prosper; and to the
+shrub itself worship was rendered. During an interval of more than 300
+years Christianity has not been able to subdue the deep-rooted idolatry;
+for everywhere we find traces of belief in the mysterious power of this
+plant. The excavators in the mines of Cerro de Pasco throw masticated
+coca on hard veins of metal, in the belief that it softens the ore, and
+renders it more easy to work. The origin of this custom is easily
+explained, when it is recollected, that in the time of the Incas it was
+believed that the _Coyas_, or the deities of metals, rendered the
+mountains impenetrable, if they were not propitiated by the odor of
+coca. The Indians, even at the present time, put coca leaves into the
+mouths of dead persons, to secure to them a favorable reception on their
+entrance into another world, and when a Peruvian Indian on a journey
+falls in with a mummy, he, with timid reverence, presents to it some
+coca leaves as his pious offering.
+
+Soon after the conquest of Peru, when the Spaniards treated the Indians
+and all their customs with contempt, coca became an object of aversion
+to the whites. The reverence rendered by the natives to the coca plant
+induced the Spaniards to believe that it possessed some demoniacal
+influence. The officers of the government and the clergy, therefore,
+endeavored, by all possible means, to extirpate its use, and this is one
+cause, hitherto overlooked, of the hatred with which the Indians
+regarded the Spaniards. In the second council held at Lima, in 1567,
+coca was described "as a worthless object, fitted for the misuse and
+superstition of the Indians;" and a royal decree of October 18, 1569,
+expressly declares that the notions entertained by the natives that coca
+gives them strength, is an "illusion of the devil" (_una elusion del
+Demonio_). The Peruvian mine owners were the first to discover the
+importance of the _chacchar_ in assisting the Indians to go through
+their excessive labor, and they, together with the plantation owners,
+became the most earnest defenders of coca. The consequence was, that, in
+defiance of royal and ecclesiastical ordinances, its use increased
+rather than diminished. One of the warmest advocates of the plant was
+the Jesuit Don Antonio Julian, who, in a work entitled, "Perla de
+America," laments that coca is not introduced into Europe instead of
+tea and coffee. "It is," he observes, "melancholy to reflect that the
+poor of Europe cannot obtain this preservative against hunger and
+thirst; that our working people are not supported by this strengthening
+plant in their long-continued labors."[100] In the year 1793, Dr. Don
+Pedro Nolasco Crespo pointed out in a treatise the important advantages
+that would be derived from the use of the coca plant, if introduced into
+the European navies, and he expresses a wish that experiments of its
+utility in that way could be tried. Though it is not probable that Dr.
+Crespo's wish will ever be realized, yet there is little doubt that the
+use of coca as a beverage on board ship would be attended with very
+beneficial results. It would afford a nutritious refreshment to seamen
+in the exercise of their laborious duties, and would greatly assist in
+counteracting the unwholesome effects of salt provisions. As a stimulant
+it would be far less injurious than ardent spirits, for which it might
+be substituted without fear of any of the evil consequences experienced
+by the _coqueros_. After a long and attentive observation of the effects
+of coca, I am fully convinced that its use, in moderation, is no way
+detrimental to health; and that without it the Peruvian Indian, with his
+spare diet, would be incapable of going through the labor which he now
+performs. The coca plant must be considered as a great blessing to Peru.
+It is an essential means of preserving the nationality of the Indians,
+and in some measure mitigating the melancholy fate of that once great
+race which disease and excessive labor now threaten to destroy.
+
+In former times the cultivation of coca in the Montaña de Vitoc was very
+considerable. Upwards of 4,000 arobas used to be annually forwarded to
+the market of Tarma. Now only fifty arobas are sent. Vitoc produces no
+fodder for horses or mules; those animals, therefore, are very lean and
+feeble in this district, and are usually unfit for work after two years.
+Indeed, they suffer so much from the attacks of the blood-sucking bat
+and the gad-fly (_tabano_), that after being only a few weeks in the
+Montaña de Vitoc, their strength is exhausted, and they are scarcely
+able to reach the Puna. Black cattle, on the contrary, thrive
+excellently; but it is not possible to keep up herds, for the young
+calves are all devoured by the numerous animals of prey. The llamas,
+which the Cholos bring from Tapo to Vitoc, are so enfeebled and overcome
+by the journey, that on the second day after their arrival it is often
+found necessary to send them to a colder district.
+
+In this Montaña the large animals of prey seldom approach human
+habitations, though sometimes the ounce pays them a visit, and the
+Cuguar descends from the Ceja. Other animals of the feline genus are
+very numerous, and their depredations render it impossible to breed
+poultry. Even the fabulous animal, called the _carbunculo_, is said to
+have been seen oftener than once in Vitoc. In almost every place I
+visited on the coast, in the Sierra, and in the Montañas, extraordinary
+stories concerning this animal were related; and many persons even
+assured me they had seen him. The carbunculo is represented to be of the
+size of a fox, with long black hair, and is only visible at night, when
+it slinks slowly through the thickets. If followed, he opens a flap or
+valve in the forehead, from under which an extraordinary, brilliant, and
+dazzling light issues. The natives believe that this light proceeds from
+a brilliant precious stone, and that any fool hardy person who may
+venture to grasp at it rashly is blinded; then the flap is let down, and
+the animal disappears in the darkness. Such are the stories related by
+the Indians; and it appears that the belief of the existence of the
+carbunculo has prevailed in Peru from the earliest times, and certainly
+before the conquest, so that its introduction cannot be attributed to
+the Spaniards. It is even prevalent among many of the wild Indian
+tribes, by whom the early missionaries were told the stories which they
+in their turn repeated about the animal. As yet nobody has been
+fortunate enough to capture such an animal, though the Spaniards always
+showed themselves very desirous to obtain possession of the precious
+jewel; and the viceroys, in their official instructions to the
+missionaries, placed the carbunculo in the first order of desiderata.
+What animal may have served as a foundation for those fabulous stories,
+it is certainly difficult to decide; probably a different one in each
+particular district. On the coast it may have been the _añash_ (one of
+the mephitic animals), which seeks for his food only at night. I have
+often observed for a moment a singularly brilliant flashing in the eyes
+of that animal when irritated.
+
+The worst enemies of the delightful Montaña de Vitoc are the wild
+Indians, who are only separated from the Christian Indians by the two
+rivers Aynamayo and Tullumayo. They belong to the ferocious race of the
+_Chunchos_, and in their savage manners they somewhat resemble the
+Casibos and Campas. They have their chief residence in Chibatizo, nine
+leagues from Pucara. Only three leagues from Pacchapata, at the
+confluence of the Chanchamayo and Tullumayo, they have a pretty large
+village; and Palmapata, which they temporarily took possession of, is
+situated still nearer. They frequently extend their hunting excursions
+to the banks of the great rivers, and make inroads upon the territory of
+Vitoc, cruelly murdering all the Cholos they meet with. Any kind of
+friendly intercourse with them is impracticable. I took some pains to
+accomplish that object, but without success. While they were on their
+hunting expeditions I have left in their huts knives, fish-hooks,
+ear-rings, and other things. In return for these presents they left for
+me some of their edible roots, among which were yuccas, but all were
+poisoned, so that, had we not observed caution, I and my venturous
+companion, Klee, might have fallen victims to the treachery of these
+Indians. The Chunchos, when on their expeditions, are almost in a state
+of nudity. Sometimes they wear a short whitish-brown shirt without
+sleeves. This garment, when worn by the chiefs, is red. Most of them dye
+their hair with achote (_Bixa Orellana_, L.), a deep vermilion, and
+paint the face and breast of the same color. Their weapons consist of a
+bow of chonta (_Guilielma speciosa_), with which they use two kinds of
+arrows. One kind are very long, with round points and barbs of chonta;
+the others are shorter, and have points made of reed, which inflict deep
+wounds, very difficult to be healed. They also use the great wooden
+sword, the _macana_. A cross having been put up in the forest, they
+fastened to it a few days afterwards a macana and two arrows, as
+symbols of irreconcilable enmity to Christians. Their warlike instrument
+is a reed, two feet long and four inches broad, through which their
+howlings resound in horrible discord.
+
+It is a custom with the inhabitants of Vitoc to undertake two
+expeditions every year against the Chunchos. They are the most laughable
+enterprises imaginable. All the Cholos of the valley, with the Alcalde
+at their head, or rather in the midst of them, proceed, armed with
+sticks, axes, forest knives, and _two_ muskets,[101] to explore the banks
+of both rivers. The front ranks advance with drums beating, and a number
+of Indians carry large calabashes filled with guarapo, to which they pay
+their earnest devotions every half hour. When by accident some of the
+Chunchos are seen, the Cholos fly with all the rapidity that terror can
+inspire, and cannot be got together again till they reach their village;
+then they raise a tremendous shout, and when safe in their dwellings
+boast proudly of their heroic deeds.
+
+The Chunchos are in possession of a very rich bed of salt, some twelve
+or fourteen leagues from Vitoc, from whence they permit the neighboring
+tribes with whom they are at peace, to supply themselves with salt.
+Hostile tribes, such as the Campas and the Callisecas, sometimes attempt
+to carry away salt, and then a sanguinary contest ensues. This stratum
+of salt comes from the top of a hill, called the Cerro de la Sal, and it
+runs in the direction from south-west to north-east, to the length of
+nearly three leagues, covering a breadth of about thirty ells. The salt
+is mixed with red earth. It is probably a continuation of the great salt
+bed of Maynas, stretching eastward along the left bank of the Perene. It
+may be presumed that it does not extend as far as the immense Pajonal,
+as the Campas go for their salt to the Cerro de la Sal.
+
+In former times various attempts were made to convert the Chunchos to
+Christianity; and these attempts were partially successful. The first
+missionary who ventured among them was the intrepid Fray Geronimo
+Ximenes. In 1635 he penetrated from Huancabamba to the Cerro de la Sal,
+and there preached the gospel in the language of the people. He built a
+chapel, and then directed his course south-west to Vitoc, where he
+founded the village San Buenaventura. Two years after he embarked on the
+Chanchamayo, with the intention of extending his mission to the Campas
+tribe, by whom he was killed, together with his companion, Fray
+Christoval Larios, and twenty-eight other Spaniards. Several
+missionaries subsequently proceeded to the Cerro de la Sal, and found
+favor with the natives, so that in 1640 they had no less than seven
+villages of converted Chunchos, Amagas, and Campas; but only a few years
+afterwards all the missionaries and soldiers were killed and the chapels
+were destroyed. The Franciscan monks, inspired by their indefatigable
+zeal, ventured in 1671, on a new mission to the fatal Cerro de la Sal;
+and they had the good fortune to found a village in which eight hundred
+Neophytes were collected. A second and smaller village was founded in
+the vicinity of the destroyed San Buenaventura, and named Santa Rosa de
+Quimiri; but the avarice of some Spaniards who fancied there were gold
+mines in the Cerro de la Sal, induced them to get the missions withdrawn
+from the superintendence of the priests, and to turn the whole into a
+political system. Then commenced the oppression of the Indians in those
+parts. The consequence was a great insurrection in 1674, when all the
+whites were massacred. Thus were the labors of the missionaries a second
+time annihilated. Every attempt for the conversion of Indians was for a
+long time fruitless, and the missionaries who ventured to approach them
+were shot. After the lapse of about thirty years, during which interval
+the Chunchos had fallen back to their original savage state, the founder
+of the Convent of Ocopa, Fray Francisco de San Jose, with four priests
+and two lay brothers, penetrated into the valley of Vitoc, and entered
+upon the territory of the Chunchos. At this time (1709) Vitoc was first
+peopled, and in the course of twenty years six large villages were
+built. In the year 1739 these missions, again flourishing, counted ten
+Christian villages and three thousand baptized Indians. Three years
+afterwards the Indian insurrection, headed by the apostate Juan Santos,
+destroyed all the missions of Central Peru.
+
+Juan Santos was an Indian born at Huamanga, and he claimed descent from
+the last of the Incas. This claim was probably well founded, for before
+the revolt he was called Atahuallpa, which was the name of the Inca put
+to death by Pizarro. Juan Santos was haughty, high spirited, and clever.
+In the year 1741 he killed, in a quarrel, a Spaniard of high rank, and
+to elude the pursuit of justice, he fled to the forests. There he
+brooded over plans for taking vengeance on the oppressors of his
+country. He first addressed himself to the tribes of the Campas, and
+having gained them over, he proceeded to Quisopongo in the Pajonal. From
+thence, in the year 1742, he made his first attack on the mission of the
+Cerro de la Sal. The Spaniards had already been warned of the intended
+rising, but they considered it too unimportant to call for serious
+measures of repression; and whilst lulling themselves in their imagined
+security, they were surprised and massacred by the Indians. The
+insurrection spread with incredible rapidity. Juan Santos himself led
+all the principal attacks. In one night he took the fortress of Quimiri
+with sixty-five men, all of whom were massacred in the most cruel
+manner. The well-defended fort of Paucartambo was next taken by a small
+number of Chunchos, commanded by Juan Santos. All the Christian churches
+were destroyed by the insurgents. The sacred images and the priests were
+tied together, and cast into the rivers; the villages were burned, and
+the cultivated fields laid waste. The number of Spanish soldiers killed
+in this insurrection was 245; the number of priests, 26. In the course
+of a few weeks all the missions of central Peru were completely
+destroyed, and terror spread even to the mountains. The Spanish
+government found it necessary to adopt the most vigorous measures, for
+there was reason to fear that the mountain Indians would revolt. Castles
+and forts were built on the frontiers of all the Montañas and strongly
+garrisoned; but the insurrection did not extend further. The ultimate
+fate of Juan Santos Atahuallpa has never been satisfactorily
+ascertained. Some assert that he became a powerful ruler, and that as
+long as he lived the races of the Chunchos, Pacañes, Chichirrenes,
+Campas, and Simirinches, were united. On an old manuscript in the
+monastery of Ocopa I found a marginal note, in which it was said, "As to
+the monster, the apostate Juan Santos Atahuallpa, after his diabolical
+destruction of our missions, the wrath of God was directed against him
+in the most fearful manner. He died the death of Herod, for his living
+body was devoured by worms."
+
+Shortly after the tragical downfall of these missions, two priests, Fra
+Francisco Otasua and Fray Salvador Pando, visited the ruins of Quimiri,
+and endeavored to conciliate the rebels; but in vain. After three
+months, during which they suffered dreadful ill treatment from the
+Chunchos, they returned to the monastery of Ocopa.
+
+These missionaries were all monks of the order of San Francisco. Their
+active zeal and heroic submission to any sacrifice in furtherance of the
+cause in which they were embarked must excite at once astonishment and
+admiration. Undaunted by incredible privations and laborious exertions
+in the pathless forests, without food or shelter; undismayed by the
+continual apprehension of a violent and cruel death, they courageously
+obeyed the inward impulse which inspired them to preach the gospel to
+the wild Indians. When intelligence was received of the violent death of
+one of the brotherhood, others immediately offered to supply the place
+of the victim, and the superiors of the order had much difficulty in
+restraining the zealous monks. In the central and northern missions of
+Peru, 129 Franciscan monks were murdered by the wild Indians. Those
+who compose that number are recorded by name, but many others
+disappeared without leaving a trace of what had become of them, and of
+course they are not included in the list. The number of lay brethren
+who perished is much greater. It is indeed melancholy to reflect how
+little advantage has been obtained by the sacrifice of so many
+valuable lives. The missions have nearly all disappeared, and the
+Indians have now retrograded into the savage state in which they were
+before the conquest of Peru.
+
+The Franciscan monks were mild and patient teachers. They proceeded on
+the principle of leaving the Christian religion to act for itself, and
+they scorned to promote it by any kind of compulsion. The Dominicans, on
+the other hand, who came to Peru with the conquerors, preached
+Christianity with fire and sword. The Jesuits, who headed the missions
+of Southern Peru, adopted the one way or the other, as they found most
+advantageous to the object they had in view. By this means they secured
+the attachment of the neophytes, and retained most of their conversions.
+Many of the Jesuit missionaries were highly intelligent and
+well-informed men. We are indebted to them for important geographical
+and statistical information, and in particular for some philological
+works of great value, viz., a grammar and dictionary of the language of
+every tribe they converted. The Dominican monks, who were mere ignorant
+fanatics, sacrificed to their blind zeal for conversion all the
+monuments of the early civilization of the Peruvians, and restrained,
+rather than promoted, the intellectual development of the people. The
+Franciscans, animated by pious inspiration, earnestly preached the
+doctrines of Christ to the wild inhabitants of the distant forests; but
+they communicated little information to the rest of world. A few
+imperfect maps, and some scanty notices on the manners and customs of
+the Indians, are the whole amount of their laical labors.
+
+In the year 1779 an attempt was again made to penetrate to the Cerro de
+la Sal, and a road was opened leading from Palca to Chanchamayo, where a
+fort was built; but at the expiration of five years the government
+destroyed it, as continued irruptions of the Chunchos could not be
+checked. In 1784, the governor of Tarma, Don Juan Maria de Galvas,
+supported by the Superior of Ocopa, Fray Manuel Sobreviela, visited the
+valley of Vitoc, which had been abandoned since the Indian insurrection.
+The new village of San Teodoro de Pucara was founded, and the destroyed
+fort, Santa Ana de Colla, was rebuilt. The Montaña was soon peopled, and
+in a short time it contained upwards of forty haciendas and large
+chacras. The village of Sorriano, scarcely two leagues from Colla, was
+then inhabited by Chunchos, who showed a willingness to maintain
+friendly intercourse with the occupants of Vitoc, from whom they took
+meat, tools, and other things, which they repaid by agricultural labor.
+Unfortunately, the plantation owners soon began to take an undue
+advantage of this friendly intercourse, and to charge exorbitant prices
+for the articles required by the Indians. For a pin or a needle they
+demanded two days' work, for a fishing-hook four, and for a wretched
+knife, eight, ten, or more. A rupture was the consequence. The Chunchos
+burned their own village, and returned again to Chanchamayo. Still,
+however, they continued on a sort of amicable footing with the Cholos,
+until one of the latter wantonly shot a Chuncho at a festival. The tribe
+then mustered in thousands to avenge the murder. They destroyed the
+Christian villages, and massacred all the inhabitants who were not able
+to fly. Thus was Vitoc once more depopulated: Cardenas, the military
+governor of Tarma, made a fresh endeavor to restore the cultivation of
+this fine valley. He made the road again passable, laid out the large
+plantation Chuntabamba, built and garrisoned the Colla fort. The site of
+the former Chuncho village, Sorriano, was converted into a _cocal_ (or
+coca field), and the Montaña began once more to assume a flourishing
+aspect. Still, however, the Chunchos continued to harass their
+neighbors, particularly during the time of the coca harvest, which could
+not be gathered without military protection. During one of the harvests
+a laborer was shot by the wild Indians, which so terrified the Cholos,
+that they all fled to Sorriano. Soon after, Cardenas died, and the coca
+plantation being neglected, became a waste. A few years afterwards the
+hacienda of Pacchapata was laid out. During the war of independence the
+Spaniards destroyed Fort Colla, and the inhabitants of Vitoc were left
+without any means of defence against their savage enemies. The last
+attempt to reduce the Chunchos to subjection and order was made by a
+military expedition under the command of General Don Francisco de Paula
+de Otero, but owing to ill-arranged plans it totally failed. No more
+than twenty-five years have elapsed since the valley of Vitoc, with its
+rich plantations, was in the most flourishing prosperity. Now only faint
+traces of its past cultivation are discernible.
+
+The history of the Montaña of Vitoc is the history of all the Montañas
+of Peru. In all, we perceive the alternate rise and decline of
+cultivation and civilization, caused by the efforts of the missionaries,
+and the incursions of the wild Indians. Throughout all these districts
+the present condition exhibits a marked inferiority to the past, a
+circumstance which may be accounted for by the long-continued civil war,
+during the contest for independence. Nevertheless, the internal
+tranquillity of the country, and the increasing population, suggest
+favorable prognostics for the future.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 98: See page 189.]
+
+[Footnote 99: I allude here to individuals (and such cases are by no
+means singular) who have attained the great age of 130. Supposing these
+Indians to have begun to masticate coca at ten years old, and calculate
+their daily consumption as a minimum at one ounce, the result is the
+consumption of twenty-seven hundred weight, in 120 years.]
+
+[Footnote 100: The worthy Padre forgets the high price that would be
+charged for coca in Europe. In Tarma and Huenuco the aroba (twenty-five
+pounds) costs at an average six Spanish dollars; add to this the
+carriage to Lima, the freight to Europe, custom-house duties, &c., and
+this price would be nearly doubled.]
+
+[Footnote 101: The whole valley of Vitoc can furnish only two muskets,
+and these are in as useless a state as possible. As for powder, there
+is a constant want of it. During my residence in Vitoc I usually gave
+the Alcalde some of my powder when he went out with his Cholos, or
+when there was a firing on festival days. The want of a suitable
+number of muskets, and sufficient powder in the dangerous vicinity of
+the Chunchos, is characteristic of the improvidence of the
+inhabitants of Vitoc.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians--The
+Repartimiento and the Mita--Indian Insurrections--Tupac Amaru--His
+Capture and Execution--War of Independence--Character of the Peruvian
+Indians--Music--Dress--Superstitions--Longevity--Diminished
+Population of Peru--Languages spoken by the Aboriginal
+Inhabitants--Specimen of Quichua Poetry--The Yaravies--The
+Quipu--Water Conduits--Ancient Buildings--Fortresses--Idols--Domestic
+Utensils--Ancient Peruvian Graves--Mode of Burying the Dead--Mummies.
+
+
+A glance at the history of Peru serves to show that prior to the Spanish
+conquest the Indians were the subjects of a dynasty, to which they
+rendered willing obedience. We find, indeed, an uninterrupted series of
+revolutions and wars, arising out of the continued extension of the
+empire, to which nations differing one from another in language,
+religion, and manners, were gradually annexed. For some time after their
+subjugation these nations struggled to recover their independence, but
+the wise and mild government of the Incas gradually restored peace, and
+established unity. In course of time, the magnitude of the empire led to
+its downfall. Huayna Inca-Capac divided his dominions between his two
+sons. To the elder, Huascar, he gave the southern portion of the empire,
+and to the younger, Atahuallpa, he gave the northern division. Between
+the two brothers there arose disputes, which led to a sanguinary war;
+and in that fatal interval, Pizarro, with his invading forces, landed in
+Peru. With a degree of speed, which internal union among the people
+would have rendered impossible, the Spaniards made themselves masters of
+the country, massacred alike sovereigns and subjects, destroyed the
+sanctuaries, and established a new religion and new laws. The barbarous
+cruelties by which that religion and those laws were upheld are too well
+known to require repetition here. Of the many oppressive measures to
+which the Spaniards enforced submission from the conquered people, I
+will briefly notice two: the _Repartimiento_ and the _Mita_. The
+Repartimiento was the distribution, among the natives, of articles of
+European production. These distributions were under the superintendence
+of the provincial authorities, the corregidores, and the sub-delegados.
+The law was doubtless intended, in its origin, for the advantage and
+convenience of the native Indians, by supplying them with necessaries at
+a reasonable price. But, subsequently, the Repartimiento became a source
+of oppression and fraud, in the hands of the provincial authorities. All
+the corregidores and sub-delegados became traders. They purchased
+consignments of manufactured goods from Europe, at a cheap rate, and
+sold them to the Indians at exorbitant prices. To add to the grievance,
+the articles thus forced upon the natives were, in many instances, not
+necessaries, but objects of luxury utterly useless to them. Even more
+oppressive and cruel than the Repartimiento, was the Mita, which
+consisted of the forced labor of the Indians in the mines and
+plantations. Every Spaniard who wished to work a mine, obtained from the
+corregidor a certain number of Indians, to each of whom he gave daily
+four reals as wages, with the agreement of paying to the government a
+yearly tax of eight dollars. The condition of the Indians who were
+distributed to the plantation owners was even worse than that of the
+mine laborers; they received only two reals per day, and were required
+to work in the fields from three in the morning until after sunset. The
+Indians employed in this compulsory labor, whether in the mines or the
+plantations, were called _Mitas_. But there was another sort of forced
+labor, for which no wages were paid. It was indeed less toilsome than
+working in the mines and plantations, yet the Indians employed in it
+were frequently subject to much ill-treatment. I allude to domestic
+service in the houses of the corregidores, sub-delegados, and priests.
+The Indians thus employed were called _Pongos_, and they were required
+to continue in their places for the space of a year, after which they
+were discharged. A corregidor frequently had half a dozen of these
+pongos, whom he provided with miserable food and wretched clothing.[102]
+
+In the mines and plantations countless numbers of Indians were annually
+swept away by the excessive labor consequent on the mita. Some writers
+estimate at nine millions the number of Indians sacrificed in the mines
+in the course of three centuries. This estimate is certainly too high;
+but three millions more may be added for the number of victims of the
+mita in the plantations.
+
+That the government in Spain should have tolerated this barbarous
+system, so obviously calculated to bring ruin on the nation, may
+naturally be matter of surprise. But a glance at the Indian laws (_Leyes
+de Indias_) suffices to show the distinction between the intentions of
+the Spanish government and the corrupt legislation of the country. The
+laws are, with some few exceptions, conceived in a mild spirit, and show
+that their framers had in view the well-being of the colonies. The
+execution of these laws was consigned to the superintendence of what was
+termed the Indian council (_Consejo de Indias_). This council consisted
+of a certain number of men who resided in Spain, and who either were
+only in part acquainted with the real state of things in South America,
+or were bribed by Indian gold to wink at the abuses committed there.
+From this council were chosen the viceroys and high authorities of the
+colonies, who, whilst in the exercise of their official functions,
+amassed enormous wealth by unjust exactions from the Indians. One of the
+latest viceroys of Peru was a man who arrived in Lima in a state of
+utter poverty, and who, in the short space of three years, amassed the
+immense sum of five millions of dollars.
+
+Could it be matter of surprise if at length the Indians rose against
+their oppressors, and made an effort to shake off the heavy yoke of
+their tyrants? For two hundred years they had borne it silently, without
+a single attempt to emancipate themselves. Juan Santos Atahuallpa was
+the first who stirred up revolt against the Spaniards. The insurrection
+which he had headed, though deemed too insignificant to fix the
+attention of the short-sighted government of Lima, nevertheless,
+convinced the Indians that they were strong enough to make a stand
+against their oppressors. Several partial risings in Southern Peru were
+speedily put down; a leader was wanted to organize the disconnected
+plans and movements of the insurgents. This want was at length supplied
+in the person of the ill-fated Tupac Amaru, cacique of Tungasuca, a
+descendant of the last Inca.
+
+The event which caused Tupac Amaru to attempt a movement against the
+Spaniards occurred in 1780. In that year, the corregidor of Tinta, Don
+Antonio Ariaga, made repartimientos to the amount of 340,000 dollars,
+and with the most cruel rigor enforced payment of the useless articles
+distributed. The cacique of Tungasuca assembled the irritated Indians,
+who seized the corregidor and hanged him. This was the signal for a
+general rising in all the neighboring districts. The forces of Tupac
+Amaru augmented daily. He was invested with the title of Inca, and
+treated with the honors due to sovereignty. For several months an active
+war was maintained in the Puna, where several towns and villages were
+taken by the insurgents. Tupac Amaru had made himself master of the
+village of Chucuito, and was preparing to advance upon Cuzco, when,
+about the end of April, 1781, he, and all his family, were made
+prisoners by the Spaniards. He was tried and condemned to death,
+together with his wife, two sons, his brother-in-law, and several other
+individuals of note among the Indians.
+
+But the execution of Tupac Amaru, which was marked by circumstances of
+monstrous barbarity, far from stemming the tide of revolution, served
+only to stimulate the vengeance of the insurgents. They once more
+mustered their warlike bands, under the command of Casimiro Tupac Amaru,
+the brother of the late cacique, his son Andres, and an intrepid Indian
+chief, named Nicacatari. The latter, assisted by Andres, burned several
+villages of Upper Peru, and murdered all the whites. They next advanced
+upon the strongly fortified town of Sorrata, whither the Spaniards of
+the surrounding districts had fled for protection. The town was taken by
+the insurgents, and the inhabitants, 22,000 in number, inhumanly put to
+death, with the exception of eighty-seven priests and monks. The Indians
+then advanced westwards, defeating several Spanish corps, and spreading
+terror and dismay through the country. But, that which neither the arms
+nor the executions of the Spaniards could accomplish, was effected by
+their gold. A treacherous Indian, bribed by the promise of a large
+reward, conducted a division of Spanish soldiers to the spot where the
+chiefs were accustomed to meet, unattended by any guard, to hold their
+council. They were surprised, captured, and condemned to death. Once
+more deprived of leaders, the Indians disbanded and withdrew, some to
+their homes, and others into the forests. Numberless victims paid the
+debt of retribution to the Spanish government, which now adopted every
+measure that could tend to annihilate the nationality of the native
+Indians. Their dances, their music, their dress--all that could revive
+the remembrance of their progenitors, was condemned to rigorous
+prohibition; they were even forbidden the use of their mother tongue,
+the Quichua language. The only beneficial result of these wars, in which
+upwards of a hundred thousand lives were sacrificed, was the abolition
+of the Repartimientos, which had been the cause of the insurrections.
+
+Peace was now, at least to appearance, restored; and if, occasionally,
+symptoms of disturbance arose, they were immediately repressed. This
+state of things continued until the Creoles themselves gave the signal
+of revolt, and the War of Independence broke out in all the Spanish
+colonies of South America. In this enterprise the Indians readily took
+part. But it is a great mistake to suppose that the Indian natives made
+common cause with the Creoles against the Spaniards for the purpose of
+bringing about the present form of government. They wished to emancipate
+themselves in order to establish their own dynasty and a government
+modelled after that of their forefathers. They wanted not a republic,
+but a monarchy, and a sovereign chosen from the sacred race of the
+Incas. Having no clear comprehension of the real object of the War of
+Independence, the Indians, when they saw whites fighting against whites,
+directed their hostility against all _Pucacuncas_ (pale faces) without
+distinction, killing loyalists or patriots, just as they happened to
+fall in their way. This hatred was so bitterly manifested, that in some
+provinces all the whites and mestizos were obliged to fly, even though
+they were the most decided enemies of the Spanish loyalists. In Jauja
+the Indians vowed not to leave even a white dog or a white fowl alive,
+and they even scraped the whitewash from the walls of the houses.
+
+The provisional government ordered levies of troops to be made in the
+provinces which had fallen into the hands of the patriots; and then, for
+the first time, Indians were enrolled in the army as regular troops. But
+it was only in a very few districts that they voluntarily took part in
+the conflict for independence: they performed the forced service of
+conscripts, and whenever an opportunity enabled them to retire from it,
+they did so. The Spanish dominion being overthrown, the war terminated,
+and a republican constitution was established. The Indians then clearly
+perceived that they had been made the tools of the leaders of the
+revolution. Upon the whole, their condition was but little improved; for
+if they were relieved from some oppressive laws, other hardships weighed
+heavily on them, and they found that they still were slaves in the land
+of their fathers. The creoles, like the Spaniards, will draw the string
+of despotism till it snaps. Then will arise another Indian insurrection
+like that headed by Tupac Amaru, but with a more successful result.
+After a fearful struggle, they may reconquer their fatherland, and
+re-establish their ancient constitution; and can it be matter of
+surprise if they wreak cruel vengeance on the enemies of their race?
+
+Since the War of Independence, the Indians have made immense progress.
+During the civil war, which was kept up uninterruptedly for the space of
+twenty years, they were taught military manoeuvres and the use of
+fire-arms. After every lost battle the retreating Indians carried with
+them in their flight their muskets, which they still keep carefully
+concealed. They are also acquainted with the manufacture of gunpowder,
+of which in all their festivals they use great quantities for squibs and
+rockets. The materials for the preparation of gunpowder are found in
+abundance in the valleys of the Sierra.
+
+In the year 1841, when I was passing through a miserable village on the
+confines of one of the Montañas of Central Peru, I took up my abode for
+some days in the hut of an Indian, and whilst there I accidentally saw
+eighteen muskets which were deposited in a place of concealment. I,
+quite unsuspectingly, inquired of the Indian, why he thought it
+requisite to keep so many weapons of defence? He replied, with a
+sinister frown, that the time would come when he should find them
+useful. I could easily perceive that my accidental discovery was by no
+means agreeable to him; and from the very marked change which I observed
+in his manner. I deemed it prudent to withdraw from the village and its
+vicinity. Whilst my horse was being saddled, I noticed my host and some
+of his confidential friends engaged in very earnest conversation, and I
+could easily perceive that I was the subject of it. On my departure the
+Indian asked me, with apparent friendliness of manner, which way I was
+going? When I was beyond the sphere of his observation, I deemed it
+prudent to proceed quite in an opposite direction from the route which I
+told him I intended to take.
+
+The character of the Peruvian Indian is essentially gloomy. It was not
+always so, if we may give credit to the animated pictures drawn by early
+travellers in Peru; but three hundred years of oppression and suffering
+have impressed their melancholy stamp on the feelings and manners of the
+people. This gloominess is strikingly manifested in their songs, their
+dances, their dress, and their whole domestic economy. The favorite
+musical instruments of the Indians are those called the _Pututo_ and the
+_Jaina_. The former is a large conch, on which they perform mournful
+music, as the accompaniment of their funeral dances. In early times this
+conch was employed in the solemnities of royal interments; now its use
+is exclusively reserved for the anniversaries held in commemoration of
+certain events connected with the fallen Inca dynasty. The _Jaina_
+appears to be of more modern origin; it is a rude kind of clarionet,
+made from a reed. Its tone is indescribably melancholy, and it produces
+an extraordinary impression on the natives. If a group of Indians are
+rioting and drinking, or engaged in furious conflict with each other,
+and the sound of the _Jaina_ is suddenly heard, the tumult ceases, as if
+by a stroke of magic. A dead stillness prevails, and all listen devoutly
+to the magic tones of the simple reed; tones which frequently draw tears
+from the eyes of the apathetic Indian.
+
+Their garments are all of dark and sombre hues. Dark blue is a favorite
+color, and appears to be generally adopted for mourning; for whenever
+the Indians follow a corpse to the grave, they always wear dark blue
+ponchos. The dress of the men usually consists of short trowsers, of
+coarse brown cloth, fastened round the waist by a girdle, and a woollen
+or cotton shirt. They seldom wear a jacket, the ponchos of Alpaca wool
+being always the outer garment. On their feet they wear sandals of
+untanned leather, which merely cover the toes, and are fastened round
+the ancle.
+
+The dress of the women consists of a loose under garment, without
+sleeves, and made of coarse blue woollen cloth. It is confined round the
+waist by a broad girdle, called the _huccau_. Over the arms are drawn
+black sleeves, reaching from the wrist to about the middle of the upper
+arm. A sort of robe or tunic, called the _anacu_, descends from the
+shoulders to the knees. It is fastened, not in front, but on one side.
+This garment is made of a thin sort of woollen stuff. It is always
+black, being worn in token of mourning for the Incas. On the occasion of
+certain festivals, the Indian women wear a particolored dress, called a
+_faldillin_. This garment frequently exhibits the most glaring contrasts
+of color, one half being bright red, and the other yellow, in addition
+to which it is sometimes adorned with flowers of brilliant hues, and
+tasteless, gold embroidery. A _mantilla_, consisting of a narrow piece
+of woollen cloth, passed over the shoulders, and fastened under the
+chin, either with a long silver pin, or a cactus-thorn, completes the
+costume. In this mantilla, or in a poncho, mothers are accustomed to
+wrap their infants, and fastening them to their backs, they carry them
+about in this manner for a whole day, whilst engaged in their work.
+
+In their domestic relations, the Indians are unsocial and gloomy.
+Husband, wife, and children live together with but little appearance of
+affection. The children seem to approach their parents timidly, and
+whole days sometimes elapse without the interchange of a word of
+kindness between them. When the Indian is not engaged in out-door work,
+he sits gloomily in his hut, chewing coca, and brooding silently over
+his own thoughts. To his friend he is more communicative than to his
+wife. With the former, he will often discourse, apparently on some
+secret topic, for the space of half a night; nevertheless, he cannot be
+accused of treating his wife with any degree of cruelty, or of
+regarding her merely in the light of his slave, as is customary among
+many uncivilized races of people.
+
+Besides the official authorities, to which the Government exacts
+obedience, the Peruvian Indian acknowledges other authorities, whose
+functions and power are similar to those which existed under the Inca
+dynasty. In like manner, though they have embraced the Christian faith,
+yet they obstinately adhere to certain religious ceremonies, which have
+been transmitted to them by their idolatrous progenitors. Thus their
+religion is a singular combination of Christian principles and
+heathenish forms. Hitherto the most patient and intelligent of their
+religious instructors have failed to outroot this attachment to old
+forms. The Christian religion has been spread among the Indians by
+force; and for centuries past, they have regarded the priests only in
+the light of tyrants, who make religion a cloak for the most scandalous
+pecuniary extortions, and whose conduct is in direct opposition to the
+doctrines they profess. If they render to them unconditional obedience,
+accompanied by a sort of timid reverence, it is to be attributed less to
+the operation of the Christian principle, than to a lingering attachment
+to the theocratic government of the Incas, which has impressed the
+Peruvians with a sacred awe of religion.
+
+The superstition with which the Indians are so deeply imbued is adverse
+to the inculcation of pure religious faith; it is the more difficult to
+be eradicated, inasmuch as it has its origin in early tradition, and has
+in later times been singularly blended with the Catholic form of
+worship. Of this superstition I may here adduce some examples. As soon
+as a dying person draws his last breath, the relatives, or persons in
+attendance, put coca leaves into the mouth of the corpse, and light a
+wax candle. They then collect together the household goods and clothes
+of the deceased and wash them in the nearest river. They put on the dead
+clothes, which are made after the pattern of a monk's habit, and they
+hang round the neck of the corpse a little bag, containing seeds of
+coca, maize, barley, quinua, &c., for his plantations in the next world.
+In the evening ashes are strewed on the floor of the room, and the door
+is securely fastened. Next morning the ashes are carefully examined to
+ascertain whether they show any impression of footsteps; and imagination
+readily traces marks, which are alleged to have been produced by the
+feet of birds, dogs, cats, oxen, or llamas. The destiny of the dead
+person is construed by the foot-marks which are supposed to be
+discernible. The worst marks are those of hens' claws, which are
+believed to denote that the soul of the deceased is doomed to
+irrevocable perdition. The marks of the hoofs of llamas are considered
+favorable, and are believed to indicate that the soul, after a short
+purgatory, will be transferred to the joys of paradise. The funeral is
+conducted according to Christian forms, and under the superintendence of
+a priest. But as soon as the priest takes his departure food is put into
+the grave along with the dead body, which is interred without a coffin.
+I have sometimes seen one of the nearest relatives leap into the grave
+and strike the body with his foot, but the meaning of this strange
+proceeding I never could clearly understand. Some curious ceremonies are
+observed on All Souls' Day. In every house in which a member of the
+family has died in the course of the year, a table is laid out with
+brandy, coca, tobacco, together with some of the favorite dishes of the
+deceased person, and the chamber is kept closed the whole day. The
+family firmly believe that the spirit of their departed relative on that
+day revisits his earthly abode, and partakes of the repast that is
+spread out on the table. A widow usually wears mourning for the space of
+twelve months. In some provinces, on the anniversary of her husband's
+death, the widow puts on a bridal dress, and over it her ordinary
+garments. All her relatives visit her in her dwelling, where, to the
+accompaniment of doleful music, she takes the lead in a funeral dance.
+As the hour approaches at which the husband died in the previous year,
+the dancing and the music become more and more mournful; but whenever
+the hour is past one of the female friends approaches the widow and
+removes her black mantilla. The other females then strip off the rest of
+her mourning garments, and adorn her head with flowers. At length she
+appears in a complete bridal dress. The musicians strike up a lively
+strain, to which the whole party dance, and the evening is passed in
+drinking and merry-making.
+
+Among the Peruvian Indians there are marked varieties of form and
+complexion. These differences are most distinctly observable between
+the inhabitants of the coast and those of the mountain and forest
+regions. In general, the Peruvian Indian is of middle height, rather
+slender, and not very robust. The coast Indians are more plump than the
+inhabitants of other districts, because they lead a less laborious life,
+and are less exposed to privations. It is scarcely possible to trace any
+particular national physiognomy among the Indians. In each province a
+distinct character is observable in the features of the inhabitants. The
+varieties of feature are less distinctly marked than the differences of
+complexion. The peculiar tints of the skin are decidedly defined, and
+indicate respectively the inhabitants of the three principal regions.
+The colder the climate, the fairer is the skin. For example, the color
+of the Puna Indian is a dark red-brown; that of the native of the Sierra
+is considerably lighter; it is a rusty red, but still darker than that
+of the coast Indians; and the natives of the forests are yellow, nearly
+approaching to maize color. These differences are singularly striking,
+when one has an opportunity of seeing the inhabitants of the different
+regions in juxtaposition. It is curious that the Cholos of the Puna,
+when they settle in the forests, become only a very little clearer; and
+that, on the other hand, the yellow Indians of the Montaña, after being
+several years in the Puna, still retain their characteristic tint. The
+women are, on the whole, extremely ugly, with round, inexpressive faces.
+Their hands and feet are very small.
+
+The Indians are, on the average, remarkable for longevity, though they
+frequently shorten their lives by the intemperate use of strong drinks.
+Instances are not rare of Indians living to be 120 or 130 years of age,
+and retaining full possession of their bodily and mental powers.
+Stevenson mentions that on examining the church registers of Barranca,
+he found that within an interval of seven years, eleven Indians had been
+interred, whose united ages amounted to 1207, being an average of 109
+years to each. In the year 1839 there was living in the valley of Jauja
+an Indian who, according to the baptismal register shown to me by the
+priest, was born in the year 1697. He himself declared that he had not
+for the space of ninety years tasted a drop of water, having drunk
+nothing but chicha. Since he was eleven years of age, he alleged that
+he had masticated coca, at least three times every day, and that he had
+eaten animal food only on Sundays; on all the other days of the week he
+had lived on maize, quinua, and barley. The Indians retain their teeth
+and hair in extreme old age; and it is remarkable that their hair never
+becomes white, and very seldom even grey. Those individuals whose
+advanced ages have been mentioned above, had all fine black hair.
+
+Since the Spanish conquest, the population of Peru has diminished in an
+almost incredible degree. When we read the accounts given by the old
+historiographers of the vast armies which the Incas had at their
+command; when we behold the ruins of the gigantic buildings, and of the
+numerous towns and villages scattered over Peru, it is difficult to
+conceive how the land could have been so depopulated in the lapse of
+three centuries. At the time of the conquest it was easy, in a short
+space of time, to raise an army of 300,000 men, and, moreover, to form
+an important reserved force; whilst now, the Government, even with the
+utmost efforts, can scarcely assemble 10,000 or 12,000 men. According to
+the census drawn up in 1836, Peru did not contain more than 1,400,000
+men, being not quite so many as were contained at an earlier period in
+the department of Cuzco alone. Unfortunately there is no possibility of
+obtaining anything approaching to accurate estimates of the population
+of early periods; and even if such documents existed, it would be
+difficult to deduce from them a comparison between Peru as it now is,
+and Peru at the period when Bolivia, a part of Buenos Ayres, and
+Columbia, belonged to the mighty empire. I will here quote only one
+example of the immense diminution of the population. Father Melendez
+mentions that shortly after the conquest, the parish of Ancallama, in
+the province of Chancay, contained 30,000 Indians fit for service (that
+is to say, between the ages of eighteen and fifty); now, the same parish
+contains at most 140 individuals, of whom one-third are Mestizos. The
+whole coast of Peru, now almost totally depopulated, was once so thickly
+inhabited, that to subdue King Chimu, in North Peru alone, an army of
+80,000 men was requisite. The causes of the diminished Indian population
+of Peru have been so frequently and fully detailed by previous writers,
+that I need not here do more than briefly advert to them. They are found
+in the extensive and reckless massacres committed by the Spaniards
+during the struggle of the conquest; in the suicides and voluntary
+deaths resorted to by the natives to escape from the power of their
+oppressors; in the mita, the small-pox, the scarlet fever, and the
+introduction of brandy. The mita alone, especially the labor in the
+mines, has swept away four times as many Indians as all the other causes
+combined. Since the abolition of the mita, the Indian population has
+been on the increase, though there has not yet been time for any marked
+result to become manifest; the more especially, considering the numbers
+of lives sacrificed during the frequent civil wars. Nevertheless, it is
+easy to foresee that a decided augmentation of the Indian inhabitants of
+the western parts of South America will, ere long, be apparent.
+
+Among the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru a variety of languages are in
+use. In the southern parts of the country, particularly about Cuzco, the
+_Quichua_ is spoken. It was the dialect of the court, and that which was
+most generally diffused, and the Spaniards therefore called it _la
+lengua general_. In the highlands of Central Peru, the Chinchaysuyo
+language prevailed. The Indians of the coast, who belonged to the race
+of the Chunchos, spoke the _Yunga_. The _Kauqui_ was the language of
+that part of Central Peru which corresponds with the present province of
+Yauyos. The inhabitants of the north-eastern parts of Peru, as far as
+the Huallaga, spoke the _Lama_ language,[103] and the natives of the
+highland regions of Quito spoke the _Quiteña_.[104] These different
+languages, which, with the exception of the Lama, proceed all from one
+source, differ so considerably, that the inhabitants of the several
+districts were reciprocally incapable of understanding each other, and
+the Incas found it necessary to introduce the Quichua among all the
+nations they subdued. The other dialects were thereby much corrupted,
+and at the time of the Spanish invasion, they were seldom correctly
+spoken. This corruption was naturally increased more and more after the
+arrival of the Spaniards, by the introduction of a new language. Only
+for a few of the new articles brought by the Spaniards to Peru did the
+Indians form new names, taking the roots of the words from their own
+language: for most things they adopted the Spanish names. By this means,
+but still more by the future intercourse of the people with the
+invaders, the purity of the natural language rapidly disappeared in
+proportion to the influence which the Spaniards obtained by their
+increase in numbers and moral superiority. At present the Quichua is a
+compound of all the dialects and the Spanish; it is spoken in the
+greatest purity in the southern provinces, though even there it is much
+intermixed with Aymara words. In Central Peru the Chinchaysuyo prevails,
+and on the coast the Spanish and the Yunga. The present Indians and
+people of mixed blood, who of necessity must speak the ever-changing
+Quichua, and also the Spanish, speak both in so corrupt a manner, that
+it is frequently almost impossible to understand them.
+
+The family of the Incas had a secret language of their own, which was
+not learned by subjects. This language is now almost totally lost, not
+more than two dozen words of it being preserved. In early times, the
+Quichua language was much cultivated. It was used officially in public
+speaking, and professors were sent by the Inca family into the provinces
+to teach it correctly. For poetry, the Quichua language was not very
+well adapted, owing to the difficult conjugation of the verbs, and the
+awkward blending of pronouns with substantives. Nevertheless, the poetic
+art was zealously cultivated under the Incas. They paid certain poets
+(called the _Haravicus_), for writing festival dramas in verse, and also
+for composing love-songs and heroic poems. Few of these heroic poems
+have been preserved, a circumstance the more to be regretted, as many of
+them would doubtless have been important historical documents; but for
+that very reason, the Spaniards spared no pains to obliterate every
+trace of them. Some of the love-songs have, however, been preserved. In
+Quichua poetry, the lines are short, and seldom thoroughly rhythmical.
+Rhymes were only exceptional, and were never sought for. The poetry was,
+therefore, merely a sort of broken prose.
+
+A specimen of one of the best of the Quichua love-songs is given by
+_Garcilaso de la Vega_, in his "Commentaries and Poems." It is copied
+from papers left by a monk named Blas Valera; and some lines of it are
+here subjoined. The subject is an old Peruvian tradition:--A maiden of
+royal blood (_ñusta_) is appointed by the Creator of the world
+(_Pacchacamac_) in heaven, to pour water and snow on the earth out of
+a pitcher; her brother breaks the pitcher, whereupon thunder and
+lightning arise.
+
+        Cumac ñusta      Beautiful Princess,
+        Turallayquim     Thy Pitcher
+        Puynuyquita      Thy brother hath broken
+        Paquicayan       Here in Pieces;
+        Hina mantara     For that blow
+        Cunuñunun        It thunders; and lightning
+        Yllapantac       Flashes all around.
+
+There were, however, instances of versification which may properly be
+called poetry. Of this the _Yaravies_, or elegies, afford some fair
+examples. These poems have for their subjects unfortunate love, or
+sorrow for the dead. They were recited or sung by one or more voices,
+with an accompaniment of melancholy music, and made a great impression
+on the hearers. A foreigner, who for the first time hears one of these
+_Yaravies_ sung, even though he may not understand the Quichua words, is
+nevertheless deeply moved by the melody. The strain is sad and sweet. No
+other music is at once so dismal and so tender. What the _donina_ is as
+an instrument, the _yaravie_ is in singing; both convey the expression
+of a deeply troubled heart. The _yaravie_ has been imitated by the
+Spaniards in their own language, and some of the imitations are very
+beautiful; but they have not been able to reach the deep melancholy of
+the Quichua elegy. The modern poetry of the Indians is inferior to the
+old; the words are a mixture of Quichua and Spanish, and are scarcely
+intelligible. The Spanish words have often Quichua terminations affixed
+to them; on the other hand, sometimes the Quichua words are inflected
+after the Spanish manner, making altogether a barbarous compound.
+
+The ancient Peruvians had no manuscript characters for single sounds;
+but they had a method by which they composed words and incorporated
+ideas. This method consisted in the dexterous intertwining of knots on
+strings, so as to render them auxiliaries to the memory. The instrument
+consisting of these strings and knots was called the QUIPU. It was
+composed of one thick head or top string, to which, at certain
+distances, thinner ones were fastened. The top string was much thicker
+than these pendent strings, and consisted of two doubly twisted threads,
+over which two single threads were wound. The branches, if I may apply
+the term to these pendent strings, were fastened to the top ones by a
+simple loop; the knots were made in the pendent strings, and were either
+single or manifold. The lengths of the strings used in making the quipu
+were various. The transverse or top string often measures several yards,
+and sometimes only a foot long; the branches are seldom more than two
+feet long, and in general they are much shorter.
+
+The strings were often of different colors; each having its own
+particular signification. The color for soldiers was red; for gold,
+yellow; for silver, white; for corn, green, &c. This writing by knots
+was especially employed for numerical and statistical tables; each
+single knot representing ten; each double knot stood for one hundred;
+each triple knot for one thousand, &c.; two single knots standing
+together made twenty; and two double knots, two hundred.
+
+This method of calculation is still practised by the shepherds of the
+Puna. They explained it to me, and I could, with very little trouble,
+construe their quipus. On the first branch or string they usually placed
+the numbers of the bulls; on the second, that of the cows; the latter
+being classed into those which were milked, and those which were not
+milked; on the next string were numbered the calves, according to their
+ages and sizes. Then came the sheep, in several subdivisions. Next
+followed the number of foxes killed, the quantity of salt consumed,
+and, finally, the cattle that had been slaughtered. Other quipus showed
+the produce of the herds in milk, cheese, wool, &c. Each list was
+distinguished by a particular color, or by some peculiarity in the
+twisting of the string.
+
+In this manner the ancient Peruvians kept the accounts of their army. On
+one string were numbered the soldiers armed with slings; on another, the
+spearmen; on a third, those who carried clubs, &c. In the same manner
+the military reports were prepared. In every town some expert men were
+appointed to tie the knots of the quipu, and to explain them. These men
+were called _quipucamayocuna_ (literally, officers of the knots).
+Imperfect as was this method, yet in the flourishing period of the Inca
+government the appointed officers had acquired great dexterity in
+unriddling the meaning of the knots. It, however, seldom happened that
+they had to read a quipu without some verbal commentary. Something was
+always required to be added if the quipu came from a distant province,
+to explain whether it related to the numbering of the population, to
+tributes, or to war, &c. Through long-continued practice, the officers
+who had charge of the quipus became so perfect in their duties, that
+they could with facility communicate the laws and ordinances, and all
+the most important events of the kingdom, by their knots.
+
+All attempts made in modern times to decipher Peruvian quipus have
+been unsatisfactory in their results. The principal obstacle to
+deciphering those found in graves, consists in the want of the oral
+communication requisite for pointing out the subjects to which they
+refer. Such communication was necessary, even in former times, to the
+most learned quipucamayocuna. Most of the quipus here alluded to seem
+to be accounts of the population of particular towns or provinces,
+tax-lists, and information relating to the property of the deceased.
+Some Indians in the southern provinces of Peru are understood to
+possess a perfect knowledge of some of the ancient quipus, from
+information transmitted to them from their ancestors. But they keep
+that knowledge profoundly secret, particularly from the whites. The
+ancient Peruvians also used a certain kind of hieroglyphics, which
+they engraved in stone, and preserved in their temples. Notices of
+these hieroglyphics are given by some of the early writers. There
+appears to be a great similarity between these Peruvian hieroglyphics
+and those found in Mexico and Brazil.
+
+I have already mentioned one of the largest and most wonderful works of
+Peruvian antiquity, namely, the great military road which passes through
+the whole empire leading from Cuzco to Quitu, and which has many highly
+important lateral branches. The magnificent water-conduits, by which
+barren sand wastes and sterile hills were converted into fruitful
+plantations, are monuments of equivalent greatness. Traces of these
+water-conduits are to be seen throughout the whole of Peru, and even
+where the canals themselves no longer exist, the divisional boundaries
+of the fields they watered are still discernible. In many districts
+where the valleys of the Sierra run into the Puna--(I allude here only
+to the declivities above Tarmatambo, on the road towards Jauja)--there
+may be seen many square fields of uniform size, each of which is
+surrounded by a low stone wall; these fields are at present overgrown
+with Puna grass, and are not fit for cultivation. They are what were
+called _Tapu_ lands, which were distributed to every subject of the Inca
+empire, so that each family enjoyed the produce arising from the
+cultivation of a certain portion of ground. These Tapu lands were
+watered by skilfully constructed aqueducts, whereby they were rendered
+suitable for agriculture. The Spaniards having destroyed the conduits,
+the reservoirs dried up, and the soil became barren. Many of these
+conduits were subterraneous, and it is now no longer possible to find
+them; in some parts they were constructed with pipes of gold, which the
+Spaniards eagerly seized as valuable booty.
+
+There still exist vast remains of well-constructed colossal buildings,
+as palaces, fortresses, and temples. The walls of these edifices were
+built of square stones, so finely cut, and joined so closely together,
+that between any two there is not space sufficient to insert the edge of
+the thinnest paper. In the royal palace of Cuzco, and in the Temple of
+the Sun, a fusion of gold or silver was used for cement between the
+stones. This was, however, only employed as a luxury; for in other great
+edifices, for example, in the baths of Huamalies in the province of
+Jauja, stones are kept together by their own weight and the precision of
+the workmanship. These stones are of very considerable magnitude; some
+being from twelve to sixteen feet long, from eight to ten feet high, and
+equally broad. They are not all square; some are polygonal, and some
+spherical, but they were all joined one to another with the same
+exactness: of this a remarkable example is presented in the highly
+interesting ruins of the palace of Limatambo. A question which naturally
+suggests itself is,--how did the ancient Peruvians, without iron tools,
+hew these vast stones, and afterwards work the different fragments so
+skilfully? The first point is to me quite inexplicable; the second may
+possibly be accounted for by friction; the softest of two stones which
+was to be brought into a particular shape being rubbed by a harder, and
+afterwards polished by pyritous plants. The removal of the block from
+the quarry where it was excavated to the place of its destination, and
+the raising of fragments of stone to considerable heights, could only
+have been effected by the co-operation of thousands of men, for no kind
+of elevating machinery or lever was then known.
+
+The fortresses give a high idea of the progress made by the ancient
+Peruvians in architectural art. These structures were surrounded by
+ramparts and trenches. The larger ones were protected by the solidity of
+the walls, and the smaller ones by difficulty of access. The approaches
+to them were chiefly subterraneous; and thereby, they were enabled to
+maintain secret communication with the palaces and temples in their
+neighborhood. The subterraneous communications were carefully
+constructed; they were of the height of a man, and in general from three
+to four feet broad. In some parts they contract suddenly in width, and
+the walls on each side are built with sharp pointed stones, so that
+there is no getting between them, except by a lateral movement. In other
+parts they occasionally become so low, that it is impossible to advance,
+except by creeping on all fours. Every circumstance had been made a
+subject of strict calculation; it had been well considered how treasures
+might be removed from the palaces and temples to the fortresses, and
+placed securely beyond the reach of an enemy, for in the rear of every
+narrow pass there were ample spaces for soldiers, who might dispute the
+advance of a whole army. Besides the remains of the fortress of Cuzco,
+which are gradually disappearing every year, the most important are
+those of Calcahilares and Huillcahuaman. Less interesting, though still
+very curious, are the ruins of Chimu-canchu in Manische, near Truxillo,
+which are not of stone but of brick. The architecture of the small
+fortress of _Huichay_, two leagues from Tarma, which defended the
+entrance to that valley, is very remarkable. The front is built of small
+but firmly united stones, and covers a large cavity, in which there are
+numerous divisions, intended for the preservation of warlike stores, and
+for quartering soldiers. On the steep declivity of the hill there had
+been a deep trench, between which there was a wall fourteen feet higher,
+flanked by three bastions. Around this fortress nitre is found in great
+abundance. It is now collected by the Huancas (the inhabitants of the
+valley of Jauja), for making gunpowder. The diggings for nitre have
+almost obliterated the entrance to the cavity, and the fortress is
+already so much injured that possibly in another century scarcely a
+trace of the edifice will remain. Notwithstanding a search of several
+days, I did not succeed in discovering the mouth of the cavity, though
+an old Indian, who, years ago, had often visited it, pointed out to me
+what he supposed to be its precise situation. The walls of
+perpendicular rock in the neighborhood of Huichay are often 60 to 80
+feet high, and the clefts or fissures in them are filled up with small
+stones. It would be incomprehensible how the Indians ascended to
+perform this labor, were it not perceived that they have hollowed
+passages in the mountain. It would appear they must have had
+dwellings, or stores for provisions, on the higher part of the hill,
+for small windows are often perceptible in walls of masonry.
+
+The old Indian villages of the Sierra are for the most part situated on
+heights, or sharp ridges, which are now completely barren, as they no
+longer receive the artificial watering with which they were formerly
+supplied. All lie open to the east, so that the inhabitants could behold
+their Deity the moment he appeared on the horizon. All large towns had a
+square in their centre, where the religious dances were performed. From
+the square a certain number of regular roads or streets always ran in
+the direction of the four quarters of the firmament. There are great
+varieties in the construction of the houses. Small insignificant huts
+often stand close to a palace having twenty or twenty-five windows in
+one front. Private dwellings in the mountainous parts are built of
+unhewn stone, cemented with a very strong calcareous mortar. On the
+coast the walls are of brick. In the departments of Junin and Ayacucho,
+I met with the ruins of great villages, consisting of dwellings of a
+peculiar construction, in the form of a tower. Each house is
+quadrangular, with a diameter of about six feet, and seventeen or
+eighteen feet high. The walls are from one to one and a half feet thick.
+The doors, which open to the east or south, are only a foot and a half
+high, and two feet wide. After creeping in (which is a work of some
+difficulty) the explorer finds himself in an apartment about five and a
+half feet in height, and of equal breadth, without any windows. In the
+walls there are closets or cupboards, which served to contain domestic
+utensils, food, &c. Earthen pots with maize, coca, and other things, are
+still often found in these closets. The ceiling of the room is
+overlaid with flat plates of stone, and in the centre an aperture, two
+feet wide, is left, forming a communication with the second floor,
+which is precisely like the first, but has two small windows. The roof
+of this apartment has also an aperture, affording access to the third
+floor, the ceiling of which forms the roof of the house, and consists
+of rather thick plates of stone. The upper room is usually less lofty
+than the two rooms below it, and seems to have been used as a
+provision store-room. I found in one of these upper rooms the mummy of
+a child very well embalmed. The family appear to have lived chiefly on
+the ground-floors. The place for cooking is often plainly perceptible.
+The second floor was probably the sleeping apartment. In the course of
+my travels, when overtaken by storms, I often retreated for shelter
+into one of these ruined dwellings.
+
+The ancient Peruvians frequently buried their dead in their own houses,
+and then removed from them. This custom appears to have been very
+general about the time of the Spanish conquest, when a great number of
+Indians committed suicide in despair. Household utensils were placed in
+the graves, when the dead were buried in the houses, as well as when
+they were interred in other places. In many houses in which I made
+diggings I regularly found the following arrangement. Under a stratum of
+earth two feet deep lay the body, in a state of good preservation, and
+generally, but not always, in a sitting posture. On clearing away
+another stratum of earth equally deep there is found a variety of
+household vessels for cooking, together with water-pots of clay, gourds,
+hunting and fishing implements, &c. There is frequently a third layer of
+earth, beneath which the gold and silver vessels and the household
+deities are deposited. The idols are of clay, stone, and copper, or of
+the precious metals. Those of clay are hollow, flat, compressed, and in
+most instances the faces are painted. Those of stone are of granite,
+porphyry, or sand-stone. These stone images are solid, and often several
+feet high. The golden idols are always hollow; but they exhibit no
+distinct trace of the soldering. They are of various sizes; some of them
+weigh three quarters of a pound. Those of silver are always solid. All
+these images of deities have the same physiognomy, and
+disproportionately large head. In most instances the head is covered by
+a peculiar kind of cap.
+
+The vessels used for holding water or other liquids are very various in
+color and form. Most of them exhibit ludicrous caricatures of human
+figures; others are unrecognisable representations of animals or fancy
+figures. These vessels have in general two apertures, one by which they
+were filled, and the other by which the liquid was poured out. On
+filling them a feeble flute-like sound is heard. It is occasioned by the
+air escaping through the other aperture. Most of these vessels are made
+of red or black clay, well glazed. Those for holding chicha were very
+capacious. Some of them, which have been found hermetically closed, have
+contained chicha upwards of three hundred years old, and remarkable for
+a very smoky flavor. On the vessels made of gourds fanciful figures are
+generally carved. Gold drinking cups have been found, adorned with well
+executed embossed ornaments, and like the images, showing no trace of
+soldering. Among the warlike weapons, the stone battle-axes are very
+remarkable; they have at both ends a tube, in which the handle was fixed
+by ligatures. Articles for personal adornment, such as nose and lip
+rings, neck chains, pins, bracelets, and ancle bands, are usually of
+gold, and set with small colored shells. The sceptres of the Incas are
+of gold, and exquisitely wrought; those of the Curacas of silver; and
+those of the Caciques of copper, sometimes gilt.
+
+Idols and utensils made of wood are very rarely found. It would appear
+that the ancient Peruvians found more difficulty in the working of wood
+than that of metal and stone. The Peruvians give to all objects dug up
+from the old graves, the name of _Huaqueros_, from Huaca, the word for
+grave in the Quichua language.
+
+The huacas or graves vary in form or magnitude. When destined for single
+individuals they were made small; but when for families, they were of
+considerable extent. On the sandy soil of the coast, no elevation marks
+the spot where the bodies are interred; but further inland (though still
+in the coast region), the graves are for the most part elevated and
+arched, and are built of bricks. In the Sierra the tombs are of stone,
+quadrangular, oval, or of an obelisk form.
+
+In the huacas, the bodies are found in a sitting position, and supported
+by stones or reeds: the face turned towards the east. In front of the
+body it was customary to place two rows of pots containing quinua,
+maize, potatoes, dried llama flesh, and other kinds of provisions, and
+these pots were all covered with small lids. On each side of the body
+were ranged cooking utensils, and vessels containing water and chicha.
+The body and all the objects deposited in the grave were covered with a
+layer of sand, above which were spread various articles of clothing.
+Over these was placed another layer of sand, and then the tomb was built
+above the whole.
+
+The bodies are found wrapped in several coverings; and when first taken
+out of the graves, they have the appearance of unfinished statues; the
+position of the head, knees, and feet being alone recognisable. A strong
+net-work, composed of twisted straw or bast incloses a thick rush mat,
+in which the body is wrapped. These coverings being removed, there is
+found a broad, woollen bandage, passing round the body, and fastening
+the rushes or sticks which support it in a sitting position. Under this
+bandage is a red or party-colored covering which goes over the whole
+body; and beneath this are one or two yellowish-white coverings,
+strongly sewed up. On removing these coverings, there are found some
+pots or drinking cups, a few ornaments, the _Huallqui_ with coca, and in
+most instances a silver or gold idol suspended from the neck of the
+body. The undermost wrapper consists of a cloth of rather fine texture.
+Probably it was originally white, but time has changed it to a
+reddish-yellow. This covering being unsewed, the naked corpse appears;
+the head alone being encircled with two or three bandages, called
+_Huinchas_. The body is always in a sitting posture; the knees being
+drawn up towards the face, and the arms crossed over the breast, in
+such a manner that the chin rests between the two clenched hands. The
+wrists are tied together, and the ligature with which they are
+fastened is passed round the neck. This, which was evidently done only
+to keep the hands fixed in the required position, has led some
+commentators on Peruvian antiquities to suppose that the bodies found
+with strings round the necks were those of hanged persons. In the
+mouth there is a thin piece of gold, silver or copper; most of the
+bodies are in a good state of preservation, though the features are
+not discernible. The hair is always found perfectly free from decay;
+and that of the females is beautifully plaited.
+
+The question has arisen, whether these bodies were embalmed, or whether
+their preservation is merely the result of the mummifying nature of the
+climate. Both conjectures have found zealous supporters. Don Francisco
+Barrero, keeper of the Museum of Natural History in Lima, mentions, in
+the _Memorial de Ciencias Naturales_,[105] that among the ancient
+Peruvians certain men were appointed as embalmers, and he describes the
+process they adopted as follows:--They first extracted the brain through
+the nose, then took out the eyes, and stopped up the sockets with
+cotton. The bowels, lungs, and even the tongue, were removed, after
+which the body and skull were filled with a kind of powder, which
+immediately after it is taken out of the mummies, diffuses a slight
+odor of turpentine; this odor, however, it soon loses on being
+exposed to the action of the air. The face, hands, and feet, were
+rubbed over with an oily substance, after which the body was incased
+in the envelopes above described. I am disposed to believe that this
+process never had any existence, save in the imagination of Barrera:
+it indeed resembles the manner in which the Egyptians prepared their
+mummies; but no such method was practised among the Indians. The
+mummies collected in the museum of Lima present not the slightest
+trace of this powder, or indeed of any kind of preservative
+material--a fact which is mentioned by the director of that
+establishment, Don E. Mariano de Rivero, in his _Antiguedades
+Peruanas_.[106]
+
+On those parts of the coast where it never rains, the combined heat of
+the sun and the sand has dried up the bodies; in the mountain districts,
+the pure atmosphere and the peculiarly drying nature of the wind have
+produced the same effect. Similar appearances may be traced to different
+circumstances. Of this fact the burial ground of Huacho, and the
+mummified animals seen on the level heights, furnish the most convincing
+proofs. In districts exposed to frequent rain, mummies are found in very
+bad preservation, most of them being mere skeletons. All are in sitting
+postures. In those parts of the Sierra where the soil is impregnated
+with nitre, bodies, which must have lain in the ground for several
+centuries, are found in a very fresh condition, notwithstanding the
+humidity.
+
+Garcilaso de la Vega and the Padre Acosta state that the ancient
+Peruvians were acquainted with the art of embalming, but that they
+employed it only for the bodies of their kings. In the Temple of the Sun
+at Cuzco, there were found excellently preserved mummies of the Incas,
+each seated on a throne. Several years after the Spanish conquest, these
+mummies were conveyed to Lima, and were buried in the court of the
+hospital of San Andres. It is deeply to be deplored that the fanaticism
+of the Spanish conquerors should have destroyed these interesting
+remains of the ancient sovereigns of Peru.
+
+The facts adduced in the course of this volume, relative to the
+barbarous colonization system of the Spaniards, must sufficiently prove
+how adverse was Spanish dominion to the improvement of the natives, and
+to the prosperity of the country. For Peru, Nature's bounteously favored
+land, let us hope that there is reserved a future, happier than either
+the past or the present!
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 102: Even to this day the custom of forced domestic service is
+kept up in some parts of the Sierra, where the priest is allowed the
+services of a female cook, who is called a _Mita_, and a man servant,
+for whom the name of _Pongo_ is reserved. These servants are kept for
+the space of a week.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Adelung, in his "Review of all Languages," considers the
+Calchaqui (still spoken in Tucuman) to be a dialect of the Quichua. It
+is, however, a dialect of the Aymara. Adelung makes another mistake
+when he observes, that the Lama language is spoken in the neighborhood
+of Truxillo.]
+
+[Footnote 104: Of the _Quichua_, _Quiteña_, and _Lama_ languages
+several grammars and dictionaries exist. Of the _Kauqui_ only single
+words have been preserved. There is a very imperfect dictionary of the
+_Chinchaysuyo_ by Figueredo. Of the _Yunga_ there is a grammar with a
+_Confesionario_ and Prayers by Fernando de Carrera--a very scarce work.]
+
+[Footnote 105: Vol. II., p. 106.]
+
+[Footnote 106: Published in 1846.]
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+
+Inconsistencies in hyphenation retained. (brush-wood, brushwood;
+court-yard, courtyard; day-break, daybreak; goat-skin, goat-skin;
+hair-dressers, hairdressers; horse-shoes, horseshoes;
+house-tops, housetops; light-house, lighthouse;
+mayor-domos, mayordomos; mid-day, midday; needle-woman, needlewoman;
+net-work; network; nick-name, nickname; north-west, northwest;
+run-away, runaway; sea-ports, seaports; shop-keeper/s, shopkeeper/s;
+south-east, southeast; south-west, southwest; two-fold, twofold)
+
+Inconsistency in abbreviation "P. M." Sometimes it is "P.M." without a
+space. Original text retained in all cases.
+
+Page 22, inserted opening quote mark. ("_Las diez han)
+
+Page 25, species of fox "_Canis Azaræ_" is attributed to "Wild." Not
+consistent with Page 174 "_Canis azaræ_" attributed to "Pr. Max." and
+to Page 221 "_Canis Azaræ_" also attributed to "Pr. Max." Mismatch in
+captialization and also in name of discoverer. Original text retained
+in all cases.
+
+Page 25, "III." changed to "Ill." (_Scolopax frenata_, Ill.)
+
+Page 59, "heterogegeous" changed to "heterogeneous". (heterogeneous
+objects are jumbled)
+
+Page 67, "Limena" retained. Elsewhere in the text it is "Limeña".
+(Limena is a noble specimen)
+
+Page 75, "grostesque" changed to "grotesque". (painted with grotesque
+figures)
+
+Page 85, inserted missing comma. (Alsop & Co., Templeman)
+
+Page 108, unusual word "recal" retained. Possibly "recall". (The
+ladies of Lima recal)
+
+Page 112, missing degree sign added. (December 28, at 6 in the morning,
+26·0° C.;)
+
+Page 117, "vavors" changed to "vapors". (there were seen fiery vapors)
+
+Page 135, "litttle" changed to "little". (full of little egg-shaped)
+
+Footnote 42, unusual phrase "no thing" retained. (He who created the
+world out of no thing)
+
+Page 154, unusual spelling of placename "Cozco" retained. Elsewhere in
+text it is "Cuzco". (erected in Cozco, the capital)
+
+Page 168, inserted missing period. (_Pelecanus thayus_, Mol.;)
+
+Page 172, compass directions "SS.E" changed to "S.S.E"; "NN.W."
+changed to "N.N.W." (Andes, namely from S.S.E.) (N.N.W., the western
+declivity)
+
+Page 177, "Eschidna" changed to "Echidna". See other occurrence at
+Footnote 93. (_Echidna ocellata_, Tsch.)
+
+Page 178, "melancholv" changed to "melancholy". (melancholy howl)
+
+Page 180, inconsistent spelling of placename "Periachi", later on
+"Pariachi". Original text retained for both. (At Periachi, four
+leagues from) (Two leagues beyond Pariachi)
+
+Page 182, inserted hyphen. (river of Chillon flowed north-westward)
+
+Page 198, unusual spelling "befel" retained. Possibly "befell". (an
+accident which befel me)
+
+Page 209, "swenllig" changed to "swelling". (inflammation, swelling
+of)
+
+Page 218, "jus" changed to "just". (than any of those just)
+
+Page 222, "sent" changed to "scent". (scent for the pishacas)
+
+Page 278, ungrammatical construction "The men takes" retained. (The
+men takes their bows)
+
+Page 284, period changed to comma. (Quichua, the idioms spoken)
+
+Page 288, period added. (festively celebrated.)
+
+Page 299, inserted missing opening round bracket. (... fly-catchers and
+shrikes (_Muscicapidæ_ and....)
+
+Page 301, unusual bird name "shrites" retained. Possibly "shrikes".
+(shrites, and even sea-swallows)
+
+Page 301, "tsch." changed to "Tsch." (_Odontophorus speciosus_, Tsch.)
+
+Page 325, "Fra" retained. Fra is acceptable as a title for friars but
+elsewhere in this text "Fray" is used. (two priests, Fra Francisco
+Otasua and Fray Salvador)
+
+Page 327, "coco" changed to "coca", coco is possible but coca more
+likely from context. (the coca plantation being neglected)
+
+Footnotes frequently have missing end of paragraph/sentence
+punctuation. Periods added.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the
+Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests, by J. J. von Tschudi
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS IN PERU ***
+
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the
+Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests, by J. J. von Tschudi
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests
+
+Author: J. J. von Tschudi
+
+Translator: Thomasina Ross
+
+Release Date: October 3, 2008 [EBook #26745]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS IN PERU ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table class="doublebd" width="484" summary="Illustrations" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" >
+<tr><td><img src="images/natives.png" width="474" height="355" alt="Men in traditional Chilian garb" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tablecaption">NATIVES OF VALPARAISO.</td></tr>
+<tr><td style="padding-top: 4em;"><img src="images/horseman.png" width="474" height="314" alt="Chilian horseman" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tablecaption">CHILIAN HORSEMANSHIP.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+<h1>TRAVELS<br />
+<br />
+<small>&nbsp;IN PERU,</small><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="tiny">ON THE COAST, IN THE SIERRA, ACROSS THE CORDILLERAS<br />
+AND THE ANDES, INTO THE PRIMEVAL FORESTS.</span></h1>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="title"><big>BY DR. J. J. VON TSCHUDI.</big></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><small>TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN</small></p>
+
+<p class="title"><big>BY THOMASINA ROSS.</big></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>NEW EDITION, COMPLETE IN ONE VOLUME.</small></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">NEW YORK:<br />
+A. S. BARNES &amp; CO., 51 JOHN-STREET.<br />
+<small>CINCINNATI: H. W. DERBY.</small><br />
+1854.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<p>The Work from which the present Volume is translated consists of
+extracts from the Author's Journal, accompanied by his recollections
+and observations. The absence of chronological arrangement will be
+sufficiently accounted for, when it is explained that the zoological
+investigations for which the journey was undertaken frequently
+required the Author to make repeated visits to one particular place or
+district, or to remain for a considerable time within the narrow
+circuit of a few miles; and sometimes to travel rapidly over vast
+tracts of country. Disclaiming any intention of making one of those
+travelling romances, with which the tourist literature of the day is
+overstocked, the Author has confined himself to a plain description of
+facts and things as they came within the sphere of his own observation.
+But though Dr. Tschudi lays claim to no merit beyond the truthfulness
+of his narrative, yet the reader will no doubt readily concede to him
+the merit of extensive information, and happy descriptive talent. His
+pictures of Nature, especially those relating to the animal world, are
+frequently imbued with much of the charm of thought and style which
+characterizes the writings of Buffon.</p>
+
+<p>Lima, the oldest and most interesting of the cities founded by the
+Spaniards on the western coast of South America, has been frequently
+described; but no previous writer has painted so animated a picture of
+the city and its inhabitants, as that contained in the following volume.
+After quitting the capital of Peru, Dr. Tschudi went over ground
+previously untrodden by any European traveller. He visited the Western
+Sierra, the mighty chain of the Cordilleras, the boundless level
+heights, the deep mountain valleys on the eastern declivity of the
+Andes, and the vast primeval forests. Whilst recounting his wanderings
+in these distant regions, he describes not only the country and the
+people, but every object of novelty and interest in the animal,
+vegetable, and mineral creations.</p>
+
+<p>Those lovers of Natural History who are familiar with the German
+language, and who may wish to make themselves extensively acquainted
+with the animal world, in those parts of Peru visited by Dr. Tschudi,
+will find abundant information on the subject in his work, with plates,
+entitled "Untersuchungen &uuml;ber die Fauna Peruana." The present
+Publication, though containing a vast deal to interest the naturalist,
+is addressed to the general reader, and will, it is presumed, gratify
+curiosity respecting the highly interesting and little known regions to
+which it relates. It may fairly be said that no previous writer has
+given so comprehensive a picture of Peru; combining, with animated
+sketches of life and manners, a fund of valuable information on Natural
+History and Commerce.</p>
+
+<p class="sigblock">T. R.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr />
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+<hr class="hr6" />
+
+<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_1">CHAPTER I.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="tocpg"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Embarkation at Havre&mdash;&#8203;The Voyage&mdash;&#8203;Arrival at the Island of
+Chiloe&mdash;&#8203;Landing&mdash;&#8203;The Gyr-Falcon&mdash;&#8203;Punta Arena&mdash;&#8203;The Island of
+Chiloe described&mdash;&#8203;Climate and Cultivation&mdash;&#8203;Cattle&mdash;&#8203;The Bay&mdash;&#8203;San
+Carlos&mdash;&#8203;The Governor's House&mdash;&#8203;Poverty and Wretchedness of the
+Inhabitants of the Town&mdash;&#8203;Strange method of Ploughing&mdash;&#8203;Coasting
+Vessels&mdash;&#8203;Smuggling&mdash;&#8203;Zoology&mdash;&#8203;Departure from Chiloe</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_15">CHAPTER II.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Valparaiso and the adjacent country&mdash;&#8203;The Bay&mdash;&#8203;Aspect of the
+Town&mdash;&#8203;Lighthouses&mdash;&#8203;Forts&mdash;&#8203;Custom House&mdash;&#8203;Exchange&mdash;&#8203;Hotels and
+Taverns&mdash;&#8203;War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation&mdash;&#8203;First
+Expedition&mdash;&#8203;Preparations for the Second Expedition&mdash;&#8203;Embarkation
+of the Troops&mdash;&#8203;Close of the Port&mdash;&#8203;July Festival in honor of
+the French Revolution&mdash;&#8203;The <i>Muele</i>, or Mole&mdash;&#8203;Police&mdash;&#8203;<i>Serenos</i>,
+or Watchmen&mdash;&#8203;Movable Prisons&mdash;&#8203;Clubs&mdash;&#8203;Trade of
+Valparaiso&mdash;&#8203;Santiago&mdash;&#8203;Zoology</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_26">CHAPTER III.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Juan Fernandez&mdash;&#8203;Robinson Crusoe&mdash;&#8203;Passage to Callao&mdash;&#8203;San
+Lorenzo&mdash;&#8203;Rise and fall of the coast&mdash;&#8203;Mr. Darwin's opinions
+on this subject&mdash;&#8203;Callao&mdash;&#8203;The Fortress&mdash;&#8203;Siege by the
+Spaniards&mdash;&#8203;General Rodil&mdash;&#8203;Siege by the Chilians&mdash;&#8203;The
+Colocolo&mdash;&#8203;Pirates&mdash;&#8203;Zoology&mdash;&#8203;Road to Lima</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_42">CHAPTER IV.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Lima&mdash;&#8203;Situation and extent of the City&mdash;&#8203;Streets,
+Houses, Churches and Convents&mdash;&#8203;San Pedro&mdash;&#8203;The
+Jesuits&mdash;&#8203;Nunneries&mdash;&#8203;Beatarios&mdash;&#8203;Hospitals&mdash;&#8203;San Andres&mdash;&#8203;The
+Foundling House&mdash;&#8203;The Pantheon&mdash;&#8203;The Palace&mdash;&#8203;The Plaza
+Mayor&mdash;&#8203;Pizarro&mdash;&#8203;The Cabildo&mdash;&#8203;Fountains&mdash;&#8203;Palace of the
+Inquisition&mdash;&#8203;The University&mdash;&#8203;National Library&mdash;&#8203;Museum of
+Natural History and Antiquities&mdash;&#8203;Academy of Design&mdash;&#8203;The
+Mint&mdash;&#8203;The Theatre&mdash;&#8203;Circus for Cock-fighting&mdash;&#8203;The Bridge&mdash;&#8203;The
+City Wall&mdash;&#8203;Santa Catalina&mdash;&#8203;Barracks</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_63">CHAPTER V.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Population of Lima&mdash;&#8203;Its diminution&mdash;&#8203;Different races of the
+Inhabitants&mdash;&#8203;Their characteristics&mdash;&#8203;Amusements&mdash;&#8203;Education&mdash;&#8203;The Women
+of Lima&mdash;&#8203;Their Costume&mdash;&#8203;the <i>Saya y Manto</i>&mdash;&#8203;Female domestic
+life&mdash;&#8203;Love of dress&mdash;&#8203;Beatas&mdash;&#8203;Indians&mdash;&#8203;Slaves&mdash;&#8203;Bosales&mdash;&#8203;Free
+Creoles&mdash;&#8203;Negroes&mdash;&#8203;Negresses&mdash;&#8203;Black Creoles&mdash;&#8203;Their
+varieties&mdash;&#8203;Mestizos&mdash;&#8203;Mulattoes&mdash;&#8203;Pelanganas&mdash;&#8203;Zambos&mdash;&#8203;Chinos&mdash;&#8203;Foreigners
+in Lima&mdash;&#8203;Corruption of the Spanish language</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_89">CHAPTER VI.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Primary Schools&mdash;&#8203;Colleges&mdash;&#8203;The University&mdash;&#8203;Monks&mdash;&#8203;Saints&mdash;&#8203;Santo
+Toribio and Santa Rosa&mdash;&#8203;Religious Processions&mdash;&#8203;Raising the Host&mdash;&#8203;The
+Noche Buena&mdash;&#8203;The Carnival&mdash;&#8203;Paseos, or Public Promenades&mdash;&#8203;Ice&mdash;&#8203;Riding
+and Driving&mdash;&#8203;Horses&mdash;&#8203;Their Equipments and Training&mdash;&#8203;Mules&mdash;&#8203;Lottery
+in Lima&mdash;&#8203;Cookery&mdash;&#8203;Breakfasts, Dinners, &amp;c.&mdash;&#8203;Coffee-houses and
+Restaurants&mdash;&#8203;Markets&mdash;&#8203;The <i>Plazo Firme del Acho</i>&mdash;&#8203;Bull Fights</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_111">CHAPTER VII.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Geographical Situation of Lima&mdash;&#8203;Height above Sea
+level&mdash;&#8203;Temperature&mdash;&#8203;Diseases&mdash;&#8203;Statistical Tables of Births and
+Deaths&mdash;&#8203;Earthquakes&mdash;&#8203;The Valley of Lima&mdash;&#8203;The River Rimac&mdash;&#8203;Aqueducts,
+Trenches, &amp;c.&mdash;&#8203;Irrigation&mdash;&#8203;Plantations&mdash;&#8203;Cotton&mdash;&#8203;Sugar&mdash;&#8203;Various
+kinds of Grain&mdash;&#8203;Maize&mdash;&#8203;Potatoes, and other tuberous
+roots&mdash;&#8203;Pulse&mdash;&#8203;Cabbage&mdash;&#8203;Plants used for Seasoning&mdash;&#8203;Clover&mdash;&#8203;The Olive
+and other Oil Trees&mdash;&#8203;Fruits&mdash;&#8203;Figs and Grapes&mdash;&#8203;The Chirimoya&mdash;&#8203;The
+Palta&mdash;&#8203;The Banana and other Fruits</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_137">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Robbers on the coast of Peru&mdash;&#8203;The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo&mdash;&#8203;The
+Corps of Montoneros&mdash;&#8203;Watering Places near Lima&mdash;&#8203;Surco, Atte and
+Lurin&mdash;&#8203;Pacchacamac&mdash;&#8203;Ruins of the Temple of the Sun&mdash;&#8203;Difficulties of
+Travelling on the Coast of Peru&mdash;&#8203;Sea Passage to Huacho&mdash;&#8203;Indian
+Canoes&mdash;&#8203;Ichthyological Collections&mdash;&#8203;An old Spaniard's recollections
+of Alexander Von Humboldt&mdash;&#8203;The Padre Requena&mdash;&#8203;Huacho&mdash;&#8203;Plundering of
+Burial Places&mdash;&#8203;Huaura&mdash;&#8203;Malaria&mdash;&#8203;The Sugar Plantation at
+Luhmayo&mdash;&#8203;Quipico&mdash;&#8203;Ancient Peruvian Ruins&mdash;&#8203;The Salinas, or Salt
+Pits&mdash;&#8203;Gritalobos&mdash;&#8203;Chancay&mdash;&#8203;The Piques&mdash;&#8203;Mode of extracting
+them&mdash;&#8203;Valley of the Pasamayo&mdash;&#8203;Extraordinary Atmospheric
+Mirrors&mdash;&#8203;Piedras Gordas&mdash;&#8203;Palo Seco</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_160">CHAPTER IX.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">The Coast southward of Lima&mdash;&#8203;Chilca&mdash;&#8203;Curious Cigar cases made
+there&mdash;&#8203;Yauyos&mdash;&#8203;Pisco&mdash;&#8203;Journey to Yea&mdash;&#8203;A night on the Sand
+Plains&mdash;&#8203;Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823&mdash;&#8203;Vine Plantations at
+Yea&mdash;&#8203;Brandy and Wine&mdash;&#8203;Don Domingo Elias&mdash;&#8203;Vessels for transporting
+Brandy (Botijas and Odres)&mdash;&#8203;Cruel mode of skinning Goats&mdash;&#8203;Negro
+Carnival&mdash;&#8203;Peculiar species of Guinea Pig&mdash;&#8203;The Salamanqueja&mdash;&#8203;Cotton
+Plantations&mdash;&#8203;Quebrada of Huaitara&mdash;&#8203;Sangallan&mdash;&#8203;Guano&mdash;&#8203;Retrospect of
+the Peruvian Coast&mdash;&#8203;Rivers&mdash;&#8203;Medanos&mdash;&#8203;Winds&mdash;&#8203;Change of Seasons&mdash;&#8203;The
+Garuas&mdash;&#8203;The Lomas&mdash;&#8203;Mammalia&mdash;&#8203;Birds&mdash;&#8203;Amphibia</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_179">CHAPTER X.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Roads leading to the Sierra&mdash;&#8203;Chaclacayo and Santa I&ntilde;es&mdash;&#8203;Barometrical
+observations&mdash;&#8203;San Pedro Mama&mdash;&#8203;The Rio Seco&mdash;&#8203;Extraordinary Geological
+Phenomenon&mdash;&#8203;Similar one described by Mr. Darwin&mdash;&#8203;Surco&mdash;&#8203;Diseases
+peculiar to the Villages of Peru&mdash;&#8203;The Verugas&mdash;&#8203;Indian mode of
+treating the disorder&mdash;&#8203;The Bird-catching Spider&mdash;&#8203;Horse-Shoeing&mdash;&#8203;Indian
+Tambos&mdash;&#8203;San Juan de Matucanas&mdash;&#8203;The Thorn-apple and the Tonga&mdash;&#8203;The
+Tambo de Viso&mdash;&#8203;Bridges&mdash;&#8203;San Mateo&mdash;&#8203;Passports&mdash;&#8203;Acchahuari&mdash;&#8203;Malady
+called the Veta&mdash;&#8203;Its effects on horses&mdash;&#8203;Singular tact and caution
+of Mules&mdash;&#8203;Antarangra and Mountain Passes&mdash;&#8203;Curious partition of
+Water&mdash;&#8203;Piedra Parada&mdash;&#8203;Yauli&mdash;&#8203;Indian Smelting Furnaces&mdash;&#8203;Mineral
+Springs&mdash;&#8203;Portuguese Mine owners&mdash;&#8203;Saco&mdash;&#8203;Oroya&mdash;&#8203;Hanging
+Bridges&mdash;&#8203;Huaros&mdash;&#8203;Roads leading from Oroya</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_203">CHAPTER XI.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">The Cordillera and the Andes&mdash;&#8203;Signification of the terms&mdash;&#8203;Altitude
+of the Mountains and Passes&mdash;&#8203;Lakes&mdash;&#8203;Metals&mdash;&#8203;Aspect of the
+Cordillera&mdash;&#8203;Shattered Rocks&mdash;&#8203;Maladies caused by the diminished
+Atmospheric Pressure&mdash;&#8203;The Veta and the Surumpe&mdash;&#8203;Mountain Storms&mdash;&#8203;The
+Condor&mdash;&#8203;Its habits&mdash;&#8203;Indian mode of Catching the Bird&mdash;&#8203;The Puna or
+Despoblado&mdash;&#8203;Climate&mdash;&#8203;Currents of Warm Air&mdash;&#8203;Vegetation&mdash;&#8203;Tuberous
+Plant called the Maca&mdash;&#8203;Animals of the Puna&mdash;&#8203;The Llama, the Alpaco,
+the Huanacu and the Vicu&ntilde;a&mdash;&#8203;The Chacu and the Bolas&mdash;&#8203;Household
+Utensils of the Ancient Peruvians&mdash;&#8203;The Viscacha and the
+Chinchilla&mdash;&#8203;Puna Birds and Amphibia&mdash;&#8203;Cattle and Pasture&mdash;&#8203;Indian
+Farms&mdash;&#8203;Shepherds' Huts&mdash;&#8203;Ancient Peruvian Roads and
+Buildings&mdash;&#8203;Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_229">CHAPTER XII.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Cerro de Pasco&mdash;&#8203;First discovery of the Mines&mdash;&#8203;Careless mode of
+working them&mdash;&#8203;Mine Owners and Mine Laborers&mdash;&#8203;Amalgamating and
+Refining&mdash;&#8203;Produce of the Mines&mdash;&#8203;Life in Cerro de Pasco&mdash;&#8203;Different
+Classes of the Population&mdash;&#8203;Gaming and Drunkenness&mdash;&#8203;Extravagance
+and Improvidence of the Indian Mine Laborers&mdash;&#8203;The Cerro de San
+Fernando&mdash;&#8203;Other Important Mining Districts in Peru&mdash;&#8203;The Salcedo Mine
+Castrovireyna&mdash;&#8203;Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of Peru&mdash;&#8203;Rich
+Mines secretly known to the Indians&mdash;&#8203;Roads leading from Cerro de
+Pasco&mdash;&#8203;The Laguna of Chinchaycocha&mdash;&#8203;Battle of Junin&mdash;&#8203;Indian
+Robbers&mdash;&#8203;A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_253">CHAPTER XIII.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">The Sierra&mdash;&#8203;Its Climate and Productions&mdash;&#8203;Inhabitants&mdash;&#8203;Trade&mdash;&#8203;Eggs
+circulated as money&mdash;&#8203;Mestizos in the Sierra&mdash;&#8203;Their Idleness
+and Love of Gaming and Betting&mdash;&#8203;Agriculture&mdash;&#8203;The Quinua Plant,
+a substitute for Potatoes&mdash;&#8203;Growth of Vegetables and Fruits
+in the Sierra&mdash;&#8203;Rural Festivals at the Seasons of Sowing and
+Reaping&mdash;&#8203;Skill of the Indians in various Handicrafts&mdash;&#8203;Excess of
+Brandy-Drinking&mdash;&#8203;Chicha&mdash;&#8203;Disgusting mode of making it&mdash;&#8203;Festivals of
+Saints&mdash;&#8203;Dances and Bull-Fights&mdash;&#8203;Celebration of Christmas-Day,
+New-Year's Day, Palm Sunday, and Good Friday&mdash;&#8203;Contributions levied
+on the Indians&mdash;&#8203;Tardy and Irregular Transmission of Letters&mdash;&#8203;Trade
+in Mules&mdash;&#8203;General Style of Building in the Towns and Villages of
+the Sierra&mdash;&#8203;Ceja de la Monta&ntilde;a</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_271">CHAPTER XIV.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Road to the Primeval Forests&mdash;&#8203;Barbacoas, or Indian Suspension
+Bridges&mdash;&#8203;Vegetation&mdash;&#8203;Hollow Passes&mdash;&#8203;Zoology&mdash;&#8203;the Monta&ntilde;a
+Plantations&mdash;&#8203;Inhabitants&mdash;&#8203;Trade in Peruvian Bark&mdash;&#8203;Wandering
+Indians&mdash;&#8203;Wild Indians or Indios Braves&mdash;&#8203;Languages,
+Manners, and Customs of the Indios Bravos&mdash;&#8203;Dress&mdash;&#8203;Warlike
+Weapons and Hunting Arms&mdash;&#8203;Dwellings&mdash;&#8203;Religion&mdash;&#8203;Physical
+formation of the Wild Indian Tribes&mdash;&#8203;Animals of the Aboriginal
+Forests&mdash;&#8203;Mammalia&mdash;&#8203;Hunting the Ounce&mdash;&#8203;Birds&mdash;&#8203;Amphibia&mdash;&#8203;Poisonous
+Serpents&mdash;&#8203;Huaco&mdash;&#8203;Insects&mdash;&#8203;Plants</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_309">CHAPTER XV.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Montaña of San Carlos de Vitoc&mdash;&#8203;Villages&mdash;&#8203;Hacienda of
+Maraynioc&mdash;&#8203;the Coca Plant&mdash;&#8203;Mode of Cultivating and Gathering
+it&mdash;&#8203;Mastication of Coca&mdash;&#8203;Evil Consequences of its excessive
+Use&mdash;&#8203;Its Nutritious Qualities&mdash;&#8203;Indian Superstitions connected
+with the Coca Plant&mdash;&#8203;Suggestions for its Introduction in
+the European Navies&mdash;&#8203;Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo&mdash;&#8203;The
+Chunchos&mdash;&#8203;Missions to Cerro de la Sal&mdash;&#8203;Juan Santos Atahuallpa&mdash;&#8203;The
+Franciscan Monks&mdash;&#8203;Depopulation of Vitoc</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tochead" colspan="2"><a href="#Page_329">CHAPTER XVI.</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc">Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians&mdash;&#8203;The
+Repartimiento and the Mita&mdash;&#8203;Indian Insurrections&mdash;&#8203;Tupac Amaru&mdash;&#8203;His
+Capture and Execution&mdash;&#8203;War of Independence&mdash;&#8203;Character of the Peruvian
+Indians&mdash;&#8203;Music&mdash;&#8203;Dress&mdash;&#8203;Superstitions&mdash;&#8203;Longevity&mdash;&#8203;Diminished Population
+of Peru&mdash;&#8203;Languages spoken by the Aboriginal Inhabitants&mdash;&#8203;Specimen of
+Quichua Poetry&mdash;&#8203;The Yaravies&mdash;&#8203;The Quipu&mdash;&#8203;Water Conduits&mdash;&#8203;Ancient
+Buildings&mdash;&#8203;Fortresses&mdash;&#8203;Idols&mdash;&#8203;Domestic Utensils&mdash;&#8203;Ancient Peruvian
+Graves&mdash;&#8203;Mode of Burying the Dead&mdash;&#8203;Mummies</td><td class="tocpg"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h1>TRAVELS IN PERU.</h1>
+<hr />
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Embarkation at Havre&mdash;&#8203;The Voyage&mdash;&#8203;Arrival at the Island of
+Chiloe&mdash;&#8203;Landing&mdash;&#8203;The Gyr-Falcon&mdash;&#8203;Punta Arena&mdash;&#8203;The Island of
+Chiloe described&mdash;&#8203;Climate and Cultivation&mdash;&#8203;Cattle&mdash;&#8203;The Bay&mdash;&#8203;San
+Carlos&mdash;&#8203;The Governor's House&mdash;&#8203;Poverty and Wretchedness of the
+Inhabitants of the Town&mdash;&#8203;Strange method of Ploughing&mdash;&#8203;Coasting
+Vessels&mdash;&#8203;Smuggling&mdash;&#8203;Zoology&mdash;&#8203;Departure from Chiloe.</p>
+
+
+<p>On the 27th of February, 1838, I sailed from Havre-de-Grace on board the
+"Edmond." This vessel, though a French merchantman, was freighted with a
+cargo of Swiss manufactured goods, suited to any commercial transactions
+which might be entered into in the course of a circumnavigatory voyage.
+It was a boisterous morning. A fall of snow and heavy clouds soon
+intercepted our view of the coast of France, and not one cheering
+sunbeam shone out to betoken for us a favorable voyage. We passed down
+the British Channel, where the multitude of vessels, and the flags of
+all nations, presented an enlivening picture, and we finally cleared it
+on the 5th of March. Favored by a brisk north wind, we soon reached
+Madeira and came in sight of Teneriffe, the peak being just perceptible
+on the skirt of the horizon. Easterly breezes soon brought us to the
+island of Fogo, which, having passed on the 35th day of our voyage, we
+received the usual marine baptism, and participated in all the
+ceremonies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>observed on crossing the equator. We soon reached the tropic
+of Capricorn, and endeavored to gain the channel between the Falkland
+Islands and Patagonia; but unfavorable winds obliged us to direct our
+course eastwards, from the Island of Soledad to the Staten Islands. On
+the 3d of March we made the longitude of Cape Horn, but were not able to
+double it until we got into the 60th degree of south latitude. In those
+dangerous waters, where it is admitted by the boldest English sailors
+that the waves rage more furiously than in any other part of the world,
+we encountered great risk and difficulty. For twenty-two days we were
+driven about on the fearfully agitated sea, southward of Tierra del
+Fuego, and were only saved from being buried in the deep, by the
+excellent build and soundness of our ship.</p>
+
+<p>We suffered much, and were long delayed by this storm; but when it
+subsided, a smart breeze sprang up from the southward, and we held our
+course along the Pacific to the coast of Chile. After a voyage of 99
+days we cast anchor on Sunday the 5th of June, in the Bay of San Carlos.
+Like the day of our departure from Europe, that of our arrival off
+Chiloe was gloomy and overcast. Heavy clouds obscured the
+long-looked-for island, and its picturesque shore could only be seen,
+when, at intervals, the wind dispersed the dark atmospheric veil. We had
+no sooner cast anchor than several boats came alongside rowed by
+Indians, who offered us potatoes, cabbage, fish, and water, in exchange
+for tobacco. Only those who have been long at sea can form an idea of
+the gratification which fresh provisions, especially vegetables, afford
+to the weary voyager. In a couple of hours, the harbor-master came on
+board to examine the ship, the cargo, &amp;c., and to give us permission to
+go ashore. The long-boat being got out, and well manned, we stepped into
+it, and were conveyed to the harbor. The Bay of San Carlos being
+shallow, large ships, or vessels, heavily laden, are obliged to go three
+English miles or more from the landing-place before they can anchor. Our
+boat was gaily decorated and newly painted; but this was mere outside
+show, for it was in a very unsound condition. During our passage through
+the tropics, the sun had melted the pitch between the planks of the
+boat, which lay on the deck keel uppermost.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> In this crazy boat, we had
+scarcely got a quarter of a league from the ship, when the water rushed
+in so forcibly through all the cracks and fissures, that it was soon
+more than ankle deep. Unluckily the sailors had forgotten to put on
+board a bucket or anything for baling out the water, so that we were
+obliged to use our hats and boots for that purpose. Fourteen persons
+were crowded together in this leaky boat, and the water continued
+rising, until at length we began to be seriously apprehensive for our
+safety, when, fortunately, our situation was observed by the people on
+shore. They promptly prepared to send out a boat to our assistance, but
+just as it was got afloat, we succeeded in reaching the pier, happy once
+more to set our feet on <i>terra firma</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Our first business was to seek shelter and refreshment. There is no
+tavern in San Carlos, but there is a sort of substitute for one, kept
+by an old Corsican, named Filippi, where captains of ships usually
+take up their quarters. Filippi, who recognized an old acquaintance in
+one of our party, received us very kindly, and showed us to apartments
+which certainly had no claim to the merits of either cleanliness or
+convenience. They were long, dark, quadrangular rooms, without
+windows, and were destitute of any article of furniture, except a bed
+in a kind of recess.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as I got on shore, I saw a multitude of small birds of prey.
+They keep in flocks, like our sparrows, hopping about everywhere, and
+perching on the hedges and house-tops. I anxiously wished for an
+opportunity to make myself better acquainted with one of them.
+Presuming that shooting in the town might be displeasing to the
+inhabitants, who would naturally claim to themselves a sort of
+exclusive sporting right, I took my gun down to the sea-shore, and
+there shot one of the birds. It belonged to the Gyr-Falcon family
+(<i>Polyborini&aelig;</i>), and was one of the species peculiar to South America
+(<i>Polyborus chimango</i>, Vieil). The whole of the upper part of the body
+is brown, but single feathers here and there have a whitish-brown
+edge. On the tail are several indistinct oblique stripes. The
+under-part of the body is whitish-brown, and is also marked with
+transverse stripes feebly defined. The bird I shot measured from the
+point of the beak to the end of the tail 1 foot 6<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub></span> inches.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> Though
+these Gyr-Falcons live socially together, yet they are very greedy and
+contentious about their prey. They snap up, as food, all the offal
+thrown out of doors; and thus they render themselves serviceable to
+the inhabitants, who consequently do not destroy them. In some of the
+valleys of Peru, I met with these birds again, but very rarely and
+always single and solitary. I continued my excursions on the
+sea-shore, but with little satisfaction, for the pouring rain had
+driven animals of every kind to their lurking-holes. After a few days,
+I went on board the "Edmond," for the purpose of visiting <span class="smcap">Punta Arena</span>,
+a town on the side of the bay, whither our boat used to be sent for
+fresh water. The ground surrounding the spring whence the ships obtain
+supplies of water, is sandy, and it becomes exceedingly marshy further
+inland. After wandering about for a few hours, I found myself quite
+lost in a morass, out of which I had to work my way with no little
+difficulty. The whole produce of my hard day's sport consisted of an
+awlbeak, a small dark-brown bird (<i>Opethiorhyncus patagonicus</i>), and
+some land-snails. On our return, as we were nearing the ship, we
+killed a seal (<i>Otaria chilensis</i>, M&uuml;ll.), which was rising after a
+dive, close to the boat.</p>
+
+<p>On the 22d of June, all our ship's company were on board by order of
+the captain. We weighed anchor, and cruized about for some time. At
+length, about five in the afternoon, we returned, and the ship was
+anchored again precisely on the spot she had left a few hours before.
+It was set down in the log-book that the wind was not sufficiently
+favorable to allow the ship to pass out safely through the narrow
+entrance to the bay. But all on board were well aware that this was
+merely a pretence on the part of the captain, who, for some reason or
+other, wished to stop longer at San Carlos.</p>
+
+<p>I was very much pleased at this opportunity of prolonging my stay at the
+Island of Chiloe, hoping that better weather would enable me to make an
+excursion into the interior. But the sky still continued overcast, and
+the rain poured incessantly. One day, however, I undertook a journey to
+Castro, in company with the French Charg&eacute; d'Affaires to Peru, one of my
+fellow passengers on the voyage. A merchant accommodated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> us with two
+horses, saddled in the Chilian manner; but he warned us to be on our
+guard, as horses were often restive when just returned from their summer
+pasturage. We set off very promisingly. The commencement of our ride was
+pleasant enough, though the road was steep and very difficult. It
+sometimes lay over smooth slippery stones, then through deep marshes, or
+over scattered logs of wood, which bore evidence of attempts to render
+the ground passable, by this rude kind of paving. After we had ridden
+for several hours in the forest, the rain checked our further progress,
+and we turned, to retrace our way back. Our horses seemed well pleased
+with the project of returning home. For a time they proceeded with
+wonderful steadiness; but on coming to a part of the road where the
+ground was comparatively level and firm, they quickened their pace, and
+at length dashed forward through the wood, uncontrolled by the bridle.
+The long narrow saddle, with its woollen covering, the crescent-shaped
+wooden stirrups, and the heavy spurs, with their clumsy rowels, baffled
+all our skill in horsemanship, and it was with no little difficulty we
+kept our seats. We thought it best to give the animals the rein, and
+they galloped through the umbrageous thickets, until at last, panting
+and breathless, they stuck in a morass. Here we recovered our control
+over them, and pursued the remainder of our journey without further
+accident, though we were drenched to the skin on our return to the town.</p>
+
+<p>On subsequent days, I took my rambles on foot, and found myself richly
+rewarded thereby. The long evenings we spent in the company of our host
+and the harbor-master, from both of whom I obtained some useful
+information respecting the island.</p>
+
+<p>Chiloe is one of the largest islands of the Archipelago which extends
+along the west coast of South America, from 42&deg; south lat. to the
+Straits of Magellan. It is about 23 German miles long, and 10 broad. A
+magnificent, but almost inaccessible forest covers the unbroken line of
+hills stretching along Chiloe, and gives to the island a charming aspect
+of undulating luxuriance. Seldom, however, can the eye command a
+distinct view of those verdant hills; for overhanging clouds surcharged
+with rain, almost constantly veil the spreading tops of the trees. At<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+most parts of the shore the declivity is rapid. There are many inlets,
+which, though small, afford secure anchorage; but there are no harbors
+of any magnitude. While Castro was the capital of the island, Chacao was
+the principal port; but San Carlos having become the residence of the
+governor, this latter place is considered the chief harbor; and with
+reason, for its secure, tranquil bay unites all the advantages the
+navigator can desire on the stormy coast of South Chile. At Chacao, on
+the contrary, reefs and strong currents render the entrance dangerous
+and the anchorage insecure.</p>
+
+<p>Chiloe is but little cultivated, and scantily populated. If the
+statement of my informant, the harbor-master, be correct, Chiloe and the
+adjacent small islands contain only from 48,000 to 50,000 inhabitants,
+part of whom live in <i>ranchos</i> (huts), and part in a few villages. Next
+to San Carlos, and the half-deserted Castro, to which the title of
+"City" is given, the chief places are Chacao, Vilipilli, Cucao, Velinoe.
+It is only in the neighborhood of these towns or villages that the
+forest trees have been felled, and their removal has uncovered a fertile
+soil, which would reward by a hundred-fold the labor of the husbandman.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of the island is moist and cool, and upon the whole very
+unpleasant. During the winter months, the sun is seldom seen; and it is
+a proverbial saying in Chiloe, that it rains six days of the week, and
+is cloudy on the seventh. In summer there are occasionally fine days,
+though seldom two in succession. The thick forests are therefore never
+dry, and beneath the trees, the vegetation of the marshy soil is
+peculiarly luxuriant. The constant moisture is one of the greatest
+obstacles to agriculture. To clear the ground for cultivation, it would
+be necessary to burn the forests, and as the trees are always damp, that
+could not be done without great difficulty. To some kinds of culture the
+soil is not favorable. The cereals, for example, seldom thrive in
+Chiloe; the seed rots after the ear is formed. Maize grows best; though
+it shoots too much into leaf, and bears only small grain. The damp soil,
+on the other hand, is favorable to potatoes, of which vast quantities
+are planted. There is a degenerate kind of potato, very abundant in
+Chiloe. On bisection it exhibits a greater or lesser number of
+concentric rings,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> alternately white and violet; sometimes all of the
+latter color. It is well known that southern Chile is the native land of
+the potato. In Chiloe and also in the neighboring islands, potatoes grow
+wild; but, both in size and flavor, they are far inferior to the
+cultivated kind. Like the maize, they shoot up in large leaves and
+stalks. The climate is also very favorable to the different kinds of the
+cabbage plant; but peas and beans do not thrive there.</p>
+
+<p>In the forests there are often clear spots on which the grass grows to a
+great height, and supplies excellent pasturage for numerous herds of
+cattle. The inhabitants of Chiloe breed for their own use, horses, oxen,
+sheep, and swine. The horses are small, and not handsomely formed, but
+very spirited and strong. Some are scarcely twelve hands high. The cows
+are small and lank, and the same may be said of the swine and sheep. It
+is remarkable that all the rams have more than two horns; the greater
+number have three, and many are furnished with four or five. I
+afterwards observed the same in Peru. The domestic animals on this
+island, notwithstanding the abundance of food, are small, and
+sickly-looking. I believe the cause to be want of care, for they remain
+all the year round exposed to every sort of weather and discomfort.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Chiloe consists of Whites, Indians, and people of
+mixed blood. The Indians are now few in number, and those few are
+chiefly in the southern part of the island, and the adjacent islets.
+They are of the Araucana race, and appear to be a sept between that
+race and the people of Tierra del Fuego, on the one side, and the
+Pampas Indians on the other. People of mixed races form by far the
+greater portion of the population. They are met with in every variety
+of amalgamation. Taken in general, they are the reverse of handsome.
+They are short and thick-set, and have long, straight coarse hair.
+Their faces are round and full, their eyes small, and the expression
+of their countenances is unintelligent. The whites are either
+Chilenos or Spaniards: the latter are almost the only Europeans
+who have become settlers here.</p>
+
+<p>The principal town, San Carlos, called by the natives "Ancud," lies on
+the northern coast of a very fine bay. Without a good chart, the
+entrance to this bay is difficult. Numerous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> small islands form a
+labyrinth, out of which vessels, if not commanded by very experienced
+pilots, cannot easily be extricated. Besides, near the land, the sky is
+usually obscured by clouds which prevent any observation for the
+latitude, as the sun's altitude cannot be taken even at noon; and when
+the sun gets lower, the hills, which would serve as guiding points,
+cease to be distinctly seen.</p>
+
+<p>Several whalers, which for some days vainly endeavored to work through
+this passage, were afterwards obliged to direct their course northward,
+and to cast anchor in Valivia. One of the largest islands at the
+entrance of the bay is San Sebastian, where there are numerous herds of
+cattle. Cochino is a small island, distant only a few miles from San
+Carlos. It is hilly, and thickly crowned with brush-wood. It has only
+one landing-place, and that is rather insecure for boats. The water of
+the bay is remarkably clear and good; only round the little island of
+Cochino, and along the harbor, it is covered with an immense quantity of
+sea-moss, which often renders the landing difficult. It frequently
+happens that commanders of ships, wishing to go on board to make sail
+during the night, get out of the right course, and instead of going to
+the ship, steer to Cochino and get into the moss, where their boats
+stick fast, till returning daylight enables them to work their way out.</p>
+
+<p>The poor inhabitants boil this sea-moss and eat it. It is very salt
+and slimy, and is difficult of digestion. Among the people of Chiloe,
+this sea-moss occupies an important place in surgery. When a leg or an
+arm is broken, after bringing the bone into its proper position, a
+broad layer of the moss is bound round the fractured limb. In drying,
+the slime causes it to adhere to the skin, and thus it forms a fast
+bandage, which cannot be ruffled or shifted. After the lapse of a few
+weeks, when the bones have become firmly united, the bandage is
+loosened by being bathed with tepid water, and it is then easily
+removed. The Indians of Chiloe were acquainted, long before the French
+surgeons, with the use of the paste bandage.</p>
+
+<p>The town of San Carlos is dirty; the streets unpaved, narrow, and
+crooked. The houses, with few exceptions, are wretched wooden huts, for
+the most part without windows; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> there is a board divided in the
+middle horizontally, the upper part of which being open, it serves for a
+window, and when both parts are open, it forms a door. The flooring
+usually consists merely of hard-trodden clay, covered with straw
+matting. The furniture, like the apartments, is rude and inconvenient.
+These remarks of course apply to the habitations of the very poor class
+of people. The richer families live in more comfortable style. Of the
+public buildings, the custom-house and the governor's residence are the
+most considerable, but both make a very indifferent appearance. In front
+of the governor's house, which occupies a tolerably large space of
+ground, in the upper part of the town, a sentinel is constantly
+stationed. This sentinel parades to and fro, without shoes or stockings,
+and not unfrequently without a coat, his arms being covered only by his
+shirt sleeves. As to a cap, that seems to be considered as unnecessary a
+part of a well-conditioned uniform, as shoes and stockings. After sunset
+every person who passes the governor's house is challenged. "Who goes
+there?" is the first question; the second is <i>Que gente?</i> (what
+country?) The sailors amuse themselves by returning jocular answers to
+these challenges; and the sentinel, irritated by their jeers, sometimes
+runs after them through part of the town, and when weary of the chace
+returns to his post.</p>
+
+<p>Poverty and uncleanliness vie with each other in San Carlos. The lower
+class of the inhabitants are exceedingly filthy, particularly the women,
+whose usual dress is a dirty woollen gown, and a greasy looking
+mantilla. In their damp gloomy habitations, they squat down on the
+floor, close to the <i>brasero</i> (chafing pan), which also serves them as a
+stove for cooking. They bruise maize between two stones, and make it
+into a thick kind of soup or porridge. When employed in paring potatoes
+or apples, or in cutting cabbages, they throw the skins and waste leaves
+on the ground, so that they are frequently surrounded by a mass of
+half-decayed vegetable matter. Their favorite beverage is <i>mate</i> (the
+Paraguay tea), of which they partake at all hours of the day. The mode
+of preparing and drinking the <i>mate</i> is as follows: a portion of the
+herb is put into a sort of cup made from a gourd, and boiling water is
+poured over it. The mistress of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> the house then takes a reed or pipe, to
+one end of which a strainer is affixed,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and putting it into the
+decoction, she sucks up a mouthful of the liquid. She then hands the
+apparatus to the person next to her, who partakes of it in the same
+manner, and so it goes round. The mistress of the house and all her
+guests suck the aromatic fluid through the same pipe or <i>bombilla</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The poverty of the people is extreme. Specie is seldom current, and is
+exclusively in the hands of a few traders, who supply the Indians with
+European articles, in payment of their labor, or in exchange for the
+produce of the island, which is sent to Chile and Peru. With much
+surprise I learned that there is no saw-mill in Chiloe, where the vast
+abundance of trees would furnish a supply of excellent deals, for which
+ready and good payment would be obtained in Peru.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants direct their industry chiefly to agriculture and
+navigation. But rude and imperfect are their implements for field labor,
+as well as their nautical vessels. To a stranger nothing can appear more
+extraordinary than their mode of ploughing. As to a regular plough, I do
+not believe such a thing is known in Chiloe. If a field is to be tilled,
+it is done by two Indians, who are furnished with long poles, pointed at
+one end. The one thrusts his pole, pretty deeply, and in an oblique
+direction, into the earth, so that it forms an angle with the surface of
+the ground. The other Indian sticks his pole in at a little distance,
+and also obliquely, and he forces it beneath that of his fellow-laborer,
+so that the first pole lies as it were above the second. The first
+Indian then presses on his pole, and makes it work on the other, as a
+lever on its fulcrum, and the earth is thrown up by the point of the
+pole. Thus they gradually advance, until the whole field is furrowed by
+this laborious process.</p>
+
+<p>The Chiloe boats are merely hulks. They obey the helm reluctantly, but
+they bear away before the wind. Several individuals usually join
+together, and convey in these boats, the produce of their respective
+localities, in the southern villages, to San Carlos. Women as well as
+men take their turn at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> rowing the boats, and after being out all day,
+they run into some creek, where they pass the night. When a favorable
+breeze springs up, they hoist a sail, made of <i>ponchos</i>. The poncho is
+an important article of male clothing in this country. It consists of a
+piece of woollen cloth, measuring from 5 to 7 feet long, and from 3 to 4
+feet broad. In the middle there is a slit from 12 to 14 inches long;
+through this slit the wearer passes his head. The poncho thus rests on
+the shoulders, and hangs down in front and behind as low as the knees.
+At the sides, it reaches to the elbow, or middle of the forearm, and
+thus covers the whole of the body. The carters and wagoners in Swabia
+wear, in rainy weather, a covering somewhat resembling the poncho, which
+they make out of their woollen horse-coverings. When a Chiloe boat is on
+its passage on the coast, and a sail happens to be wanted, the men give
+up their ponchos and the women their mantillas. The slits in the ponchos
+are stitched up, and both ponchos and mantillas being sewn together are
+fixed to a pole or bar of wood, which is hoisted to a proper position on
+the mast. This patchwork sail can only be serviceable when the wind is
+fresh. At nightfall, when the boat runs into one of the creeks for
+shelter, the sail is lowered, and the sewing being unpicked, the ponchos
+and mantillas are returned to their respective owners, who wrap
+themselves in them, and go to sleep.</p>
+
+<p>There is but little trade in San Carlos, for Chile itself possesses in
+superfluity all the productions of Chiloe, and the inhabitants of the
+island are so poor, and their wants so limited, that they require but
+few foreign articles. The port is therefore seldom visited by any
+trading vessel from Europe. Some of the Chiloe boats keep up a regular
+traffic along the coast. They carry wood, brooms, hams, and potatoes, to
+Valparaiso, Arica, Callao, &amp;c., and they bring back in return, linen,
+woollen and cotton cloths, ironware, tobacco, and spirits.</p>
+
+<p>North American and French whalers have for several years past been
+frequent visitors to San Carlos, as they can there provide themselves,
+at a cheap rate, with provisions for the long fishing season. All the
+captains bring goods, which they smuggle on shore, where they sell or
+exchange them at a high profit. A custom-house officer is, indeed, sent
+on board every vessel to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> examine what is to be unshipped; but a few
+dollars will silence him, and make him favor the contraband operations,
+which are carried on without much reserve. A French captain brought to
+Chiloe a quantity of water-proof cloaks and hats, made of a sort of
+black waxed cloth, and sold them to a dealer in San Carlos. To evade the
+duty, he sent his men on shore each wearing one of these hats and
+cloaks, which they deposited in the dealer's store, and then returned on
+board the ship, dressed in their sailors' garb. This was repeated so
+often, that at length it was intimated to the captain that, if his men
+had a fancy to come on shore with such hats and cloaks they would be
+permitted to do so, but it must be on condition of their returning on
+board dressed in the same costume.</p>
+
+<p>The people of Ancud (San Carlos), formerly so simple and artless, have
+gradually become corrupt and degenerate, since their frequent
+intercourse with the whale-fishers. Among the female portion of the
+population, depravity of morals and unbecoming boldness of manners have
+in a great degree superseded the natural simplicity which formerly
+prevailed. All the vices of the lowest class of sailors, of which the
+crews of the South Sea Whalers are composed, have quickly taken root in
+San Carlos, and the inseparable consequences of those vices will soon be
+fatal to the moral and physical welfare of the inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>In the interior of the island of Chiloe there are few quadrupeds. The
+largest, the domestic animals excepted, is a fox (<i>Canis fulvipes</i>,
+Wat.), which was first discovered by the naturalists who accompanied
+Capt. King's expedition. This is the only beast of prey. The coast
+abounds in seals of the sea-dog species (<i>Otaria chilensis</i>, M&uuml;ll.,
+<i>Otaria Ursina</i>, Per., <i>Otaria jubata</i>, Desm.)&mdash;in sea-otters (<i>Otaria
+chilensis</i>, Ben.)&mdash;and in the water mouse (<i>Myopotamus Coypus</i>, J.
+Geoff). Among the birds, there are some very fine species of ducks, well
+worthy of notice, which are also found on the continent of South
+America. There is the little Cheucau (<i>Pteroptochus rubecula</i>, Kettl.),
+to which the Chilotes attach various superstitious ideas, and pretend to
+foretell good or ill luck from its song. The modulations which this bird
+is capable of uttering are numerous, and the natives assign a particular
+meaning to each. One day, when I wished to have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> some shooting, I took
+an Indian lad with me. Having levelled my gun at one of these birds,
+which was sitting in a low bush, and uttering its shrill <i>huit-huit</i>, my
+young companion firmly grasped my arm, earnestly entreating me not to
+shoot the bird, as it had sung its unlucky note. But my desire to
+possess a specimen was too great to be thus baffled, so I fired my gun
+and brought it down. I was engaged in examining the elegant little bird,
+when a mule, probably alarmed by the shot, came running at full speed
+towards the spot where we were, and we deemed it prudent to get behind a
+hedge as speedily as possible. The infuriated mule made an attack on my
+gun, which was resting against the hedge. It was thrown down, bitten,
+and trampled on by the mule. The Indian boy turned to me, with a serious
+countenance, and said:&mdash;"It is well if we escape further danger! I told
+you the bird had piped bad luck!"</p>
+
+<p>The day fixed for our departure from Chiloe now approached. The wind,
+which had heretofore been unfavorable for leaving the port, promised to
+change, and we began to ship provisions. Whilst I was waiting for the
+boat which was to take me on board, I had an opportunity of observing
+the dexterity with which the Indians slaughter their cattle. This
+business is performed on the Mole, where, in the space of a quarter of
+an hour, and by two men only, an ox is killed, and the carcase cut up
+into the proper pieces. When it is necessary to ship live oxen, the
+animals are brought to the shore, where their feet are bound together,
+and then they are rolled over planks into the <i>lancha</i> (boat). On
+nearing the ship, the Indians tie a rope round the animal's horns, and
+then the sailors hoist him up with a strong tackle. It is a curious
+sight to behold a strongly-bound struggling ox, hanging by the tackle,
+and swinging between wind and water. My little Chilotean pony, which I
+intended to take to Peru, was dealt with more gently: he was got on
+board with a girth, purposely made for hoisting horses on board ship.</p>
+
+<p>At length we sailed out of the bay with a fresh easterly wind. Three
+coasting boats, one of which was heavily laden with brooms, left the
+roads at the same time, and their crews said they hoped to reach
+Valparaiso before us. But they had too great confidence in their
+round-bottomed keels, for they did not anchor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> in their place of
+destination till five or six days after our arrival. The wind soon got
+up, blowing W.N.W., but rather flat. In the course of the night, during
+the second watch, we were roused from our sleep by a heavy shock,
+followed by a peculiarly tremulous motion of the whole ship. We
+concluded we had struck in passing over some hidden rock. The lead was
+thrown, but no ground was found; the pumps were set a-going, but we were
+free of water. The captain attributed the shock to an earthquake, and on
+our arrival at Chile, his conjecture was confirmed. In Valdivia, in the
+latitude of which place we were at the time, a severe shock of an
+earthquake had been experienced.</p>
+
+<p>After a pretty favorable passage of seven days, we anchored on the 30th
+of June in the harbor of Valparaiso.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>Bombilla</i> is the name given to this pipe, and the cup or
+gourd in which the decoction of the <i>mate</i> is prepared, is called the
+<i>macerina</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Valparaiso and the adjacent country&mdash;&#8203;The Bay&mdash;&#8203;Aspect of the
+Town&mdash;&#8203;Lighthouses&mdash;&#8203;Forts&mdash;&#8203;Custom House&mdash;&#8203;Exchange&mdash;&#8203;Hotels and
+Taverns&mdash;&#8203;War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation&mdash;&#8203;First
+Expedition&mdash;&#8203;Preparations for the Second Expedition&mdash;&#8203;Embarkation
+of the Troops&mdash;&#8203;Close of the Port&mdash;&#8203;July Festival in honor of the
+French Revolution&mdash;&#8203;The <i>Muele</i>, or Mole&mdash;&#8203;Police&mdash;&#8203;<i>Serenos</i>,
+or Watchmen&mdash;&#8203;Moveable Prisons&mdash;&#8203;Clubs&mdash;&#8203;Trade of
+Valparaiso&mdash;&#8203;Santiago&mdash;&#8203;Zoology.</p>
+
+<p>The impression produced by the approach to Valparaiso on persons who see
+land for the first time after a sea voyage of several months' duration,
+must be very different from that felt by those who anchor in the port
+after a passage of a few days from the luxuriantly verdant shores of the
+islands lying to the south. Certainly, none of our ship's company would
+have been disposed to give the name of "Vale of Paradise" to the
+sterile, monotonous coast which lay outstretched before us; and yet, to
+the early navigators, its first aspect, after a long and dreary voyage,
+over the desert ocean, might naturally enough have suggested the idea of
+an earthly paradise.</p>
+
+<p>Along the sea coast there extends a range of round-topped hills, 15 or
+16 hundred feet high, covered with a grey-brownish coating, relieved
+only here and there by patches of dead green, and furrowed by clefts,
+within which the bright red of tile-roofed houses is discernible.
+Half-withered cactus trees, the only plants which take root in the
+ungenial soil, impart no life to the dreary landscape. The hills
+continue rising in undulating outlines, and extend into the interior of
+the country, where they unite with the great chain of the Andes.</p>
+
+<p>The bay of Valparaiso is open on the north and west; on the south it is
+protected by a little promontory called the Punta de Coromilla. In this
+direction the shore is steep and rocky, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> the waves break against it
+with great fury. From the Punta de Coromilla the bay extends from east
+to north-west in the form of a gently curved crescent, having a sloping,
+sandy beach, which rises very gradually towards the hills. On the north
+side of the bay there are several small inlets, almost inaccessible and
+edged with steep rocks. The bay is sometimes unsafe, for it is
+completely unsheltered on the north, and the heavy gales which blow from
+that point frequently end in storms. At those times the bay is furiously
+agitated, the waves sometimes rising as high as in the open sea, and the
+ships are obliged to cast their sheet-anchors. Many vessels have at
+various times been driven from their anchorage, cast ashore, and dashed
+to pieces on a rock called Little Cape Horn; for, when a violent gale
+blows from the north, it is impossible to get out to sea. Sailors are
+accustomed to say that in a violent storm they would rather be tossed
+about on the wide ocean than be at anchor in the bay of Valparaiso. But
+against the south wind, though sometimes no less boisterous than the
+northern gales, the harbor affords secure refuge, being perfectly
+sheltered by the Punta de Coromilla.</p>
+
+<p>The town of Valparaiso looks as if built on terraces at the foot of the
+range of hills above mentioned. Northward it stretches out on the level
+sea shore, in a long double row of houses called the Almendral: towards
+the south it rises in the direction of the hills. Two clefts or chasms
+(quebradas) divide this part of the town into three separate parts
+consisting of low, shabby houses. These three districts have been named
+by the sailors after the English sea terms Fore-top, Main-top, and
+Mizen-top. The numerous quebradas, which all intersect the ground in a
+parallel direction, are surrounded by poor-looking houses. The wretched,
+narrow streets running along these quebradas are, in winter, and
+especially at night, exceedingly dangerous, Valparaiso being very badly
+lighted. It sometimes happens that people fall over the edges of the
+chasms and are killed, accidents which not unfrequently occur to the
+drunken sailors who infest these quarters of the town.</p>
+
+<p>Viewed from the sea, Valparaiso has rather a pleasing aspect, and some
+neat detached houses built on little levels, artificially made on the
+declivities of the hills, have a very picturesque<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> appearance. The
+scenery in the immediate background is gloomy; but, in the distance, the
+summit of the volcano Aconcagua, which is 23,000 feet above the level of
+the sea, and which, on fine evenings, is gilded by the rays of the
+setting sun, imparts a peculiar charm to the landscape.</p>
+
+<p>The bay is protected by three small forts. The southernmost, situated
+between the lighthouse and the town, has five guns. The second, which is
+somewhat larger, called el Castillo de San Antonio, is in the southern
+inlet of the bay. Though the most strongly fortified of the three, it is
+in reality a mere plaything. In the northern part of the town, on a
+little hillock, stands the third fort, called el Castillo del Rosario,
+which is furnished with six pieces of cannon. The churches of Valparaiso
+are exceedingly plain and simple, undistinguished either for
+architecture or internal decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The custom-house is especially worthy of mention. It is a beautiful and
+spacious building, and from its situation on the Muele (Mole) is an
+object which attracts the attention of all who arrive at Valparaiso. In
+the neighborhood of the custom-house is the exchange. It is a plain
+building, and contains a large and elegant reading-room, in which may
+always be found the principal European newspapers. In this reading-room
+there is also an excellent telescope by Dollond, which is a source of
+amusement, by affording a view of the comical scenes sometimes enacted
+on board the ships in the port.</p>
+
+<p>The taverns and hotels are very indifferent. The best are kept by
+Frenchmen, though even those are incommodious and expensive. The
+apartments, which scarcely contain necessary articles of furniture, are
+dirty, and often infested with rats. In these houses, however, the table
+is tolerably well provided; for there is no want of good meat and
+vegetables in the market. The second-rate taverns are far beneath the
+very worst in the towns of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>On our arrival in Valparaiso, a vast deal of activity and bustle
+prevailed in the harbor. Chile had declared war against the
+Peru-Bolivian confederation, and was fitting out a new expedition for
+the invasion of Peru. At its head were the banished Peruvian president
+Don Augustin Gamarra, and the Chilian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> general Bulnes. The growing power
+of Santa Cruz, who set himself up as protector of a confederation
+between Bolivia and Peru, had given alarm to the Chilian government. It
+was apprehended, and not without reason, that the independence of Chile
+might be threatened by so dangerous a neighbor. Santa Cruz had given
+umbrage to Chile by several decrees, especially one, by which merchant
+vessels coming direct from Europe into a Bolivian or Peruvian port, and
+there disposing of their cargoes, were subject to very low duties,
+whilst heavy imposts were levied on ships landing any part of their
+cargoes in a Chilian port. This law greatly increased the trade of Peru;
+but it was prejudicial to Chile. This and other grounds of offence,
+joined to the representations of the fugitive Ex-president Gamarra and
+his adherents, determined the Chilian government to declare war. An
+expedition under the command of General Blanco was sent to Peru; but
+Santa Cruz was prepared to receive the invaders, and in the valley of
+Arequipa he surrounded the Chilian forces so completely that they were
+obliged to surrender without striking a blow. Santa Cruz magnanimously
+allowed General Blanco to make a very favorable capitulation. The
+soldiers were sent home to their country; but the horses were detained
+and sold by the conquerors to the conquered.</p>
+
+<p>The generosity of Don Andres Santa Cruz did not meet its due return on
+the part of the Chilian government. The treaty of peace concluded by
+Blanco was not ratified in Santiago, the minister declaring that the
+general was not authorized to negotiate it. Hostilities were kept up
+between the two states, and at length a second and more important
+expedition was fitted out. It sailed whilst we were lying in the harbor.</p>
+
+<p>No sooner had we cast anchor than several officers of the Chilian army
+came on board to inquire whether we had any swords to dispose of,
+assuring us that they, together with the majority of their comrades,
+were yet unprovided with arms, and knew not where to procure them. The
+captain informed them that there were no swords in our cargo; but that
+he had a few sabres, &amp;c., which he was very willing to sell. They were
+immediately produced, and some were purchased; among the number was a
+heavy broad-sword, about five feet in length,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> which had once belonged
+to a cuirassier in Napoleon's guard. The Chilian officer who bargained
+for it was a delicate-looking stripling, who, with both hands, could
+scarcely raise the heavy weapon. He, nevertheless, flattered himself
+that it would enable him to achieve great deeds in battle and deal death
+among the Peruvians. Ten months afterwards I met this hero on a march
+among the mountains of Peru. He had, girded on, a light little sword,
+like a tooth pick or a bodkin compared with the formidable weapon he had
+discarded, and which a sturdy negro was carrying behind him. I could not
+refrain from asking the officer whether the trusty broad-sword had not
+done good service in the battle of Yungay; but he candidly acknowledged
+that he had not attempted to use it, as he found it much too unwieldy.</p>
+
+<p>The Chilian squadron sent to Peru consisted of twenty-seven transport
+ships, and eight ships of war. Almost all were in a wretched condition,
+having but few guns, and manned by very insufficient crews. The largest
+vessels were the three corvettes, Confederacion, Santa Cruz, and
+Valparaiso. Only one ship, the schooner brig Colocolo, was distinguished
+for solidity and swift sailing. The fleet was commanded by an admiral of
+little judgment and experience.</p>
+
+<p>Among the crew there were but few Chilenos: most of the men were
+Chilotes and French, English and American deserters. The officers
+commanding the ships were almost all Englishmen. The transport ships
+were heavily laden, some carrying troops, and others provisions. These
+provisions consisted of sesino (dried beef), chalonas (whole sheep
+dried), maize, potatoes, dried fruits and barley, together with hay for
+the horses. The embarkation of the horses was most clumsily managed:
+many were strangled in being hoisted up the ships' sides, others slipped
+through their girths and were severely hurt by falling, and a
+considerable number of the poor animals died before the ships left the
+port. Every morning we saw dozens of dead horses thrown over board. The
+continued lurching of the vessels in which the cavalry was embarked,
+bore evidence of the inconvenient situation of the horses between decks.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of July the whole squadron sailed for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> harbor of
+Coquimbo, where the troops were decimated by the small-pox.</p>
+
+<p>There prevailed in Chile a feeling very adverse to this campaign; so
+much so that most of the troops were embarked by force. I was standing
+on the <i>muele</i> when the Santiago battalion was shipped. The soldiers,
+who were in wretched uniforms, most of them wearing ponchos, and
+unarmed, were bound together two-and-two by ropes, and absolutely driven
+into the boats.</p>
+
+<p>This war proved most unfortunate to Peru, a result which, however,
+cannot certainly be ascribed either to the courage of the enemy's troops
+or the judgment of their commanders. We shall presently see the
+circumstances which combined to secure triumph to the Chilenos.</p>
+
+<p>I and my fellow-voyagers were also sufferers by the war, our captain
+having imprudently announced his intention of selling the Edmond to the
+protector Santa Cruz, as she might easily have been transformed into an
+excellent corvette. She was a quick sailer, tight-built, carrying ten
+guns of moderate calibre, and she might easily have mounted ten more.</p>
+
+<p>The captain's intention having reached the knowledge of the Chilian
+government, the natural consequence was, that the port was closed, a
+measure deemed the more necessary inasmuch as an American captain was
+suspected of entertaining the design of selling his ship to the
+Peruvians. It was not until the fleet had had time to reach Peru, and
+the first blow was supposed to be struck, that the embargo was raised,
+and we obtained leave to depart. We lay in the port of Valparaiso
+five-and-forty days. To me the most annoying circumstance attending this
+delay was, that I could not absent myself from the port longer than
+twenty-four hours at a time, as the ship was constantly in readiness to
+get under weigh, as soon as we should receive permission to sail, which
+was hourly expected. My excursions were, therefore, confined to the
+immediate neighborhood of the town; and even there my walks and rides
+were much impeded by constant stormy and rainy weather.</p>
+
+<p>On the 29th of July, preparations were made on board our ship for
+celebrating the Paris revolution of 1830. At eight o'clock<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> in the
+morning we fired three guns, and the Edmond was soon decorated from her
+deck to her mast-heads with flags and streamers. At the fore-mast gaily
+floated the Swiss flag, probably the first time it had ever been seen in
+the Pacific. When the guns on board the French ship-of-war had ceased
+firing, we began our salute; but, as we had only ten guns, it was
+necessary to load a second time. Our seamen, being unused to this kind
+of duty, did not observe due precaution, and the consequence was that
+one of them had his hand so dreadfully shattered that immediate
+amputation was indispensable. The day's rejoicing was thus suddenly
+brought to a melancholy close.</p>
+
+<p>The mole in front of the custom-house is exceedingly dangerous; so much
+so, that, during the prevalence of stormy north winds, it is impossible
+to pass along it. From the shore a sort of wooden jetty stretches into
+the sea, at the distance of about sixty paces. This jetty has been
+sometimes partially, and at other times completely, destroyed by the
+waves. The harbor-master's boats, and those belonging to the
+ships-of-war, land on the right side; the left side is allotted to the
+boats of the merchant ships. On the shore there are always a number of
+boats ready to convey persons who wish to go on board the different
+ships. Each boat is generally rowed by two Indians. Whenever any person
+approaches the shore he is beset by the boatmen, who throng round him,
+and alternately, in English and Spanish, importune him with the
+questions,&mdash;"Want a boat?" "Vamos &aacute; bordo?"</p>
+
+<p>Day and night, parties of custom-house officers go round the port for
+the purpose of preventing smuggling. In this, however, they only
+partially succeed; for they detect only petty smugglers, whilst those
+who carry on contraband trade on a large scale elude their vigilance.
+The captains of French vessels are notorious for this kind of traffic,
+and they frequently succeed in landing vast quantities of goods
+surreptitiously.</p>
+
+<p>The police of Valparaiso is probably as good as it is in any part of
+South America. <i>Serenos</i> (watchmen) perambulate the streets on foot and
+on horseback, and continually give signals one to another by blowing
+small whistles. For personal safety there is little risk, probably not
+more than in the most populous cities<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> of Europe. It is true that
+nocturnal murders sometimes take place; but the police speedily succeed
+in capturing the criminals, who, after a summary trial, are shot.</p>
+
+<p>In Valparaiso, as in most of the towns on the western coast of South
+America, the <i>serenos</i> go about all night, calling the hours and
+announcing the state of the weather. At ten o'clock they commence with
+their&mdash;"<i>Viva Chile!</i>"&mdash;"<i>Ave Maria purissima!</i>"&mdash;"<i>Las diez han dado y
+sereno!</i>" (past ten o'clock and a fine night!) or <i>nublado</i>
+(cloudy),&mdash;or <i>lloviendo</i> (raining). Thus, they continue calling every
+half-hour till four o'clock in the morning. Should an earthquake take
+place it is announced by the <i>sereno</i> when he goes his round in the
+following half hour. However, the phenomenon usually announces itself in
+so positive a way, that the inhabitants may easily dispense with the
+information of the <i>serenos</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Among the most remarkable objects in Valparaiso may be numbered the
+moveable prison. It consists of a number of large covered wagons, not
+unlike those used for the conveyance of wild beasts. In the inside of
+each wagon, planks are fixed up like the board bedsteads in a
+guard-house, affording resting-places for eight or ten prisoners. A
+guard is stationed at the door, which is at the back of the wagon; and
+in the front a sort of kitchen is constructed. These wagons are drawn by
+the prisoners themselves, who are for the most part destined to work in
+the streets and roads, and, accordingly, they take their prison with
+them when they are ordered to any considerable distance from the town.
+To a country in which there may be said to be no winter, this sort of
+nomad prison is exceedingly well-suited, and the prisoners may be
+conveyed from place to place at very little expense.</p>
+
+<p>I went into some of these moveable prisons, and I must confess that I
+never beheld such an assemblage of ill-looking faces as were collected
+within them. In the countenances of some of the prisoners unbridled
+passion and degrading sensuality were so plainly and so odiously
+portrayed, that one shuddered to reflect that such features could be
+an index of the human mind. Most of them were Creole Indians; but
+there were a few Europeans among them. To me it was melancholy to
+behold the European,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> who might be supposed to possess some little
+share of education, mounting the prison steps chained to his
+fellow-criminal, the uncivilized Chileno.</p>
+
+<p>In Valparaiso, as in all seaports, there is a heterogeneous mixture of
+different countries, nations, languages, and manners, amidst which the
+national character of the country is entirely lost. The trade in
+European goods is very extensive, but almost exclusively in the hands
+of a few great North American and English houses, who supply the whole
+country with the articles they import. At times, such is the overstock
+of importations, that goods are sold at lower prices in Valparaiso
+than in Europe. The warehouses are so filled with some sorts of
+merchandise, that without any fresh supplies there would be sufficient
+for some years to come.</p>
+
+<p>Among the clerks in the mercantile houses I met with a great number of
+Germans, who all maintain an intimate association with each other. They
+have formed themselves into a union, and they have a very commodious
+place in which they hold their meetings. Following their example, the
+English have united together and established several clubs. The French
+have not gained any considerable footing in this part of South America,
+in which there are scarcely two French mercantile houses of any
+consequence. On the other hand, there is abundance of French
+hairdressers, tailors, shoemakers, jewellers, confectioners, and
+<i>Chevaliers d'industrie</i>. Neither is there any want of <i>Modistes
+Parisiennes et Bordelaises</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Valparaiso is yearly increasing in extent and in the numbers of its
+inhabitants; but the town makes little improvement in beauty. That
+quarter which is built along the Quebradas is certainly susceptible of
+no improvement, owing to the unfavorable locality, and it is only the
+newly-built houses on the heights that impart to the town anything like
+a pleasing aspect. In laying out buildings in a place like Valparaiso,
+the aid of art should make amends for the defects of nature. My visits
+to Valparaiso did not produce a very favorable impression on me. The
+exclusively mercantile occupations of the inhabitants, together with the
+poverty of the adjacent country, leave little to interest the attention
+of a mere transient visitor. The case may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> different with persons
+who, having longer time than I had to stay in the town, may enjoy
+opportunities of entering into society, and occasionally visiting the
+pleasant valley of Quillota and the interesting capital Santiago.</p>
+
+<p>The latter is thirty leagues distant from the port; but a very active
+communication is kept up between the two places, and better roads would,
+no doubt, increase the intercourse. A few years ago the roads were very
+unsafe; but now the journey may be performed without danger if the
+<i>Birlocheros</i> (coach-drivers) are in the least degree careful.</p>
+
+<p>The zoology of the neighborhood of Valparaiso is not very interesting,
+though more so along the sea-shore than in parts further inland. Among
+the Mammalia are sometimes seen the fox (<i>Canis Azar&aelig;</i>, Wild.), and
+the pole-cat. In the immediate vicinity of the town a very large mouse
+is seen in the burrows of the ground; it is of the eight-toothed
+species (<i>Octodon Cummingii</i>, Benn.), and has a brush-formed tail. As
+the fields round Valparaiso are not cultivated these animals do no
+harm, otherwise they would be the plague of agriculture, and probably
+are so in the interior parts of the country. Now and then a sea-dog
+may be observed in the bay; but the whale is seldom seen, and whenever
+one appears he is immediately killed, as there is always a whaler at
+anchor and not far off.</p>
+
+<p>In the market, live condors are frequently sold. These birds are caught
+in traps. A very fine one may be purchased for a dollar and a half. I
+saw eight of these gigantic birds secured in a yard in a very singular
+manner. A long narrow strap of leather was passed through the nostrils
+of the bird and firmly knotted at one end, whilst the other end was
+fastened to a wooden or iron peg fixed in the ground. By this means the
+motion of the bird was not impeded: it could walk within the range of a
+tolerably wide circle; but on attempting to fly it fell to the ground
+head foremost. It is no trifling matter to provide food for eight
+condors; for they are among the most ravenous of birds of prey. The
+owner of those I saw assured me that, by way of experiment, he had
+given a condor, in the course of one day, eighteen pounds of meat
+(consisting of the entrails of oxen); that the bird devoured the
+whole, and ate his allowance on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> following day with as good an
+appetite as usual. I measured a very large male condor, and the width
+from the tip of one wing to the tip of the other was fourteen English
+feet and two inches&mdash;an enormous expanse of wing, not equalled by any
+other bird except the white albatross. (<i>Diomedea exulans</i>, Linn.).
+The snipes (<i>Scolopax frenata</i>, Ill.) found on the little plain
+between the bay and the light-house are in color precisely like those
+of Europe, from which, however, they differ in having two more
+feathers in their tails. Small green parrots, little bigger than
+finches, are tamed and brought to Valparaiso from the interior of the
+country. These parrots are very docile, and are easily taught to
+speak; but they cannot endure cold, and require to be tended with very
+great care. In the bay itself there are numerous cormorants, and
+occasionally penguins and large flights of the cut-water or shear-bill
+(<i>Rhynchops nigra</i>, Linn.). The latter is distinguished by a
+sharp-pointed bill closing laterally, the under mandible being about
+double the length of the upper one. But the most beautiful bird in the
+bay of Valparaiso is the majestic swan (<i>Cygnus nigricollis</i>, Mol.),
+whose body is of dazzling white, whilst the head and neck are black.</p>
+
+<p>On the 13th of August we at length obtained leave to sail. Early on
+the morning of the 14th we weighed anchor; and, as we sailed out of
+the Bay of Valparaiso, the summit of Aconcagua soon disappeared in
+the blue horizon.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Juan Fernandez&mdash;&#8203;Robinson Crusoe&mdash;&#8203;Passage to Callao&mdash;&#8203;San
+Lorenzo&mdash;&#8203;Rise and fall of the coast&mdash;&#8203;Mr. Darwin's opinions
+on this subject&mdash;&#8203;Callao&mdash;&#8203;The Fortress&mdash;&#8203;Siege by the
+Spaniards&mdash;&#8203;General Rodil&mdash;&#8203;Siege by the Chilians&mdash;&#8203;The
+Colocolo&mdash;&#8203;Pirates&mdash;&#8203;Zoology&mdash;&#8203;Road to Lima.</p>
+
+
+<p>With a favorable east wind we reached, in thirty-six hours, the island
+of Juan Fernandez, which lies in the latitude of Valparaiso. Ships from
+Europe, bound to Peru, which do not go into Chile, usually touch at Juan
+Fernandez to test their chronometers. It consists in fact of three
+islands, forming a small compact group. Two of them, in accordance with
+the Spanish names, may be called the Inward Island and the Outward
+Island, for the most easterly is called <i>Mas a Tierra</i> (more to the main
+land), that to the west is called <i>Mas a Fuera</i> (more towards the
+offing). That to the south, which is almost a naked rock, is the <i>Isla
+de Lobos</i>, which we may call Sea-dog Island. The two first are covered
+with grass and trees. <i>Mas a Tierra</i> is much longer, and better suited
+for cultivation than <i>Mas a Fuera</i>. In form the two islands have a
+striking resemblance to Flores and Cordua, islands of the group of the
+Azores. Until within these twenty years, <i>Mas a Tierra</i> was the place of
+exportation for convicts from Chile; but as it was found that the
+facility of escape is great, none are now sent there. In 1812 a number
+of prisoners of war were confined there, but the rats, which had
+increased in an extraordinary degree, consumed all the provisions sent
+from Chile. Several fruitless attempts have been made to populate the
+island, but that object is now given up, and it is only occasionally
+visited by sea-dog hunters. Ulloa speaks of the great number of
+sea-calves or dogs with which the island was frequented, and
+distinguishes kinds which belong to the short-eared species. Their skins
+are excellent, and they sell at a good price in England. Wild goats are
+numerous, and their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> propagation would be excessive were it not for the
+multitude of dogs, also wild, by which they are destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>There is yet another kind of interest attached to Juan Fernandez. It was
+on Mas a Tierra that, in 1704, the celebrated English navigator,
+Dampier, landed his coxswain, Alexander Selkirk, with whom he had
+quarrelled, and left him there with a small quantity of provisions, and
+a few tools. Selkirk had lived four years and four months on this
+uninhabited island, when he was found there by the bucaneers Woods and
+Rogers, and brought back to Europe. From the notes which he made during
+his solitary residence, the celebrated Daniel Defoe composed his
+incomparable work, <span class="smcap">Robinson Crusoe</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The weather continued favorable, and in about a week we doubled the west
+point of San Lorenzo Island, where some Chilian cruizers were watching
+the coast. We soon entered the fine bay of Callao, and cast anchor in
+the harbor of the <i>Ciudad de los Reyes</i>. While rounding the island, an
+American corvette spoke us. She had left Valparaiso on the same day with
+us, and sailed also through the strait between San Lorenzo and the main
+land; yet, during the whole passage, we never saw each other.</p>
+
+<p>No signals were exchanged between us and the shore, and no port-captain
+came on board. We were exceedingly anxious to know the issue of the
+Chilian expedition. Hostile ships of war lay off the port, but the
+Peruvian flag waved on the fort. At last a French naval cadet came on
+board, and informed us that the Chilians had landed successfully, and
+had taken Lima by storm two days previously. They were, at that moment,
+besieging the fortress. We immediately went on shore.</p>
+
+<p>The town presented a melancholy aspect. The houses and streets were
+deserted. In all Callao we scarcely met a dozen persons, and the most
+of those we saw were negroes. Some of the inhabitants came gradually
+back, but in the course of a month scarcely a hundred had returned,
+and for safety they slept during the night on board merchant ships in
+the bay. At the village of Bella Vista, a quarter of a mile from
+Callao, the Chilians had erected their batteries for bombarding the
+fortress. As it was difficult to obtain provisions, the commanders of
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> foreign ships of war sent every morning a small detachment of
+sailors with a steward to Bella Vista, to purchase meat and
+vegetables. The merchant-ships joined in the practice, so that early
+every morning a long procession of boats with flags flying proceeded
+to the Chilian camp. But a stop was soon put to this, as an English
+butcher in Callao found means to go with the boats for the purpose of
+purchasing large quantities of meat, which he afterwards sold at an
+immense profit, to the fortress. Though the besieged did not suffer
+from want, they were far from having superfluity.</p>
+
+<p>Having sufficient time to make myself acquainted with the country in the
+immediate vicinity of Callao, I took advantage of every opportunity for
+excursions; going from place to place by water, which was more safe than
+journeying by land.</p>
+
+<p>The bay of Callao is one of the largest and calmest on the west coast of
+South America. On the south-west, it is bounded by the sterile island of
+San Lorenzo; on the north it flows into the creeks, which are terminated
+by the Punta Gorda, the Punta Pernal, the Punta de dos Playas, and the
+Punta de Do&ntilde;a Pancha. The beach is flat, for the most part shingly, and
+about the mouth of the Rimac, somewhat marshy. Between the mouth of the
+Rimac and that of the Rio de Chillon, which is a little southward of the
+Punta Gorda, there is a tract of rich marshy soil. A small boot-shaped
+tongue of land stretches from the fortress westward to San Lorenzo. On
+this spot are the ruins of old Callao.</p>
+
+<p>San Lorenzo is a small, long-shaped island, about 15 English miles in
+circumference. It is intersected throughout its whole length by a ridge
+of sharp crested hills, of which the highest point is about 1387 feet
+above the level of the sea. On the north-eastern side, the declivity is
+less steep than on the south-west, where it descends almost
+perpendicularly into the sea. Seals and sea-otters inhabit the steep
+rocks of the southern declivity, and swarms of sea-birds nestle on the
+desolate shore. San Lorenzo is separated on the southern side by a
+narrow strait, from a small rocky island called El Fronton, which is
+also the abode of numerous seals.</p>
+
+<p>The coasts of Callao and San Lorenzo have undergone very remarkable
+changes within a few centuries. Mr. Darwin, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> English geologist, is
+of opinion that this part of Peru has risen eighty-five feet since it
+has had human inhabitants. On the north-eastern declivity of San
+Lorenzo, which is divided into three indistinctly marked terraces, there
+are numbers of shells of those same species of conchyli&aelig; which are at
+the present time found living on the coast. On an accurate examination
+of these shells, Mr. Darwin found many of them deeply corroded. "They
+have," he says, "a much older and more decayed appearance than those at
+the height of 500 or 600 feet on the coast of Chile. These shells are
+associated with much common salt, a little sulphate of lime (both
+probably left by the evaporation of the spray, as the land slowly rose),
+together with sulphate of soda, and muriate of lime. The rest are
+fragments of the underlying sand-stone, and are covered by a few inches
+thick of detritus. The shells higher up on this terrace could be traced
+scaling off in flakes, and falling into an impalpable powder; and on an
+upper terrace, at the height of 170 feet, and likewise at some
+considerably higher points, I found a layer of saline powder, of exactly
+similar appearance, and lying in the same relative position. I have no
+doubt that the upper layer originally existed on a bed of shells, like
+that on the eighty-five feet ledge, but it does not now contain even a
+trace of organic structure."<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Mr. Darwin adds, that on the terrace,
+which is eighty-five feet above the sea, he found embedded amidst the
+shells and much sea-drifted rubbish, some bits of cotton thread, plaited
+rush, and the head of a stalk of Indian corn.</p>
+
+<p>San Lorenzo does not appear to have been inhabited in very early ages.
+The fragments of human industry which have been found mixed in the
+shells have probably been brought thither by fishermen who visit the
+island, and often pass the night on it.</p>
+
+<p>Darwin further remarks:&mdash;"It has been stated that the land subsided
+during this memorable shock (in 1746): I could not discover any proof
+of this; yet it seems far from improbable, for the form of the coast
+must certainly have undergone some change since the foundation of the
+old town," &amp;c.&mdash;"On the island of San Lorenzo there are very
+satisfactory proofs of elevation <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>within a recent period; this, of
+course, is not opposed to the belief of a small sinking of the ground
+having subsequently taken place."</p>
+
+<p>But satisfactory evidence of the sinking of the coast is not to be
+obtained in a visit of a few weeks' duration; nor must that evidence
+rest solely on geological facts, though doubtless they furnish much
+important data. History must aid the inquiry. Tradition and the
+recollections of old persons must be attended to. According to these
+authorities, a change more or less considerable has taken place in the
+level of the coast, after every great earthquake. If we refer to the
+account given by Ulloa, and compare the plan of the harbor of Callao,
+drawn by him in 1742, with the most correct modern charts, we do not
+find much difference in the representations of the distance between
+the main-land and San Lorenzo. Four years afterwards the great
+earthquake occurred, which destroyed the city of Callao, and plunged
+it into the sea. Subsequently there was a rising of the coast, which
+could not be inconsiderable, for according to the statements of old
+inhabitants of Callao, the distance from the coast to San Lorenzo was
+so inconsiderable that boys used to throw stones over to the island.
+At present the distance is nearly two English miles. I have no doubt
+of the general correctness of those statements, for a careful
+investigation of facts leads to the same conclusion; so that within
+the last sixty or seventy years the sinking must have been
+considerable. It must be observed, however, that the ruins on the
+small tongue of land are not, as Darwin supposes, the remains of the
+city of Callao, swallowed up by the sea in 1746, but of the Callao
+which was destroyed by the great earthquake of 1630.</p>
+
+<p>Another proof of the sinking exists in the extensive shallow between
+the coast of the main-land and San Lorenzo, called the Camotal. In
+early times this shallow was dry land, producing vegetables, in
+particular <i>Camotes</i> (sweet potatoes), whence the name of this portion
+of the strait is derived. The inundation took place in the time of the
+Spaniards, but before 1746, either in the great earthquake of 1687, or
+in that of 1630.</p>
+
+<p>Northward of the Bay of Callao, near the plantation of Boca Negra, there
+is a shallow, where, according to records, there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> existed a sugar
+plantation about fifty years ago. Turning to the south of Callao, in the
+direction of Lurin, we find, at the distance of about two English miles
+from the coast, two islands or rocks, of which one is called Pachacamac,
+and the other Santa Domingo. At the time of the Spanish invasion these
+rocks were connected with the main-land, and formed a promontory. On one
+of them stood a temple or castle. At what period they were detached from
+the coast I have not been able to ascertain authentically; but there
+appears reason to suppose that the separation took place during the
+violent earthquake of 1586. Attentive investigations to the north of
+Callao&mdash;at Chancay, Huacho, Baranca, &amp;c., would probably bring to light
+further evidence on this subject.</p>
+
+<p>Between the facts stated by Mr. Darwin and those here adduced, there
+is considerable discrepancy. On the one hand they denote a rising, and
+on the other a sinking. But it may be asked, might not both these
+phenomena have occurred at different times?<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Mr. Darwin's opinion
+respecting the still-continued rising of the coast does not appear to
+me to rest on satisfactory evidence. The relics of human industry
+which he found embedded among shells, at the height of eighty-five
+feet above the sea, only prove that the elevation has taken place
+after the land was inhabited by the human race, but do not mark the
+period at which that elevation occurred. Pieces of cotton thread and
+plaited rush are no proofs of a very refined degree of civilisation,
+such as the Spaniards brought with them to Peru, and cannot therefore
+be taken as evidence that the elevation took place at any period
+subsequent to the conquest. Garcilaso de la Vega traces the dynasty of
+the Incas down to the year 1021, a period when the inhabitants of the
+coast of Peru were tolerably well advanced in civilisation. Fernando
+Montesinos furnishes facts connected with the history of Peru, of
+several thousand years' earlier date; and, judging from the number of
+dynasties, the nature of the laws, &amp;c., it may be inferred that
+civilisation existed at a period<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> of even more remote antiquity. It
+cannot therefore be determined with any accuracy at what time the
+deposit at San Lorenzo, now eighty-five feet high, was level with the
+sea, or whether the rise suddenly followed one of those frightful
+catastrophes which have so often visited the western coast of South
+America. Then, again, the different degrees of decay presented by the
+beds of shells seem to indicate that the rising has been gradual; and
+it may have been going on for thousands of years. Had the coast risen
+eighty-five feet since the Spanish conquest&mdash;that is to say, within
+the space of three hundred and sixty-two years&mdash;the Camotal would long
+since have again risen above the surface of the sea; for it is very
+improbable that it sank to a depth exceeding ninety or ninety-five
+feet. It is evident that risings and sinkings have occurred at various
+times, and that causes contingent on earthquakes have produced the
+variations in the rising and falling of the coast.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the accurate sounding of the depth of water in the
+Camotal, at stated intervals, would furnish the best means of
+ascertaining the rising and sinking of the coast. A variety of
+circumstances combine to favor the practicability of calculation by this
+method. For example, no river flows into that part of the bay in which
+the Camotal is situated. The Rimac, whose mouth lies further to the
+north, is not sufficiently large to carry any considerable deposit into
+the bed of the bay: moreover, there is but little tide, and the bay is
+always calm, being sheltered on the south by the island of San Lorenzo,
+and north breezes are rare and never violent.</p>
+
+<p>I may here mention a singular phenomenon which has in latter times often
+occurred at Callao, and which, in 1841, I had myself the opportunity of
+observing. About two in the morning the sea flowed from the shore with
+greater force than in the strongest ebb; the ships farthest out were
+left dry, which is never the case in an ebb tide. The alarm of the
+inhabitants was great when the sea rushed instantly back with increased
+force. Nothing could withstand its fury. Meanwhile there was no
+commotion of the earth, nor any marked change of temperature.</p>
+
+<p>In the earthquake of 1746 Callao was completely overwhelmed by the
+sea. Several travellers have related that on calm days<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> with a clear
+sky the old town may be seen beneath the waves. I have also heard the
+same story from inhabitants of Callao. It is doubtless a mere fable.
+Under the most favorable circumstances I have often examined the
+spot&mdash;the Mar brava, as it is called&mdash;without being able to discover a
+trace of the ruins of old Callao.</p>
+
+<p>The existing town of Callao is small, and by no means pleasant. In
+winter it is damp and dirty, and in summer so dusty that in passing
+through the streets one is almost choked. Most of the houses are very
+slightly built, and they are usually only one story high. The walls are
+constructed of reeds, plastered over with loam or red clay. All the
+roofs are flat, being made of straw mats laid on a frame-work of reeds,
+which is also plastered with loam on the under side. The windows are in
+the roof, and consist of wooden trap-doors, which look very much like
+bird-cages. They have no glass panes, but gratings made of wooden spars.
+On the inside there is a window-shutter, and a string hangs down into
+the apartment, by means of which the shutter can be opened or closed.</p>
+
+<p>The most interesting object seen in Callao is the splendid fortress.
+Though built on a flat surface close to the sea, it has a magnificent
+appearance. It consists of two castles, the largest of which the
+Spaniards named Real Filippe, but since the Revolution it is called
+Castillo de la Independencia. It has two round towers, wide, but not
+very high. The court-yards are spacious. The walls are thick, rather
+low, and surrounded by a ditch, which can be filled with water from the
+sea. To the south of this castle there is a smaller one, called El
+Castillo del Sol. Before the War of Independence they mounted both
+together four hundred pieces of cannon, many of which were of very large
+calibre. At present they have only sixty pieces of cannon and
+seventy-one carronades.</p>
+
+<p>On the fortress of Callao the Spanish flag waved long after independence
+was declared in all the countries of Spanish South America. The Spanish
+general, Rodil, threw himself into the castle, and with wonderful
+resolution held out against a siege of a year and a half. During the
+last three months the Spaniards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> suffered all the privations and
+miseries which a besieged army must endure within the tropics.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Cochrane blockaded the fortress by sea, and General Bartolome Salom
+drew up his army on the land side. More than 4,000 Spaniards fled to the
+castle with all their valuable property, and took refuge under Rodil's
+protection. The greater part of the fugitives belonged to the principal
+families of the country. When provisions began to fail, the commandant
+found it necessary to expel 400 women, and one morning they issued forth
+in a long line of procession. The besiegers supposed that the enemy was
+making a sortie, and directed the fire of their artillery against the
+helpless beings, who, uttering loud shrieks, attempted to save
+themselves by flight. As soon as the mistake was discovered the firing
+stopped, and the women were conveyed to Lima. Insurrections were several
+times attempted by the garrison of Callao; but the presence of mind and
+cool resolution of Rodil in every instance enabled him to suppress these
+mutinies. The guilty were punished with so much severity that the
+soldiers soon gave up all further attempts. Horses, asses, dogs and
+cats, became at length the food of the besieged. Rodil at this time
+carried on a traffic which does no honor to his character. He had a
+quantity of provisions stored, which he now sold at immense prices. For
+a fowl he got from three to four gold ounces. He demanded proportional
+prices for bread, &amp;c. A contagious fever broke out, and, of more than
+4000 persons who had taken refuge in the fortress, only about 200
+survived the siege. Hunger and disease at last obliged Rodil to yield.
+On the 19th of February, 1826, he obtained an honorable capitulation,
+and embarked with his acquired wealth for Spain, where he was invested
+with the rank of commander-in-chief of the infantry guards.</p>
+
+<p>Since the independence of Peru this fortress has often been the seat of
+partial revolutions. Its death-doom has been pronounced by different
+governments, and it will be a fortunate event for the country when it
+ceases to exist as a place of warlike defence. It has lately been found
+useful for other purposes, and a great portion of its vast space has
+been converted into custom-house warehouses.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>The siege of Callao by the Chilians, of which we were eye-witnesses, was
+by no means such a serious affair as that undertaken by the patriots.
+The squadron was weak, and the land army inconsiderable. Callao was only
+cannonaded during the night by some Chilian gun-boats commanded by
+Englishmen. The artillery of the castle was inefficient, but the Chilian
+bombs did considerable damage. One Sunday afternoon the little Chilian
+brig, "Colocolo," sailed in close under the walls of the fortress, and
+threw in some shot. The fire was immediately returned by all the guns
+that could be directed to the sea-side; but in vain did the Peruvians
+expend their shot. Every ball went over the "Colocolo," and fell among
+the neutral ships. The commander of the French squadron then sent a boat
+to the fortress, with a declaration that he would attack it in good
+earnest if the fire was not discontinued. The message had due effect.</p>
+
+<p>A few days after the affair with the "Colocolo," the Peruvians had an
+opportunity of avenging the provocations they had received. The Chilian
+admiral sent an officer, with seven sailors, to our ship to purchase
+shoes. The garrison having observed the Chilian boat, sent out a shallop
+with twenty-five men, which came close alongside of us. In spite of our
+opposition the Chilian officer leaped into his boat and stood off. He
+was, however, too late; for, just as he was leaving the ship's side, the
+hostile shallop passed under our bowsprit, and fired a volley into the
+Chilian boat. Five sailors fell into the sea, either killed or wounded.
+Of three men picked up, one was the officer, who had received two wounds
+from musket balls. We saved one of the wounded sailors by throwing him a
+rope, by which we pulled him up, covering him with the French flag.</p>
+
+<p>The Peruvians had no longer a fleet strong enough to keep at sea; but
+soon after their government purchased the "Edmond," and some other
+merchantmen, and fitted them up as privateers. The command was given to
+M. Blanchet, who had been first pilot of the "Edmond" during our voyage
+from Europe. After he had taken the "Arequipena," an old Chilian ship of
+war, and burnt several transports, he attacked three Chilian corvettes
+in the harbor of Casma. They had already struck their flags,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> when
+Blanchet was shot while boarding one of them. His loss damped the
+courage of the Corsairs, and the contest was soon given up. The shock of
+Blanchet's death had such an effect on the crew of the "Edmond," that
+they all went down between decks in great grief, except the cook, who
+fired a gun he had charged to the brim, and killed some men who were on
+a bowsprit of one of the hostile vessels. He then sprang to the helm,
+and steered the ship safely into one of the inlets of the bay.</p>
+
+<p>The lover of natural history finds in the bay of Callao numerous
+opportunities for gratifying his curiosity. The mammalia are not very
+numerous. Sea otters and sea dogs are found there, as on all parts of
+the South American coast. Two species (the <i>Otaria aurita</i>, Humb., and
+the <i>O. Ullo&aelig;</i>, Tsch.) inhabit the southern declivity of the Fronton.
+I went to hunt seals on the rock with the officers of a French ship of
+war. When we landed, which was difficult on account of the breakers,
+we fired at the animals and killed a number of them. A sailor waded
+through the breakers and bound the dead seals with a rope, by which he
+drew them on board. As we shot a great number of birds, the Chilian
+admiral, on hearing the firing, thought that one of his ships must be
+engaged with the Peruvian Corsairs; and, therefore, sent out the "San
+Lorenzo" brig of war to see what was going on.</p>
+
+<p>The bay abounds in fine water-fowl. Amongst the most remarkable is
+Humboldt's penguin (<i>Spheniscus Humboldti</i>, Mey.). A few are smaller
+than the common grey penguin, and one is somewhat different in color on
+the back and breast. The Peruvians call it <i>Paxaro ni&ntilde;o</i> (the child
+bird). It is easily tamed, becomes very social, and follows its master
+like a dog. It is amusing to see it waddling along with its plump body
+and short legs, and keeping itself in equilibrium by moving its floating
+wings. I had one completely tame, which I bought from an Indian. It was
+named <i>Pepe</i>, and it answered readily to the name. When I was at my
+meals he regularly placed himself beside my chair, and at night he slept
+under my bed. When he wished to bathe he went into the kitchen and beat
+with his bill on an earthen pan until somebody threw water over him, or
+brought him a vessel full of water for a bath.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>I brought away a few of the marine birds which appeared the most
+remarkable. Among them was the banded cormorant (<i>Carbo Gaimardi</i>,
+Less.). On the back it is grey, marbled by white spots; the belly is
+fine ash-grey, and on each side of the throat there runs a broad white
+stripe or band. The bill is yellow and the feet are red. The iris is
+peculiar; I never saw its like in any other bird. It changes throughout
+the whole circle in regular square spots, white and sea-green. Thousands
+of the spotted gannet (<i>Sula variegata</i>, Tsch.) inhabit the rocks of the
+island of San Lorenzo. This bird is the greatest producer of guano. The
+inca tern (<i>Sterna luca</i>, Less.) is without doubt the finest of the
+whole tern family. The color of the head is brown-grey; getting darker
+towards the tail, and brighter on the lower body. From the root of the
+bill on either side there shoot out some white feathers slightly
+curving, so that they give the appearance of white moustachios. Among
+the land birds are some very fine colibri (<i>Trochilus Amazilia</i>, and
+<i>Tr. Cora</i>, Less.). The horse-protector (<i>Crotophaga sulcata</i>, Swains.)
+is a singular animal. It is about the size of a starling, with a short,
+compressed and curved bill, having several deep furrows along its sides.
+The tail is long and fan-shaped. The whole body is of a deep blue color,
+with a slight metallic brightness. The bird is very social with cattle
+of all kinds, and more particularly with horses. It is fond of perching
+on the back of a horse or an ass, and searching for insects which it
+finds there in abundance. These animals are very sensible of the service
+thus rendered to them, and by the manner in which they move about when
+the bird is perched on their heads or necks, show how much they are
+gratified by its presence.</p>
+
+<p>Foreigners, when they visit the coast of Peru for the first time, are
+much surprised at the immense number of birds of the vulture species
+which they meet with about the roads and on the roofs of the houses. In
+Callao and in all other ports the Turkey vulture (<i>Cathartes aura</i>,
+Illig.) is frequently seen. It is called by the Spaniards <i>Gallinazo &aacute;
+cab&eacute;za colorada</i> (red-headed vulture). Further in the interior of the
+country it is frequently seen, though there it is less common than the
+black gallinazo (<i>Cathartes f&oelig;tens</i>, Illig.). The color of the former
+is dark<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> brownish-black; the unplumed head and throat are red; the
+throat is full of wrinkles and warts. The latter is very like it in size
+and color, only the head and neck are greyish black. These birds are the
+size of a turkey-cock; but they are lanker and more angular in form. The
+black-headed gallinazo is inactive, heavy, and seldom flies far. When
+seeking food he hops about on the ground in short, regular springs. When
+he wishes to move faster forwards he helps himself with his wings, but
+without flying. Its cry is seldom heard and never long continued. At
+noon, sometimes from sixty to eighty of these birds perch themselves on
+the tops of the houses or on the adjoining walls, and with the heads
+under the wing they all go to roost. They are extremely voracious, and
+devour every sort of animal substance they can find, however filthy it
+may be. They are not in the least degree shy, for they hop about among
+men and cattle in the most populous places. The Turkey vulture is far
+more lively, and its movements are more light. It flies faster, and
+continues longer on the wing than the black-headed gallinazo. It is,
+however, more timid. It nestles in sandy rocks and uninhabited islands.
+The female lays three or four whitish eggs, which are hatched in
+February and March. The common gallinazo usually builds its nest on the
+tops of houses, churches, ruins, and high walls. The female lays three
+or four eggs, which are whitish brown and speckled, and are hatched in
+the same months as the eggs of the Turkey vulture.</p>
+
+<p>Among the amphibia in Callao, the iguana and land agama are numerous.
+Snakes abound in the low bushes at the mouth of the Rimac, and some
+kinds, which are venomous, live on the arid sand-banks. All the sea
+tortoises have been driven out of the bay, and now inhabit the detached
+creeks of the uninhabited parts of the coast.</p>
+
+<p>The kinds of fish are numerous.&mdash;Sharks, rays, ballancers, corvinas,
+bonitos, &amp;c., are caught in abundance. Most of the corvinas and bonitos
+are carried to market. The flesh of the latter is firm, dry, and less
+savory than the corvina. The <i>Pexe-rey</i> (king-fish) is superior in
+flavor to the <i>Pexe-sapo</i> (toad-fish), which is a little larger, and has
+a thick, fleshy head. These<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> fish are taken on rocks and under water,
+where they are struck by a kind of harpoon hooks and drawn out.</p>
+
+<p>When, on board the "Edmond," I first saw the towers of Lima gilded by
+the beams of the setting sun, and the chains of hills behind, rising by
+gradations, until in the farthest background they blended with the
+cloud-capped Cordilleras, I felt an inexpressible desire to advance
+towards those regions, that I might breathe the air of the Andes, and
+there behold nature under her wildest aspect. But these wishes were
+vain, and I was compelled to turn again to the desolate ocean; for it
+was understood that our further voyage must be towards the north, and
+from there that we should proceed to the coast of Asia. I did not then
+foresee that my longing might be fulfilled, and that so much of
+enjoyment, together with so much toil and danger, awaited me in the
+mountainous regions of Peru.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the insecurity of the road to Lima I resolved to proceed
+thither. Carriages and horses were not to be procured in Callao, for the
+latter were all either seized for the service of the government or
+concealed. I could therefore travel only on foot. Don Manuel de la
+Guarda, the commander of the fortress, observed, whilst giving me a
+passport, that he would advise me to use speed, and to get as soon as
+possible out of the range of the guns, for he expected every moment to
+be obliged to order the firing to commence. I did not neglect to follow
+his advice. However I had not got more than a hundred paces from the
+castle when the artillery began to play, and balls fell around on every
+side. I quickened my pace, and soon got near some fences, where men were
+firing with muskets. There I was seized by some Chilian cuirassiers, who
+sent me forward from post to post, until at last in one of the posts I
+met with an officer with whom I had been acquainted in Chile. When I was
+dining one day on board the corvette Confederacion in the bay of
+Valparaiso, the young officer whom I have just alluded to sat next me.
+The conversation happening to turn on phrenology, he insisted on my
+examining his head, and pronouncing a phrenological diagnosis on it.
+Though I assured him that I attached no value on this alleged science,
+he continued to urge me to make the examination. After feeling his head
+I observed to him, with great gravity:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> "Here is the organ of
+mathematics pretty well developed, and it is probable that you may
+distinguish yourself in that branch of knowledge." The fact was, I had
+observed from his uniform that he belonged to the artillery, and since I
+was obliged to say something, I thought it would be best to make my
+remarks refer to his profession. Don Antonio had not forgotten it, for
+as soon as he saw me at the outpost, he ran up to me quite overjoyed,
+and told me that I had judged rightly of his talent, for the guns which
+he commanded always sent their balls direct into the fortress, and did
+more execution than any other. By following my advice and cultivating
+his mathematical organ, he assured me, he was enabled to direct a gun
+better than any other officer, and his aim could always be relied on. He
+immediately procured me a pass, by which I was conducted all the
+remainder of my journey.</p>
+
+<p>The distance from Callao to Lima is two Spanish leagues. The road is
+covered with deep sand, and on either side are uncultivated fields and
+low brushwood. After leaving Callao I came to Bella Vista, then to the
+ruins of an old Indian village, and farther on inland reached some
+plantations. Halfway between Callao and Lima is the convent of <i>la
+Virgen del Carmen</i>, and also a chapel. The convent is now abandoned,
+but in front of the chapel there constantly stands a monk, who begs
+for alms. Close to the convent there is a Tambo,<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> in which brandy,
+lemonade, and bananas are sold. This place, which is called La Legna,
+is a Spanish league from both towns. The hired horses are so used
+to put up at this place, that it is only with great trouble they
+can be got to pass it.</p>
+
+<p>Though much wearied by my journey on foot, I tried in vain to obtain
+some refreshment here. Unluckily the Tambero, a Zambo, had decamped,
+as his house had often been plundered.</p>
+
+<p>In the most oppressive heat I wandered over the shadeless plain, and
+at last reached the fine road called the <i>Alameda del Callao</i>, which
+extends from the Callao Gate of Lima to nearly half a league beyond
+the city. Don Ambrosio O'Higgins, an <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>Irishman by birth, first a small
+shopkeeper in Lima, then a soldier in Chile, and finally viceroy of
+Peru, with the title of <i>Marques de Osorno</i>, built the fine Callao
+Gate and laid out the Alameda. On the 6th of January, 1800, it was
+solemnly opened. The whole undertaking cost 340,964 dollars.
+Resting-places are made in the Alameda at regular distances; and there
+are on each side charming gardens, with luxuriant fruit-trees. Happy
+in having reached the end of my wearisome journey, I quickly passed
+through the Callao Gate, and entered the City of the Kings.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Natural History and Geology of the countries visited by the
+Beagle.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Mr. Darwin, in the work just quoted, says in reference to
+this subject, "Since our voyage, Dr. Tschudi has come to the conclusion,
+by the comparison of old and modern maps, that the earth both north and
+south of Lima has certainly subsided."&mdash;T.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>Tambo</i> is an Indian word, signifying an <i>Inn</i>. <i>Tambero</i>
+means <i>Inn-keeper</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Lima&mdash;&#8203;Situation and extent of the City&mdash;&#8203;Streets, Houses, Churches and
+Convents&mdash;&#8203;San Pedro&mdash;&#8203;The Jesuits&mdash;&#8203;Nunneries&mdash;&#8203;Beatarios&mdash;&#8203;Hospitals&mdash;&#8203;San
+Andres&mdash;&#8203;The Foundling House&mdash;&#8203;The Pantheon&mdash;&#8203;The Palace&mdash;&#8203;The Plaza
+Mayor&mdash;&#8203;Pizarro&mdash;&#8203;The Cabildo&mdash;&#8203;Fountains&mdash;&#8203;Palace of the Inquisition&mdash;&#8203;The
+University&mdash;&#8203;National Library&mdash;&#8203;Museum of Natural History and
+Antiquities&mdash;&#8203;Academy of Design&mdash;&#8203;The Mint&mdash;&#8203;The Theatre&mdash;&#8203;Circus for
+Cock-fighting&mdash;&#8203;The Bridge&mdash;&#8203;The City Wall&mdash;&#8203;Santa Catalina&mdash;&#8203;Barracks.</p>
+
+<p>Lima is built on both banks of the river Rimac, which divides the town
+into two unequal parts.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> The larger part (the town, properly so
+called) is situated on the southern bank of the river; the smaller part,
+consisting of the suburb San Lazaro, or the fifth section, is on the
+northern bank. The greatest extent of Lima is from east to west; from
+the Gate of Maravillas to the Monserrate. Between those two points the
+distance is 4471 varas,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> or two-thirds of a Legua, or Spanish league;
+and the greatest breadth of the city, that is to say, from the Bridge
+(the suburb of San Lazaro not included) to the Gate of Guadalupe, is
+2515 varas, or two-fifths of a Legua. The utmost circumference of Lima
+is about ten English miles. The plain on which the city is built, takes
+rather a decided slope from east to west.</p>
+
+<p>The streets of Lima intersect each other in right lines, and
+consequently groups of houses form quadrangles: these are called
+<i>manzanas</i>. Each side of one of these manzanas measures on the average
+from 140 to 145 varas; and it may therefore be computed that,
+collectively, they occupy a superficies of from 148,000<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> to 160,000.
+There are in all 211 manzanas, of which those situated on the Periphery
+are the smallest and most irregularly constructed. Lima is divided into
+five sections, which are again subdivided into ten districts and
+forty-six <i>Barrios</i>. It contains about 3380 houses, 56 churches and
+convents (the latter occupying at least one-fourth of the superficies of
+the city), 34 squares or open areas in front of the churches, and 419
+streets. On the average the streets are about 34 feet wide and 386 feet
+long. Most of them are very badly paved, but they have lateral
+footpaths. According to the original plan for building Lima, it was
+intended that all the streets should run in one direction, viz., from
+southeast to northwest, so that the walls of the houses might afford
+shade both morning and afternoon. Between the Plaza Mayor and Santa
+Clara this plan has been pretty uniformly carried out; but in other
+parts it has been less rigidly observed. At noon there can be no shade,
+as the city is situated in 12&deg; of south latitude.</p>
+
+<p>The impression produced at first sight of Lima is by no means favorable,
+for the Periphery, the quarter which a stranger first enters, contains
+none but old, dilapidated, and dirty houses; but on approaching the
+vicinity of the principal square, the place improves so greatly that the
+miserable appearance it presents at first sight is easily forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the houses in Lima are only one story high, and some have only
+the ground-floor. The larger class of houses correspond one with another
+in the style of building. In front they have two doors: one is called
+the <i>Azaguan</i>, and is the principal entrance to the house; and next to
+it is the door of the <i>Cochera</i> (coach-house). Either above the cochera
+door, or on one side of the house door, there is frequently a little
+chamber, having a window closed by a wooden railing. At this little
+railed window the ladies are accustomed to sit and watch the
+passers-by&mdash;nor are they very much displeased when some of the latter
+occasionally make free to <i>reguardar la reja</i> (to look at the railing).
+The azaguan opens into a spacious court-yard called the <i>Patio</i>, on
+either side of which there are little rooms. Directly facing the
+azaguan, is the dwelling-house, round which there usually runs a
+balcony. Two large folding-doors lead into the Hall (<i>Sala</i>),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> in which
+the furniture consists of a sofa, a hammock, and a row of chairs: the
+floor is covered with straw matting. From the sala a glazed door opens
+into a smaller apartment, called the <i>Cuadro</i>, which is elegantly, often
+splendidly furnished, and the floor is carpeted. This is the room into
+which visitors are shown. Adjoining the cuadro are the sleeping-rooms,
+the dining-room, the nursery, &amp;c. These apartments communicate with a
+second court-yard, called the <i>Traspatio</i>, the walls of which are often
+adorned with fresco paintings. This <i>Traspatio</i>, a portion of which is
+usually laid out as a little garden, communicates with the kitchen and
+the stable (<i>corral</i>). A small avenue, called the <i>callejon</i>, forms a
+communication from the first to the second Patio, and is used as a
+passage for the horses. When there is no <i>callejon</i>, as is often the
+case in the poorer class of houses, the horses are led through the sala
+and the cuadro. In the upper story the arrangement of the rooms differs
+from that of the ground-floor. Above the azaguan is the cuadro, opening
+into a balcony, which is attached to most of the houses in Lima. The
+sala in the upper story forms an ante-room to the cuadro; and the rest
+of the apartments are built above the ranges of ground-floor rooms on
+either side of the patio. Above the sala and cuadro of the ground-floor,
+there are no upper rooms. The roofs of those two apartments form a kind
+of large terrace called the <i>Azotea</i>, which is paved with freestone, and
+surrounded by a railing. This <i>azotea</i> serves as a play-ground for the
+children of the family; it is ornamented with flower-pots, and covered
+with an awning to shade it from the sun. The upper story has a flat
+roof, composed of bamboos and mats, overspread with mortar or light
+tiles. In the houses of Lima, as in those of Callao, the windows of some
+of the rooms are made in the roofs. The other windows, of which there
+are but few, are on each side of the house door; they are tastefully
+ornamented, and often have richly gilt lattices.</p>
+
+<p>The style of house-building here described must of course be taken
+merely as a general example; that there are numerous deviations from it
+may naturally be supposed. In the large houses the walls are of brick,
+faced with ornamental tiles (<i>adobes</i>). In the smaller houses, the walls
+consist of double rows of bamboos, covered with plaster, and afterwards
+painted white or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> yellow. The fronts of the houses are usually quite
+plain, but here and there may be seen a house with a finely ornamented
+fa&ccedil;ade. The house of Torre Tagle, near San Pedro, and some others, are
+remarkable for the beauty of their ornaments, which attract the notice
+of all strangers visiting Lima.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the heat of the climate, the doors and windows are almost
+always kept open, so that the houses have not the privacy and comfort
+of European dwellings.</p>
+
+<p>Of the numerous churches and convents in Lima, some are deserving of
+particular mention. The cathedral occupies the whole eastern side of
+the Plaza Mayor. The foundation stone of this edifice was laid on the
+18th of January, 1534, by Don Francisco Pizarro, who named it the
+Church of <i>Nuestra Se&ntilde;ora de la Asuncion</i>. Ninety years elapsed
+before the building was completed, and on the 19th of October, 1625,
+it was consecrated by the Archbishop, Don Gonzalo de Ocampo. Such was
+the pomp observed at this ceremony, that, though mass commenced at
+six in the morning, it was five o'clock in the afternoon before the
+host was raised.</p>
+
+<p>The interior of the cathedral is exceedingly beautiful. The grand altar
+is ornamented with seven Ionic columns of silver, twelve feet high, and
+one and a half thick, and is surmounted by a massive silver gilt crown.
+The tabernacle is seven feet and a half high, and composed of
+exquisitely wrought gold, set with a profusion of diamonds and emeralds.
+On each side of the altar there are massive silver candelabra, each
+weighing four and a half arobas (712<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub></span> pounds). On high festival days,
+the gorgeous splendor of the cathedral of Lima probably exceeds that of
+the principal churches in Rome. The robes and ornaments worn by the
+priests correspond with the magnificence of the altar; they are
+embroidered in gold, and set with precious stones. The cathedral service
+is performed by the canons (Canonigos).</p>
+
+<p>Among the Churches of Lima, San Lazaro is distinguished for its tasteful
+exterior, and the chaste simplicity of its internal decoration. The
+bodies of persons unknown, found dead in the streets, are conveyed to
+the door of the church of San Lazaro, and there exposed for the space of
+twenty-four hours.</p>
+
+<p>The convent of San Francisco, the largest of the monastic
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>establishments in Lima, is an immense building, situated in the
+vicinity of the Plaza Mayor. In this convent mass is read daily every
+half-hour, from five in the morning till noon. A small chapel within
+the convent is called the <i>Capilla de los Milagros</i>, and a
+superstitious tradition records that during the great earthquake of
+1630, the image of the Madonna, which surmounts the chapel door,
+turned towards the grand altar, and with folded hands invoked the
+divine grace in favor of the city. By this intercession it is
+believed that Lima was saved from total destruction. The monk who
+conducted me over the convent, and who related to me this miracle,
+observed with much simplicity that it was singular that the Madonna
+did not repeat her gracious intercession in the year 1746.</p>
+
+<p>The carved work which adorns the ceilings in the corridors is admirably
+executed, though not very beautiful in design. The cells of the monks
+are very simple, but perfectly comfortable for habitation. The spacious
+and well-arranged gardens within the area of the convent form a pleasing
+contrast to the gloomy appearance of the external walls.</p>
+
+<p>To the Franciscan monks also belongs the convent of <i>Los Descalzos</i>,
+situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. A broad avenue planted with six
+rows of trees leads to Los Descalzos. It is a neat but not large
+edifice, and stands at the foot of a sterile hill. The extensive
+garden which surrounds it, and which is in a very neglected
+condition, contains three palm-trees, the only ones to be seen in the
+near vicinity of Lima. The situation of the convent is not healthy,
+and in consequence the monks frequently suffer from intermittent
+fever. These monks go barefooted, and live entirely on alms. Every
+morning two lay brethren ride on asses to the city, where they visit
+the market-place, and obtain from the different saleswomen charitable
+donations of fish, vegetables, or meat.</p>
+
+<p>Another convent is the <i>Recoleta de San Diego</i>. During Lent, and
+especially in Passion Week, many men retire to this place to prepare
+themselves by mortification and prayer for confession and
+participation in the Holy Sacrament.</p>
+
+<p>The convent of Santo Domingo is very rich. It enjoys a yearly revenue of
+from seventy to seventy-five thousand dollars, for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> most part
+accruing from the ground-rents of houses in the city. The steeple of
+Santo Domingo is the loftiest in all Lima. It is 188 feet high, and is
+visible at the distance of three leagues. It is built of wood, and
+inclines so considerably in its upper part, that there is little
+probability of its surviving another earthquake like that of 1746. The
+interior of the church is splendid. The grand altar almost vies with
+that of the cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>San Pedro must, doubtless, at a former period, have been the principal
+convent in Lima. It belonged to the Jesuits, and was their <i>Colegio
+maximo</i>. This establishment possessed enormous revenues, for all the
+finest plantations and best houses in Lima were the property of the
+order. In 1773, the king of Spain, instigated by the celebrated Bull of
+the 21st of June of that year (Dominus ac redemptor noster), dispatched
+an order to the viceroys of the provinces of South America, directing
+them to arrest the Jesuits all in one night, to ship them off to Spain,
+and to confiscate their wealth. Of course the utmost secresy was
+observed, and it is a well-authenticated fact, that in Peru, with the
+exception of the viceroy, and those of his agents whose assistance was
+indispensable, no one knew anything of the affair. But the same ship
+which conveyed the king's commands to the viceroy, had on board the
+necessary instructions to the vicar-general in Lima, from the superior
+of the Jesuits in Madrid, who was fully acquainted with the king's
+design. The preparatory arrangements were made under the seal of perfect
+secresy, and at ten o'clock at night the viceroy assembled his council,
+and communicated to them the royal commands. It was determined that no
+one should be permitted to leave the council-chamber until the blow was
+struck. At midnight some confidential officers, with the requisite
+assistance, were despatched to arrest the Jesuits, an accurate list of
+whose names lay on the table before the viceroy. The patrols knocked at
+the gate of San Pedro, which was immediately opened. The commanding
+officer desired to see the vicar-general, and the porter ushered him
+into the great hall of the convent, where all the members of the order
+were assembled, evidently expecting his visit. The holy brethren were
+prepared for immediate departure, each being provided with a bag or
+trunk containing such articles as were requisite on a sea voyage.
+Similar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> preparations had been made in all the other convents belonging
+to the Jesuits. The surprise and disappointment of the viceroy on
+receiving this information may be easier conceived than described.
+Without delay he ordered the whole brotherhood to be conducted under a
+strong escort to Callao, where they embarked. In the course of a few
+days inventories were made of the effects in the convents. At San Pedro
+it was expected that vast treasures in specie would be found; but how
+great was the dismay, when, instead of the millions which it was well
+known the order possessed, only a few thousand dollars could be
+collected. All the keys, even that of the treasury, were politely laid
+out in the chamber of the superior. This was a cruel mockery! The
+Jesuits could not have taken a more ample revenge on the treachery that
+had been practised on them.</p>
+
+<p>It was suspected that the treasures were concealed partly in the convent
+of San Pedro, and partly in the plantations. According to the evidence
+of an old negro, at that time in the service of the convent, he,
+together with some of his comrades, was employed during several nights
+in carrying heavy bags of money into the vaults of the convent. Their
+eyes were bandaged, and they were conducted by two of the brethren, who
+helped them to raise and set down the bags. The negro, moreover,
+declared his conviction that there was a subterraneous spring near the
+spot where the treasure was deposited. The searches hitherto made have
+been very superficial, and it seems not impossible that by dint of more
+active exertions this concealed wealth may yet be brought to light.</p>
+
+<p>At present San Pedro is occupied by about a dozen lay priests. They
+perform the spiritual service of the <i>Oratorio de San Felipe Neri</i>. They
+live on the revenues derived from the rents of the few plantations which
+have not been confiscated or sold. The chapel is prettily fitted up in
+the interior, and the midnight mass at Christmas is performed there with
+great solemnity. The external walls of both the chapel and the convent
+are painted a reddish-brown color, which has a very sombre and ugly
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>The convents of <i>Nuestra Se&ntilde;ora de la Marced</i> and <i>San Agustin</i> are
+situated at the back of San Pedro. The former is spacious, but not
+largely endowed; the latter is a poor-looking<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> edifice, but it possesses
+rich revenues. To San Agustin is attached the once eminent but now very
+inferior college of San Ildefonso.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the monastic establishments above named, Lima contains
+several smaller convents for friars, and sixteen nunneries. Of the
+latter the largest is the Monasterio de la Concepcion. It is very
+rich, and has an annual revenue of upwards of 100,000 dollars; in
+other respects it is remarkable for nothing except the not very pious
+habits of its inmates. <i>Santa Clara</i> and the <i>Encarnacion</i> are also
+large establishments, and well endowed. The nuns who observe the most
+rigorous conventual rules are the <i>Capuchinas de Jesus Maria</i>, the
+<i>Nazarenas</i> and the <i>Trinitarias descalzas</i>. For extremely pious
+women, who wish to lead a cloistered life without taking the veil,
+there are three establishments called <i>Beaterios</i>, which may be
+entered and quitted at pleasure:<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> these are the <i>Beaterio de
+Patrocinio</i>, the <i>Beaterio de Santa Rosa de Viterbo</i>, and the
+<i>Beaterio de Copacabana</i>. This last was originally established
+exclusively for Indian females. The <i>Refugio de San Jose</i> is a place
+for the reception of married women who wish to withdraw from the ill
+treatment of bad husbands. On the other hand husbands who are of
+opinion that their wives may be improved by a little temporary
+seclusion and quiet meditation, can, with the permission of the
+archbishop, send them for a while to the <i>Refugio</i>. The <i>Recojidas</i>
+is another institution of the same kind, but destined for females of
+the poorer class.</p>
+
+<p>Lima possesses a great many hospitals, but all are lamentably
+defective in internal arrangement, and above all in judicious medical
+attendance. The largest of the hospitals, San Andres, was founded in
+the year 1552 by the Licentiate Francisco de Molina. Three years
+afterwards, the Viceroy Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, first Marquis
+de Ca&ntilde;ete, placed it under the direction of the Government. Down to
+the year 1826 this hospital was exclusively destined for the
+reception of sick Spaniards. San Andres contains five large and four
+smaller wards, with 387 beds. One part of the establishment is set
+apart for incurable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> patients. The annual outlay of the hospital
+amounts to between 45,000 and 50,000 dollars. In the hospital of San
+Andres insane patients are received, and their number is always
+considerable. On the 30th of November (St. Andrew's Day) this
+hospital is opened for the admittance of the public, and one of the
+favorite amusements of the inhabitants of Lima is to go to San Andres
+to see the lunatics. It is melancholy to observe these unfortunate
+beings, thus made the objects of public exhibition, and irritated by
+the idle throng who go to stare at them. The collection of alms from
+the numerous visitors is, doubtless, the motive for keeping up this
+custom, which, nevertheless, is exceedingly reprehensible.</p>
+
+<p>The hospital <i>Santa Ana</i> was founded in the year 1549, by Don Fray
+Geronimo de Loyza, first Archbishop of Lima, and was destined for
+Indians of both sexes. The benevolent founder, with the most earnest
+self-devotion, attended the patients, and with true Christian charity
+performed the humblest duties of a sick-nurse. He died in 1575 in the
+hospital, to which he bequeathed a yearly revenue of 16,000 dollars.
+The building contains five large wards, and 336 beds. Since the
+declaration of independence no Indian has been received into it. This
+hospital, alternately with those of San Andres and San Bartolome, was
+used as a military lazaretto; but since 1841 it has been allotted
+exclusively to female patients of all classes; for it was found
+necessary to abandon the former female hospital of <i>La Caridad</i>, on
+account of its damp situation.</p>
+
+<p><i>San Bartolome</i> was an hospital founded in the year 1661, for negro
+patients; but it has lately been closed. It contains eleven wards
+and 217 beds.</p>
+
+<p>Under the name of Santo Toribio an hospital for incurable patients was
+established in the year 1669, by Don Domingo Cueto.</p>
+
+<p>In 1702 it was consigned to the superintendence of an order of monks,
+called the padres Belemitas, and in 1822 it was incorporated with the
+hospital of San Lazaro. The latter establishment was founded by Anton
+Sanchez, in the year 1563, and was exclusively destined for leprous
+patients. Persons afflicted with cutaneous diseases, and especially
+maladies of a contagious nature, are sent thither.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>In the convent of San Pedro there is a small hospital for poor priests.
+Attached to it is a dispensary, from whence the poor were supplied
+gratuitously with medicines, at the time when the convent was in the
+possession of the Jesuits.</p>
+
+<p>Lima also possesses a Foundling Hospital. Luis Ojeda, who humbly took to
+himself the title of <i>Luis el Pecador</i> (Luis the Sinner), bequeathed all
+his fortune to the foundation of this establishment, which received the
+name of "Collegio de Santa Cruz de los ni&ntilde;os expositos."<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>The refuge for female penitents was founded in the year 1670 by the
+viceroy, Count de Lemos. The funds were derived from a legacy
+bequeathed for that object by Don Francisco Arcain in 1572. The
+establishment has but few inmates.</p>
+
+<p>In former times it was the custom in Lima to bury the dead in graves
+dug within the churches; but the heat of the climate, and the
+difficulty of making the graves sufficiently deep, rendering this
+practice exceedingly objectionable, the viceroy, Don Jose Fernando
+Abascal, determined on making a burial place beyond the boundaries of
+the city. A piece of ground was allotted for the purpose, and it was
+consecrated on the 1st of January, 1808. It is called the <i>Cementerio
+g&egrave;neral</i> or <i>Panteon</i>, and is situated eastward of the city on the
+high road leading to the Sierra de Tarma. It consists of two gardens,
+very prettily planted, and inclosed by high walls. Along the walls,
+on the inner side, there are niches, about a thousand in number,
+ranged in sixteen different classes, and they may be purchased by
+those who wish to possess them. Many of them belong to families and
+convents. The graves are watched and kept in order by criminals who
+are condemned to this duty as a punishment. It is calculated that it
+will be five years before this cemetery is filled. When room is
+wanting, the niches which have been first occupied will be cleared,
+and the bones deposited in a bone-house, of simple but appropriate
+construction. At the entrance of the Panteon there is a neat little
+chapel, where the funeral obsequies are performed. Burials are
+permitted to take place only in the morning; and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>when a funeral
+retinue arrives too late, the body remains uninterred until the
+following morning. The rich are buried in coffins, the poor merely in
+winding sheets, which are made after the pattern of the habits worn
+by the barefooted friars of the order of San Francisco.</p>
+
+<p>The grand square of Lima, the <i>Plaza Mayor</i>, though not in the centre
+of the city, is nevertheless the central point of its life and
+business. It is 426 feet distant from the Rimac, and presents a
+regular quadrangle, each side of which is 510 feet long. From each of
+the four corners two handsome straight streets run at right angles.
+There is no pavement, but the ground is covered with fine sand. The
+cathedral and the archbishop's palace occupy the eastern side of the
+square. The latter adjoins the sanctuary, and has rather a fine
+fa&ccedil;ade. The windows of the principal apartments open into a balcony,
+commanding a view of the Plaza.</p>
+
+<p>On the north side of the square stands the government palace,
+formerly the residence of the all-powerful viceroys. Its exterior
+aspect is mean. It is a square building, and the front next the Plaza
+is disfigured by a long range of shabby little shops (called <i>La
+rivera</i>), in which drugs are sold.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> These shops are surmounted by a
+balcony. A large double door opens from the Plaza into the great
+court-yard of the palace. Along the western side of the building there
+are also a number of little shops occupied by saddlers and dealers in
+old iron. The street, running in this direction, is called the Old
+Iron Street (Calle del Fierro Viego). The principal entrance to the
+palace is on this side. On the south the building has no entrance, and
+it presents the gloomy aspect of a jail. On the east a door opens into
+a small yard or court, within which are the office and prison of the
+police. A few long flag-staffs, fixed on the roof of the palace, do
+not add to the beauty of the edifice. The interior of the building
+corresponds with its outward appearance, being at once tasteless and
+mean. The largest apartment formerly bore the name of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+<i>Sala de los Vireyes</i>. It is now used as a ball room when entertainments are given
+by the government. Under the Spanish domination this room was hung
+round with portraits of the viceroys, the size of life.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> The series
+of vice-regal portraits from Pizarro to Pezuela, forty-four in number,
+completely filled the apartment at the time when the patriot army in
+Lima revolted, and consequently the last viceroy, Don Jose de la
+Serna, who owed his elevation to the military revolution, could not
+have a place assigned for his portrait among those of his
+predecessors.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> The other apartments of the palace are small and
+inelegant. Some of the rooms are used as government offices.</p>
+
+<p>The present palace was, as far as I have been able to ascertain, built
+about the beginning of the seventeenth century. In the great
+earthquake of 1687 it was almost totally destroyed, but it was
+subsequently restored. The palace which Don Francisco Pizarro built
+for his own residence, stood, not on the site of the existing edifice,
+but on the southern side of the Plaza, on the spot where now a narrow
+dirty alley, called the <i>Callejon de petateros</i>, forms a communication
+between the Plaza and the Silversmith's street (<i>Calle de Plateros</i>).
+It was in that old palace that Juan de Herada, the friend and partisan
+of Don Diego de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> Almagra, carried into effect his plot against
+Pizarro. On the 26th of June, 1546, the viceroy was seated at table
+with a party of his friends, when the insurgents surrounded the
+palace, shouting "Death to the tyrants!" Pizarro, though warned of his
+danger, had scarcely time to seize his sword. One of his principal
+officers, Don Francisco de Chavez, was killed at the door of the
+apartment, and several of the viceroy's friends and servants escaped
+by the windows. Among others who attempted to save themselves in this
+way was Pizarro's counsellor, Juan de Velasquez. Only on the previous
+evening this man had been heard to declare that no one would be found
+bold enough to join in an insurrection as long as he held in his hand
+his staff of authority. This declaration was in a certain measure
+verified, for Velasquez, whilst descending from the window, held his
+staff between his teeth, that he might be the better able to support
+himself with his hands. Martin Pizarro, together with two noblemen and
+two pages, were the only persons who remained faithful to the viceroy.
+The latter, with the bravery of a lion, made a long stand against his
+assailants. "Courage, brother! Down with the traitors!" exclaimed
+Martin Pizarro, who, the next moment, lay dead at the viceroy's feet.
+At length Pizarro, exhausted by his efforts to defend himself, could
+no longer wield his hitherto victorious sword: he was overpowered, and
+one of his assailants having stabbed him in the throat, he fell,
+mortally wounded. With his last faltering accents he implored the aid
+of a confessor; and after losing the power of utterance he traced with
+his finger, on the ground, the sign of the cross, kissed it
+repeatedly, and breathed his last. Such was the sad end of one of the
+greatest heroes of his age;<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> a man guilty of many crimes, but also
+unjustly accused of many of which he was innocent. His acts were
+consistent with the spirit of his age, and were influenced by the
+frightful circumstances in which he was placed. In short, there can be
+little doubt that Pizarro was "better than his fame."</p>
+
+<p>The west side of the Plaza Mayor is occupied by the <i>Cabildo</i>, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>or
+senate-house (formerly called the <i>Casa Consistorial</i>), together with
+the city jail, and a row of houses of no very handsome appearance.
+The south side is filled by a range of private dwelling-houses, with
+balconies looking to the Plaza. The houses, both on the west and
+south sides of the square, are built above a colonnade, in which
+there are numerous shops.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the Plaza is a magnificent bronze fountain with three
+basins. From the middle basin rises a pillar, surmounted by a figure
+of Fame spouting the water from her trumpet. In the other two basins
+the water is ejected from the mouths of four lions. The pillar and
+figures for this triple fountain were cast in the year 1650, by the
+able artist Antonio Rivas, by order of the then reigning viceroy,
+Count de Salvatierra. Besides this principal fountain, there are
+several smaller ones, from which the public are permitted to supply
+themselves with water.</p>
+
+<p>The second large public square in Lima is the <i>Plaza de la
+Inquisicion</i>, which, since the war of independence, has received the
+name of the Square of Independence (<i>Plazuela de la Independencia</i>).
+It is of trapezi-form, widening in the eastern part, and is certainly
+no ornament to the town, for it is always in a very dirty condition.
+Being the public market-place, it presents a very busy aspect during
+the fore part of the day. Two buildings on this Plazuela attract
+attention, viz.&mdash;the Palace of the Inquisition and the University.
+There are now but few remaining traces of the internal arrangements of
+the fearful tribunal; for, on the suppression of the Inquisition by
+the Cortes, the enraged populace forced their way into the building,
+where they gutted the rooms, and destroyed the furniture. Lima was the
+seat of spiritual jurisdiction for the whole western coast of South
+America; and the rigor of its despotism was not far short of that of
+the Inquisition of Madrid. Every year vast numbers of persons
+convicted or suspected of crimes were brought from all the intervening
+points between Chiloe and Columbia to the Tribunal of the Inquisition,
+and most of them were doomed to the most dreadful punishments. <i>Autos
+da fe</i> were frequently held in Lima, and cases of other kinds of
+martyrdom were exceedingly numerous. The lists, which have been only
+partially preserved, present melancholy results. One part of the
+Palace of the Inquisition is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> now converted into a store-house for
+provisions, and the other part is used as a prison.</p>
+
+<p>The University of Lima was once the most important seat of education
+in South America. It owes its origin to a decree of the emperor
+Charles V., issued at the solicitation of the dominican monk Maestro
+Fray Tomas de San Martin. The decree was dated the 12th of May, 1551,
+but it did not reach Lima until two years after that time. A papal
+bull of Pius V. confirmed the imperial decree, and conferred on the
+institution the same privileges as those enjoyed by the Spanish
+university of Salamanca. The Lima university was originally
+established in the convent of Santo Domingo, but after the lapse of
+three years it was removed to the building now occupied by San Marcel,
+and in 1576 it was installed in the site it now occupies. It received
+the name of <i>Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Marcos</i>. In the year
+1572 the first lay rector was elected in the person of Gaspar
+Menendez, a doctor of medicine.</p>
+
+<p>The building is situated on the east side of the <i>Plaza de la
+Independencia</i>, next to the hospital of <i>la Caridad</i>. The fa&ccedil;ade is not
+handsome, but is remarkable for a style not belonging to the age in
+which it was erected. The building is entered by a lofty door, opening
+into a spacious quadrangular court, along the four sides of which there
+are pillared corridors. On the walls of these corridors the different
+branches of science are allegorically represented in fresco paintings,
+and beneath these paintings are inscribed quotations from ancient
+classic authors. The lecture rooms open into the corridors which run
+round the court. Facing the entrance door, in the left angle of the
+court, are great double doors opening into the Aula, which is spacious,
+and has rather an imposing aspect. In the middle of the wall, on the
+right-hand side, stands the rector's chair in a sort of niche,
+surmounted by a canopy. On either side of this chair are ranged the
+seats of the professors, and the members of faculties. Opposite to the
+rector's seat, on the left-hand side of the Aula, is an elevated chair
+occupied by the president, when academic prizes are distributed. Below
+it is an arm-chair for the candidate. On each side of the president's
+seat are several rows of benches, for the members of the university and
+visitors. Over the entrance door there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> is a gallery to which the public
+are admitted, and which, on the occasions when prizes are distributed,
+is usually occupied by ladies. On the walls of the Aula are hung
+portraits of celebrated learned men.</p>
+
+<p>The National Library, situated near the convent of San Pedro, was
+founded by a decree, dated the 28th of August, 1821. The books belonging
+to the university of San Marcos formed the nucleus of the National
+Library. To them were added the libraries of several of the monasteries,
+some sequestrated works, and the collections of a few private
+individuals. Of these latter, the most considerable was the collection
+of General San Martin, and a library of 7772 volumes bequeathed,
+together with a legacy of a thousand dollars, by Don Miguel de la Fuente
+y Pacheco. In November, 1841, the National Library of Peru contained
+26,344 printed volumes, 432 manuscripts, and a small collection of maps
+and copperplate engravings. It is particularly rich in old works on
+religious and historical subjects. The books relating to the Conquest,
+and to the early period of the Spanish dominion, form in themselves a
+complete historical series. Of modern works there are but few. The
+pecuniary support of the establishment is very inconsiderable. The
+government exacts from it the import duty, three per cent., on European
+books, making an average annual sum of 400 dollars. In addition to this
+the salaries of the librarians amount annually to 2794 dollars. The
+library is open to the public every day (Friday and Sunday excepted)
+from eight in the morning till one in the afternoon, and from four in
+the afternoon till six in the evening.</p>
+
+<p>In the left wing of the same building is the museum, containing a
+collection of objects of natural history, antiquities, and other
+curiosities. This collection was first formed in the year 1826, in some
+of the spare rooms of the palace of the Inquisition, and was afterwards
+removed from one place to another, until at length the government
+allotted to the purpose the two fine apartments in the building above
+mentioned. As yet the establishment is quite in its infancy. It contains
+nothing of scientific value, and but for the series of historical
+portraits already described, it would differ but little from the
+collections of curiosities frequently formed by amateurs, in which all
+sorts of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> heterogeneous objects are jumbled together. The museum of Lima
+bids fair to remain for some time to come on the footing on which it was
+when I saw it, for the establishment has no funds, save a monthly
+allowance of thirty-two dollars, and out of that scanty pittance the
+expense of fitting up the rooms, the glass cases, &amp;c., has yet to be
+defrayed. The museum is open to the public four days in the week.</p>
+
+<p>Two other apartments in the same building are set aside for the Academy
+of Design (<i>Academia de Debujo</i>). On three evenings every week pupils
+are admitted to this academy to receive gratuitous instruction in
+drawing. The number of the pupils amounts to between 80 and 100; but
+there is convenient room for 200. The collection of models and drawing
+copies for the use of the students is but indifferent.</p>
+
+<p>The mint is situated in the vicinity of the Plazuela de la
+Independencia. It was founded in Lima in the year 1565; in 1572
+transferred to Potosi, and in 1683 removed back to Lima. For the space
+of seventy years this establishment was in the hands of private
+individuals; but in the year 1753 the Spanish government took the
+management of it, and erected the building in which it is still
+located. It is a large and handsome structure, but very defective in
+its internal arrangement. Until the year 1817 the machinery for
+casting was worked by mules, ninety-two of those animals being
+employed daily. Subsequently, under the direction of an Englishman,
+water-power was introduced, by which expense was diminished and time
+saved. A few years ago a French merchant made an arrangement with the
+government for the use of a complex machine, which he proposed to
+bring from Europe. The machine arrived, but by an unlucky fatality it
+proved perfectly useless. For the space of four years repeated
+attempts were made to work it, but in vain; it fulfilled none of the
+required conditions. Its faults are manifold, and it reflects but
+little credit on the person by whom it was contrived. It has cost no
+less than 250,000 dollars, and has never been of the least use.</p>
+
+<p>In the mint of Lima there are annually cast from two to two and a half
+millions of dollars, which yield a profit of from 140,000 to 180,000
+dollars, out of which are paid the salaries of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> the persons employed.
+Under the Spanish government these salaries amounted annually to
+48,906 dollars; now they make, together with other customary outlays,
+the sum of 85,105 dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The value of a mark of silver in the mint is 8 dollars 4 reales; that of
+a mark of gold is 144 dollars 4 reales. The standard worth of the gold
+is 21 carats; that of the silver 20 grains.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the arena for bull-fights, situated in the Plaza firme del Acho,
+the theatre is the principal place of public amusement in Lima. The
+first theatre, erected in the year 1602, was situated near the convent
+of San Augustin, in the street which still bears the name of "Comedia
+vieja." It was destroyed in the earthquake of 1630, and rebuilt on the
+same site. In 1662 it was pulled down to make room for a new street, and
+afterwards the present building was erected. Its external appearance is
+very ugly and the interior is not much better. Before the orchestra
+there are some commodious inclosed seats or stalls. The boxes, which are
+completely separated one from another by partitions, are narrow but
+deep: the smaller ones are capable of containing eight persons, and the
+larger ones twelve. In the centre of the first tier of boxes, and
+fronting the stage, is the government box, which occupies the space of
+two of the others. It contains seats for the prefect, the sub-prefect,
+and the members of the Cabildo. The president's box is likewise on the
+first tier, and on the left of the stage. Adjoining it there is a small
+cabinet, closed on the side next the pit by a wooden railing. Into this
+cabinet the president retires between the acts of the performance. The
+stage is small, and the scenery very indifferent.</p>
+
+<p>The performances are for the most part wretched, both as regards the
+merit of the pieces and the talent of the actors. Nothing can be in
+worse taste than the little farces called saynetes, which, according to
+Spanish custom, always close the performances, whether the principal
+piece be a tragedy or a comedy. Common-place intrigues form the subjects
+of these <i>saynetes</i>, and their dialogue consists of vulgar jokes. They
+are altogether calculated to banish any gratifying impression which
+might by possibility be produced by the principal piece.</p>
+
+<p>For some years past a company of Italians, settled in Lima, have given
+operatic performances on a small scale. One of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> them, Signora
+Pantanelli, is an excellent singer, and would be heard with pleasure
+even in Europe. Some other members of the company have middling talents,
+but the rest are decidedly bad. The operas performed are Giulietta y
+Romeo, Parisina, Lucia di Lammermuir, Marino Faliero, La Sonnambula, and
+Il Barbiere di Seviglia: these, together with a mutilated Norma, and a
+much curtailed Semiramide, form almost the whole repertory. Want of
+stage room is an obstacle to the representation of operas demanding
+grand scenery and machinery. The costumes are for the most part
+exceedingly elegant, though seldom historically correct. The orchestra
+is defective, and ought to be much improved, to give satisfaction to a
+public passionately fond of music.</p>
+
+<p>But if the inhabitants of Lima are great lovers of music, dancing has no
+less powerful attractions for them. Though the time is gone, when the
+dress of any opera-dancer may be expected to reach below the knee, yet
+the drapery of a Limanese Terpsichore appears to have attained even an
+ultra degree of curtailment. The representation of ballets, properly so
+called, is not attempted; but the Bolero, the Fandango, the Cachucha,
+and Don Mateo, are favorite and often repeated performances.</p>
+
+<p>During the long intervals between the acts, smoking is permitted in the
+pit and in the outer court of the theatre. There is also a plentiful
+supply of very bad and very dear refreshments.</p>
+
+<p>An intolerable annoyance experienced in visiting the theatre at Lima is
+caused by the swarms of fleas which infest every part of the house, but
+most especially the boxes. Unfortunately, this nuisance is irremediable,
+and the visitor must be blessed with a large amount of endurance who can
+patiently sit out a whole evening's entertainments.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from the theatre is situated the circus for cock-fighting
+(<i>Coliseo de gallos</i>), where fights (<i>peleas</i>) take place daily. The
+Coliseo is a large amphitheatre, with an arena in the middle. The
+game-cocks trained for this sport have the spur removed from the right
+foot and in its stead is substituted a small sharp steel blade, curved
+and shaped like a scythe. One or other of the animals is frequently
+killed at the first spring; and when that is not the case they continue
+fighting until they die of wounds and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> exhaustion. It is a cruel sport,
+and a worthy pendant to bull-fighting. The first Coliseo was erected in
+1762, by Don Juan Garrial. The present building, in the Plazuela de
+Santa Catalina, is a very handsome structure, and Lima may fairly boast
+of possessing the finest circus for cock-fighting in all the world.</p>
+
+<p>In the same square with the <i>Coliseo de gallos</i> is the tennis-court,
+a spacious area, surrounded by high walls. It is not now so much
+resorted to as formerly, for the Creoles are not so fond of tennis
+as the Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>A beautiful stone bridge unites the town with the suburb of San
+Lazaro. This bridge was built in the years 1638-1640, when the Marquis
+de Montes Claros was viceroy of Peru. The plan was designed by Fray
+Geronimo Villegas, an Augustine monk. It is 530 feet long, and has six
+arches rising thirty-seven feet above the surface of the water. The
+foundation of the piers is composed of square blocks of stone, the
+piers themselves are of brick, and the parapet of cemented stone work.
+The erection of this bridge cost 400,000 dollars. A sufficient proof
+of its strength and solidity is the fact that it survived the
+earthquakes of 1687 and 1746, which shattered all other parts of Lima.
+In the earthquake of 1746 the first arch, on which stood an equestrian
+statue of Philip V., was destroyed, but it is now restored. It has on
+one side two towers, with a dial in the middle.</p>
+
+<p>The city of Lima, with the exception of a portion of the north side,
+and the suburb of San Lazaro, is surrounded by a wall built of brick.
+This wall was constructed in the year 1585, when the Duque de la Plata
+was viceroy. It is the work of a Fleming, named Pedro Ramon. This wall
+is between eighteen and twenty feet high. Its breadth at the base is
+from ten to twelve feet, and at the top nine feet. It does not
+therefore afford sufficient space for mounting large guns. Along the
+whole extent of the wall there are thirty-four bastions. In the year
+1807, this wall, which had fallen into a very ruinous condition, was
+repaired by order of the viceroy Abascal, and put into a condition to
+be mounted with artillery. On each side commodious pathways were made,
+and along the inner side powder magazines were constructed. At present
+these fortifications are in a state of complete dilapidation. The
+paths, which are obstructed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> rubbish, are almost impassable, and
+the powder magazines are destroyed. The city wall of Lima has nine
+gates (<i>Portadas</i>). Of these, six only are now open, viz., the
+Portadas of Maravillas, Barbones, Cocharcas, Guadelupe, Juan Simon,
+and Callao; the three others, the Portadas of Martinete, Monserrat,
+and Santa Catalina, are walled up. At every one of the open gates
+there are stationed custom-house guards, whose chief duty consists in
+preventing the smuggled introduction of unstamped silver (<i>plata de
+pi&ntilde;a</i>). In the direction of the suburb of San Lazaro, the city cannot
+be closed, as the wall does not extend to that part. Between San
+Lazaro, and the high road to Cero de Pasco, is the <i>Portada de Guias</i>;
+this, however, is not properly a gate, but a small custom-house. In
+this direction it is easy to gain entrance to the city from the river,
+and consequently it is here that most of the contraband silver,
+brought from the mountains, is smuggled.</p>
+
+<p>Among the fortifications of Lima may be included the pretty little
+castle of Santa Catalina, situated at the eastern end of the city,
+between the Portada de Cocharcas and the Portada de Guadelupe, at the
+distance of about two hundred yards from the city wall. It is
+surrounded by rather high walls, and is flanked by two bastions. The
+interior of this citadel is very well arranged, and is kept much
+cleaner than such places usually are in Peru. It contains stores of
+arms and barracks for the artillery. The largest barracks in Lima are
+those of the infantry, <i>Quartel de Infanteria</i>, in the Colegio. They
+are remarkable for want of cleanliness, and like most of the public
+buildings in this interesting city, going fast to decay.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The city of Lima was founded by Don Francisco Pizarro on
+the 6th of January, 1534. As it was the day of the Epiphany, Lima
+received the title of <i>Ciudad de los Reyes</i> (City of the Kings).
+Historical records vary respecting the day and the year of the
+foundation of Lima; but I have reason to believe that the date I have
+mentioned above is perfectly correct.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The <i>Vara Castellana</i> is equal to 33 inches English
+measure.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The females who retire to these establishments are called
+<i>Beatas</i> (Bigots). The term <i>Beaterio</i> signifies a house for
+Bigots.&mdash;T.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> According to some accounts this establishment was
+instituted in 1654, by Mateo Pastor de Velasco, a native of
+Portollano in Spain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> In these shops any one may purchase for a trifle one of
+the most deadly poisons (Strichnos Ignatia, L.). It is made up into
+what are called <i>Pepitas de Cabalonga</i>. It is used in Lima for
+poisoning dogs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> This highly valuable and interesting collection of
+portraits is now removed from the palace to the museum. It is curious
+to mark the progressive changes of costume, and to observe the various
+physiognomies, especially if we reflect on the history of the men whose
+traits denote such striking differences of character. Almost all these
+portraits are distinguished by an air of tranquil gravity which in some
+is combined with true kingly dignity, and in others with an expression
+of fierceness. The handsomest head of the whole series is decidedly
+that of Francisco Pizarro. His features bear the stamp of manly energy,
+and his whole countenance is characterized by courage and candor. The
+nose has the prominent Arabic form, and the forehead is high and
+expanded. The thick beard, covering the mouth and chin, gives a gloomy
+and resolute character to the face. In this series of portraits there
+is one representing a priest with the vice-regal insignia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> By a singular coincidence, the title of Conde de los Andes
+(Count of the Andes) was conferred on La Serna by King Ferdinand at
+Madrid on the 9th of December, 1824, being the very day on which he
+gained the battle of Ayacucho, the results of which gave the Spanish
+dominion in South America its death-blow.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The above particulars are collected from the <i>Historia
+del descubrimiento y conquista de la Provincia del Peru</i>, by Augustin
+de Zarate.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="doublebd" width="484" summary="Illustrations" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" >
+<tr><td colspan="2"><img src="images/ladies.png" width="474" height="357" alt="Two Peruvian Ladies" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tablecaption"><span style="padding-left: 3em;">CHILIAN INDIAN MOTHER.</span></td><td class="tablecaption"><span style="padding-right: 2em;">LADY OF LIMA.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" style="padding-top: 4em;"><img src="images/monkfarmer.png" width="474" height="345" alt="Peruvian Monk and Peruvian Farmer" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tablecaption"><span style="padding-left: 0em;">PERUVIAN MONK.</span></td><td class="tablecaption"><span style="padding-right: 9em;">PERUVIAN FARMER.</span></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Population of Lima&mdash;&#8203;Its diminution&mdash;&#8203;Different races of the
+Inhabitants&mdash;&#8203;Their characteristics&mdash;&#8203;Amusements&mdash;&#8203;Education&mdash;&#8203;The
+women of Lima&mdash;&#8203;Their Costume&mdash;&#8203;The <i>Saya y Manto</i>&mdash;&#8203;Female domestic
+life&mdash;&#8203;Love of dress&mdash;&#8203;Beatas&mdash;&#8203;Indians&mdash;&#8203;Slaves&mdash;&#8203;Bosales&mdash;&#8203;Free
+Creoles&mdash;&#8203;Negroes&mdash;&#8203;Negresses&mdash;&#8203;Black Creoles&mdash;&#8203;Their
+varieties&mdash;&#8203;Mestizos&mdash;&#8203;Mulattoes&mdash;&#8203;Palanganas&mdash;&#8203;Zambos&mdash;&#8203;Chinos&mdash;&#8203;Foreigners
+in Lima&mdash;&#8203;Corruption of the Spanish language.</p>
+
+
+<p>Proceeding from the shell to the kernel, we will now take a glance at
+the inhabitants of the capital of Peru: first, surveying the native in
+his fatherland, and next, the foreign settler in his adopted country.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Lima has at various periods undergone remarkable
+fluctuations. In the year 1764 the number of the inhabitants was stated
+to be 54,000; in 1810, 87,000; in 1826, 70,000; in 1836, 54,600; and in
+1842, 53,000. Of most of these estimates I entertain some degree of
+distrust, as they are merely founded on general calculations, and are
+not the results of careful numbering. Certain it is, however, that the
+population of Lima has very considerably decreased since the declaration
+of independence. This is sufficiently proved by the fact that several
+parts of the city are now totally uninhabited: the houses falling to
+decay, and the gardens lying waste.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of this diminished population is easily explained by the
+physical and political condition of the country. Earthquakes have, at
+various times, buried thousands of people beneath the ruins of their own
+dwellings; the war of independence was attended by vast sacrifices of
+life; banishment and voluntary emigration have removed from Lima the
+families of some of the principal citizens; and epidemic disease, the
+natural consequence of defective police regulations, has swept away
+countless multitudes of the inhabitants. The number of new settlers is
+very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> inconsiderable; and for several past years the number of deaths
+has nearly doubled that of the births. There appears no reason to doubt
+that this decrease of population will continue; because, as will
+presently be seen, the causes to which it is assignable cannot be
+checked, inasmuch as they are intimately blended with the character of
+the nation. Most of these causes operate not only in the capital, but
+over the whole country; indeed, in the latter their influence is in some
+instances much greater; for example, in the interior of Peru the loss of
+life attendant on the war was relatively much greater than in Lima. This
+favored country, which extends from the 3d to the 22d degree of south
+latitude, and which contained at the time of its conquest by the
+Spaniards an immense population, though its amount is not known with
+numerical exactitude, now counts only 1,400,000 inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>In the tax registers, drawn up during the protectorate of Santa Cruz,
+in 1836, the number of the inhabitants of Lima is represented as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0;" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="5" width="70%" summary="Population of Lima">
+
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td class="tocpg">Male.</td>
+  <td class="tocpg">Female.</td>
+  <td class="tocpg">Total.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr><td class="number">1.</td><td class="toc">White Creoles (being the
+descendants of foreigners, but chiefly of Spaniards)</td>
+  <td class="tocpg">9,423</td><td class="tocpg">10,170</td><td class="tocpg">19,593</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="number">2.</td><td class="toc">Indians</td><td class="tocpg">2,561</td><td class="tocpg">2,731</td><td class="tocpg">5,292</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="number">3.</td><td class="toc">People of Color (mixed races)</td><td class="tocpg">11,771</td><td class="tocpg">12,355</td><td class="tocpg">24,126</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="number">4.</td><td class="toc">Slaves</td><td class="tocpg">2,186</td><td class="tocpg">3,606</td><td class="tocpg">4,792</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="number">5.</td><td class="toc">Ecclesiastics (Lay and Monastic)</td><td class="tocpg">475</td><td class="tocpg">350</td><td class="tocpg">825</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td>In all</td><td class="tocpg"><span style="text-decoration:overline">26,416</span></td><td class="tocpg"><span style="text-decoration:overline">29,212</span></td><td class="tocpg"><span style="text-decoration:overline">54,628</span></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>From the above it appears that in every class (No. 5 excepted) there is
+a preponderance of females; and that on the whole population of 54,628
+individuals there is a surplus of 2796 women. About one in every
+sixty-six individuals belongs to the priesthood.</p>
+
+<p>Possibly in no other place in the world is there so much variety of
+complexion and physiognomy as in Lima. From the delicately fair creole
+daughter of European parents, to the jet black Congo negro, people of
+every gradation of color are seen living in intimate relation one with
+another. The two extreme classes&mdash;the whites and blacks&mdash;are as
+distinct in character as in color, and of either of those it is no
+difficult task to give an accurate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> portraiture. But it is different
+with the mixed races. To define their characteristics correctly would
+be impossible, for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood.
+As a general rule, it may fairly be said that they unite in themselves
+all the faults, without any of the virtues, of their progenitors. As
+men they are greatly inferior to the pure races, and as members of
+society they are the worst class of citizens. Here, as well as in the
+following delineations of the different races, I wish my observations
+to be understood only in a general sense. I have met with some
+honorable exceptions; though, unfortunately, they were mere solitary
+luminaries, whose transient light has been speedily obscured by
+the surrounding darkness.</p>
+
+<p>The white Creoles, who, with very few exceptions, are the descendants of
+Spaniards, constitute somewhat less than a third part of the population
+of Lima. They are slender in figure and of middling height. Their
+features are strongly marked, their complexions fair and pale, and their
+hair is of the darkest black. The men are feeble and look prematurely
+old. Their countenances, though not devoid of dignity, have a sort of
+sensual expression. They are effeminate, and disinclined to any kind of
+active exertion. If they ride the distance of ten miles, they think they
+have performed a feat of heroism worthy to be recorded in the state
+archives. If the white Creoles are inferior to the Spaniards in physical
+organization, they are no less beneath them in qualities of mind. They
+shrink from anything that demands intellectual exertion. In short, they
+are sworn enemies to business of every kind, and those who are obliged
+to work for their own support, make choice of some occupation which,
+like that of a shopman, affords them ample time to smoke cigars and to
+gossip with their neighbors. The richer classes give themselves up
+wholly to idleness. They walk about and visit their acquaintances, or
+they lounge in shops or at the corners of streets, and in that manner
+they often amuse themselves for half a day. Those who are owners of
+plantations occasionally ride through them to receive reports from their
+mayordomos. Their afternoons are usually spent in the <i>Coliseo de
+gallos</i>, in the coffee-houses, or at the gaming-table. The white Creoles
+are as passionately fond of gaming as the Spaniards, and sums equal to
+those staked at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> the gaming-tables of Mexico and the Havannah are daily
+lost and won in Lima. Though games of hazard are prohibited, yet they
+are very publicly played, and it is only now and then that the police
+enforce the regulations of the law by the seizure of a bank.</p>
+
+<p>Gaming in Lima is carried on very quietly, and the most determined
+gamblers do not show themselves very much excited either by losses or
+winnings. The discovery of false dice, however, creates bitter feelings
+of animosity, which not unfrequently lead to assassination. Of this I
+knew several instances when I was in the interior of the country.</p>
+
+<p>The intellectual culture of the white Creole of Lima is exceedingly
+defective. He is not wanting in talent; but an imperfect system of
+education affords him no opportunity for the development of his
+faculties, and innate indolence is a bar to his self-improvement by
+study. He seldom rises above the level of every-day life, and is
+ignorant of everything beyond the boundary of the city, or, at all
+events, of the province in which he was born. I have often been amazed
+at the monstrous ignorance of so-called educated Peruvians, respecting
+the situation, the extent, the physical formation, and the productions
+of their native country.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that Lima has been the
+birthplace of several white Creoles, whose talents and learning have
+honorably distinguished them from the rest of their countrymen. For
+example, Don Tomas de Salazar, author of the "Interpretaciones de los
+Leyes de Indias."<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Don Miguel Nu&ntilde;ez de Rojas, the learned Judge of
+Confiscations in the Spanish war of succession, and Don Alonzo Conde de
+San Donas, who in the reign of Philip IV. was Spanish Ambassador at the
+Court of France. Among those eminent in literature may be named Don
+Pedro de la Reyna Maldonado, and the poet Don Diego Martinez de Rivera,
+of whom Cervantes in his "Galatea" says&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Su divina ingenio ha producido</span>
+<span class="i0">En Arequipa eterna Primavera.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several monks distinguished for learning have been white<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> Creoles,
+and an eminent individual of that race was Don Hipolito Unanue, the
+author of the "Guide to Peru," and "Observations on the Climate of
+Lima, and its Influence on organized Beings, especially Man;"<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> a
+Treatise on the Cocoa-tree, &amp;c. In more recent times, Don Mariano
+Eduardo de Rivero has zealously devoted himself to the study of
+natural history and antiquities.</p>
+
+<p>But in spite of his faults, the Lima Creole has his good qualities.
+He is an enemy to strong drinks. When he takes wine it is usually of
+some sweet kind, and of that he partakes very sparingly. A white
+Creole in a state of intoxication would, indeed, be a rare sight. Not
+so in the interior of the country, where the whites are remarkable
+for intemperate drinking.</p>
+
+<p>Far superior to the men, both physically and intellectually, are the
+women of Lima. Nature has lavishly endowed them with many of her
+choicest gifts. In figure they are usually slender and rather tall, and
+they are especially remarkable for small, elegantly formed feet. Their
+fair faces, from which the glowing breath of the tropics banishes every
+trace of bloom, are animated by large, bright, dark eyes. Their features
+are pleasing&mdash;the nose being well formed, though in general not
+small&mdash;the mouth invariably adorned with two rows of brilliant white
+teeth,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> and their long black hair, arranged in plaits, falls
+gracefully over the bosom and shoulders. Add to all this a captivating
+grace of manner and deportment, joined to an exceeding degree of
+gentleness and amiability, and it will be readily admitted that the
+Limena is a noble specimen of female loveliness.</p>
+
+<p>At home, especially in the summer season, the ladies of Lima dress
+lightly and even negligently. For visiting, or going to the theatres,
+they adopt the French fashion. When walking in the streets, attending
+church, joining religious processions, &amp;c., they appear in a very
+singular costume, peculiar to Lima, and consisting of two garments
+called the <i>Saya</i> and the <i>Manto</i>. Of the saya there are two kinds.
+The one called the <i>Saya ajustada</i>, was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> formerly in general use, but
+is now seldom seen. It consists of a petticoat, or skirt of thick
+stiff silk, plaited at top and bottom, in small fluted folds, drawn
+very close together at the waist and widening towards the ankles,
+beneath which the saya does not descend. It is tight to the form, the
+outline of which it perfectly displays, and its closeness to the
+limbs naturally impedes rapid movement. When wearing the <i>Saya
+ajustada</i>, the ladies find it no very easy task to kneel down at
+church, and at the termination of every genuflexion, they are obliged
+to twist and twirl about for a considerable time before they can
+again stand on their feet.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<p>The other description of saya is called the Saya <i>cule&ccedil;a</i>, or the
+<i>Saya desplegada</i>. It is plaited close at the waist, and from thence
+downwards it stands out like a hooped petticoat. This sort of saya is
+made by first being plaited both at top and bottom like the <i>Saya
+ajustada</i>; but, afterwards, the lower plaits are undone to form the
+<i>Saya desplegada</i>. The saya is always made of some dark-colored silk,
+black, green, blue, or cinnamon color.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Manto</i> is a veil of thick black silk fastened by a band at the back
+of the waist, where it joins the <i>saya</i>. From thence it is brought over
+the shoulders and head, and drawn over the face so closely that only a
+small triangular space, sufficient for one eye to peep through, is left
+uncovered. A rich shawl thrown over the shoulders conceals the whole of
+the under garment, except the sleeves. One of the small, neatly-gloved
+hands, confines the folds of the <i>manto</i>, whilst the other holds a
+richly embroidered pocket-handkerchief.</p>
+
+<p>At first sight this costume has a very singular effect, and it is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>long before the eye of a foreigner becomes reconciled to it. The
+narrow saya is by no means graceful; the wide saya, on the other hand,
+is very becoming, and sets off to great advantage a good figure and
+elegant deportment. When I first arrived in Lima and saw the ladies
+closely muffled up in their <i>mantos</i>, and carrying embroidered cambric
+handkerchiefs and nosegays in their hands, it struck me that the nuns
+enjoyed greater freedom in that country than in any other part of the
+world. After vespers, that is to say half-past seven in the evening,
+the police regulations prohibit any woman from appearing in the
+streets dressed in the saya.</p>
+
+<p>As this garment may be worn over a dress of the ordinary kind, it is
+found to be very convenient, inasmuch as it saves the trouble of a
+careful toilette. During short visits the ladies do not take off the
+saya; but when making long visits they usually lay it aside.</p>
+
+<p>The Saya y Manto are found to be very useful auxiliaries in the numerous
+intrigues in which the Lime&ntilde;as frequently engage.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>Tapada</i><a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> indulges in a vast deal of freedom when in the streets,
+and scruples not to make satirical observations on anybody or anything
+that strikes her as strange or ludicrous. The veil, or manto, is sacred,
+and should a man attempt to remove it by force, he would run the risk of
+being severely handled by the populace.</p>
+
+<p>In intrigues of gallantry the Saya y Manto play a conspicuous part. A
+lady has been known to arrange an assignation with a gentleman in the
+street, whilst her husband, standing at the distance of a few yards
+and conversing with a friend on some matter of business, has little
+suspected that the <i>Tapada</i> whose graceful figure he admired, was his
+own faithful better-half. It frequently happens that Do&ntilde;a Mariquita
+obliges Do&ntilde;a Merceditas, or Do&ntilde;a Panchita, with the loan of her saya,
+for the purpose of hood-winking the Argus-eyes of a jealous
+husband;&mdash;the lady being well convinced that her kind friends will
+render her the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>like service in similar circumstances. Sometimes a
+lady may be seen in an old tattered saya, such as scarcely the poorest
+female might be expected to wear; but the costly shawl, the worked
+pocket-handkerchief, the silk stockings, and satin shoes, betray the
+rank of the <i>Tapada</i>, and plainly denote that she has sallied forth on
+an adventure. It is difficult, nay almost impossible, to recognize a
+lady thus muffled up. The one eye alone visible, is, as may be
+supposed, a very uncertain token of identity, and the figure and walk
+may be easily disguised.</p>
+
+<p>It will readily be supposed that these concealments sometimes occasion
+mortifying mistakes. On beholding a tall slender figure whose
+symmetrical contour is discernible even through the unwieldy saya, and a
+bright dark eye beaming beneath the folds of the manto, one may be
+induced to imagine that the charms of a Hebe are concealed beneath the
+disfiguring garb. But how great is the disappointment when an accidental
+movement of the manto discloses the wide mouth of an ugly mulatta
+grinning from ear to ear.</p>
+
+<p>Most foreigners who marry Lime&ntilde;as stipulate that from the time of
+betrothal, their wives shall no longer wear the saya y manto. The
+condition is agreed to; but how far it is faithfully observed the
+husbands best know. Many, no doubt, lull themselves in the confidence
+of their wishes being implicitly obeyed; but female ingenuity readily
+devises opportunities for deception. The women of Lima never willingly
+renounce the saya y manto, for it is inseparably associated with
+customs to which they are, heart and soul, devoted.</p>
+
+<p>If we follow the Lime&ntilde;a (the white Creole, be it understood) into the
+retirement of domestic life, we find that she is an affectionate mother,
+but not a very clever housekeeper. Every lady has at her command a great
+many more domestics than are necessary: some are servants, but most of
+them slaves. The establishment usually consists of a cook, a nurse-maid,
+one or two house-maids, a needle-woman, several men-servants, and a
+little negro or Indian, whose chief business is to carry a carpet behind
+his mistress when she goes to church. These servants all do as they
+please, and the lady of the house concerns herself very little about the
+indolence which her want of vigilance encourages.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> She rises at a late
+hour, and having dressed herself and decorated her hair with sprigs of
+jasmine and orange blossom, she takes her breakfast. That meal being
+ended, she goes out to make visits. During the sultry hours of mid-day
+she reposes, either by swinging in a hammock or reclining on a sofa, and
+meanwhile smokes a cigar. After dinner she again makes visits, and the
+evening is spent in the theatre, on the plaza, or on the bridge. Some
+few ladies employ themselves in needle-work, in which they are often
+most accomplished adepts; they especially excel in embroidery and fancy
+work; but they never pursue these employments before company.</p>
+
+<p>The ladies of Lima are passionately fond of music. Most of them play the
+piano-forte or the guitar, and also sing; but for want of good
+instruction neither their playing nor their singing is above mediocrity.
+Smoking is pretty general among females, at least those of mature age;
+but they indulge in this practice only in their own apartments. Of late
+years the custom of smoking has been on the decline in Lima, in
+proportion as it has been increased on the continent of the old world.
+Though snuff-taking is prohibited in the convents, yet the nuns practise
+it to a great extent. They use an exceedingly fine kind of red snuff,
+which has the effect of closing the breathing passage through the
+nostrils, and of producing a peculiar nasal tone of voice.</p>
+
+<p>With the ladies of Lima, vanity and the love of dress appear to have
+reached their climax. To this passion for personal adornment they
+sacrifice everything. Formerly, when none but <i>real</i> pearls and diamonds
+were worn, many a lady was known to have ruined her husband by the
+purchase of those costly articles; now, however, thanks to French mock
+jewelry, they are enabled to bedeck themselves in glittering ornaments
+at trivial expense. Another of their passions is a fondness for
+perfumes. They are continually besprinkling themselves with <i>eau de
+Cologne</i>, <i>esprit de Lavande</i>, <i>agua rica</i>, or <i>mistura</i>. The latter is
+a fragrant yellow-colored water, prepared from gillyflower, jasmine, and
+flor de mistela (<i>Talinum umbellatum</i>). They perfume their apartments
+daily with <i>Sahumerios</i> (pastiles). When the lady of the house wishes to
+show particular attention to her visitors, she offers them perfumed
+water, dropping it into the bosoms of the ladies, and on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> the
+pocket-handkerchiefs of the gentlemen. Considering their free use of
+perfumes, it is not surprising that the fair Lime&ntilde;as should be
+constantly complaining of headache, vertigo, and other nervous ailments,
+or, to use their own phrase (<i>los nervios</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Above all things the Lime&ntilde;as pride themselves in the excessive smallness
+of their feet. Whether walking, standing, sitting, swinging in the
+hammock, or reclining on the sofa, the grand object invariably is to
+display to advantage the tiny foot. To praise her virtue, her
+intelligence, her wit, or even her beauty, would be less complimentary
+to a Lime&ntilde;a than to admire the elegance of her feet. All possible care
+is taken to preserve the small form of the foot, and the Lima ladies
+avoid everything that may tend to spread or enlarge it. Their shoes are
+usually made of embroidered velvet or satin, or of very fine kid, and
+are so exceedingly small, that they cannot be drawn on and off without
+difficulty. It is usual to have two new pairs every week, and the
+expense of a lady's shoes not unfrequently amounts to two hundred
+dollars per annum. A large foot is a thing held in horror by the
+Lime&ntilde;as: they call it <i>una pataza inglesa</i> (an English paw). I once
+heard some Lima ladies extolling in high terms the beauty of a fair
+European; but all their praises ended with the words:&mdash;"Pero que pie,
+valgame Dios! parece una lancha." (But what a foot, good Heaven! It is
+like a great boat.) Yet the feet of the lady alluded to would not, in
+Europe, have been thought by any means large.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gourmanderie</i> is one of the evil habits of the female inhabitants of
+Lima. Between meals they are continually eating sweetmeats and a variety
+of things. At one moment they order <i>tamal</i>,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> next <i>omitas</i>,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> then
+<i>pan de chancay</i> (a sweet sort of bread), and biscuits, then <i>masamorita
+morada</i>,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> or <i>frijoles coladas</i>,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> &amp;c.; and yet dinner is partaken
+with as hearty an appetite as though none of these interludes had been
+introduced. Can it be matter of surprise that the good ladies are
+constantly complaining of indigestion and <i>mal de estomago</i>?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>In the interior of the houses cleanliness does not extend beyond those
+apartments which are open to visitors, namely, the <i>sala</i> and the
+<i>cuadro</i>. The other rooms of the house frequently bear more
+resemblance to a stable than a human habitation, and their condition
+reflects little credit on the domestic habits of the female inmates.
+But even this is typical of the national character,&mdash;a great outward
+show and little inward worth.</p>
+
+<p>At first a stranger is struck with the singularity of the names of many
+of the women of Lima. A child receives the name of the saint or of the
+festival whose celebration falls on the day of its birth. Those who
+happen to come into the world on the days on which the Romish Church
+celebrates the several manifestations of the Virgin receive the most
+extraordinary names. For example, a child born on the anniversary day of
+the manifestation to St. Francis on the Snow Mountain, is named <i>Ni&egrave;ves</i>
+(snow). <i>Pilar</i> (fountain-basin) is another strange name, conferred in
+honor of the manifestation of the Virgin at the Fountains in Saragossa.
+Then there are <i>Conceptions</i>, <i>Natividads</i>, and <i>Asuncions</i>, without
+number. A girl born on Candlemas-day is named <i>Candelaria</i>, and one born
+on the first day of the year receives the name of Jesus. The singular
+effect of these names is heightened by the Spanish custom of using
+diminutives, formed by adding to the name the particle <i>ito</i> or <i>ita</i>,
+the former being the masculine, the latter the feminine. It may be
+readily imagined that a foreigner is not a little startled on hearing a
+young lady called Do&ntilde;a Jesusita. In some names the diminutive takes a
+form totally different from the full name; as, for example, Panchita for
+Francisca, Pepita for Josefa, Conchita for Concepcion. A married woman
+does not take the family name of her husband, but retains her own,
+adding to it her husband's name preceded by the particle <i>de</i>, as, for
+example, Do&ntilde;a Maria Juana Rodriguez de Salazar.</p>
+
+<p>On attaining a certain age, the Lime&ntilde;as totally alter their habits of
+life. When their beauty fades, and they cease to be the objects of
+compliment and flattery; or when weary of an idle, luxurious, and, in
+too many instances, a no very virtuous life, they betake themselves to
+piety, and become <i>Beatas</i>.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> Lime&ntilde;a who thus renounces the
+vanities of the world attends church two or three times every day,
+confesses at least once every week, retires during Lent to a house of
+penitence; fasts, prays, and receives the visits of her confessor, to
+whom she sends presents of sweetmeats;&mdash;and should the holy man, as is
+usually the case, prefer riding to walking, she shows her piety by
+giving him the use of her <i>Calesa</i> to convey him from place to place.</p>
+
+<p>The women of Lima are gifted by nature with extraordinary natural
+talent, though unfortunately it is rarely cultivated. They possess
+shrewd and penetrating intelligence, clear judgment, and in general
+very just views on the ordinary affairs of life. Like the women of the
+southern provinces of Spain, they are remarkable for quickness and
+smartness of repartee, and in a wordy contest a Lime&ntilde;a is sure to come
+off triumphant. They have a great deal of decision of character, and a
+degree of courage which does not usually fall to the lot of the female
+sex. In these respects they are infinitely superior to the timid,
+spiritless men. In the various political revolutions of the country,
+the women have often taken an active, and, in some instances, a more
+decided part than the men.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians in Lima form but a small portion of the population, being
+about 5000 in number. Among them are as many emigrants as natives. Most
+of the former are from the mountainous districts, and but few are from
+places on the coast. Their character is, of course, much modified by
+continual intercourse with the whites; but I will endeavor to describe
+them as they show themselves in their original purity, marking the
+distinctions observable between the <i>Indio Coste&ntilde;o</i> (the Coast
+Indian), and the <i>Indio Serrano</i> (the mountain Indian). The Indians in
+Lima are active and industrious. Many of them are shopkeepers, and by
+the integrity of their dealings they stand on a footing of good credit
+with the great commercial houses. Those who are employed as servants
+are less remarkable for industry and honesty. They are reserved and
+suspicious; qualities especially observable when they have but
+recently emigrated into Lima. They combine personal vanity with an
+inconceivable degree of dirtiness. Their intellectual faculties are
+far beneath those of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> white Creoles, of whom they stand in a
+degree of fear, which is not easily eradicated.</p>
+
+<p>At a former period there existed in Lima a college exclusively for
+noble-born Indians; and the eldest sons of the families descended
+from the Incas, when they wished to study, were received at the
+expense of the State into the College of San Carlos; but since the
+declaration of independence, all the privileges enjoyed by the
+Indians have been annulled.</p>
+
+<p>The negroes in Lima form one-fifth part of the population. Their
+number amounts to upwards of 10,000, of which 4800 are slaves. Though
+an article in the Charter of Independence declares that "in Peru no
+person is born a slave," yet the National Congress has on various
+occasions thought fit to deviate from this principle. In Huaura it was
+decreed that children born in slavery shall be free on attaining the
+age of twenty-five, and the Congress of Huancayo prolonged the period
+to fifty years. There are no new importations of negroes from Africa,
+for an article in the Charter just mentioned sets forth that "every
+person who may be brought, as a slave, from another country to Peru,
+is free from the moment when he sets foot on the soil of that
+republic." Accordingly, if a Peruvian take his slave with him on a
+journey to Chile, and brings him back again, the slave may, on his
+return, claim his freedom. The only exception to this rule refers to
+runaway negroes, who, even after years of absence, may be reclaimed on
+their return. The value of slaves is not so high in Peru as in the
+southern states of North America. In Lima, the average price of a
+young, strong, and healthy negro is 400 dollars; the price of a
+negress, especially a <i>Negra de Chavra</i> (capable of field work), is
+100 dollars higher. The value of those destined for domestic service
+depends on character and qualifications. A negress who is a good cook
+or needlewoman, is of course worth more than a negro who is to be
+employed as a water-carrier or a footman. In the plantations their
+value depends wholly on health and strength.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of slaves in Lima, especially by the Creoles, is
+exceedingly mild, and generally much on the same footing as the
+treatment of servants in Europe. It is seldom that a master inflicts
+severe corporal chastisement on a slave. If the latter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> requires
+punishment, he is sent into the <i>Panaderia</i> (the bakehouse) to knead the
+dough and bake the bread, which work they perform under the supervision
+of a Mayordomo, who is usually a hard task-master. Owing to the heat of
+the climate, working in the <i>Panaderia</i> is more feared by the slaves
+than any other kind of punishment.</p>
+
+<p>In Lima the special laws for the protection of slaves are more
+favorable to them than the similar laws of any other slave country.
+The slaves bring their complaints before a particular judge, whose
+business it is to protect them against ill-treatment. A slave is free
+whenever he can pay the sum which his master demands for him,&mdash;which
+sum, in disputed cases, is fixed by legal decision. The slave also
+possesses the right of selling himself to another master, and the
+latter may pay the purchase-money to the former owner, who, however
+unwillingly, is obliged to conclude the bargain. The negroes have
+ample opportunities for saving money. They are permitted, during five
+or six hours of the day, to work for themselves; so that in the course
+of a few years they may with ease save the sum requisite for
+purchasing their independence. But in general they spend their
+earnings in mere idle enjoyments, and care but little about obtaining
+their freedom. As slaves they are provided with lodging, food, and
+clothing, and they are nursed in sickness; but as soon as they become
+free, they must supply all these wants for themselves; an undertaking
+which their natural indolence renders them little inclined to. On the
+whole, domestic negroes may be said to be willing slaves; it is
+possibly different with those employed in the plantations, who are
+liable to harder work and harsher treatment. I knew an old negro, who
+had hoarded up 6000 dollars, and yet did not purchase his own
+freedom, though he had paid for the liberation of his children and
+his two sisters. He often observed to me, that he should not be half
+so well off if he were free.</p>
+
+<p>The negroes brought from Africa, who are called <i>Bosales</i>, are far
+better than the Creole negroes. In physical strength they are inferior
+to the latter, and are less lively; yet they are patient, and much more
+faithful and attached to their masters than the Creole negroes born in
+Peru. The Bosales all have a certain degree of pride, but especially
+those who are of princely blood.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> A gentleman of old Spain bought a
+young negro princess, who not without the greatest difficulty could be
+brought to perform the duties of servitude. When she was directed to go
+to market, she set her basket down on the ground, and signified that she
+had been accustomed to be served, and not to serve. Some chastisement
+was resorted to, with the view of compelling her to do the duty allotted
+to her; but in vain. Her pride and obstinacy remained unconquerable.
+Sometimes she would sit for hours gloomily, with her eyes fixed on the
+ground, and muttering between her teeth, in her broken Spanish, the
+words, "<i>Yo clavita! yo clavita!</i>"<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> Then suddenly springing up, she
+would strike her head against the wall until she became almost
+senseless. As she showed a fondness for the children of the family, she
+was relieved from household work, and became the nursery-maid. In that
+way she discharged the duties which devolved on her with the most
+touching affection and fidelity; but she never would do anything,
+however trivial, which she considered to be menial service, and her
+master and mistress were reasonable enough not to require it.</p>
+
+<p>When the number of the African negroes in Lima was more considerable
+than it now is, the various races kept together, and formed
+themselves into unions, called <i>Cofradias</i>. They used to meet
+together at regular periods. At these meetings the negroes of
+princely descent were treated with marks of respect which they could
+scarcely have received in their native home. Speeches were delivered,
+and religious ceremonies performed; whilst music, singing, and
+dancing, revived recollections of past happiness, and of the
+far-distant native land. These Cofradias were also conducive to
+philanthropic ends; for when a slave had a hard master, the sum
+requisite for purchasing his freedom was raised by a general
+subscription in the union to which he belonged. Since the
+independence of Peru, and the consequent prohibition of the
+importation of negroes, the Cofradias have declined, and have lost
+much of their original character. Creoles and free negroes have now
+become members of them. The places in which these meetings are held
+are situated in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>suburb of San Lazaro. The walls of the rooms
+are painted with grotesque figures of negro kings, elephants,
+camels, palm trees, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>In Lima, and indeed throughout the whole of Peru, the free negroes are a
+plague to society. Too indolent to support themselves by laborious
+industry, they readily fall into any dishonest means of getting money.
+Almost all the robbers who infest the roads on the coast of Peru are
+free negroes. Dishonesty seems to be a part of their very nature; and
+moreover, all their tastes and inclinations are coarse and sensual. Many
+warm defenders of the negroes excuse these qualities by ascribing them
+to the want of education, the recollection of slavery, the spirit of
+revenge, &amp;c. But I here speak of free-born negroes, who are admitted
+into the houses of wealthy families, who from their early childhood have
+received as good an education as falls to the share of many of the white
+Creoles&mdash;who are treated with kindness and liberally remunerated, and
+yet they do not differ from their half-savage brethren who are shut out
+from these advantages. If the negro has learned to read and write, and
+thereby made some little advance in education, he is transformed into a
+conceited coxcomb, who, instead of plundering travellers on the highway,
+finds in city life a sphere for the indulgence of his evil propensities.
+What is the cause of this incorrigible turpitude of the negroes? To
+answer this important question is not easy, if we admit the principle
+that the negro is as capable of cultivation as the Caucasian; and in
+support of it the names of some highly-educated Ethiopians may be cited.
+Those who are disposed to maintain this principle, and who are at the
+same time intimately acquainted with the social relations of the
+countries in which free negroes are numerous, may solve the problem. My
+opinion is, that the negroes, in respect to capability for mental
+improvement, are far behind the Europeans, and that, considered in the
+aggregate, they will not, even with the advantages of careful education,
+attain a very high degree of cultivation; because the structure of the
+negro skull, on which depends the development of the brain, approximates
+closely to the animal form. The imitative faculty of the monkey is
+highly developed in the negro, who readily seizes anything merely
+mechanical,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> whilst things demanding intelligence are beyond his reach.
+Sensuality is the impulse which controls the thoughts, the acts, the
+whole existence of the negroes. To them freedom can be only nominal; for
+if they conduct themselves well it is because they are compelled, not
+because they are inclined to do so. Herein lie at once the cause of, and
+the apology for, their bad character.</p>
+
+<p>The negro women differ but little from the men, in their general
+characteristics. They are, however, more active and industrious, and
+better tempered. As domestic servants they are superior to the mixed
+races. They are much employed as nurses, and in those situations they
+discharge their duties well. Their personal vanity is boundless, and
+every real they can save is spent in dress and ornaments. It is amusing
+to see them, on festival days, parading about the streets, dressed in
+white muslin gowns trimmed with lace, and short sleeves displaying their
+black arms. Very short petticoats, seldom extending below the ankle,
+serve to exhibit the tawdry finery of red silk stockings and light blue
+satin shoes. From their ears are suspended long gold drops, and their
+uncovered necks are not unfrequently adorned with costly necklaces. A
+negress, who was a slave belonging to a family of my acquaintance,
+possessed a necklace composed of fine Panama pearls, worth several
+thousand dollars. The pure white of the pearls was wonderfully
+heightened by the contrast of the jet-black skin of the wearer; and for
+this reason they were more ornamental to the negress than they would
+have been to the fairest lady in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Having noticed the principal races, we will now consider the variegated
+mass of people of mixed blood, who in Lima form a considerable portion
+of the population. Stevenson<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> gives a long list of these mixed races,
+and specifies the proportionate degree, that is to say, how many eighths
+or sixteenths of black, brown, or white color belong to each. But these
+data respecting tint are fallacious, for, being founded solely on
+external appearance, they are liable to endless modifications. Stevenson
+falls into the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> mistake of giving to the children of a negro father and
+a white mother, the name of Zambos; whilst to the offspring of a white
+father and a black mother, he gives the name of Mulattos. By a similar
+error, he terms the children of a white man and a Cuarterona, Quinteros;
+and to those of a Cuarteron and a white woman, he gives the designation
+Cuarterones. It is, however, an established rule, that the children bear
+the designation, denoting the same degree of mixed blood, whatever may
+respectively be the colors of the parents. Accordingly, the child of a
+negro and a white woman is, properly speaking, a Mulatto; just the same
+as though the relations of race on the part of the parents were
+transposed. When a man of mixed blood marries a woman darker than
+himself, and his children thereby become further removed from the white
+tint, it is said to be <i>un paso atras</i> (a step backwards).</p>
+
+<p>In Europe it is very common to attach to the term <i>Creole</i>, the idea of
+a particular complexion. This is a mistake. The designation Creole
+properly belongs to all the natives of America born of parents who have
+emigrated from the Old World, be those parents Europeans or Africans.
+There are, therefore, white as well as black Creoles.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>The subjoined list shows the parentage of the different varieties of
+half-casts, and also the proper designations of the latter:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<table border="0" width="80%" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="varieties of half-casts">
+  <colgroup>
+    <col width="55%" />
+  </colgroup>
+  <colgroup>
+    <col width="45%" />
+  </colgroup>
+
+<tr>           <td class="colhead">PARENTS.</td>           <td class="colhead">CHILDREN.</td></tr>
+
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">White Father and Negro Mother</td>      <td class="lefthang"> Mulatto.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">White Father and Indian Mother</td>     <td class="lefthang">Mestizo.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Indian Father and Negro Mother</td>     <td class="lefthang">Chino.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">White Father and Mulatta Mother</td>    <td class="lefthang">Cuarteron.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">White Father and Mestiza Mother</td>    <td class="lefthang">Creole (only distinguished from the White, by a pale-brownish complexion).</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">White Father and China Mother</td>      <td class="lefthang">Chino-Blanco.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">White Father and Cuarterona Mother</td> <td class="lefthang">Quintero.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">White Father and Quintera Mother</td>   <td class="lefthang">White.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Negro Father and Mulatta Mother</td>    <td class="lefthang">Zambo-Negro.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Negro Father and Mestiza Mother</td>    <td class="lefthang">Mulatto-Oscuro.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Negro Father and China Mother</td>      <td class="lefthang">Zambo-Chino.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Negro Father and Zamba Mother</td>      <td class="lefthang">Zambo-Negro (perfectly bl'k).</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Negro Father and Cuarterona or Quintera Mother</td> <td class="lefthang">Mulatto (rather dark).</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Indian Father and Mulatta Mother</td>   <td class="lefthang">Chino-Oscuro.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Indian Father and Mestiza Mother</td>   <td class="lefthang">Mestizo-Claro (frequently very beautiful).</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Indian Father and China Mother</td>     <td class="lefthang">Chino-Cholo.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Indian Father and Zamba Mother</td>     <td class="lefthang">Zambo-Claro.</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Indian Father and China-Chola Mother</td> <td class="lefthang">Indian (with rather short frizzy hair).</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Indian Father and Cuarterona or Quintera Mother</td> <td class="lefthang">Mestizo (rather brown).</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Mulatto Father and Zamba Mother</td>    <td class="lefthang">Zambo (a miserable race).</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Mulatto Father and Mestiza Mother</td>  <td class="lefthang">Chino (of rather clear complexion).</td></tr>
+<tr>  <td class="lefthangpr">Mulatto Father and China Mother</td>    <td class="lefthang">Chino (rather dark).</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Besides the half-casts here enumerated, there are many others, not
+distinguished by particular names, as they do not in color materially
+differ from those above specified. The best criterion for determining
+the varieties is the hair of the women: this is far less deceiving
+than the complexion, for the color of the skin is sometimes
+decidedly at variance with that characteristic of the race. Some of
+the Mulatta females have complexions brilliantly fair, and features
+which, for regularity, may vie with those of the most beautiful
+women of Europe; but they bear the unmistakeable stamp of descent in
+the short woolly hair.</p>
+
+<p>The white Creole women of Lima have a peculiar quickness in detecting
+a person of half-cast at the very first glance; and to the less
+practised observer they communicate their discoveries in this way,
+with an air of triumph; for they have the very pardonable weakness of
+priding themselves in the purity of their European descent. Despite the
+republican constitution, there prevails throughout Peru a strong pride
+of cast, which shows itself at every opportunity. In quarrels, for
+example, the fairer antagonist always taunts the darker one about his
+descent. By all the varieties, the white skin is envied, and no one
+thinks of disputing its superiority of rank. The Indian looks with
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>abhorrence on the Negro; the latter with scorn on the Indio. The
+Mulatto fancies himself next to the European, and thinks that the
+little tinge of black in his skin does not justify his being ranked
+lower than the Mestizo, who after all is only an <i>Indio bruto</i>.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>
+The Zambo laughs at them all, and says "if he himself is not worth
+much, yet he is better than his parents." In short, each race finds a
+reason for thinking itself better than another.</p>
+
+<p>In the commencement of the present chapter I made the observation that
+the people of mixed blood unite in themselves all the faults without
+any of the virtues of their progenitors. To this general remark,
+however, the Mestizos form an honorable exception. They inherit many
+of the good qualities both of the Whites and the Indians. They are
+mild and affectionate. Their feelings are very excitable, and they
+readily perform an act of kindness or generosity on the impulse of
+the moment&mdash;but they are irresolute and timid. They attach themselves
+affectionately to the Whites; but they are not partial to the
+Indians, whom they regard with some degree of contempt. In Lima their
+number is less considerable than in the interior of the country,
+where whole villages are inhabited solely by Mestizos. In those
+places they style themselves Whites, and hold themselves very much
+aloof from the Indians. One cannot pay them a better compliment than
+to inquire whether they are Spaniards, a question which they always
+answer in the affirmative, though their features are plainly
+impressed with the Indian stamp. The complexion of the Mestizos is
+usually a clear brown; but in some individuals it has a very dark
+tinge. Their hair is sleek, long, and very strong. The women
+frequently wear their hair in two long plaits descending nearly to
+the knees. The men are strongly made, have marked features and but
+very little beard. In Lima they are chiefly handicraftsmen and
+traders. Most of the hawkers (Mercachifles) in Lima are Mestizos.</p>
+
+<p>The Mulattos differ very widely from the Mestizos. In person they are
+less strongly made; but in intellect they are superior to any of the
+half-casts. They possess a very great aptitude for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> mechanical
+employments, great dexterity and a remarkable degree of imitative
+talent, which, if well directed, might be brilliantly developed. They
+are exceedingly impressionable, and all their feelings are readily
+exalted into passions. Indifferent to all out sensual enjoyments, they
+indulge in the fleeting pleasure of the present moment, and are
+regardless of the future. There is a certain class of Mulattos, who,
+in a psychological point of view, are very remarkable. They are
+distinguished by the nick-name of <i>Palanganas</i>.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> They are gifted
+with wonderful memory, and after the lapse of years they will repeat,
+word for word, speeches or sermons which they have heard only once.
+With this extraordinary power of memory, they combine a fertile fancy,
+and a boundless share of self-confidence. Wherever there is anything
+to be seen or heard, the Palanganas never fail to attend, and they
+repeat with the most ludicrous attitudes and gestures all that they
+hear, be it a sermon in church, a speech in Congress, or an address
+delivered at any public solemnity.</p>
+
+<p>The Mulattos now study theology; for, since the establishment of
+independence, the Indian law, which prohibited any person of mixed
+blood from entering the ecclesiastical state, is no longer observed.
+Many have devoted themselves to medicine; and most of the physicians
+in Lima are Mulattos; but they are remarkable only for their
+ignorance, as they receive neither theoretical nor clinical
+instruction. Nevertheless, they enjoy the full confidence of the
+public, who rank the ignorant native far above the educated foreigner.
+The business of a barber is one that is much followed by the Mulattos
+of Lima. In that occupation they are quite in their element, for they
+possess all the qualifications for which the members of that
+fraternity are distinguished in all parts of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Mulatto females many are remarkably beautiful&mdash;though they
+are always wanting in that oval form of the face which is the first
+condition of classic beauty. Their countenances are generally round
+and broad, their features strongly marked,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> and their expression
+impassioned. Their beauty soon fades; and as they advance in life the
+negro character of their features becomes distinctly defined. Their
+hair, which does not grow beyond a finger's length, is jet black and
+frizzy. They plait it very ingeniously in small tresses, frequently
+making more than a hundred. Their complexions vary from white to
+dark-brown; but most of them are dark brunettes, with large black
+eyes and pearl-white teeth.</p>
+
+<p>Their vanity is quite equal to that of the Negresses, but it is
+combined with a certain degree of taste, in which the latter are
+wanting. The Mulatto women are passionately fond of music, singing
+and dancing. They play the guitar and have pleasing voices, but
+their singing is quite uninstructed.</p>
+
+<p>The Zambos are the most miserable class of half-casts. With them
+every vice seems to have attained its utmost degree of development;
+and it may confidently be said that not one in a thousand is a useful
+member of society, or a good subject of the state. Four-fifths of the
+criminals in the city jail of Lima are Zambos. They commit the most
+hideous crimes with the utmost indifference, and their lawless
+propensities are continually bringing them into collision with the
+constituted authorities. In moral nature they are below the Negroes;
+for they are totally wanting in any good qualities possessed by the
+latter. Their figures are athletic, and their color black, sometimes
+slightly tinged with olive-brown. Their noses are much less flat
+than those of the Negroes, but their lips are quite as prominent.
+Their eyes are sunk and penetrating, and their hair very little
+longer than that of the Negroes, but curling in larger locks. The
+men have very little beard.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinos are but little superior to the Zambos. Indeed, in physical
+formation they are inferior to them, for they are small and
+attenuated. Their countenances are hideously ugly. They have the Negro
+nose and mouth, and the Indian forehead, cheeks and eyes. Their hair
+is black, rough, but less frizzy than that of the Mulattos. They are
+deceitful, ill-tempered, and cruel. They never forget an offence, but
+brood over it till an opportunity, however distant, presents itself
+for wreaking their vengeance. They are very dangerous enemies.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>Respecting the half-casts of fairer complexion, especially the
+Cuarterones and the Quinteros, there is but little to be said. Both
+physically and morally they approximate closely to the whites, among
+whom they almost rank themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the foreigners in Lima, and indeed throughout the whole
+of Peru, are the families of the Spaniards from Europe, who emigrated to
+South America before the war of independence. Since the close of that
+struggle there has been but little emigration, as the circumstances of
+the country are not now very favorable to new settlers. The old Spanish
+families are for the most part landed proprietors or merchants. They are
+people of very temperate habits, but they are passionately fond of
+gaming, and in this respect they have bequeathed a dangerous inheritance
+to the Creoles. The pride and mercenary spirit which distinguished the
+Spaniards before the independence are now broken, if not entirely
+subdued. The intercourse between them and the natives, though still
+somewhat constrained, is every year becoming more and more friendly, as
+the privileges enjoyed by the Spaniards, which were a continued cause of
+hostile feeling, are now removed.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the Spaniards, the most numerous class of foreigners are the
+Italians. These are chiefly Genoese, and the majority are run-away
+sailors and adventurers. They usually begin by setting up a Pulperia (a
+brandy shop), or a spice shop, and gradually extend their traffic until,
+in the course of a few years, they amass money enough to return to their
+native country. Some of them make good fortunes and possess extensive
+warehouses.</p>
+
+<p>The French in Lima occupy the same positions as their countrymen in
+Valparaiso, viz., they are tailors and hair-dressers, dealers in
+jewellery and millinery.</p>
+
+<p>The English and North Americans, who are much better liked by the
+natives than the French, are chiefly merchants. They are the heads of
+the principal commercial houses, as Gibbs, Grawley &amp; Co., Alsop &amp; Co.,
+Templeman and Bergmann, Huth, Cr&uuml;ning &amp; Co., &amp;c. The enterprising
+spirit of the English and North Americans has led many of them into
+extensive mining<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> speculations, which in some instances have proved
+very unfortunate.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans in Lima are proportionally few. They are distinguished by
+their aptitude for business, and many of them fill high stations in the
+great English commercial houses. They are held in high esteem by the
+natives. The general gravity of their manners has given rise, among the
+Lime&ntilde;os, to the saying, "<i>Serio como un Aleman</i>"&mdash;Serious as a German.</p>
+
+<p>Settlers from the other American republics have of late years
+considerably increased in Lima. After the Chilian expedition, many
+Chilenos established themselves in Peru, and numbers of Argentinos,
+escaping from the terrorism of Rosas in Buenos Ayres, have taken refuge
+in Lima.</p>
+
+<p>Foreigners being in general more industrious and more steady than the
+Creoles, the Lime&ntilde;os readily form connexions with them. The ladies
+generally prefer marrying a <i>Gringo</i><a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> to a <i>Paisanito</i>.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p>I may close this chapter on the inhabitants of Lima, with some remarks
+on the Spanish language as spoken in the capital of Peru. The old
+Spaniards, who brought their various dialects into the New World, retain
+them there unchanged. The Galician transposes the letters <i>g</i> and <i>j</i>;
+the Catalonian adds an <i>s</i> to the final syllables of words, and gives a
+peculiarly harsh sound to the letter <i>j</i>; the Andalusian rolls the <i>r</i>
+over his tongue, and imparts a melodious expression even to
+harsh-sounding words; the Biscayan mingles a variety of provincialisms
+with his own peculiar dialect. The Madrile&ntilde;o (native of Madrid) prides
+himself here, as well as in Europe, in being far superior to the rest of
+his countrymen in elegance of pronunciation. The Creoles, however, have
+gradually dropped the characteristic dialects of their progenitors, and
+have adopted new ones, varying one from another in the different South
+American provinces. The Spanish language, as spoken by the natives of
+Peru, differs widely <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>from the correct and pure model of pronunciation.
+The inhabitants of the coast have too soft an accent, and they
+frequently confound, one with another, letters which have a mutual
+resemblance in sound. On the other hand, the people who dwell in the
+mountainous districts speak with a harsh accent, and very
+ungrammatically. As the Swiss force out their guttural tones from the
+lowest depth of their throats, and with the strongest possible
+aspiration, so do the Peruvians of the Cordillera. The inhabitants of
+the sand flats of North Germany, on the contrary, impart a ludicrously
+soft sound to the harsher consonants; and the same peculiarity is
+observable in the people who inhabit the coast of Peru.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the inhabitants of Lima, the white Creoles speak the best
+Spanish; but still their language is far from pure. The ladies in
+particular have the habit of substituting one letter for another in
+certain words; for example, instead of <i>pulso</i> (pulse) they say
+<i>purso</i>, and instead of <i>salsa</i> (sauce) they say <i>sarsa</i>. In other
+words they substitute <i>d</i> for <i>r</i>, saying <i>amod</i> for <i>amor</i>,
+<i>cavalledo</i> for <i>cavallero</i>. The <i>ll</i> is frequently sounded by the
+Peruvians like <i>y</i>, a blunder which foreigners are also very apt to
+commit; for example, in the word <i>pollo</i> (chicken), which they
+pronounce as if it were spelled <i>poyo</i>, and <i>gallina</i> (hen) they
+pronounce as if spelled <i>gayina</i>. Not only do they confound single
+letters, but they frequently change whole syllables; as for instance,
+in the word <i>pared</i> (wall), which they transform into <i>pader</i>. The
+name of the well-known ex-President Orbegoso was, by two-thirds of the
+natives of Lima, pronounced as if written <i>Obregoso</i>. There is no word
+in the Spanish language beginning with an <i>s</i> followed by a consonant,
+and the Lime&ntilde;os, when they attempt to pronounce foreign words or
+proper names commencing in the manner just described, never fail to
+prefix to them the letter <i>e</i>. I know not whether in the schools and
+colleges of old Spain this method of prefixing the letter <i>e</i> is
+adopted in teaching Latin; but the practice is universal among the
+students of all the colleges in Lima. For studium they say <i>estudium</i>;
+for spurius, <i>espurius</i>; for sceleratus, <i>esceleratus</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>To the Lime&ntilde;os the correct pronunciation of these words is extremely
+difficult, and many have assured me that they find it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> impossible to
+omit the <i>e</i> before the <i>s</i>. Still more arbitrary is their conversion
+of <i>h</i> into <i>k</i> in the words mihi, nihil, &amp;c., which they pronounce
+<i>miki</i>, <i>nikil</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The colored Creoles, who are generally uneducated, speak the Spanish
+language much more corruptly than the whites. The Negroes have a very
+bad accent. Their tongues seem quite unfitted for the pronunciation of
+the Spanish language, which many of them render unintelligible by
+transposing letters and lopping off syllables.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Interpretations of the Indian Laws.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> His divine genius has produced eternal spring in
+Arequipa.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> "Guia del Peru." "Observaciones sobre el clima de Lima y
+sus influencias en los seres organizados en especial el hombre."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The women of Lima clean their teeth several times a day
+with the root called <i>Raiz de dientes</i> (literally <i>root for the teeth</i>),
+of which they keep a piece constantly in their pocket.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> It is related that, during the war of independence, when
+Lima was alternately in possession of the Patriots and the Spaniards, a
+party of the latter, in order to ascertain the spirit of the Lime&ntilde;os,
+disguised themselves as Patriots and marched to the vicinity of the
+town. On their approach becoming known, a great number of persons
+proceeded from Callao to the Alameda to meet them. Among those who went
+forth to welcome the supposed patriots were a number of women dressed in
+the narrow <i>sayas</i> above described. When the disguised Spaniards had
+advanced within a little distance of the deceived multitude they began
+to attack them. The men saved themselves by flight; but the women, whose
+sayas impeded their motion, were unable to escape, and were almost all
+killed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> A <i>Tapada</i> is a lady closely concealed beneath the folds of
+her veil or manto. The term is derived from the verb <i>tapar</i>, to cover
+or conceal. <i>Taparse a media ojo</i>, is said of a lady when she draws her
+manto over her face so as to leave only one eye or rather the half of an
+eye uncovered.&mdash;T.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> A preparation of finely-bruised maize mixed with morsels of
+pork. It is rolled in maize leaves, and in that manner served up.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Sweet cakes made of maize and raisins.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> A syrup made from the pulp of fruit.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Preserved peas with syrup.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Literally Bigots.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Meaning <i>Yo esclavita!</i> (I, a slave!) <i>Esclavita</i> being the
+diminutive of <i>Esclava</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Narrative of twenty years' residence in South America, by
+W. B. Stevenson.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> The term Creole is a corruption of the Spanish word
+<i>criollo</i>, which is derived from <i>criar</i> to create or to foster. The
+Spaniards apply the term <i>criollo</i> not merely to the human race, but
+also to animals propagated in the colonies, but of pure European blood:
+thus they have <i>creole</i> horses, bullocks, poultry, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> A brutish Indian; a favorite expression of the Lime&ntilde;os when
+speaking of the Indians, who certainly do not merit the compliment.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The word <i>Palangana</i> signifies a wash-hand-basin; but more
+especially the kind of basin used by barbers. Figuratively the term is
+used to designate an empty babbler.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Gringo</i> is a nickname applied to Europeans. It is probably
+derived from <i>Griego</i> (Greek). The Germans say of anything
+incomprehensible, "That sounds like Spanish,"&mdash;and in like manner the
+Spaniards say of anything they do not understand, "That is Greek."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <i>Paisanito</i> is the diminutive of <i>Paisano</i>
+(Compatriot.)</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Primary Schools&mdash;&#8203;Colleges&mdash;&#8203;The University&mdash;&#8203;Monks&mdash;&#8203;Saints&mdash;&#8203;Santo
+Toribio and Santa Rosa&mdash;&#8203;Religious Processions&mdash;&#8203;Raising the
+Host&mdash;&#8203;The Noche Buena&mdash;&#8203;The Carnival&mdash;&#8203;Paseos, or Public
+Promenades&mdash;&#8203;Ice&mdash;&#8203;Riding and Driving&mdash;&#8203;Horses&mdash;&#8203;Their Equipments and
+Training&mdash;&#8203;Mules&mdash;&#8203;Lottery in Lima&mdash;&#8203;Cookery&mdash;&#8203;Breakfasts, Dinners,
+&amp;c.&mdash;&#8203;Coffee-houses and Restaurants&mdash;&#8203;Markets&mdash;&#8203;The <i>Plazo Firme del
+Acho</i>&mdash;&#8203;Bull Fights.</p>
+
+<p>Schools for primary instruction are numerous in Lima, and upon the
+whole they are tolerably well conducted. There are thirty-six of these
+primary schools, public and private; twenty for boys, and sixteen for
+girls; and altogether about 2000 pupils<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> receive in these
+establishments the first elements of juvenile instruction. The
+principal public institutions of this class are the Normal School of
+Santo Tomas (in which the Lancasterian system is adopted), and the
+Central School of San Lazaro. Each contains from 320 to 350 pupils. Of
+the private schools, some are very well conducted by Europeans. The
+College of Nuestra Se&ntilde;ora de Guadalupe was founded a few years ago by
+two Spanish merchants. In this establishment the sons of the wealthier
+class of people may receive a better education than they can obtain in
+the public schools. There are three Latin schools, and the number of
+pupils attending them amounts to about two hundred.</p>
+
+<p>The College of Santo Toribio is exclusively appropriated to students of
+theology, who are likewise received into the College of San Carlos,
+though the latter is chiefly destined for the study of jurisprudence.
+San Carlos was founded in the year 1770 by the Viceroy Amat, who
+incorporated with it the previously existing Colleges of San Martin and
+San Felipe. In the year 1822<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> the Colegio de Esquilache was likewise
+united to San Carlos, which now contains about a hundred students. The
+building is large and commodious, containing spacious halls, a fine
+refectory, and a well-stored library. There are five professors of law
+and two of theology. French, English, geography, natural philosophy,
+mathematics, drawing, and music are likewise taught in this college. The
+annual revenue of the establishment, exclusively of the fees paid by the
+students, amounts to 19,000 dollars. During the war of emancipation,
+this establishment for a time bore the name of Colegio de San Martin, in
+honor of General San Martin, the liberator of Chile; but its original
+title was soon restored.</p>
+
+<p>The Colegio de San Fernando was founded in 1810 by the Marques de la
+Concordia, for students of medicine. In the year 1826 this Institution
+received the name of <i>Colegio de la Medecina de la Independencia</i>, a
+title which it justly merits, for certainly medicine is taught there
+with a singular independence of all rules and systems. The Professors,
+who themselves have never received any regular instruction, communicate
+their scanty share of knowledge in a very imperfect manner to the
+students. The number of the students is between twelve and fifteen, and
+there are two Professors. The clinical lectures are delivered in the
+Hospital of San Andres, to which an anatomical amphitheatre was
+attached in 1792. The heat of the climate renders it necessary that
+burials should take place within twenty-four hours after death, a
+circumstance which naturally operates as an impediment to the
+fundamental study of anatomy. It cannot therefore be matter of surprise
+that the native surgeons should have but a superficial knowledge of
+that important branch of science.</p>
+
+<p>In the University of San Marcos no lectures are delivered, and the
+twenty-five Professors' chairs are merely nominal. Honors and degrees
+are however conferred in San Marcos, and the same rules and ceremonies
+are observed as in the Spanish Universities. In the departments of
+medicine and jurisprudence there are three degrees; those of Bachelor,
+Licentiate, and Doctor. In former times the dignity of Doctor was
+conferred with great pomp and solemnity, and the public were admitted in
+large numbers to witness the ceremony. The acquisition of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> degree of
+Doctor was then attended by an expense of about two thousand dollars,
+chiefly expended in presents. The new Doctor was required to send to
+every member of the University, from the Bachelors to the Rector, a new
+dollar, a goblet full of ice, and a dish of pastry.</p>
+
+<p>Lima is overrun with monks, lay and conventual. The monastic regulations
+are not very strict, for the monks are permitted to leave the convents
+at all hours, according to their own pleasure. They avail themselves of
+this liberty to the utmost extent. Friars of various orders are seen in
+the streets in numbers. Most of them are fat Dominicans, who sit in the
+Portales playing at draughts, or lounge in shops staring at the
+<i>Tapadas</i> as they pass by. Many of these ecclesiastics are remarkable
+for their disregard of personal cleanliness; indeed it would be
+difficult to meet with a more slovenly, ignorant, and common-place class
+of men. They frequent all places of public entertainment, the
+coffee-houses, the chichereas, the bull-fights, and the theatres: these
+two last-mentioned places of amusement they visit in disguise. The
+Franciscans and the Mercenarias are little better than the Dominicans;
+but the Descalzados (barefooted friars) lead a somewhat more strict and
+regular life. To the monks of the <i>Buena Muerte</i> belongs the duty of
+administering the last consolation to the dying. Whenever they hear of
+any person who is dangerously ill, they hasten to the house without
+waiting till they are sent for, and they never leave the invalid until
+he either recovers or dies. Day and night they sit by the sick-bed, and
+scarcely allow themselves time for necessary rest and refreshment. I
+have known many of these monks who, from long experience and
+observation, but without any medical knowledge, had acquired wonderful
+shrewdness in determining the degree of danger in cases of illness, and
+who could foretel with almost unfailing certainty the moment of
+dissolution. As soon as the patient has breathed his last, the monk
+utters a short prayer, then giving the corpse a knock on the nose, he
+silently takes his departure. I have frequently witnessed this singular
+custom, but I never could discover its origin or motive. The habit worn
+by the monks of <i>Buena Muerte</i> is black, with a large red cross on the
+breast, and hats with high conical crowns.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>Many pious natives, or inhabitants of Lima, have been admitted among the
+number of the saints. Of these the most distinguished was the Spaniard
+Toribio, who, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, filled the
+archiepiscopal chair in Lima. His kindness and charity have become
+proverbial, and his many acts of benevolence are still alive in the
+recollection of the people. Of many anecdotes that are related of him, I
+may here quote one. Late one night, the patrol who was on duty in the
+vicinity of the archbishop's palace, met a man in the street carrying a
+heavy load on his back. The challenge, "Who goes there?" was answered by
+the name "Toribio." The watch, uttering an oath, impatiently called out
+"Que Toribio?" (What Toribio?) "El de la esquina!" (He who dwells at the
+corner!) was the simple reply. The soldier angrily stepped up to his
+interlocutor, and, to his astonishment, recognized the archbishop, who
+was carrying a sick person to the hospital.</p>
+
+<p>The saint to whom the Lime&ntilde;os render the highest honor, is Santa Rosa,
+the saint of the city. She was a native of Lima, and is the only
+Peruvian female who has attained the honor of being ranked among the
+saints. On the 30th of August, the festival of Santa Rosa is
+celebrated with great pomp in the cathedral, and her image, richly
+bedecked with gold and jewels, is carried in solemn procession from
+Santo Domingo to the Sagrario.</p>
+
+<p>Religious processions are among the most favorite amusements of the
+inhabitants of Lima. They are always very numerously attended; and it
+may fairly be said that no merry-making would afford the Lime&ntilde;os so much
+diversion as they derive from these pious solemnities. Vast numbers of
+ladies join the processions as Tapadas, indulging in all sorts of
+coquettish airs, and with thoughts evidently bent on any subject but
+religion. The gentlemen station themselves in groups at the corners of
+the streets, to admire the graceful figures of the Tapadas, whose faces
+are concealed; and when the procession has passed one corner they rush
+to another, to see it defile a second time; and in this manner continue
+moving from place to place, as if they could never see enough of the
+interesting spectacle. The most brilliant processions are those which
+take place on the festivals of Corpus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> Christi, San Francisco, and Santo
+Domingo. A very solemn procession takes place on the 28th of October,
+the anniversary of the great earthquake of 1746.</p>
+
+<p>Every morning, at a quarter to nine, the great bell of the cathedral
+announces the raising of the host, during the performance of high mass.
+Immediately every sound is hushed in the streets and squares. Coachmen
+stop the carriages, riders check their horses, and foot-passengers stand
+motionless. Every one suspends his occupation or his conversation, and
+kneeling down, with head uncovered, mutters a prayer. But scarcely has
+the third solemn stroke of the bell ceased to vibrate, when the noise
+and movement are resumed; the brief but solemn stillness of the few
+preceding moments being thus rendered the more impressive by contrast.
+The same incident is renewed in the evening, between six and seven
+o'clock, when the bell sounds for the Angelus (Oraciones). The cathedral
+bell gives the signal, by three slow, measured sounds, which are
+immediately repeated from the belfries of all the churches in Lima. Life
+and action are then, as if by an invisible hand, suddenly suspended;
+nothing moves but the lips of the pious, whispering their prayers. The
+<i>Oracion</i> being ended, every one makes the sign of the cross, and says
+to the person nearest him, <i>Bue&ntilde;as noches</i> (Good night). It is regarded
+as an act of courtesy to allow another to take precedence in saying
+"Good night," and if several persons are together, it is expected that
+the eldest or the most distinguished of the group should be the first to
+utter the greeting. It is considered polite to request the person next
+one to say <i>Bue&ntilde;as noches</i>; he with equal civility declines; and the
+alternate repetition of "<i>diga Vm.</i>" (you say it), "<i>No, Se&ntilde;or, diga
+Vm.</i>" (No, Sir, you say it), threatens sometimes to be endless.</p>
+
+<p>The effect produced by the three strokes of the cathedral bell is truly
+astonishing. The half-uttered oath dies on the lips of the uncouth
+negro; the arm of the cruel Zambo, unmercifully beating his ass, drops
+as if paralyzed; the chattering mulatto seems as if suddenly struck
+dumb; the smart repartee of the lively Tapada is cut short in its
+delivery; the shopkeeper lays down his measure; the artizan drops his
+tool; and the monk suspends his move on the draught-board: all, with one
+accord,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> join in the inaudible prayer. Here and there the sight of a
+foreigner walking along indifferently, and without raising his hat,
+makes a painful impression on the minds of the people.</p>
+
+<p>Christmas-night (<i>Noche buena</i>) is a great festival in Lima. The streets
+and squares, especially the <i>Plaza Mayor</i>, are crowded with people,
+amusing themselves in all sorts of ways. Hundreds of persons take their
+seats on the benches of the Plaza; there they regale themselves with
+sherbet, ices, and pastry, and look at the dancing of the negroes, &amp;c.
+On this occasion the midnight mass is performed with extraordinary
+solemnity. On Christmas-day some of the families of Lima get up what are
+called <i>Nacimientos</i>, consisting of symbolical representations of the
+birth of the Saviour. On some of these shows considerable expense and
+ingenuity are bestowed.</p>
+
+<p>In Carnival time Lima is so unpleasant a place of residence that many
+families retire to the country during that season of misrule. One of the
+favorite sports consists in sprinkling people with water; and from all
+the balconies various kinds of liquids are thrown on the passers-by.
+Groups of Negroes post themselves at the corners of the streets, where
+they seize people, and detain them prisoners, until they ransom
+themselves by the payment of a certain sum of money. Those who do not
+pay the money are rolled in the street gutters, and treated in the most
+merciless way; whilst those who purchase grace escape with having a few
+handfulls of dirty water thrown in their faces. Even in private houses,
+relations and intimate acquaintances are guilty of the most
+unwarrantable annoyances. Parties of young men enter the houses of
+families with whom they are acquainted, and begin sprinkling the ladies
+with scented water. That being exhausted, spring water, or even dirty
+water, is resorted to, so that what began in sport ends in reckless
+rudeness. The ladies, with their clothes dripping wet, are chased from
+room to room, and thereby become heated. The consequence is, in many
+instances, severe and dangerous illness. Inflammation of the lungs,
+ague, rheumatism, &amp;c., are the usual results of these carnival sports,
+to which many fall victims. A year never passes in which several murders
+are not committed, in revenge for offences perpetrated during the
+saturnalia of the carnival.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>A very favorite trick adopted in carnival time, for frightening people
+as they pass along the streets, is the following:&mdash;a sack, filled with
+fragments of broken glass and porcelain, is fastened to the balcony by a
+strong rope, of such a length that, when suspended from the window, the
+sack is about seven feet above the street. The apparatus being all
+ready, a mischievous negress and her <i>amita</i> (young mistress) watch the
+passers-by until they select one for their victim. The sack is then
+thrown over the front of the balcony, and a deafening crash ensues,
+though the rope prevents its contents from hurting any one. It is well
+known that in almost every street in Lima there is at least one balcony
+ready prepared for the performance of this trick; yet the suddenness of
+the crash always proves a shock, even to the strongest nerves. People
+start and run to one side of the street, and are sometimes so terrified
+that they drop down; then loud laughter and jeering remarks are heard in
+the balcony. Every year this trick is prohibited by the police, but the
+prohibition is treated with contempt.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most popular recreations of the Lime&ntilde;os, especially of the
+people of color, is the <i>Paseo de Amancaes</i>, which takes place on St.
+John's Day. The Amancaes is a gently sloping plain, about half a mile
+north-west of Lima, and it is bounded by a semicircular range of hills,
+which rise from twelve to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the
+sea. During the hot months of the year this plain is a parched and
+barren waste; but when the misty and rainy season sets in, the Amancaes
+is covered with numerous flowers, among which a beautiful yellow lily is
+conspicuous. About the end of June this lily is in full bloom. On St.
+John's Day booths and stalls are fitted up for the sale of various kinds
+of refreshments, and throngs of people of all classes and colors are
+seen riding or walking in the direction of the Amancaes. There they
+amuse themselves with dancing, playing, eating, drinking, and gathering
+flowers; and in the evening they return to Lima. It is amusing to see
+the Mulattas and Zambas with bouquets of yellow lilies stuck in their
+heads and bosoms. These women crowd into heavily-laden vehicles, beside
+which their black cavaliers ride on horseback&mdash;all laughing, jesting,
+and giving vent to unrestrained mirth. From the 24th<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> of June to the end
+of October, pleasure parties repair on Sundays and festival days, either
+to the Amancaes or to the Lomas. The latter is a range of hills a little
+further from Lima.</p>
+
+<p>There is no want of promenades in the vicinity of the city. Leading from
+the Callao gate is the fine long avenue of trees I have already
+mentioned. In the suburb of San Lazaro there is a fine broad promenade
+planted with trees, called the <i>alameda vieja</i>, at the end of which is
+situated the Convent of the Descalzos. Along the bank of the Rimac there
+is a new promenade planted with four rows of trees, called the <i>alameda
+nueva</i>. Behind it the <i>Paseo militar</i>, with two rows of trees, extending
+as far as <i>Piedra lisa</i>, on the road to the pleasant village of
+Lurigancho. On the right of these promenades is the river, on the left
+the pyramidal hill, of the Cerro de San Cristoval. At the extremity of
+the Alameda nueva are the Puquio.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> These baths are within a long
+low-roofed building, covered on the top with straw mats.</p>
+
+<p>On summer evenings the bridge and the Plaza Mayor are visited by
+throngs of promenaders who there enjoy the refreshing breeze, which,
+after sunset, is wafted from the Cordilleras, along the surface of the
+Rimac. After the hour of the <i>Oraciones</i> (evening prayers), the bridge
+is crowded with gentlemen, who walk up and down whilst the ladies sit
+in the rotundas built above each of the piers. Long rows of
+promenaders are seen moving to and fro, either going to the Alamedas,
+or returning from thence to the Plaza, to obtain refreshments. Before
+the Portal de los Escribanos, on the Plaza Mayor, tables are laid out
+with lemonade, almond milk and ices. The promenaders sit down on
+benches, which are placed round these tables, and partake of
+refreshments, none of which, however, are so delicious as the cool
+breeze after the sultry heat of the day.</p>
+
+<p>To the inhabitants of Lima, ice is one of the necessaries of life: it is
+considered so indispensable, that a scarcity of it, during several days,
+would be sufficient to excite popular ferment. In all revolutions,
+therefore, the leaders carefully avoid calling into requisition the
+service of the mules employed in the transport of ice. It is obtained in
+the Cordilleras, at the distance of about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> twenty-eight leagues from
+Lima. The Indians who ascend the glaciers break the ice into blocks of
+about six arobas in weight, which are lowered by ropes down the
+declivity of the mountain. The women and children then cover the blocks
+of ice with Ichu grass (<i>Joara ichu</i>, R. P.), after which they are drawn
+by another party of Indians to a dep&ocirc;t, about two leagues distant, where
+they are packed on the backs of mules. Each mule carries two blocks.
+Thirty mules form what is called a <i>Recua</i>, which daily proceeds from
+the ice dep&ocirc;t to Lima. At intervals of two or three miles there are
+stations where relays of mules are in readiness. The operations of
+unloading and reloading are performed with the utmost possible speed,
+and the mules are driven at a brisk trot, wherever the roads will admit
+of it. In the space of eighteen or twenty hours, the ice reaches Lima,
+and as may be expected, considerably reduced in weight by melting. The
+average loss on two blocks of ice is about one hundred pounds.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The
+daily consumption of ice in Lima is between fifty and fifty-five cwt.
+About two-thirds of that quantity is used for preparing ices, most of
+which are made of milk or pine-apple juice. Ice is hawked about the
+streets of Lima for sale, and all day long Indians, carrying pails on
+their heads, perambulate the streets, crying <i>helado</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The ladies of Lima, when they make visits, seldom go on foot. They
+generally ride in the <i>caleza</i>, a very ugly kind of vehicle, being
+nothing more than a square box raised on two high wheels, and drawn
+by a mule, on whose back a negro in livery is mounted. Many of the
+older calezas, instead of being painted on the outside, are covered
+with variegated paper. The calezin is a prettier kind of carriage,
+and is drawn by two horses or mules. Taste in the article of carriages
+is, however, improving in Lima, and several very elegant ones have
+been recently introduced.</p>
+
+<p>Within the last few years a regular line of omnibuses has been
+established between Callao and Lima. From each of those <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>cities an
+omnibus starts daily, at eight in the morning and at four in the
+afternoon, and the journey occupies an hour and a half. To Miraflores,
+Chorillos, Lurin, and other places on the coast, the conveyance is by
+a <i>balanzin</i>, a sort of caleza, drawn by three horses harnessed
+abreast. This balanzin is one of the most awkward vehicles ever
+invented, and the slightest shock it sustains is felt with double
+force by the persons riding in it. At greater distances from the
+capital, the want of proper roads renders the employment of vehicles a
+matter of difficulty. Even along the coast to the south of Lima, a
+journey of about forty leagues cannot be accomplished without vast
+difficulty and expense. On such a journey it is usual for a train of
+sixty or eighty horses to accompany the carriage; and it is found
+necessary to change the horses every half-hour, owing to the
+difficulty of drawing the carriage through the fine quicksand, which
+is often more than a foot deep. A Peruvian planter, who was accustomed
+to take his wife every year on a visit to his plantation, situated
+about thirty-two leagues from Lima, assured me that the journey to and
+fro always cost him 1400 dollars.</p>
+
+<p>During the brilliant period of the Spanish domination, incredible sums
+were frequently expended on carriages and mules. Not unfrequently the
+tires of the caleza wheels and the shoes of the mules were of silver
+instead of iron.</p>
+
+<p>In Peru, riding is a universal custom, and almost every person keeps
+one or more horses. The ladies of Lima are distinguished as graceful
+horsewomen. Their equestrian costume consists of a white riding-habit,
+trowsers richly trimmed with lace, a fine white poncho, and a
+broad-brimmed straw hat. Some of the females of the colored races make
+use of men's saddles, and display great skill in the management of the
+most unruly horses.</p>
+
+<p>The horse-trappings used in Peru are often very costly. On the coast and
+in the interior, I have sometimes seen head-gear, bridle, and crupper,
+composed of finely-wrought silver rings, linked one into another. The
+saddle is frequently ornamented with rich gold embroidery, and the
+holster inlaid with gold. The stirrups are usually the richest portion
+of the trappings. They are made of carved wood, and are of pyramidal
+shape; about a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> foot high and a foot broad at the base. In front and at
+the sides they are close, and are open only at the back in the part
+where the foot rests. The edges are rimmed with silver, and the top of
+the stirrup is surmounted by a bell of the same metal, with a ring
+through which the straps are passed. A priest with whom I was acquainted
+in the Sierra, got a saddle and a pair of stirrups made for me. The
+silver ornaments on the stirrups alone weighed forty pounds. The
+decorations of the saddle were of corresponding richness. The value of
+the silver on both saddle and stirrups was about 1500 dollars. The spurs
+used in Peru are of colossal magnitude. Old custom ordains that they
+must contain three marks (a pound and a half) of silver. The stirrup-bow
+is broad and richly wrought; the ornaments being either of the pattern
+called <i>hueso de tollo</i>,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> or of that styled <i>hoja de laurel con
+semilla</i>.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> The rowel is one and a half or two inches in diameter, and
+the points are about twenty-five or thirty inches long.</p>
+
+<p>In the bridle, the bit and the snaffle are in one piece, and the reins
+are brought together by being passed through a ring, to which the long
+riding-whip is also fastened. The head-band and reins are commonly
+composed of narrow slips of untanned calf or sheep-skin, plaited
+together, and ornamented with silver buckles. The saddle is short and
+narrow, and exceedingly awkward to riders unaccustomed to it. The front
+bolster is four or five inches high, and inclines backward; the hind one
+is lower, and is curved forward in the form of a half-moon; the
+intervening space just affording sufficient room for the thighs of the
+rider, who, in a saddle of this construction, is so firmly fixed that he
+cannot possibly fall. These saddles have, however, one great
+disadvantage, viz., that if the horse starts off at a gallop, and the
+rider has not time to throw himself back in his seat, he is forced
+against the front saddle-bolster with such violence that some fatal
+injury is usually the consequence. Under the saddle is laid a
+horse-cloth, called the <i>pellon</i>, about a yard long, and a yard and a
+half wide. The common sort of pellones are composed of two <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>rough
+sheep-skins, sewed together. In the finer kind, the raw wool is combed
+out, and divided into numberless little twists, of about the length of
+one's finger; so that the pellon resembles the skin of some
+long-haired animal. The finest Peruvian pellones are made of a mixture
+of sheep's wool and goat's hair. Between the saddle and the pellon are
+fastened the saddle-bags (<i>alforjas</i>), which, on long journeys, are
+filled with provisions and other necessaries. These bags are made
+either of leather or strong woollen cloth; finally, the trappings of a
+Peruvian horse are not complete without the halter (<i>haquima</i>), which
+is ornamented in the same manner as the bridle. The halter-strap
+(<i>cabresto</i>) is wound round the front bolster of the saddle, and by it
+the horse may be fastened whenever the rider alights, without the use
+of the reins for that purpose. At first a foreigner is apt to regard
+the equipments of a Peruvian horse as superfluous and burthensome; but
+he is soon convinced of their utility, and, when the eye becomes
+familiar to them, they have a pleasing effect.</p>
+
+<p>The pure-bred Peruvian horse is more elegantly formed than his
+Andalusian progenitor. He is of middling size, seldom exceeding
+fourteen hands high. He has a strong expanded chest, slender legs,
+thin pasterns, a short muscular neck, a rather large head, small
+pointed ears, and a fiery eye. He is spirited, docile, and enduring.
+It is only in a few plantations that the purity of the race is
+preserved, and the animals fostered with due care. The common horse is
+higher, leaner, less broad on the chest, and with the crupper thinner
+and more depressed. He is, however, not less fiery and capable of
+endurance than the horse of pure breed. The most inferior horses are
+ill-looking, small, and rough-skinned.</p>
+
+<p>On the coast of Peru the horses are for the most part natural amblers,
+and, if they do not amble naturally, they are taught to do so. There are
+several varieties of amble peculiar to the Peruvian horse; the most
+approved is that called the <i>paso llano</i>. It is very rapid, but not
+attended by any jolting motion to the rider. A well-trained horse may
+safely be ridden by a young child at the <i>paso llano</i>; the motion being
+so gentle and regular, that the rider may carry a cup of water in his
+hand without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> spilling a drop, at the same time going at the rate of two
+leagues an hour. Another variety of ambling is called the <i>paso
+portante</i>. It consists in the fore and hind foot of one side being
+raised simultaneously, and thrust forward. In this movement, the greater
+or less speed depends on the degree in which the hind foot is advanced
+in comparison with the fore one. It is a rapid, rocking sort of motion,
+and for long continuance is much more wearying to the rider than the
+common trot, as the body cannot be held upright, but must be kept in a
+constant stooping position. The speed of a good ambler in the <i>paso
+portante</i> is so great, that he will outstrip another horse at full
+gallop. The giraffe, as well as the Peruvian horse, has this peculiar
+movement naturally. The <i>paso compa&ntilde;ero</i> is merely a nominal
+modification of the <i>paso portante</i>. Many horses have no <i>paso llano</i>,
+but in its stead a short trot. These have naturally the <i>paso portante</i>,
+but they are little esteemed for travelling, though they are good
+working animals. They are called <i>cavallos aguelillos</i>. Trotting horses
+cannot be taught the <i>paso llano</i>, though they easily acquire the <i>paso
+portante</i>. These are called <i>cavallos trabados</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In Peru a horse is valued less for beauty of form than for the
+perfection of his amble. The finest trotters are sold at very low
+prices, and are used exclusively as carriage horses. If a horse when
+spurred has the habit of flapping his tail, it is considered a serious
+fault, and greatly depreciates the value of the animal. This vice is
+called <i>mosquear</i> (literally brushing off the mosquitoes), and the
+Peruvians cure it by an incision in the muscle of the tail, by which
+means the horse is disabled from making the movement.</p>
+
+<p>The Peruvians take very little care of their horses. The remark, that
+the more the horse is tended, the worse he is, would seem to be a
+generally admitted truth in Peru. The stable (<i>coral</i>) is either totally
+roofless, or very indifferently sheltered. In the mountainous parts of
+the country, and during the rainy season, horses are frequently, for the
+space of six months, up to their knees in mud, and yet they never seem
+to be the worse for it. The fodder consists of lucern (<i>alfalfa</i>), or
+maisillo, which is usually thrown down on the ground, though sometimes
+placed in a stone trough, and the drink of the animals consists of
+impure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> water collected from the ditches at the road sides. Occasionally
+the horses are fed with maize, which they are very fond of. As no oats
+are grown in Peru, barley is given together with maize, especially in
+the interior of the country. Mares and geldings have sometimes the hair
+between the ears cut off quite closely, and the mane arranged in short
+curls, which gives them a resemblance to the horses in ancient
+sculpture. Mares are but little valued, so little indeed, that no
+respectable person will ride one.</p>
+
+<p>The horse-breakers (<i>chalanes</i>) are generally free men of color. They
+possess great bodily vigor, and understand their business thoroughly;
+but they use the horses very cruelly, and thereby render them shy. For
+the first three years foals are suffered to roam about with perfect
+freedom; after that time they are saddled, an operation not performed
+without great difficulty, and sometimes found to be impracticable,
+until the animal is thrown on the ground and his limbs tied. The young
+horse under the management of the <i>chalan</i> is trained in all sorts of
+equestrian feats, especially the art of pirouetting (<i>voltear</i>). This
+consists in turning either wholly or half round on the hind legs with
+great rapidity and when at full gallop. Another important object of
+the <i>chalan</i> is to teach the horse to stop short suddenly, and to
+stand perfectly motionless (<i>sentarse</i>) at the signal of his rider;
+and to go backward (<i>cejar</i>) for a considerable space in a straight
+line. When all this is accomplished, the horse is regarded as
+completely broken (<i>quebrantado</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As an instance of the certainty with which a Peruvian horse will make a
+pirouette (<i>voltata</i>) at the signal of his rider, I may mention the
+following fact, which occurred under my own observation. A friend of
+mine, in Lima, rode at full gallop up to the city wall (which is
+scarcely nine feet broad), leaped upon it, and then made his horse
+perform a complete <i>voltata</i>, so that the fore-feet of the animal
+described the segment of a circle beyond the edge of the wall. The feat
+he performed several times in succession, and he assured me he could do
+the same with all his horses.</p>
+
+<p>Peruvian taste requires that the neck of the horse should present a
+finely-curved outline, and that the mouth should be drawn inward, so as
+to approach the breast. The horses called <i>Cavallos</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> de Brazo are much
+esteemed. At every step they describe a large circle with their
+fore-feet, in such a manner that the horse-shoe strikes the lower part
+of the stirrup. This motion is exceedingly beautiful when combined with
+what is termed the "Spanish pace," in which the noble form of the animal
+and his proud bearing are advantageously displayed.</p>
+
+<p>The mule is a very important animal in Peru. The badness of the roads
+would render commercial communication impracticable, were it not for
+mules. The Peruvian mules are fine, strong animals. The best are reared
+in Piura, and sent to Lima for sale. The amblers are selected for the
+saddle, the trotters for harness, and the rest are used as beasts of
+burthen. The price of a mule of middling quality is one hundred dollars;
+a better one double or treble that price; and the very best may even
+cost ten times as much. The endurance of these animals under fatigue and
+indifferent nurture is extraordinary, and without them the vast sand
+plains of Peru would present insuperable obstacles to intercourse
+between one place and another. In the power of continuous ambling they
+exceed the horses, and are often equal to them in speed.</p>
+
+<p>In Lima there is a public lottery, which the Government farms to a
+private individual, for a considerable sum. The tickets are drawn
+weekly. The price of a ticket is one real. The largest prize is 1000
+dollars; the smaller prizes 500, 250, or 100 dollars. A lottery on a
+larger scale is drawn every three months. The highest prize in this
+lottery is 4000 dollars, and the price of the ticket is four reals. To
+every ticket is affixed a motto, usually consisting of an invocation to
+a saint, and a prayer for good luck, and at the drawing of the lottery
+this motto is read aloud when the number of the ticket is announced. Few
+of the inhabitants of Lima fail to buy at least one ticket in the weekly
+lottery. The negroes are particularly fond of trying their luck in this
+way, and in many instances fortune has been singularly kind to them.</p>
+
+<p>"Eating and drinking keep soul and body together." So says the German
+proverb; and it may not be uninteresting to take a glance at the Lime&ntilde;os
+during their performance of these two important operations. The hour of
+breakfast is generally nine in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> the morning. The meal consists of boiled
+mutton (<i>Sancochado</i>), soup (<i>Caldo</i>), with yuccas, a very
+pleasant-tasted root, and <i>Chupe</i>. This last-mentioned dish consists, in
+its simplest form, merely of potatoes boiled in very salt water, with
+cheese and Spanish pepper. When the chupe is made in better style, eggs,
+crabs, and fried fish are added to the ingredients already named; and it
+is then a very savory dish. Chocolate and milk are afterwards served. A
+negress brings the <i>Chocolatera</i> into the breakfast-room, and pours out
+a cup full for each person. The natives prefer the froth to the actual
+beverage; and many of the negresses are such adepts in the art of
+pouring out, that they will make the cup so overflow with foam, that it
+contains scarcely a spoonful of liquid. Chocolate is the favorite
+beverage of the Peruvians. In the southern parts of the country it is
+customary to offer it to visitors at all hours of the day. The visitor
+is no sooner seated than he is presented with a cup of coffee, which is
+often so thick that the spoon will stand upright in it. It would be a
+breach of politeness to decline this refreshment, and whether agreeable
+or not it must be swallowed!</p>
+
+<p>The best cocoa is obtained from the Monta&ntilde;as of Urubamba, and from the
+Bolivian Yungas. The long land transport, however, renders it very
+dear, and therefore the nuts brought from Guayaquil are those commonly
+used in Lima.</p>
+
+<p>Dinner, which takes place about two or three in the afternoon, commences
+with a very insipid kind of soup. This is followed by the <i>Puchero</i>,
+which is the principal dish. Puchero, made in its best style, contains
+beef, pork, bacon, ham, sausage, poultry, cabbage, yuccas, camotes (a
+sort of sweet potato), potatoes, rice, peas, <i>choclitas</i> (grains of
+maize), quince and banana. When served up, the different kinds of meat
+are placed in one dish, and the vegetable ingredients in another. I was
+at first astonished at the poorness of the soups in Lima, considering
+the quantity of meat used in preparing them; but I soon discovered that
+the soup served up to table was little more than water, and that the
+strong gravy of the meat was either thrown away or given to the negroes.
+There prevails an almost universal belief that the liquor in which the
+meat is first stewed is injurious to health. Only a very few families
+are sufficiently free from this prejudice<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> to allow the strong gravy to
+be used in the preparation of <i>caldo</i>, &amp;c. The Puchero is an excellent
+and nutritious dish, and would in itself suffice for a dinner, to which,
+however, in Lima, it is merely the introduction. Roast meat, fish,
+vegetables, preserves and salad are afterwards served. Another dish not
+less indispensable to a Lima dinner than <i>puchero</i>, is <i>picante</i>. Under
+this denomination are included a variety of preparations, in which a
+vast quantity of cayenne pepper is introduced. The most favorite
+<i>picantes</i> are the <i>calapulcra</i>, the <i>lagua</i>, the <i>zango</i>, the
+<i>charquican</i>, the <i>adobas</i>, the <i>picante de ullucos</i>, &amp;c. The
+<i>calapulcra</i> is composed of meat and potatoes dried and finely pounded;
+the <i>lagua</i> is made of maize flour and pork; the <i>zango</i>, of the same
+ingredients, but differently prepared; the <i>adobas</i> consists of pork
+alone; and the <i>picante de ullucos</i> is made of a root resembling the
+potato, cut into small square bits. These dishes, though much too highly
+seasoned for European palates, are considered great dainties by the
+Lime&ntilde;os. All the <i>picantes</i> have a very red color, owing to the quantity
+of cayenne used in preparing them; the <i>achote</i> grains, which are also
+used, produce a beautiful vermilion tint. Another dish, common on the
+dinner-table in Lima, is called <i>ensalada de frutas</i>. It is a most
+heterogeneous compound, consisting of all sorts of fruits stewed in
+water. To none but a Limanian stomach could such a mixture be agreeable.
+The dessert consists of fruits and sweets (<i>dulces</i>). The Lime&ntilde;o must
+always drink a glass of water after dinner, otherwise he imagines the
+repast can do him no good; but to warrant the drinking of the water, or,
+as the phrase is, <i>para tomar agua</i>, it is necessary first to partake of
+<i>dulces</i>. The one without the other would be quite contrary to rule. The
+dulces consist of little cakes made of honey or of the pulp of the
+sugar-cane; or they are preserved fruits, viz., pine-apple, quince,
+citron, and sometimes preserved beans or cocoa-nut. There is also a
+favorite kind of dulce made from maize, called <i>masamora</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Peruvians have some very singular prejudices on the subject of
+eating and drinking. Every article of food is, according to their
+notions, either heating (<i>caliente</i>), or cooling (<i>frio</i>); and they
+believe that certain things are in opposition one to another, or, as the
+Lime&ntilde;os phrase it, <i>se oponen</i>. The presence in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> stomach of two of
+these opposing articles of food, for example, chocolate and rice, is
+believed to be highly dangerous, and sometimes fatal. It is amusing to
+observe the Lime&ntilde;os when at dinner, seriously reflecting, before they
+taste a particular dish, whether it is in opposition to something they
+have already eaten. If they eat rice at dinner, they refrain from
+drinking water, because the two things <i>se oponen</i>. To such an extreme
+is this notion carried, that they will not taste rice on days when they
+have to wash, and laundresses never eat it. Frequently have I been asked
+by invalids whether it would be safe for them to take a foot-bath on
+going to bed, as they had eaten rice at dinner!</p>
+
+<p>The white Creoles, as well as all the superior class of people in Lima,
+are exceedingly temperate in drinking. Water and a kind of sweet wine
+are their favorite beverage; but the lower classes and the people of
+color are by no means so abstemious. They make free use of fermented
+drinks, especially brandy, chicha, and guarapo. The brandy of Peru is
+very pure, and is prepared exclusively from the grape. On the warm sea
+coast, the use of this liquor is not very injurious; there, its evil
+effects are counteracted by profuse perspiration. But one half the
+quantity that may be drunk with impunity on the coast, will be very
+pernicious in the cool mountainous regions. An old and very just maxim
+of the Jesuits is, "<i>En pais caliente, aguardiente; en pais frio, agua
+fria</i>" (in the warm country, brandy; in the cold country, water).</p>
+
+<p>Guarapo is a fermented liquor, made of sugar-cane pulp and water. It
+is a very favorite beverage of the negroes. There are several kinds of
+guarapo. The best sorts are tolerably agreeable. <i>Chicha</i> is a sort of
+beer prepared from maize. The seeds of the maize are watered and left
+until they begin to sprout, after which they are dried in the sun.
+When sufficiently dry they are crushed, boiled in water, and then
+allowed to stand till fermentation takes place. The liquid is of a
+dark yellow color, and has a slightly bitter and sharp taste. Chicha
+is likewise made from rice, peas, barley, yuccas, pine-apples, and
+even bread. The kind most generally used is that made from maize. Even
+before the Spanish conquest of Peru, this maize beer was the common
+beverage of the Indians. In Lima there are some very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> dirty and
+ill-arranged <i>restaurations</i>, styled <i>picanterias</i>. These places are
+divided by partitions into several small compartments, each of which
+contains a table and two benches. The <i>restaurateur</i>, usually a zambo
+or a mulatto, prides himself in the superiority of his <i>picantes</i> and
+his <i>clicha</i>. The most motley assemblages frequent these places in the
+evening. The Congo negro, the grave Spaniard, the white Creole, the
+Chino, together with monks and soldiers, may be seen, all grouped
+together, and devouring with evident relish refreshments, served out
+in a way not remarkable for cleanliness. Brandy and guarapo are
+likewise sold in shops which are to be met with at the corner of
+almost every street. The coffee-houses are very inferior; most of
+them are very dirty, and the attendance is wretched.</p>
+
+<p>Every street in Lima contains one or more cigar shops, in which
+mestizos and mulattos are busily employed in making cigars. Smoking is
+a universal custom, and is practised everywhere except in the
+churches. The cigars used in Lima are short, and the tobacco is rolled
+in paper, or in dried maize leaves. The tobacco is brought from the
+northern province, Jaen de Bracamoras, in very hard rolls called
+<i>masos</i>, about a yard long and two inches thick. Another kind of
+cigars is made of Peruvian or Columbian tobacco. They are scarcely
+inferior to the Havannah cigars, and would be quite equal to them, if
+they were kept long enough and well dried: but in Lima they are smoked
+within a few hours after being made. When any one wants to light his
+cigar in the street, he accosts the first smoker he happens to meet,
+whatever be his color, rank, or condition; and asks him for a light.
+The slave smokes in the presence of his master, and when his cigar
+dies out, he unceremoniously asks leave to relight it at his master's.
+It has been calculated that the daily cost of the cigars smoked in
+Lima and the immediate vicinity amounts to 2,300 dollars.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly the market was held on the Plaza Mayor, and was always
+abundantly supplied with vegetables, fruit, and flowers. Now it is
+held in the Plazuela de la Inquisicion, and it is very inferior to
+what it used to be. Along the sides of the Plaza are stalls kept by
+women, who sell sausages and fish. The central part of the market is
+appropriated to the sale of vegetables, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> which there is always an
+excellent supply. Facing the Palace of the Inquisition are the
+butchers' shops. The meat is good, though not very plentifully
+displayed. The most abundant kinds of meat are mutton and beef. The
+slaughtering of young animals being strictly prohibited by law, veal,
+lamb, and sucking pigs are never seen in the market. The daily
+consumption of butcher's meat in Lima is about twenty-eight or thirty
+heads of horned cattle, and between one hundred and sixty and two
+hundred sheep. Pork, neither fresh nor cured, is seen in the market;
+though great numbers of swine are slaughtered. The fleshy parts of the
+animal are cut into small square pieces, and boiled; the fat or lard
+is used in cookery, and the pieces of pork, which are spread over with
+lard, are called <i>chicharones</i>, and are held in high esteem by
+Limanian epicures. There is an abundant show of poultry in the market,
+especially fowls and turkeys, which are brought from Huacho. Game is
+never sold, and but very little is obtained in the neighborhood of
+Lima. The flower market, which is held on the Plaza Mayor, is but
+sparingly supplied with the gifts of Flora. The ladies of Lima recal
+pleasing recollections of the former glory of their flower market, and
+speak with regret of its present degenerate condition. The
+much-vaunted <i>pucheros de flores</i> are still occasionally displayed for
+sale. They are composed of a union of fragrant fruits and flowers.
+Several small fruits are laid on a banana leaf, and above them are
+placed odoriferous flowers, tastefully arranged according to their
+colors: the whole is surmounted with a strawberry, and is profusely
+sprinkled with <i>agua rica</i>, or lavender water. These <i>pucheros</i> are
+very pleasing to the eye, on account of the tasteful arrangement of
+the flowers; but their powerful fragrance affects the nerves. They
+vary in price, according to the rarity of the fruits and flowers of
+which they are composed. Some cost as much as six or eight dollars.
+A <i>puchero de flores</i> is one of the most acceptable presents that
+can be offered to a Lima lady.</p>
+
+<p>A mingled feeling of disgust and surprise takes possession of the
+European who witnesses the joy which pervades all classes of the
+inhabitants of Lima on the announcement of a bull-fight. For several
+days the event is the exclusive topic of conversation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> and, strange to
+say, the female portion of the population takes greater interest in it
+than the men. Bills notifying the approaching entertainment are stuck up
+at the corners of the streets; and every one is anxious to obtain a
+<i>lista de los toros</i>. When the season of the toros<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> commences, a
+bull-fight takes place every Monday, and then the whole city of Lima is
+thrown into a state of indescribable excitement. The ladies prepare
+their finest dresses for the occasion, and they consider it the greatest
+possible misfortune if anything occurs to prevent them going to the
+bull-fight: indeed, a Monday passed at home in the season of the toros
+would be regarded as a lost day in the life of a Lime&ntilde;a. Those who
+cannot go to the <i>corrida</i>, resort to the bridge, or to the Alameda,
+where they sit and amuse themselves by looking at the throngs of people
+passing and repassing.</p>
+
+<p>In the time of the Viceroys, bull-fights frequently took place on the
+Plaza Mayor. Now there is a place expressly built for these
+entertainments, called the <i>Plaza firme del Acho</i>. It is a spacious
+amphitheatre without a roof, and is erected at the end of the new avenue
+of the Alameda. The preparations for the sport commence at an early hour
+in the morning. Along the Alameda are placed rows of tables covered with
+refreshments, consisting of lemonade, brandy, chicha, picantes, fish,
+dulces, &amp;c. About twelve o'clock, those who have engaged places in the
+amphitheatre begin to move towards the Plaza del Acho.</p>
+
+<p>Most European ladies would turn with horror, even from a description
+of these cruel sports, which the ladies of Lima gaze on with delight.
+They are barbarous diversions, and though they form a part of national
+customs, they are nevertheless a national disgrace. At the same time
+it would be unjust to make this love of bull-fighting a ground for
+unqualified censure on the Lime&ntilde;os, or a reason for accusing them of
+an utter want of humanity. Being accustomed to these diversions from
+early childhood, they regard them with perfect indifference; and
+custom, no doubt, blinds them to the cruelties they witness in the
+bull-ring. The same extenuation may be urged in behalf of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>women:
+and though to most of the Lime&ntilde;as a bull-fight affords the highest
+possible gratification, yet there are some who form honorable
+exceptions to this remark, and who, with true feminine feeling, shrink
+with horror from such scenes.</p>
+
+<p>Peru is the only one of the South American states in which bull-fights
+are included in the category of public amusements. As Peru was the last
+to answer the cry of independence, and to shake off the yoke of Spanish
+domination, so she adheres with most tenacity to the customs of the
+mother country; for she has not the energy requisite for developing a
+nationality of her own. Even here is apparent that want of independence
+of character for which the Peruvians are remarkable. The faults of the
+Spaniards in them become vices, because, in imitating without
+reflecting, they push everything to an extreme. Thus, if bull-fights are
+cruel in Spain, they are barbarous in Lima. The government, too, finds
+it expedient to court popularity by favoring public entertainments,
+among which bull-fights take the lead. By allowing the people to indulge
+unrestrainedly in all their favorite amusements, the government gains a
+two-fold object, viz., that of securing the support, if not the love of
+the people, and of averting public attention from political affairs.
+These, it must be confessed, are important objects in a country which,
+like Peru, is continually disturbed by revolutions caused by the
+outbreaks of a turbulent populace, or an undisciplined army.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> A very small number in a population of 55,000.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Puquio</i> in the Quichua language signifies springs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> These fine blocks of ice clearly refute the assertion
+made by some travellers, that the first real glaciers are found in
+19&deg; S. lat. The extensive fields of ice from which the blocks in
+question are brought are situated in 11&deg; 14&#8242; S. lat.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> A sort of arabesque resembling the backbone of a fish
+called the <i>Tollo</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Laurel leaves and seed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Toros</i> (Bulls) is used by way of contraction for
+<i>Corrida de Toros</i> (Bull Course).</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Geographical Situation of Lima&mdash;&#8203;Height above Sea
+level&mdash;&#8203;Temperature&mdash;&#8203;Diseases&mdash;&#8203;Statistical Tables of Births and
+Deaths&mdash;&#8203;Earthquakes&mdash;&#8203;The Valley of Lima&mdash;&#8203;The River Rimac&mdash;&#8203;Aqueducts,
+Trenches, &amp;c.&mdash;&#8203;Irrigation&mdash;&#8203;Plantations&mdash;&#8203;Cotton&mdash;&#8203;Sugar&mdash;&#8203;Various
+kinds of Grain&mdash;&#8203;Maize&mdash;&#8203;Potatoes, and other tuberous
+roots&mdash;&#8203;Pulse&mdash;&#8203;Cabbage&mdash;&#8203;Plants used for Seasoning&mdash;&#8203;Clover&mdash;&#8203;The Olive
+and other Oil Trees&mdash;&#8203;Fruits&mdash;&#8203;Figs and Grapes&mdash;&#8203;The Chirimoya&mdash;&#8203;The
+Palta&mdash;&#8203;The Banana and other Fruits.</p>
+
+
+<p>Lima, according to the careful observations made by Herr Scholtz, is
+situated in 12&deg; 3&#8242; 24&#8243; south latitude, and 77&deg; 8&#8242; 30&#8243; west longitude
+from Greenwich. It may, however, be mentioned that the longitude from
+Greenwich is very differently stated. In sea charts and Manuals of
+Geography it is often marked 76&deg; 50&#8242;. Humboldt makes it 77&deg; 5&#8242; 5&#8243;; and
+Malaspina 77&deg; 6&#8242; 45&#8243;. According to Ulloa it is 70&deg; 37&#8242; west of Cadiz.
+The latitude is very generally fixed at 12&deg; 2&#8242; 3&#8243; south. The height
+above the level of the sea is also differently estimated. Rivero, in the
+<i>Memorial de Ciencias Naturales</i>, I., 2, page 112, states it to be 154
+metres, or 462 French feet. On another occasion he makes it 184<span class="frac"><sup>4</sup>&#8260;<sub>5</sub></span>
+Castilian varas (each vara being equal to 33 inches English). He gives
+the following account of heights, according to the barometer, between
+Callao and Lima, in varas, viz., Callao, 00; Baquijano, 24<span class="frac"><sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>5</sub></span>; <i>La
+Legua</i>, 50<span class="frac"><sup>2</sup>&#8260;<sub>5</sub></span>; Mirones, 94<span class="frac"><sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>20</sub></span>; Portada del Callao, 150; <i>Plaza de
+Lima</i>, 184<span class="frac"><sup>4</sup>&#8260;<sub>5</sub></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The first estimate given by Rivero is the most correct. Gay makes the
+height of Lima, at the corner of the church of <i>Espiritu Santo</i>, 172&middot;2
+Castilian varas; but most of his heights are incorrectly stated.</p>
+
+<p>The conical hill in the north-east of Lima, called Cerro de San
+Cristoval, is, according to trigonometrical measurements, made in 1737,
+by Don Jorge Juon, and De la Condamines, 312 varas higher than the Plaza
+Mayor, or 134 toises above the sea;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> but one of the most exact
+measurements is Pentland's, who found the height to be 1275 English
+feet.</p>
+
+<p>The average temperature during the hottest period of the year, from
+December to March, is 25&deg; C. The medium temperature during the cold
+season, from April to November, 17&middot;5&deg; C. Highest rise of the hygrometer,
+21&middot;5&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>The low temperature of Lima at the distance of only twelve degrees from
+the Equator is to be ascribed to the situation of the town, and the
+prevailing atmospheric currents. The Cordilleras, rising at the distance
+of only twenty-eight Spanish leagues east of the city, are crowned with
+eternal snow; and on the west the sea is distant only two leagues. The
+prevailing wind blows from the south-south-west. West winds are not very
+common, though they sometimes blow with extraordinary violence for those
+regions, and breaking on the surrounding mountains, they form
+atmospheric whirlwinds, which diffuse alarm through the whole
+population. In June, 1841, I had the opportunity of observing one of
+these dreadful whirlwinds, which swept away huts, and tore up trees by
+the roots. The atmospheric currents from the north, which pass over the
+hot sand-flats, are not of constant occurrence, but they are
+oppressively sultry. There must be other causes for the low temperature
+of Lima, for in the villages, only a few miles from the city, and
+exposed to the same atmospheric influences, it is much higher.</p>
+
+<p>Miraflores is a small place, about one Spanish league and a half from
+Lima, but it is much hotter. Among the records of the thermometer are
+the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="indent">December 20 to 27, maximum 31&middot;8&deg; C.; minimum, 25&middot;9&deg; C.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">December 28, at 6 in the morning, 26&middot;0&deg; C.; at 2 <small>P.M.</small>, 32&middot;7&deg; C.;
+at 10 at night, 27&middot;3&deg; C.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">January 1, at 2 <small>P.M.</small>, 33&middot;1&deg; C., maximum of the day.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">January 18, at 2 <small>P.M.</small>, maximum 34&middot;2&deg; C.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison with the temperature of Lima, on the same days, gives an
+average of 5&middot;7&deg; C. of heat in favor of Miraflores.</p>
+
+<p>The River Rimac, which rises among the glaciers of the Cordilleras, and
+after a course of no great length, intersects the city, doubtless
+contributes to cool the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of Lima is agreeable, but not very healthy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> During six
+months, from April to October, a heavy, damp, but not cold mist,
+overhangs the city. The summer is always hot, but not oppressive. The
+transition from one season to another is gradual, and almost
+imperceptible. In October and November the misty canopy begins to rise;
+it becomes thinner, and yields to the penetrating rays of the sun. In
+April the horizon begins to resume the misty veil. The mornings are cool
+and overcast, but the middle of the day is clear. In a few weeks after,
+the brightness of noon also disappears. The great humidity gives rise to
+many diseases, particularly fevers, and the alternations from heat to
+damp cause dysentery. On an average, the victims to this disease are
+very numerous. It is endemic, and becomes, at apparently regular but
+distant periods, epidemic. The intermittent fevers or agues, called
+<i>tercianos</i>, are throughout the whole of Peru very dangerous, both
+during their course and in their consequences. It may be regarded as
+certain that two-thirds of the people of Lima are suffering at all times
+from <i>tercianos</i>, or from the consequences of the disease. It usually
+attacks foreigners, not immediately on their arrival in Lima, but some
+years afterwards. In general the tribute of acclimation is not so soon
+paid by emigrants in Lima as in other tropical regions.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the ignorance of the medical attendants, and the
+neglect of the police, the statistical tables of deaths are very
+imperfectly drawn up, and therefore cannot be entirely depended upon.
+I may, however, here subjoin one of them, which will afford the reader
+some idea of the mortality of Lima.</p>
+
+<p>The annual number of deaths in Lima varies from 2,500 to 2,800.</p>
+
+<p>In the ten months, from the 1st of January to the 30th of October, 1841,
+the number of marriages was 134, of which 46 were contracted by whites,
+and 88 by people of color.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>DEATHS IN LIMA FROM JANUARY 1, TO OCTOBER 30, 1841:-</p>
+
+<table class="boxed" width="80%" summary="Deaths in Lima">
+<tr><td class="tdc">Diseases.</td><td class="tdcbl">Men.</td><td class="tdcbl">Women.</td><td class="tdcbl">Children.</td><td class="tdcbl">Total.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdlbt">Dysentery</td>
+    <td class="tdrbtl">171</td> <td class="tdrbtl">105</td> <td class="tdrbtl">59</td> <td class="tdrbtl">335</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Fevers, chiefly intermittent</td>
+    <td class="tdrbl">57</td> <td class="tdrbl">88</td> <td class="tdrbl">71</td> <td class="tdrbl">216</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Typhus</td>
+    <td class="tdrbl">14</td> <td class="tdrbl">7</td> <td class="tdrbl">24</td> <td class="tdrbl">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Pulmonary Consumption</td>
+     <td class="tdrbl">87</td><td class="tdrbl">110</td> <td class="tdrbl">11</td> <td class="tdrbl">208</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Inflammation of the Lungs</td>
+     <td class="tdrbl">78</td><td class="tdrbl">75</td> <td class="tdrbl">26</td> <td class="tdrbl">179</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Dropsy, for the most part a consequence of intermittent fevers</td>
+     <td class="tdrbl">33</td><td class="tdrbl">32</td><td class="tdrbl">7</td> <td class="tdrbl">72</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Hooping-cough</td>
+     <td class="tdrbl"></td><td class="tdrbl"></td> <td class="tdrbl">36</td> <td class="tdrbl">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Small Pox</td>
+     <td class="tdrbl">3</td> <td class="tdrbl"></td> <td class="tdrbl">1</td> <td class="tdrbl">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Sudden death</td>
+     <td class="tdrbl">23</td> <td class="tdrbl">13</td> <td class="tdrbl">1</td> <td class="tdrbl">37</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Shot</td>
+     <td class="tdrbl">3</td> <td class="tdrbl"></td> <td class="tdrbl"></td> <td class="tdrbl">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Various Diseases</td>
+     <td class="tdrbl">271</td> <td class="tdrbl">228</td> <td class="tdrbl">610</td> <td class="tdrbl">1,109</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td>
+     <td class="tdrbtl">740</td> <td class="tdrbtl">658</td> <td class="tdrbtl">846</td> <td class="tdrbtl">2,244</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><br />The number of births were:&mdash;<br />
+&nbsp;
+</p>
+
+<table class="boxed" width="80%" summary="Births in Lima">
+  <colgroup>
+    <col width="70%" />
+  </colgroup>
+  <colgroup>
+    <col width="10%" />
+  </colgroup>
+  <colgroup>
+    <col width="10%" />
+  </colgroup>
+  <colgroup>
+    <col width="10%" />
+  </colgroup>
+<tr><td></td><td class="tdcbl">Boys.</td><td class="tdcbl">Girls.</td><td class="tdcbl">Total.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">In marriage</td>
+     <td class="tdrbtl">410</td> <td class="tdrbtl">412</td> <td class="tdrbtl">822</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl">Not in marriage</td>
+     <td class="tdrbl">432</td> <td class="tdrbl">428</td> <td class="tdrbl">860</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tdl"></td>
+     <td class="tdrbtl">842</td> <td class="tdrbtl">840</td> <td class="tdrbtl">1,682</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><br />The number of births not in marriage (860) is remarkable, and no less so
+is the number of dead children exposed, which, during the above
+interval, was 495. These are most decided proofs of the immorality and
+degraded state of manners prevailing in Lima, particularly among the
+colored part of the population. Though there is no certain evidence of
+the fact, yet there is reason to conjecture that a considerable number
+of those infants are destroyed by the mothers. Of the children born out
+of marriage, nearly two-thirds, and of those exposed dead, full
+four-fifths are Mulattos.</p>
+
+<p>The important annual surplus of deaths over births is a matter of
+serious consideration for Lima. The above tables show, in the course of
+ten months, a surplus of 562 deaths. By a comparison of the lists of
+births and deaths from 1826 to 1842, I find that on an average there are
+annually 550 more deaths than births. It would lead me too far to
+endeavor to investigate all the grounds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> of this disparity, but I may
+observe that one of the causes, unquestionably, is the common, though
+punishable crime of producing abortion.</p>
+
+<p>Along the whole coast of Peru the atmosphere is almost uniformly in a
+state of repose. It is not illuminated by the lightning's flash, or
+disturbed by the roar of the thunder: no deluges of rain, no fierce
+hurricanes destroy the fruits of the fields, and with them the hopes of
+the husbandman. Even fire appears here to have lost its annihilating
+power, and the work of human hands seems to be sacred from its
+attack.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> But the mildness of the elements above ground is frightfully
+counterbalanced by their subterranean fury.</p>
+
+<p>Lima is frequently visited by earthquakes, and several times the city
+has been reduced to a mass of ruins. At an average forty-five shocks may
+be counted on in a year. Most of them occur in the latter part of
+October, in November, December, January, May, and June. Experience gives
+reason to expect the visitation of two desolating earthquakes in a
+century. The period between the two is from forty to sixty years. The
+most considerable catastrophes experienced in Lima since Europeans have
+visited the west coast of South America, happened in the years 1586,
+1630, 1687, 1713, 1746, 1806. There is reason to fear that in the course
+of a few years this city may be the prey of another such visitation.</p>
+
+<p>The slighter shocks are sometimes accompanied by a noise; at other
+times, they are merely perceptible by the motion of the earth. The
+subterraneous noises are manifold. For the most part they resemble the
+rattling of a heavy loaded wagon, driven rapidly over arches. They
+usually accompany the shock, seldom precede it, and only in a few
+cases do they follow it; sounding like distant thunder. On one
+occasion the noise appeared to me like a groan from the depth of the
+earth, accompanied by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> sounds like the crepitation of wood in
+partitions when an old house is consumed by fire.</p>
+
+<p>Of the movements, the horizontal vibrations are the most frequent, and
+they cause the least damage to the slightly-built habitations. Vertical
+shocks are most severe; they rend the walls, and raise the houses out of
+their foundations. The greatest vertical shock I ever felt was on the
+4th of July, 1839, at half-past seven in the evening, when I was in the
+old forests of the Chanchamoyo territory. Before my hut there was an
+immense stem of a felled tree, which lay with its lower end on the stump
+of the root. I was leaning against it and reading, when suddenly, by a
+violent movement, the stem rose about a foot and a half, and I was
+thrown backwards over it. By the same shock the neighboring river,
+Aynamayo, was dislodged from its bed, and its course thereby changed for
+a considerable length of way.</p>
+
+<p>I have had no experience of the rotatory movements of earthquakes.
+According to the statements of all who have observed them, they are very
+destructive, though uncommon. In Lima I have often felt a kind of
+concussion, which accords with that term in the strictest sense of the
+word. This movement had nothing in common with what may be called an
+oscillation, a shock, or a twirl: it was a passing sensation, similar to
+that which is felt when a man seizes another unexpectedly by the
+shoulder, and shakes him; or like the vibration felt on board a ship
+when the anchor is cast, at the moment it strikes the ground. I believe
+it is caused by short, rapid, irregular horizontal oscillations. The
+irregularity of the vibrations is attended by much danger, for very
+slight earthquakes of that kind tear away joists from their joinings,
+and throw down roofs, leaving the walls standing, which, in all other
+kinds of commotion, usually suffer first, and most severely.</p>
+
+<p>Humboldt says that the regularity of the hourly variations of the
+magnetic needle and the atmospheric pressure is undisturbed on
+earthquake days within the tropics. In seventeen observations, which I
+made during earthquakes in Lima with a good Lefevre barometer, I found,
+in fifteen instances, the position of the mercury quite unaltered. On
+one occasion, shortly before a commotion, I observed it 2&middot;4 lines lower
+than it had been two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> hours before. Another time, I observed, also on
+the approach of the shock and during the twelve following hours, a
+remarkable rising and sinking in the column. During these observations
+the atmosphere was entirely tranquil.</p>
+
+<p>Atmospheric phenomena are frequent, but not infallible prognostics of
+an earthquake. I have known individuals in Lima, natives of the coast,
+who were seldom wrong in predicting an earthquake, from their
+observation of the atmosphere. In many places great meteors have been
+seen before the commotion. Before the dreadful earthquake of 1746,
+there were seen fiery vapors (<i>exhalaciones encendidas</i>) rising out of
+the earth. On the island of San Lorenzo these phenomena were
+particularly remarked.</p>
+
+<p>Many persons have an obscure perception&mdash;a foreboding, which is to
+them always indicative of an approaching earthquake. They experience a
+feeling of anxiety and restlessness, a pressure of the breast, as if
+an immense weight were laid on it. A momentary shudder pervades the
+whole frame, or there is a sudden trembling of the limbs. I, myself,
+have several times experienced this foreboding, and there can scarcely
+be a more painful sensation. It is felt with particular severity by
+those who have already had the misfortune to have been exposed to the
+dangers of an earthquake.</p>
+
+<p>I will here only briefly mention the celebrated earthquake of 1746, as
+all its details are fully described in many publications. The reader
+need scarcely be reminded that it happened on the 28th of October, the
+day of St. Simon and St. Jude. During the night, between ten and eleven
+o'clock, the earth having begun to tremble, a loud howling was heard,
+and, in a few minutes, Lima became a heap of ruins. The first shock was
+so great, that the town was almost completely destroyed by it. Of more
+than 3000 houses, only twenty-one remained. Still more horrible was the
+destruction in the harbor of Callao. The movement of the earth had
+scarcely been felt there, when the sea, with frightful roaring, rushed
+over the shore, and submerged the whole town with its inhabitants. Five
+thousand persons were instantly buried beneath the waves. The Spanish
+corvette San Fermin, which lay at anchor in the port, was thrown over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+the walls of the fortress. A cross still marks the place where the stern
+of the vessel fell. Three merchant vessels, heavily laden, suffered the
+same fate. The other ships which were at anchor, nineteen in number,
+were sunk. The number of lives sacrificed by this earthquake has not
+been, with perfect accuracy, recorded.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> Humboldt, in his Cosmos,
+mentions that during this earthquake a noise like subterraneous thunder
+was heard at Truxillo, eighty-five leagues north of Callao. It was first
+observed a quarter of an hour after the commotion occurred at Lima, but
+there was no trembling of the earth. According to the old chronicle
+writers, the earthquake of 1630 was more disastrous.</p>
+
+<p>The serious commotions which take place on the Peruvian coast appear to
+acquire progressively greater extension, but only in the southern and
+northern directions. A shock, of which Lima is the centre, though felt
+fifty leagues towards the north, and as far towards the south, may,
+nevertheless, be imperceptible in the easterly direction (towards the
+mountains) at the distance of ten or twelve leagues. This peculiarity is
+made manifest, not only by the terraqueous oscillations, but also by the
+undulations of the sound, which usually proceeds still further in a
+direction towards the south or the north.</p>
+
+<p>Slight shocks are usually only local, and are not felt beyond the limits
+of a few square miles.</p>
+
+<p>The atmospheric phenomena during and after earthquakes are very
+different. In general, the atmosphere is tranquil, but occasionally a
+stormy agitation is the harbinger of a change. I was unexpectedly
+overtaken by a violent commotion on the sand-flat between Chancay and
+Lima. The whole surface of the plain presented a kind of curling
+movement, and on every side small columns of sand rose, and whirled
+round and round. The mules stopped of their own accord, and spread out
+their legs as for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> support and to secure themselves against
+apprehended danger. The <i>arieros</i> (mule-drivers) leaped from their
+saddles, threw themselves on their knees beside the animals, and
+prayed to heaven for mercy.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of earthquakes on the fertility of the soil is sometimes
+remarkable. Numerous observations tend to show that after violent
+commotions luxuriant lands often become barren wastes, and for several
+years produce no thriving vegetation. Several Quebradas in the province
+of Truxillo, formerly remarkable for their fertility in grain, were left
+fallow for twenty years after the earthquake of 1630, as the soil would
+produce nothing. Similar cases occurred at Supe, Huaura, Lima, and Yca.
+All kinds of grain appear to be very susceptible to the changes produced
+by earthquakes. Cases are recorded in which, after slight shocks, fields
+of maize in full bloom have withered; and in the course of a day or two
+the crops have perished.</p>
+
+<p>The causes of the frequent earthquakes on the coast of Lima are
+involved in an obscurity too deep to be unveiled. That they are
+connected with volcanic phenomena seems probable. Lima is more than
+ninety leagues distant from the nearest active volcano, that of
+Arequipa. But the earthquakes of the Peruvian capital are uniformly
+independent of any state of activity in that volcano, and it is
+certain that the town of Arequipa, which lies at the foot of the
+mountain, experiences fewer earthquakes than Lima. Of the six serious
+earthquakes, the dates of which I have mentioned, only that of 1687
+stands in connection with a decided shock in Arequipa, and an eruption
+of the volcano. Earthquakes are of rarer occurrence in the mountainous
+districts than on the coast, yet Huancavellica, Tarma, Pasco,
+Caramarca, have been visited by heavy shocks; and within a recent
+period the village Quiquijana, in the Province of Quipichanchi,
+Department of Cusco, suffered from a serious commotion. In a letter
+from an eye-witness I received the following account of it.</p>
+
+<p>"In November, 1840, the earth began to move faintly back and forward,
+and a dull, distant, subterraneous noise continued without interruption.
+The first powerful shock occurred on the 23d of December. During the
+whole month of January, 1841, heavy thunder prevailed, but without any
+motion of the earth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> On February 11th, we again had a smart shock, and
+from that day the vibrations recommenced, which, strange enough, were
+always most violent on Mondays and Thursdays. The subterraneous noise
+resounded incessantly; but it was heard only in the village; for at the
+distance of half a league from it all was tranquil. The heaviest shocks
+were felt in a circuit within the radius of three leagues. From May 21st
+to June 2d, all was tranquil; after the last-mentioned date the
+vibrations recommenced, and frequently became heavy commotions. They
+continued until the middle of July, 1841. From that time we have not
+been disturbed, and we have now returned to the ruins of our village."</p>
+
+<p>The volcano of Arequipa, which is forty-five leagues distant from
+Quiquijana, manifested, during the whole of this time, no unusual
+phenomena, a circumstance which speaks forcibly against the idea of any
+local connection between the earthquake and the volcano.</p>
+
+<p>On most men earthquakes make a powerful and extraordinary impression.
+The sudden surprise, often in sleep, the imminent danger, the
+impossibility of escape, the dull subterraneous noise, the yielding of
+the earth under the feet,&mdash;altogether make a formidable demand on the
+weakness of human nature.</p>
+
+<p>Humboldt in the Cosmos truly observes&mdash;"What is most wonderful for us to
+comprehend is the undeception which takes place with respect to the kind
+of innate belief which men entertain of the repose and immovability of
+the terrestrial strata." And further on he says&mdash;"The earthquake appears
+to men as something omnipresent and unlimited. From the eruption of a
+crater, from a stream of lava running towards our dwellings, it appears
+possible to escape, but in an earthquake, whichever way flight is
+directed the fugitive believes himself on the brink of destruction!" No
+familiarity with the phenomenon can blunt this feeling. The inhabitant
+of Lima who, from childhood, has frequently witnessed these convulsions
+of nature, is roused from his sleep by the shock, and rushes from his
+apartment with the cry of "<i>Misericordia!</i>" The foreigner from the north
+of Europe, who knows nothing of earthquakes but by description, waits
+with impatience to feel the movement of the earth, and longs to hear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+with his own ears the subterraneous sounds which he has hitherto
+considered fabulous. With levity he treats the apprehension of a coming
+convulsion, and laughs at the fears of the natives. But as soon as his
+wish is gratified he is terror-stricken, and is involuntarily prompted
+to seek safety in flight.</p>
+
+<p>In Lima, the painful impression produced by an earthquake is heightened
+by the universality of the exercise of the devotions (<i>plegarias</i>) on
+such a calamity. Immediately on the shock being felt, a signal is given
+from the cathedral, and the long-measured ten-minute tollings of all the
+church bells summon the inhabitants to prayers.</p>
+
+<p>Taking a comprehensive view of the whole coast of Peru, we perceive
+that Lima lies in one of those oases which break the continuity of the
+extensive sand-flats. These valleys present themselves wherever a
+river, after a short course from the Cordilleras, falls into the sea;
+they are always fan-shaped widenings of the mountain ravines. The
+valley of Lima lies in the widest extension of the Quebrada of
+Mutucamas. This narrow gorge, which has its main direction from E.N.E.
+to W.S.W., widens at Cocachacra, and extends into San Pedro Mama,
+where the Quebrada of San Geronimo unites with it. It then runs down
+to the coast, extending more and more in width, and is intersected by
+the Rimac.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> This river rises in two branches, the largest of which
+has its source in some small lagunes, in the upper part of Antarangra,
+on a height 15,600 feet above the level of the sea. The second and
+shorter branch takes its source from a small lake in the heights of
+Carampoma, flows through the valley of San Geronimo, and near San
+Pedro unites with the Rimac. The most considerable streams of the
+south-eastern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> confluence are those which rise in the heights of
+Carhuapampa, and near Tambo de Viso, flow into the main stream. During
+winter the Rimac is very inconsiderable, but when the rainy season
+sets in it swells greatly, and in the upper regions, particularly
+between Surco and Cocachacra, causes great devastations. In the lower
+part where the bed becomes broad and the banks are not much built on,
+no considerable damage occurs.</p>
+
+<p>Several small conduits are brought from the Rimac, some for giving
+moisture to fields, and others for filling the street trenches of Lima.
+The water for supplying the fountains of the Capital does not, however,
+come from the river, but from two springs situated 1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>4</sub></span> league from
+Lima in a thicket near an old Indian settlement, called Santa Rosa, in
+the valley of Surco. They are inclosed within a building called the
+Puello, or Atarrea, whence the waters are conveyed by a subterraneous
+trench to the Reservoir (Caja de Santa Tomas), from which it is
+distributed by pipes to 112 public and private fountains. During the
+insurrection of the Indians in 1781, which was instigated by the
+unfortunate Cacique Don Jos&eacute; Gabriel Tupac Amaru, one of the sworn
+determinations of the participators in that very extensive conspiracy
+was to drive the Spaniards out of Lima by artifice or force. Among the
+numerous plans for accomplishing that object, I will mention two which
+have reference to the water of Lima. One scheme was to poison the whole
+of the inhabitants. For this purpose a rich Cacique of the vale of
+Huarochirin went to an apothecary near the bridge, and asked for two
+hundred weight of corrosive sublimate, saying that he would pay well for
+it. The apothecary had not entire confidence in the Indian, but he did
+not think it right to forego the opportunity of making a very profitable
+sale; so, instead of the sublimate, he made up the same quantity of alum
+for the Cacique and received the price he demanded. Next morning all the
+water in Lima was unfit for use. On examination it was found that the
+enclosure of the Atarrea was broken down, and the source saturated with
+alum. The offender remained undiscovered.</p>
+
+<p>The second plan was formed with more circumspection. The conspirators
+resolved on a certain day to send into the city a number of Indians, who
+were to conceal themselves on the roofs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> of the shops (<i>Pulperias</i>), in
+which quantities of firewood were kept for sale. The moment the
+cathedral struck the hour of midnight, the concealed Indians were to set
+fire to the wood. Another division of Indians was immediately to dam up
+the river at the convent of Santa Clara, and thereby lay the streets
+under water. During the unavoidable confusion, which must have taken
+place, the main body of the Indians was to enter the town and massacre
+all the whites. This well-combined plan was by mere accident discovered,
+when it was of course frustrated.</p>
+
+<p>The fertility of the soil round Lima is very great when irrigation is
+practicable. Where this cannot be accomplished, the earth withholds
+even the most scanty vegetation. The <i>riego</i>, or irrigation, is thus
+effected. On certain days the water conduits are closed, and the
+fields are laid under water. When there is a deficient supply of
+water, the trenches, or conduits, are not opened till the following
+day. When, however, the supply of water is abundant, the <i>riego</i> takes
+place early every morning.</p>
+
+<p>As the same identical plants are cultivated along almost the whole
+coast, I will here notice them, to save the necessity of returning to
+them hereafter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cotton</span> is cultivated only in a few plantations in the immediate
+vicinity of Lima; but it abounds more in the northern districts,
+particularly in the department de la Libertad, in the coast province
+Piura, in Lambayeque, and in Truxillo. In the southern province, Yca,
+a considerable quantity is also reared for exportation. The brown
+cotton was chiefly cultivated in the time of the Incas. Most of the
+bodies found in the ancient graves on the coast are enveloped in
+this kind of cotton.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Sugar Cane</span> is cultivated with success in all plantations where
+there is sufficient moisture of soil; and of all the agricultural
+produce of the country, yields the greatest profit. The sugar estates
+lie on the sea-coast, or along the banks of rivers. The vertical limit
+of the sugar cane growth is on the western declivity of the
+Cordilleras, about 4500 feet above the level of the sea, at which
+height I saw fields covered with it. The largest plantations, however,
+do not rise above 1200 feet above the level of the sea; while those of
+the same extent on the eastern declivity are at the height of 6000
+feet. Within the last forty years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> the introduction of the Otaheitan
+cane has greatly improved the Peruvian plantations in quality, and has
+more especially increased the quantity of their produce; for the
+Otaheitan canes are found to yield proportionally one third more than
+the West India canes, which were previously cultivated.</p>
+
+<p>The preparation of the sugar is, as yet, conducted in a very rude and
+laborious manner. In most of the plantations the cane is passed through
+wooden presses with brass rollers. These machines are called <i>trapiches</i>
+or <i>ingenios</i>. They are kept in motion by oxen or mules. In some large
+estates water power is employed, and in San Pedro de Lurin a
+steam-engine has been put up, which certainly does the work quickly; but
+it often has to stand for a long time idle. A part of the sugar cane
+juice is used for making the liquor called guarapo, or distilled for
+making rum; for since the independence, the law which strictly
+prohibited the distillation of spirituous liquors in plantations has
+been repealed. The remainder is boiled down into a syrup, or further
+simmered until it thickens into cakes, called chancacas, or brown sugar.
+After a careful purification it is made into the white cakes called
+alfajores, or prepared as white sugar. In fineness of grain and purity
+of color it is inferior to the Havannah sugar, which, however, it
+exceeds in sweetness. The regular weight of the sugarloaf is two arobas;
+only for convenience of transport into the mountainous districts their
+weight is sometimes diminished. The consumption of sugar in the country
+is great and its export is considerable, but it goes only to Chile.</p>
+
+<p>Of the different kinds of grain, maize is most generally and most
+successfully cultivated in Peru. It grows on the sandy shore, in the
+fertile mountain valleys, and on the margin of the forest, where the
+warmth is great. There are several varieties of maize, which are
+distinguished one from another by the size of the head and by the form
+and appearance of the grain. The most common kinds on the coast
+are&mdash;1st, the <i>Mais Morocho</i>, which has small bright yellow or reddish
+brown grains; 2d, the <i>Mais Amarillo</i>, of which the grain is large,
+heart-shaped, solid and opaque; 3d, <i>Mais Amarillo de Chancay</i>, similar
+to the <i>Mais Amarillo</i>, but with a semi-transparent square-shaped grain,
+and an elongated head. The Morocho and Amarillo maize are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> chiefly
+planted in the eastern declivity of the Andes. They run up in stalks
+eight or nine feet high, and have enormously large heads. In one of them
+I counted seventy-five grains in a single row.</p>
+
+<p>Maize forms the bread of the Peruvians. It is almost the only sustenance
+of the Indians of the mountains, and is the principal food of the slaves
+on the coast. Like the potatoe in Europe, it is cooked in a variety of
+ways. Two of the most simple preparations of maize are those called
+<i>choclas</i> and <i>mote</i>. <i>Choclas</i> are the unripe maize heads merely soaked
+in warm water; they form a very agreeable and wholesome article of food.
+<i>Mote</i> consists of ripe maize first boiled and then laid in hot ashes,
+after which the husks are easily stripped off.</p>
+
+<p>As to whether maize is indigenous to Peru, or when it was introduced
+there, much has already been written, and I shall refrain from entering
+into the investigation of the question here. I may, however, mention
+that I have found very well preserved ears of maize in tombs, which,
+judging from their construction, belong to a period anterior to the
+dynasty of the Incas; and these were fragments of two kinds of maize
+which do not now grow in Peru. If I believed in the transmigration and
+settlement of Asiatic races on the west coast of America, I should
+consider it highly probable that maize, cotton, and the banana, had been
+brought from Asia to the great west coast. But the supposed epoch of
+this alleged immigration must carry us back to the earliest ages; for,
+that the Incas were (as the greater number of inquirers into Peruvian
+history pretend) of Asiatic origin, is a mere vague hypothesis,
+unsupported by anything approximating to historical proof.</p>
+
+<p>Since the earthquake of 1687 the crops of maize on the Peruvian coast
+have been very inconsiderable. In the mountainous parts it is somewhat
+more abundant, but still far from sufficient to supply the wants of the
+country. Chile supplies, in return for sugar, the maize required in
+Peru. Of the other kinds of grain barley only is raised; but it does not
+thrive on the coast, and is cultivated successfully at the height of
+from 7000 to 13,200 feet above the level of the sea. The assertion of
+some travellers, that barley was known to the Peruvians before the
+arrival of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> Spaniards, is groundless. It is true that barley is
+sometimes found in pots in Indian graves. Those graves, however, as I
+have had repeated opportunities of being convinced, belong, without
+exception, to modern times, chiefly to the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Potatoes are not planted on the coast, where, it appears, the climate
+and soil are unfavorable to them. In those parts they are small and
+watery. On the higher ridges which intersect the coast at short
+distances from the sea, the potatoe grows wild. I am inclined to believe
+that the root is indigenous in these parts, as well as in Chiloe and
+Chile, and that the ancient Peruvians did not obtain this root from the
+south, but that they removed it from their own high lands in order to
+cultivate it on a more favorable soil.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> The best potatoe grows about
+twenty-two leagues from Lima, in Huamantanga, which is about 7000 feet
+above the level of the sea, to the north-west of the Quebrada of Canta.
+This potatoe is small and round, with a thin white skin, and when
+bisected the color is a clear bright yellow. It is called the <i>Papa
+amarilla</i>, and there is much demand for it in the markets, where it
+fetches a good price. The other potatoes come chiefly from the Quebrada
+of Huarochirin, and they are very well flavored.</p>
+
+<p>The Camotes (<i>Convolvulus batatas</i>, L.), not improperly called sweet
+potatoes, grow to a considerable size. There are two kinds of camotes,
+the yellow and the violet; the latter are called <i>Camotes moradas</i>.
+These two kinds are much liked for their excellent flavor. Beyond the
+height of 3500 feet above the level of the sea they cease to grow.</p>
+
+<p>The Aracacha (<i>Conium moschatum</i>, H. B. Kth.) grows on the coast, but it
+is more abundant on the projecting ridges of the Cordilleras, and on the
+eastern declivity of the Andes. It is a very agreeable and nutritive
+kind of tuberous vegetable, in flavor not unlike celery. It is cooked by
+being either simply boiled in water, or made into a kind of soup. In
+many districts the aracacha yields two crops in the year.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>The Yucca (<i>Jatropha manihot</i>) is one of the finest vegetables of
+Peru. The stalk of the plant is between five and six feet high, and
+about the thickness of a finger. The roots are from one to two feet
+long, somewhat of the turnip form. Internally they are pure white; but
+the external skin is tough, somewhat elastic, and of a reddish-brown
+color. The roots are the edible parts of the plant. They are very
+agreeable in taste, and easy of digestion. When raw they are hard and
+tough, and their taste somewhat resembles chestnuts. When boiled in
+water the root separates into fibres, and is rather waxy, but when
+laid in hot ashes it becomes mealy.</p>
+
+<p>In some parts of Peru the Indians prepare a very fine flour from the
+yucca, and it is used for making fine kinds of bread, and especially a
+kind of biscuits called <i>biscochuelos</i>. The yucca roots are not good
+after they have been more than three days out of the earth, and even
+during that time they must be placed in water, otherwise green or black
+stripes appear on them, which in the cooking assume a pale red color.
+Their taste is then disagreeable, and they quickly become rotten.</p>
+
+<p>To propagate the yucca the stalk is cut, particularly under the thick
+part, into span-long pieces, which are stuck obliquely into the earth.
+In five or six months the roots are fit for use, but they are usually
+allowed to remain some time longer in the earth. The stalks are
+sometimes cut off, and the roots left in the earth. They then put forth
+new leaves and flowers, and after sixteen or eighteen months they become
+slightly woody. The Indians in the Monta&ntilde;a de Vitoc sent as a present to
+their officiating priest a yucca, which weighed thirty pounds, but yet
+was very tender. On the western declivity of the Cordillera, the
+boundary elevation for the growth of the yucca is about 3000 feet above
+the level of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Among the pulse there are different kinds of peas (<i>garbanzos</i>) on the
+coast; beans (<i>frijoles</i>), on the contrary, occupy the hilly grounds.
+All vegetables of the cabbage and salad kinds cultivated in Europe will
+grow in Peru. The climate, both of the coast and the hills, suits them
+perfectly; but the hot, damp temperature of the eastern declivity of the
+Andes is adverse to them. Numerous varieties of the genus <i>Cucurbita</i> are cultivated in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> <i>chacras</i>, or Indian villages, on the coast. They
+are chiefly consumed by the colored population. I did not find them very
+agreeable to the taste. They are all sweetish and fibrous.</p>
+
+<p>Among the edible plants which serve for seasoning or spicery, I must
+mention the love-apple (<i>Tomate</i>), which thrives well in all the warm
+districts of Peru; and the Spanish pepper (<i>Aji</i>), which is found only
+on the coast and in the mild woody regions. There are many species of
+the pepper (<i>Capsicum annuum, baccatum, frutescens, &amp;c.</i>), which are
+sometimes eaten green, and sometimes dried and pounded. In Peru the
+consumption of aji is greater than that of salt; for with two-thirds of
+the dishes brought to table, more of the former than of the latter is
+used. It is worthy of remark that salt diminishes, in a very striking
+degree, the pungency of the aji; and it is still more remarkable that
+the use of the latter, which in a manner may be called a superfluity,
+has no injurious effect on the digestive organs. If two pods of aji,
+steeped in warm vinegar, are laid as a sinapism on the skin, in the
+space of a quarter of an hour the part becomes red, and the pain
+intolerable; within an hour the scarf-skin will be removed. Yet I have
+frequently eaten twelve or fifteen of these pods without experiencing
+the least injurious effect. However, before I accustomed myself to this
+luxury, it used to affect me with slight symptoms of gastritis. On the
+eastern declivity of the Cordilleras I found no capsicum at a greater
+height than 4800 feet above the level of the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Lucern (<i>Medicago sativa</i>), called by the natives <i>alfa</i> or <i>alfalfa</i>,
+is reared in great abundance throughout the whole of Peru, as fodder for
+cattle. It does not bear great humidity, nor severe heat or cold; yet
+its elevation boundary is about 11,100 feet above the level of the sea.
+On the coast it flourishes very luxuriantly during the misty season; but
+during the months of February and March it is almost entirely dried up.
+The maisillo (<i>Paspalum purpureum</i>, R.) then supplies its place as
+fodder for cattle. In the mountainous districts it is also most abundant
+during the humid season; but, as soon as the first frost sets in, it
+decays, takes a rusty-brown color, and remains in a bad state until the
+beginning of the rainy season. On an average, the <i>alfalfa</i> may be cut
+four times in the year; but in highlying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> districts only three times;
+and in humid soils on the coast, particularly in the neighborhood of
+rivers, five times. Once in every four or five years the clover-fields
+are broken up by the plough, and then sown with maize or barley. In the
+sixth year clover is again raised.</p>
+
+<p>The olive-tree is cultivated chiefly in the southern provinces of the
+coast. In flavor, its fruit approximates to the Spanish olive. That
+the oil is not so fine is probably owing to the bad presses which are
+used, and the rude manner in which the operation is performed. The
+olives (<i>Aceytunas</i>) are preserved in a peculiar manner. They are
+allowed to ripen on the tree, when they are gathered, slightly
+pressed, dried, and put up in small earthen vessels. By this process
+they become shrivelled and quite black. When served up at table pieces
+of tomato and aji are laid on them: the latter is an excellent
+accompaniment to the oily fruit. Some preserve them in salt water, by
+which means they remain plump and green.</p>
+
+<p>The castor-oil plant (<i>Ricinus communis</i>) grows wild, but it is also
+cultivated in many plantations. The considerable quantity of oil which
+is pressed out of the seeds is used unpurified in Lima for the street
+lamps, and also in the sugar plantations, for greasing the machines
+employed in the works. The purified Ricinus oil required for medicine is
+imported from England or Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The Pi&ntilde;oncillo tree (<i>Castiglionia lobata</i>, R.) is cultivated only about
+Surco, Huacho, and Lambayeque, in some of the Indian chacras; but it
+grows wild in considerable abundance. Its bean-like fruit, when roasted,
+has an agreeable flavor. When eaten raw, the etherial oil generated
+between the kernel and the epidermis is a strong aperient, and its
+effect can only be counteracted by drinking cold water. When an incision
+is made in the stem, a clear bright liquid flows out; but after some
+time it becomes black and horny like. It is a very powerful caustic, and
+retains its extraordinary property for years.</p>
+
+<p>The fruits of the temperate climates of Europe thrive but indifferently
+in the warm regions of the coast of Peru. Apples and pears are for the
+most part uneatable. Of stone fruits only the peach succeeds well. Vast
+quantities of apricots (called duraznos) grow in the mountain valleys.
+Of fifteen kinds which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> came under my observation, those called
+<i>blanquillos</i> and <i>abridores</i> are distinguished for fine flavor.
+Cherries, plums, and chestnuts I did not see in Peru, yet I believe the
+climate of the Sierra is very favorable to their growth. Generally
+speaking, the interior of the country is well suited to all the fruits
+and grain of central Europe; and doubtless many of our forest trees
+would flourish on those Peruvian hills which now present no traces of
+vegetation. But as yet no system of transplantation has been seriously
+set on foot. The praiseworthy attempts made by many Europeans, who have
+sent seeds and young plants to Peru, have failed of success, owing to
+the indifference of the natives to the advancement of those objects.</p>
+
+<p>All the fruits of southern Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm regions
+of Peru. Oranges, pomegranates, lemons, limes, &amp;c., grow in incredible
+abundance. Though the trees bloom and bear fruit the whole year round,
+yet there are particular times in which their produce is in the greatest
+perfection and abundance. On the coast, for example, at the commencement
+of winter, and in the woody districts in the months of February and
+March, melons and Sandyas (<i>water melons</i>) are particularly fine.</p>
+
+<p>The figs are of two kinds: the one called <i>Higos</i>, and the other
+<i>Brevas</i>. In the former the pulp is red, in the latter it is white.
+They are usually large, very soft, and may be ranked among the most
+delicious fruits of the country. Fig-trees grow frequently wild in the
+neighborhood of the plantations and the Chacras: and the traveller may
+pluck the fruit, and carry away a supply for his journey; for, beyond
+a certain distance from Lima figs are not gathered, being a fruit not
+easy of transport in its fresh state; and when dried, it is not liked.
+Pomegranates and quinces seldom grow on the coast: they are chiefly
+brought to the Lima market from the neighboring Quebradas. The
+mulberry-tree flourishes luxuriantly and without cultivation; but its
+fruit is not thought worth gathering, and it is left as food for the
+birds. In the southern province of Yca, the cultivation of the vine
+has been attended by most successful results. In the neighborhood of
+Lima grapes are seen only in a few Huertas (<i>orchards</i>); but for
+size, sweetness, and aromatic flavor, there are no such grapes in any
+other part of the world.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>Of tropical fruits, the number is not so great in Peru as in the more
+northerly district of Guayaquil. But there are some Peruvian fruits, the
+delicious flavor of which cannot be excelled. One of these is the
+Chirimoya (<i>Anona tripetala</i>). Hanke, in one of his letters, calls it "a
+master-work of Nature." It would certainly be difficult to name any
+fruit possessing a more exquisite flavor.</p>
+
+<p>In Lima the Chirimoya is comparatively small, often only the size of an
+orange. Those who have tasted it only in Lima, can form but a very
+imperfect idea of its excellence. In Huanuco, its indigenous soil, it
+grows in the greatest perfection, and often attains the weight of
+sixteen pounds, or upwards. The fruit is of roundish form, sometimes
+pyramidal, or heart-shaped, the broad base uniting with the stem.
+Externally it is green, covered with small knobs and scales, and often
+has black markings like net-work spread over it. When the fruit is very
+ripe, it has black spots. The skin is rather thick and tough.
+Internally, the fruit is snow-white and juicy, and provided with a
+number of small seeds well covered with a delicate substance. The
+Chirimoyas of Huanuco are also distinguished from those of the coast by
+having only from four to six seeds; whereas on the coast they are found
+with from twenty-five to thirty. The question as to what the taste of
+this fruit may be compared with, I can only answer by saying, that it is
+incomparable. Both the fruit and flowers of the Chirimoya emit a fine
+fragrance, which, when the tree is covered with blossom, is so strong as
+to be almost overpowering. The tree which bears this finest of all
+fruits is from fifteen to twenty feet high. It has a broad flat top, and
+is of a pale-green color.</p>
+
+<p>The Palta (<i>Persea gatissima</i>, G&auml;rt.) is a fruit of the pear form, and
+dark-brown in color. The rind is tough and elastic, but not very thick.
+The edible substance, which is soft and green, encloses a kernel
+resembling a chestnut in form and color. This fruit is very astringent
+and bitter, and on being cut, a juice flows from it which is at first
+yellow, but soon turns black. The taste is peculiar, and at first not
+agreeable to a foreigner; but it is generally much liked when the palate
+becomes accustomed to it. The fruit of the Palta dissolves like butter
+on the tongue, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> hence it is called in some of the French colonies
+<i>beurre v&eacute;g&eacute;tale</i>. It is sometimes eaten without any accompaniment, and
+sometimes with a little salt, or with oil and vinegar. The kernels make
+very good brandy. The Palta-tree is slender and very high, with a small
+dome-like top. On the eastern declivity of the Andes, I have seen some
+of these trees more than sixty feet high.</p>
+
+<p>The Platanos (<i>Bananas</i>) thrive well in most of the Peruvian
+plantations. They require great heat and humidity. They grow in the
+greatest perfection on the banks of small rivulets. On the coast the
+tree does not yield such abundance of fruit as in the woody regions,
+where it is not unusual to see a tree with three hundred heads of fruit
+lying one over another, like tiles on a roof. In the country adjacent to
+Lima, and also on other parts of the coast, three favorite species are
+cultivated. The <i>Platano de la Isla</i>, or of Otaheite, was introduced
+from that archipelago in 1769. The fruits are from three to four inches
+long, generally prismatic, as they grow thickly on the stem, and lie one
+over another. The skin is yellow, the fruit of a palish red, and rather
+mealy. The Lime&ntilde;os prefer this to any other species of the platano, and
+they consider it the most wholesome. The fruits of the <i>Platano Guineo</i> are not longer, but much thicker than those of the <i>Platano de la Isla</i>,
+but they are so full that they burst when quite ripe. They are straight
+and cylindrical in form, as they grow on the stem at some distance one
+from the other. They are of a bright yellow color, but near the stem
+spotted with black. The edible part is whiter and softer than that of
+the <i>Platano de la Isla</i>, to which it is greatly superior in flavor and
+aroma. The natives believe this fruit to be very unwholesome, and they
+maintain that drinking brandy after eating Platanos Guineos causes
+immediate death. This is, as my own often-repeated experiments have
+shown, one of the deep-rooted, groundless prejudices to which the
+Peruvians obstinately cling. On one of my excursions I had a controversy
+on this subject with some persons who accompanied me. To prove how
+unfounded their notions were, I ate some platanos, and then washing down
+one poison by the other, I immediately swallowed a mouthful of brandy.
+My Peruvian friends were filled with dismay. Addressing me alternately
+in terms of compassion and reproach, they assured me I should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> never
+return to Lima alive. After spending a very agreeable day, we all
+arrived quite well in the evening at Lima. At parting, one of my
+companions seriously observed that we should never see each other again.
+Early next morning they anxiously called to inquire how I was, and
+finding me in excellent health and spirits, they said:&mdash;"Ah! you see, an
+<i>herege de gringo</i> (a heretic of a foreigner) is quite of a different
+nature from us." A piece of the Platano Guineo soaked in brandy retains
+its color unchanged; but the rib-like fibres which connect the rind with
+the pulp then become black, and imbibe a bitter taste.</p>
+
+<p>The fruit of the third kind of platano, the <i>Platano Largo</i>, is from six
+to eight inches long, rather narrow, and curved crescent-wise. The rind
+is of a light straw color, and when the fruit is very ripe it has large
+black spots. The edible part is of a whitish hue, harder and drier than
+that of the two species already described; and its flavor its quite as
+agreeable. Its fruit is less abundant than that of the Platano Guineo,
+and it requires longer time to become fully ripe. A fourth kind, which
+grows in the forest regions, I have never seen on the coast. It is the
+<i>Platano Altahuillaca</i>. It bears at most from twenty to twenty-five
+heads of fruit. The stem is more than two inches thick, and above an ell
+long. The color of the husk is light yellow, the enclosed substance is
+white, tough, and hard. In the raw state it is flavorless, but when
+roasted in hot ashes, or cooked with meat, it makes a fine dish.</p>
+
+<p>When the platanos of the uppermost row, that is, those which form the
+base of the conical-formed reflex cluster, begin to turn yellow, or, as
+the natives say, <i>pintar</i>, the whole is cut off, and hung up in an airy,
+shady situation, usually in an apartment of the Rancho, or hut, where it
+may quickly ripen. The largest fruits are cut off as soon as they are
+yellow and soft, and so the cutting goes on gradually up to the top, for
+they ripen so unequally that those at the base show symptoms of decay
+while those at the top are still hard and green. As soon as the
+<i>cabeza</i>, or cluster of fruit, is cut, the whole branch is immediately
+lopped off, in order to facilitate the shooting of the fresh sprouts.
+Each branch bears only one <i>cabeza</i>, and eight or ten months are the
+period usually required for its complete development.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>The platanos belongs indisputably to the most useful class of fruit
+trees, especially in regions where they can be cultivated extensively,
+for then they may very adequately supply the place of bread. In
+northern Peru and Guayaquil, the platano fruit is prepared for food in
+a variety of ways.</p>
+
+<p>Pine-apples (<i>Ananas</i>) are not much cultivated on the coast of Peru. The
+market of Lima was formerly entirely supplied with this fruit from the
+Monta&ntilde;a de Vitoc. When brought from thence they used to be cut before
+they were ripe, and packed on the backs of asses. The journey is of
+sixteen or twenty days' duration, and the road lies across two of the
+Cordilleras. After being several days in the cold snowy region of the
+Puna, the fruit came to Lima in a very indifferent state; but since the
+communication by steam navigation with Guayaquil, pine-apples are
+brought from the latter place in large quantities. They are large,
+succulent, and very sweet.</p>
+
+<p>The Granadilla (<i>Passiflora quadrangularis</i>) is about the size of an
+apple, but rather oblong. The skin is reddish-yellow, hard, and rather
+thick. The edible part is grey and gelatinous, and it contains numerous
+dark-colored seeds. The fruit is very agreeable, and in taste resembles
+the gooseberry, and is very cooling. The Granadilla is a shrub or bush,
+and it twines round the trunks of trees, or climbs up the walls of the
+Ranchos. It is less abundant on the coast than in the adjacent valleys.</p>
+
+<p>The Tunas are fruits of different species of Cactus. The husk, which is
+covered with sharp prickles, is green, yellow, or red in color, and is
+easily separated from the pulp of the fruit. When being plucked, the
+tunas are rubbed with straw to remove the prickles, which, however, is
+not always completely accomplished. It is therefore necessary to be
+cautious in handling the husks, for the small prickles cause
+inflammation when they get into the fingers.</p>
+
+<p>The Pacay is the fruit of a tree of rather large size (<i>Prosopis
+dulcis</i>, Humb.), with a rather low and broad top. It consists of a pod
+from twenty to twenty-four inches long, enclosing black seeds, which are
+embedded in a white, soft, flaky substance. This flaky part is as white
+as snow, and is the only eatable part<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> of the fruit. It tastes sweet,
+and, to my palate at least, it is very unpleasant; however, the Lime&ntilde;os
+on the coast and the monkeys in the woods are very fond of the pacay.</p>
+
+<p>The Lucuma is produced only in the southern provinces of the coast of
+Peru, and is chiefly imported from the north of Chile. The fruit is
+round. The grey-brown husk encloses a fibrous, dry, yellow-colored
+fruit with its kernel.</p>
+
+<p>The Guayava (<i>Psidium pomiferum</i>) grows on a low shrub, chiefly in the
+valleys of the coast, and on the eastern declivity of the Andes. It is
+of the form and size of a small apple. The rind is bright, yellow, and
+thin. The pulp is either white or red, and is full of little egg-shaped
+granulations. Its flavor is pleasant, but not remarkably fine. In Lima
+it is not a favorite, for numerous insects lay their eggs in it, and,
+when the fruit is ripe, larv&aelig; are found in it.</p>
+
+<p>The Pepino (a <i>cucurbitacea</i>) is grown in great abundance in the fields.
+The plant is only a foot and a half high, and it creeps on the ground.
+The fruit is from four to five inches long, cylindrical, and at both
+ends somewhat pointed. The husk is of a yellowish green color, with long
+rose-colored stripes. The pulp or edible part is solid, juicy, and
+well-flavored. The kernel lies in the middle, in a long-shaped furrow.
+By the natives the pepino is, and not altogether unreasonably, believed
+to be injurious. They maintain that this fruit is too cold in the
+stomach, and that a glass of brandy is necessary to counteract its
+injurious properties. This much is certain, that the pepinos are very
+indigestible, and that eating them frequently, or at improper times,
+brings on fits of illness.</p>
+
+<p>The Mani, or Earth Almond (<i>Arachis hypog&aelig;a</i>), is produced in the
+northern provinces. The plant is from a foot and a half to two feet
+long, and very leafy. The kernels have a grey, shrivelled husk: they
+are white, and contain much oil. When roasted and crushed, they are
+eaten with sugar.</p>
+
+<p>The Capulies (<i>Prunus capulin</i>, Ser.) grows in the open fields. In towns
+it is planted in gardens or in pots. The fruit is a little bigger than a
+cherry. It is of a deep yellow color, and has an acid taste. The
+capulies are not frequently eaten. On account of their very pleasant
+odor, they are used in making <i>Pucheros de</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> <i>flores</i>, or with other
+odoriferous flowers, they are besprinkled with agua rica, and laid in
+drawers to perfume linen. The ladies of Lima wear them in their bosoms.
+The same uses are made of the Palillos (<i>Campomanesia lineatifolia</i>,
+R.), which grow on trees from twenty to thirty feet high. The bright
+yellow fruit is as large as a moderately-sized apple. The palillo emits
+an exceedingly agreeable scent, and is one of the ingredients used in
+making the perfumed water called <i>mistura</i>. When rubbed between the
+fingers, the leaves smell like those of the myrtle; but they have an
+acid and a stringent taste.</p>
+
+<p>The coast of Peru is poorly supplied with Palm-trees, either wild or
+cultivated. The Cocoa Palm is grown only in a few of the northern
+provinces, and the Date Palm chiefly about Yca. With a very little
+care, these trees would thrive excellently in all the oases of the
+coast of Peru.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> A great fire is a thing almost unknown in Lima. The houses
+are of brick, and seldom have any wooden beams, so there is little food
+for a fire. The only fire which I heard of in Lima was that of the 13th
+January, 1835, when the interior of the <i>Capilla del Milagro</i> of San
+Francisco was destroyed. The repairs cost 50,000 dollars. On the 27th
+November, 1838, it was again solemnly consecrated.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> The date of this catastrophe recalls the following passage
+in Schiller's William Tell:&mdash;
+</p>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+
+<span class="i2">"'s ist heut Simons und Jud&auml;</span><br />
+<span class="i0">Da ras't der See und will sein Opfer haben."</span><br />
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i2">"'Tis the festival of Simon and Jude,</span><br />
+<span class="i0">And the lake rages for its sacrifice."</span><br />
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Rimac</span> is the present participle of <i>rimay</i>, to speak, to
+prattle. The river and the valley were known by this name among all the
+ancient Indians. The oracle of a temple with an idol, which stood in the
+neighborhood of the present city of Lima, conferred the name. It is said
+that before the time of the Incas persons suspected of magic were
+banished to the valley of the Rimac, on which account it obtained the
+name of <i>Rimac-malca</i>, that is, the <span class="smcap">Witches-valley</span>. This account, which
+is given by some early travellers, requires farther historical and
+philological inquiry, before its correctness can be admitted.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> The Quichua language has no word for potatoe, but in the
+Chinchayauyo language, which is spoken along the whole coast of Peru,
+the potatoe is called <i>Acsu</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Robbers on the coast of Peru&mdash;&#8203;The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo&mdash;&#8203;The
+Corps of Montoneros&mdash;&#8203;Watering Places near Lima&mdash;&#8203;Surco, Atte and
+Lurin&mdash;&#8203;Pacchacamac&mdash;&#8203;Ruins of the Temple of the Sun&mdash;&#8203;Difficulties of
+Travelling on the Coast of Peru&mdash;&#8203;Sea Passage to Huacho&mdash;&#8203;Indian
+Canoes&mdash;&#8203;Ichthyological Collections&mdash;&#8203;An old Spaniard's recollections
+of Alexander Von Humboldt&mdash;&#8203;The Padre Requena&mdash;&#8203;Huacho&mdash;&#8203;Plundering of
+Burial Places&mdash;&#8203;Huaura&mdash;&#8203;Malaria&mdash;&#8203;The Sugar Plantation at
+Luhmayo&mdash;&#8203;Quipico&mdash;&#8203;Ancient Peruvian Ruins&mdash;&#8203;The Salinas, or Salt
+Pits&mdash;&#8203;Gritalobos&mdash;&#8203;Chancay&mdash;&#8203;The Piques&mdash;&#8203;Mode of extracting
+them&mdash;&#8203;Valley of the Pasamayo&mdash;&#8203;Extraordinary Atmospheric
+Mirrors&mdash;&#8203;Piedras Gordas&mdash;&#8203;Palo Seco.</p>
+
+
+<p>All the inhabited parts of the coast of Peru, especially the districts
+adjacent to Lima and Truxillo, are infested by robbers, and travelling
+is thereby rendered extremely unsafe. These banditti are chiefly runaway
+slaves (simarrones, as they are called), free negroes, zambos, or
+mulattos. Occasionally they are joined by Indians, and these latter are
+always conspicuous for the cruelties they perpetrate. Now and then a
+white man enters upon this lawless course; and, in the year 1839, a
+native of North America, who had been a purser in a ship of war, was
+shot in Lima for highway robbery. These robbers are always well mounted,
+and their fleet-footed steeds usually enable them to elude pursuit. It
+is no unfrequent occurrence for slaves belonging to the plantations to
+mount their masters' finest horses, and after sunset, when their work is
+over, or on Sundays, when they have nothing to do, to sally forth on
+marauding expeditions.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the highway robbers who infest the coast of Peru belong to an
+extensive and systematically-organized band, headed by formidable
+leaders, who maintain spies in the towns and villages, from whom they
+receive regular reports. They sometimes prowl about in parties of thirty
+or forty, in the vicinity of the capital, and plunder every traveller
+they encounter; but they are most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> frequently in smaller detachments. If
+they meet with resistance they give no quarter; therefore, it is most
+prudent to submit to be plundered quietly, even when the parties
+attacked are stronger than the assailants, for the latter usually have
+confederates at no great distance, and can summon reinforcements in case
+of need. Any person who kills a robber in self-defence must ever
+afterwards be in fear for his own life: even in Lima the dagger of the
+assassin will reach him, and possibly at the moment when he thinks
+himself most safe.</p>
+
+<p>Foreigners are more frequently waylaid than natives. Indeed, the rich
+and influential class of Peruvians are seldom subjected to these
+attacks,&mdash;a circumstance which may serve to explain why more stringent
+police regulations are not adopted.</p>
+
+<p>The most unsafe roads are those leading to Callao, Chorillos, and
+Cavalleros. This last place is on the way to Cerro de Pasco, whither
+transports of money are frequently sent. A few weeks before my departure
+from Lima a band of thirty robbers, after a short skirmish with a feeble
+escort, made themselves masters of a remittance of 100,000 dollars,
+destined for the mine-workers of Pasco. The silver bars from Pasco are
+sent to Lima without any military guard, for they are suffered to pass
+unmolested, as the robbers find them heavy and cumbrous, and they cannot
+easily dispose of them. These depredations are committed close to the
+gates of Lima, and after having plundered a number of travellers, the
+robbers will very coolly ride into the city.</p>
+
+<p>The country people from the Sierra, who travel with their asses to Lima,
+and who carry with them money to make purchases in the capital, are the
+constant prey of robbers, who, if they do not get money, maltreat or
+murder their victims in the most merciless way.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> In July, 1842, I was
+proceeding from the mountains back to Lima, and, passing near the Puente
+de Surco, a bridge about a league and a half from Lima, my horse
+suddenly shied at something lying across the road. On alighting I
+found that it was the dead body of an Indian, who had been murdered,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>doubtless, by robbers. The skull was fractured in a shocking manner
+by stones. The body was still warm.</p>
+
+<p>The zambo robbers are notorious for committing the most heartless
+cruelties. In June, 1842, one of them attacked the Indian who was
+conveying the mail to Huacho. "Shall I," said the robber, "kill you or
+put out your eyes?" "If I must choose," replied the Indian, "pray kill
+me at once." The barbarian immediately drew forth his dagger and stuck
+it into the eyes of the unfortunate victim, and then left him lying on
+the sand. In this state the poor Indian was found by a traveller, who
+conveyed him to a neighboring village. The following anecdote was
+related to me by an Indian, in whose dwelling I passed a night, at
+Chancay:&mdash;About half a league from the village he met a negro, who
+advanced towards him, with musket cocked, and commanded him to halt. My
+host drew out a large riding pistol, and said, "You may be thankful that
+this is not loaded or you would be a dead man." The negro laughing
+scornfully, rode up and seized the Indian, when the latter suddenly
+fired the pistol, and shot him dead.</p>
+
+<p>When these Peruvian banditti are attacked by the military or the police,
+they defend themselves with desperate courage. If they can effect their
+escape they fly for concealment into the woods and thickets, which, if
+not too extensive, are surrounded and set on fire, so that the fugitives
+have no alternative but to surrender, or to perish in the flames.</p>
+
+<p>Within the last few years, two negroes, named Escobar and Leon, were
+daring leaders of banditti. Leon, who was originally a slave, commenced
+his career of crime by the murder of his master. He eluded the pursuit
+of justice, became a highway robber, and for many years was the terror
+of the whole province of Lima. The police vainly endeavored to secure
+him. Leon knew the country so well, that he constantly evaded his
+pursuers. When the price of 2000 dollars was set upon his head, he
+boldly entered Lima every evening and slept in the city. At length
+placards were posted about, calling on Leon's comrades to kill him, and
+offering to any one who might deliver him up dead into the hands of the
+police the reward of 1000 dollars and a pardon. This measure had the
+desired result, and Leon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> was strangled, whilst asleep, by a zambo, who
+was his godfather. The body was, during three days, exposed to public
+view in front of the cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>Another celebrated bandit was the zambo, Jose Rayo. He took an active
+part in several of the political revolutions; and having, during those
+commotions, been serviceable to the president, he was raised to the rank
+of a lieutenant-colonel, and made chief of the country police, called
+the <i>Partida montada del campo</i>. This post he still fills, and he is
+admirably well adapted to it, as experience has rendered him thoroughly
+acquainted with banditti life, and he knows every hiding-place in the
+country round Lima. Nevertheless he could not catch the negro Leon, or
+possibly he would not seize him, for Leon was his godfather, a
+relationship which is held sacred throughout all classes in Peru. When
+Rayo speaks of the president and ministers he always styles them <i>sus
+mejores amigos</i> (his best friends). I fell in with him once, when
+travelling on the road to Chaclacayo, and rode in company with him as
+far as the Hacienda de Santa Clara. I found him exceedingly complaisant
+and courteous in his manners; but his true zambo nature was not wholly
+concealed beneath the smooth surface.</p>
+
+<p>Robbers, when captured and brought to Lima, undergo a very summary
+trial, and are then sentenced to be shot. The culprits have the
+privilege of choosing their place of execution, and they generally fix
+on the market-place. They are allowed the assistance of a priest for
+twelve hours prior to their death, and they are conducted from the
+chapel to the place of execution, carrying a bench, on which they sit to
+undergo the punishment. Four soldiers fire at the distance of three
+paces from the culprit; two aiming at his head, and two at his breast.
+On one of these occasions a singular instance of presence of mind and
+dexterity occurred a few years ago in Lima. A very daring zambo,
+convicted of highway robbery, was sentenced to death. He made choice of
+the Plaza de la Inquisicion as the scene of his execution. It was market
+time, and the square was crowded with people. The culprit darted around
+him a rapid and penetrating glance, and then composedly seated himself
+on the bench. The soldiers according to custom levelled their muskets
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> fired; but how great was the surprise, when the cloud of smoke
+dispersed, and it was discovered that the zambo had vanished. He had
+closely watched the movements of the soldiers, and when they pulled the
+triggers of their muskets, he stooped down, and the balls passed over
+his head. Then suddenly knocking down one of the guards who stood beside
+him, he rushed into the midst of the crowd, where some of his friends
+helped him to effect his escape.</p>
+
+<p>In time of war a corps is raised, consisting chiefly of highway robbers
+and persons who, by various offences against the laws, have forfeited
+their freedom or their lives. This corps is called the Montoneros, and
+they are very important auxiliaries when the coast is the theatre of the
+war. The Montoneros, not being trained in military man&oelig;uvres, are not
+employed as regular cavalry, but only as outposts, scouts,
+despatch-bearers, &amp;c. They are good skirmishers, and they harass the
+enemy by their unexpected movements; sometimes attacking in front and
+sometimes in the rear. They have no regular uniform, and their usual
+clothing consists of dirty white trousers and jacket, a poncho, and a
+broad-brimmed straw hat. Many of them are not even provided with shoes,
+and their spurs are fastened on their bare heels. Their arms consist
+of a short carbine and a sword. When the corps is strong, and is
+required for active service, it is placed under the command of a
+General of the Army. In 1838, General Miller, now British Consul at
+the Sandwich Islands, commanded a corps of 1000 Montoneros, who were
+in the service of Santa Cruz. They are held in the strictest
+discipline by their commanders, who punish theft with death. There is,
+however, one sort of robbery which they are suffered to commit with
+impunity, viz, horse-stealing. The horses obtained in this way are
+used for mounting the cavalry; and detachments of Montoneros are sent
+to the plantations to collect horses. They are likewise taken from
+travellers, and from the stables in the capital; but sometimes, after
+the close of the campaign, the animals are returned to their owners.
+When the war is ended the Montoneros are disbanded, and most of them
+return to their occupation as highway robbers.</p>
+
+<p>In all campaigns the Montoneros are sent forward, by one or two days'
+march in advance of the main army, either in small<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> or large
+detachments. When they enter a village they experience no difficulty in
+obtaining quarters and provisions, for the inhabitants are not disposed
+to refuse anything that such visitors may demand. A troop of Montoneros
+is a picturesque, but, at the same time, a very fearful sight. Their
+black, yellow, and olive-colored faces, seared by scars, and expressive
+of every evil passion and savage feeling; their motley and tattered
+garments; their weary and ill-saddled horses; their short firelocks and
+long swords;&mdash;present altogether a most wild and disorderly aspect. The
+traveller, who suddenly encounters such a band, may consider himself
+exceedingly lucky if he escapes with only the loss of his horse.</p>
+
+<p>A universal panic pervades the city of Lima whenever a detachment of
+Montoneros enters within the gates. On every side are heard cries of
+"<i>Cierra puertas!</i>" (close the doors!) "<i>Los Montoneros!</i>" Every person
+passing along the streets runs into the first house he comes to, and
+closes the door after him. In a few moments the streets are cleared, and
+no sound is heard but the galloping of the Montoneros' horses.</p>
+
+<p>Within the distance of a few leagues from Lima there are several pretty
+villages, to which the wealthier class of the inhabitants of the capital
+resort in the summer seasons, for sea-bathing. The nearest, situated
+about three-quarters of a league from Lima, is Magdalena, where the
+Viceroy of Peru formerly had a beautiful summer residence. Miraflores,
+about midway between Lima and Chorillos, is a small village containing a
+plaza and some neatly-built houses. Though the heat is greater here than
+in the capital, yet the air is purer, and Miraflores may be regarded as
+the healthiest spot in the neighborhood of Lima. The sultry atmosphere
+is refreshed by the sea breezes. Surrounded by verdant though not
+luxuriant vegetation, and sufficiently distant from the marshes,
+Miraflores appears to combine within itself all that can be wished for
+in a summer residence. For asthmatic patients the air is particularly
+favorable. An old Spaniard of my acquaintance, who was engaged during
+the day in business in Lima, used to go every night to sleep at
+Miraflores: he assured me that if he slept a night in the capital he
+suffered a severe attack of asthma.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>Chorillos is a poor, ill-looking village. The streets are dirty and
+crooked, and the houses are mere ranchos. It is built close to the sea,
+on a steep sandy beach; but, though anything but a pleasant place,
+Chorillos is the favorite resort of the wealthy Limayan families. Not a
+tree is visible in the neighborhood of the village, and the unshaded
+rays of the sun are reflected with twofold power from the hot sand. A
+broad, steep road leads down to the bathing-place on the sea-beach,
+which is rough and shingly. A row of small huts, covered with matting,
+serve as dressing-rooms. Both ladies and gentlemen use bathing dresses,
+which are very neatly made of a kind of blue cloth. The ladies are
+accompanied by guides (<i>ba&ntilde;aderos</i>). These are Indians, who dwell in the
+village. In winter they employ themselves in fishing, and in summer they
+live by what they get from the visitors who resort to Chorillos. They
+are a good-looking, hardy race of people.</p>
+
+<p>The time for bathing is early in the morning. The interval between
+breakfast and dinner is devoted to swinging in the hammock, either in
+the sala or in the corridor. The afternoon and evening are spent on the
+promenade, and the later hours of the night at the gaming-table. The
+routine of the day's occupations and amusements is much the same as in
+most of the watering-places of Europe, excepting that, in the latter,
+the hammock is suspended by the chair in the reading-room and
+coffee-house, or the bench on the promenade. The sultry nights in
+Chorillos are rendered doubly unpleasant by the swarms of vermin which
+infest the houses. Fleas, bugs, mosquitoes and sancudos, combine to
+banish rest from the couch of even the soundest sleeper.</p>
+
+<p>Surco is situated about half a league from Chorillos, and further into
+the interior of the country. It is a poor but pleasant village,
+surrounded by tropical trees and luxuriant vegetation. The climate is
+not so hot as that of Lima or Chorillos. Surco is a very pretty spot,
+though seldom resorted to by the inhabitants of the capital; because it
+boasts neither baths nor gaming-tables.</p>
+
+<p>Two leagues eastward of Lima, in the direction of the mountains, is
+the village El Ate. It lies in a fertile valley, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> enjoys a pure
+and equal temperature. It is much resorted to by invalids suffering
+from pulmonary disorders, which, if not cured, are at least relieved
+by the pure air.</p>
+
+<p>Lurin is situated five leagues south from the capital, and a quarter of
+a league from the Rio de Lurin, which intersects the Quebrada of
+Huarochirin. Fine gardens, and well-cultivated lands, impart beauty to
+the surrounding scenery. At Michaelmas Lurin is visited by many of the
+inhabitants of the capital, St. Michael being the patron saint of the
+place. The village stands about a thousand paces from the margin of the
+sea-shore, which is two miles distant from the rocky islands of
+Tarallones, Santo Domingo, and Pacchacamac. Prior to the Spanish
+conquest, the valley of Lurin was one of the most populous parts of the
+coast of Peru. The whole of the broad valley was then called
+Pacchacamac, because near the sea-shore and northward of the river,
+there was a temple sacred to the "Creator of the Earth."<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> Pacchacamac
+was the greatest deity of the Yuncas, who did not worship the sun until
+after their subjugation by the Incas. The temple of Pacchacamac was then
+dedicated to the sun by the Incas, who destroyed the idols which the
+Yuncas had worshipped, and appointed to the service of the temple a
+certain number of virgins of royal descent. In the year 1534, Pizarro
+invaded the village of Lurin: his troops destroyed the temple, and the
+Virgins of the Sun were dishonored and murdered.</p>
+
+<p>The ruins of the temple of Pacchacamac are among the most interesting
+objects on the coast of Peru. They are situated on a hill about 558
+feet high. The summit of the hill is overlaid with a solid mass of
+brick-work about thirty feet in height. On this artificial ridge stood
+the temple, enclosed by high walls, rising in the form of an
+amphitheatre. It is now a mass of ruins; all that remains of it being
+some niches, the walls of which present faint traces of red and yellow
+painting. At the foot, and on the sides of the hill, are scattered
+ruins which were formerly the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>walls of habitations. The whole was
+encircled by a wall eight feet in breadth, and it was probably of
+considerable height, for some of the parts now standing are twelve
+feet high, though the average height does not exceed three or four
+feet. The mania of digging for treasures every year makes
+encroachments on these vestiges of a bygone age, whose monuments
+are well deserving of more careful preservation.</p>
+
+<p>Travelling on the coast of Peru is difficult and tedious. The roads
+lead through plains of sand, where often not a trace of vegetation is
+to be seen, nor a drop of water to be found for twenty or thirty
+miles. It is found desirable to take all possible advantage of the
+night, in order to escape the scorching rays of a tropical sun; but
+when there is no moonlight, and above all, when clouds of mist obscure
+the directing stars, the traveller runs the risk of getting out of his
+course, and at daybreak, discovering his error, he may have to retrace
+his weary way. This extra fatigue may possibly disable his horse, so
+that the animal cannot proceed further. In such an emergency a
+traveller finds his life in jeopardy; for should he attempt to go
+forward on foot he may, in all probability, fall a sacrifice to
+fatigue and thirst. Numbers of beasts of burden sink every year under
+the difficulties of such a journey; and their bones serve to mark the
+direction of the road. Long journeys over these sand plains should be
+undertaken only with good and well-tried horses. For the most part the
+horses cannot stand hunger and thirst forty-eight hours without
+becoming so exhausted that the rider has the greatest difficulty in
+making them drag on; and if he is inconsiderate enough to force the
+animal to take a quicker pace, the horse lies down and dies. The mule,
+which more easily supports the difficulties of a severe journey on the
+sparest food, is, in Peru, the camel of the desert. Without mules, a
+long journey on most parts of the coast would be impracticable. The
+horse obeys the spur until he falls dead under the rider. Not so the
+mule: when too weary to journey onward he stands stock still, and
+neither whip nor spur will move him until he has rested. After that he
+will willingly proceed on his way. By this means the traveller has a
+criterion by which he can judge of the powers of his animal.</p>
+
+<p>Excursions along the coast have been greatly facilitated by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+introduction of steam navigation, and travellers now eagerly avail
+themselves of that rapid and secure mode of conveyance. Even in sailing
+vessels voyages from south to north can be conveniently performed in
+consequence of the regularity of the tradewind.</p>
+
+<p>During my residence in Lima, in the commencement of the year 1841, I
+visited the port of Huacho, situated to the north. A packet bound to
+Panama had permission to touch at Huacho, without casting anchor, as she
+had to convey political prisoners under sentence of transportation to
+Panama. I was one of five passengers who landed at Huacho, and among the
+number was the pastor of the town, that very original individual, "the
+Cura Requena." The passage, which is usually made in fourteen hours,
+lasted two days and a half. Off the port we fell in with a Peruvian
+sloop of war, which, on our sailing from Callao, had been sent to watch
+us, and to stop the prisoners in case they attempted to escape. Our
+captain lay to, and we stepped into a boat. Our movements were
+observed from the shore, where, for some days, a report had prevailed
+that Santa Cruz was coming with Corsairs, to make a descent. The
+inhabitants believed that our ship must belong to that expedition.
+They were the more confirmed in their notion, inasmuch as the
+appearance of a sloop of war, which had sailed about for some hours in
+the bay, could not otherwise be explained. Accordingly the alarm bell
+was rung. The custom-house officers and the coast guards, headed by
+the port captain, and followed by a crowd of people, came down to the
+shore, some armed with muskets and pistols, others with swords and
+cudgels, to repel the intended attack.</p>
+
+<p>At the entrance to the port of Huacho the breakers are so dangerous that
+an ordinary-sized boat cannot put in. Landing is therefore effected in
+the small canoes of the Indians. When we approached the shore we made
+signals, and called loudly for canoes, but in vain. The dismayed
+Huachanos showed no inclination to assist their supposed enemies. Our
+captain, who was with us in the boat, said, that as a fresh wind from
+the shore was springing up he could wait no longer, and that he must
+take us with him to Panama. This very unpleasant piece of information
+prompted us to put into execution a plan which was suggested by despair.
+The tall, lank pastor, wrapped in the black<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> ecclesiastical robe, called
+the <i>talar</i>, was placed at the prow, where he stood up, making signs of
+peace and friendship to the natives. This had the desired effect. The
+port captain had a good glass, with which he quickly recognized the
+marked features of the Cura, and several Indian boats were instantly
+despatched to convey us on shore. These Indian canoes consist of long
+narrow stumps of trees, hollowed longitudinally. On either side is
+nailed a <i>palo de balzas</i>, viz., a beam of a very porous kind of wood.
+One Indian sits forward, another more backward, each having a short
+wooden shovel-shaped oar, with which they strike the water right and
+left, and thus scull the boat onward. The passengers must crouch or
+kneel down in the middle, and dare not stir, for the least irregularity
+in the motion would upset the boat. We landed safely, and amused
+ourselves by referring to the mistake of the brave guardians of the
+coast. Horses were provided for us, and we rode to the town, which is
+situated at about half a league up the gently-rising coast.</p>
+
+<p>My principal occupation, during a six weeks' residence on this part of
+the coast, which is very rich in fishes, was to augment my
+ichthyological collection, and to make myself well acquainted with the
+environs of Huacho. Every morning, at five o'clock, I rode down to the
+shore, and waited on the strand to see the boats returning with what had
+been caught, during the night, by the fishers, who readily descried me
+at a distance, and held up, in their boat, such strange inhabitants of
+the deep as had come into their possession. I succeeded in making out,
+from several hundred individual specimens, one hundred and twenty
+distinct species of sea and river fish. But an unlucky fate hovered over
+this fine collection. The fishes were all put into a cask with brandy,
+which, by neglect of the commissary of the port, was left on the Mole at
+Callao, for several months, in the burning heat of the sun: in
+consequence its contents were utterly destroyed. A second collection was
+prepared, and immediately shipped for Europe, and in the packing the
+greatest care was observed. Nevertheless it arrived, after a voyage of
+fifteen months, in a state quite useless. Thus the fruits of much labor
+and a considerable expense were entirely lost.</p>
+
+<p>Huacho is a little village, which, since the war of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> Independence, has
+received the title of "city." It has more than 5000 inhabitants, of
+whom four-fifths are Indians and the rest mestizes. Very few whites
+have settled here. Among them I met an old lame Spaniard, "Don Simon,"
+who, at the beginning of the present century, accompanied the
+celebrated Alexander von Humboldt to the beds of salt situated a few
+miles to the south. In relating, with enthusiastic pleasure, his
+recollections of the youthful and indefatigable traveller, he told me
+that, some years ago, he had read through the book which Humboldt
+wrote on America, and he added, with great simplicity, "<i>pero, Se&ntilde;or,
+ahi he perdido los estribos</i>."<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>The natives employ themselves in fishing, agriculture, and the
+breeding of poultry. Most of the poultry brought to market in Lima
+comes from Huacho. Every Friday large caravan-like processions of
+Indian women repair to the capital with fowls, ducks, and turkeys.
+Fifteen or twenty are tied together by the feet, and make a sort of
+bunch; and two of such bunches are hung at the pommel of the saddle,
+so that one hangs down on either side of the horse. The chola<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> sits
+in the middle. Under this burthen the poor animal has to travel two
+days and a half. Only when the caravan halts does he enjoy the relief
+of being unsaddled and fed. Some of the Indians of Huacho work in the
+salt-pits. The women plait coarse straw hats, and a kind of mats
+called <i>petates</i>, which they carry to Lima for sale.</p>
+
+<p>The Huachanos cannot be ranked among the best classes of the Indians.
+They are malicious, revengeful, and knavish. Their character has
+evidently deteriorated amidst the numerous revolutions which preceded
+the establishment of the Republic, and the frequent passage of troops
+through the town. The Padre Requena sketched to me a terrible picture
+of his <i>Indios brutos</i>; but truly, under the guidance of such a
+shepherd, it were unreasonable to expect the flock to be very good.
+This venerable Cura was a fair type of the Peruvian priesthood. He was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>passionately fond of hunting, and for the enjoyment of that recreation
+he kept a number of excellent horses, and several packs of hounds,
+particularly <i>galgos</i> (greyhounds), for some of which he paid 150 or
+200 dollars. In the most shameless way he violated the ecclesiastical
+vow of celibacy, and he was usually surrounded by several of his own
+children, who called him <i>uncle</i>, addressing him by the appellation of
+<i>tio</i>, the term usually employed in Peru to express that sort of
+relationship. The Padre used to boast of his alleged friendship with
+Lord Cochrane, in which he affected to pride himself very greatly. He
+died in a few weeks after his return to Huacho. He refused so long to
+make his confession, that the Indians, uttering furious menaces,
+assembled in crowds about his house. Some even compelled a priest to go
+in to him, to represent the awful consequences of his obstinacy. On the
+approach of death, he declared that the thought which most occupied him
+was his separation from his hounds, and when his hands were becoming
+cold he called to his negro to fetch a pair of buckskin hunting gloves,
+and desired to have them drawn on.</p>
+
+<p>In Peru the clergy have no fixed stipend. Their emoluments are derived
+from the fees and perquisites which their ecclesiastical functions bring
+in. For baptisms, marriages, and masses, fixed sums are established; but
+it is not so with burials, for which the priest receives a present
+proportional to the circumstances of the deceased. The interment of a
+poor person (<i>entierro baxo</i>) costs at least from eight to ten dollars,
+which sum is extorted from the survivors with the most unrelenting
+rigor. For the burial of a rich person (<i>entierro alto</i>) the sum of two
+hundred dollars is frequently paid. If a wealthy man should express in
+his will his desire for an <i>entierro baxo</i>, the priest sets this clause
+aside, and proceeds with the costly ceremonies, the payment for which is
+insured by the pious feelings of the family. Hence some of the richer
+<i>comunerias</i>, of which Huacho is one, yield to the priest annually from
+12,000 to 14,000 dollars. When a priest dies, the clergy of the
+neighboring villages meet and bury him with great pomp, free of any
+payment except a good banquet.</p>
+
+<p>A rich Indian of Huacho made a bargain with his countrymen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> that, on
+their paying him weekly a medio (the sixteenth part of a dollar), he
+would defray the expenses of their funerals. By this agreement he
+realized a considerable sum of money. The Cholos made it a condition
+that they should be buried in coffins, which is not common with the
+lower classes in Peru. The Indian complied with this condition. When a
+Cholo died, a coffin was sent to his residence. If too short, the corpse
+was bent and forced into it. The interment then took place according to
+the ritual of the Church. On the following night the Indian who had
+contracted for the burials repaired with a confidential servant to the
+churchyard, dug up the coffin, threw the body back into the grave, and
+carried off the coffin, with the <i>mortaja</i> (the funeral garment), which
+served for the next customer. The contractor made each coffin last as
+long as the boards would hold together. This system, at all events,
+secured the Cholos against the danger of being buried alive.</p>
+
+<p>The churchyard of Huacho presents a revolting spectacle. A low wall
+surrounds a space of sandy ground, which is strewed with skulls, bones,
+fragments of burial clothes, and mutilated human bodies. The coffin
+plunderer, on replacing the corpse in the grave, merely throws some
+loose sand over it, and the consequence is that the remains of the dead
+frequently become the prey of dogs, foxes, and other carrion feeders.
+When the family of a deceased person can contribute nothing to defray
+the funeral expenses, the body is conveyed privately during the night to
+the churchyard. In the morning it is found half consumed.</p>
+
+<p>The environs of Huacho abound in fine fruit gardens, and productive
+Indian farms. The climate is healthful, though very hot. The vicinity of
+the sea and the convenience of good bathing would render it an agreeable
+place of residence, were it not infested with vermin. Fleas propagate in
+the sand in almost incredible multitudes, especially in the neighborhood
+of the Indian huts, and any person entering them is in a moment covered
+with hundreds of those tormentors. Bugs, too, swarm in the lime walls;
+though that description of vermin is less numerous in Huacho than in
+some of the more northern towns.</p>
+
+<p>In a fine valley, about two short leagues from Huacho, the little town
+of Huaura is situated on the bank of a river of the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> name. This Rio
+de Huaura is formed by the union of two rivers. The larger of the two
+rises in the Cordillera de Paria, and flows through the wild ravine of
+Chuichin: the smaller river, called the Rio Chico de Sayan, rises from a
+lake of considerable size in the Altos de Huaquimarci. Both unite below
+the village of Sayan. In the vicinity of Huaura the river forms several
+marshes, in which malaria is generated. In very few places have I seen
+the stratum of malaria so distinctly separated from the atmosphere as
+here. It lies at an average about two, or two and a half feet above the
+marsh, and is carried over it by strong atmospheric currents. It is
+distinguished by a peculiar kind of opalization, and on certain
+changes of light it exhibits a yellowish tint. This is particularly
+perceptible in the morning, on coming down from the high grounds. The
+marshy plain then appears overhung with a thick color-changing sheet
+of malaria. Malignant intermittent fever and diseases of the skin are
+frequent in Huaura. The town is thinly peopled; the number of
+inhabitants being not more than 2000.</p>
+
+<p>A great sugar plantation, called El Ingenio, is situated at about a
+quarter of a league from Huaura. It formerly belonged to the Jesuits,
+but is now the property of a rich Lima family. The <i>trapiche</i>, or
+sugar-mill, is worked by a water-wheel, the first ever established in
+Peru, a circumstance of which the owner proudly boasts.</p>
+
+<p>The valley which opens here is magnificent, and to ride through it
+easterly eleven leagues towards Sayan is one of the finest excursions
+which can be made in Peru. Over this beautiful district are scattered
+many rich plantations. The one next in importance to El Ingenio is
+Acaray, which, though not very large, is most carefully cultivated:
+another, called Huillcahuaura, has a splendid building erected on it. In
+the middle of the valley is the extensive sugar plantation of Luhmayo.
+Near this place I saw, in a negro's hut, an ounce of immense size, which
+had been killed a few weeks previously. More than fifty Negroes and
+Indians had been engaged in subduing this ferocious animal, which was
+not killed until after a conflict of two days, in the course of which
+several negroes were dangerously wounded. This gigantic specimen
+measured, from the snout to the tip of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> tail, eight feet three
+inches; the tail itself measuring two feet eight inches.</p>
+
+<p>At the sugar works of Luhmayo, notwithstanding the number of pipes, and
+other methods of supplying water, the cylinders are always worked by
+oxen, and are kept in motion day and night. I took a view of the works
+during the night, and the extraordinary picture I beheld will never be
+effaced from my memory. In the middle of the spacious building
+appropriated to the operations blazed a large fire, fed by the refuse
+of sugar canes. Around lay negroes, some asleep, and others muttering
+to each other in an under-tone. Here and there sat one perfectly
+silent, wrapped in his own reflections, and apparently brooding over
+some gloomy plan. The oxen paced slowly round the pole, which directed
+the movement of the cylinders; the animals alternately disappearing in
+the obscure background, and returning to the point where the glare of
+the fire, falling full upon them, lighted them up as if by the sudden
+effect of magic. Behind them stalked a tall black figure, driving them
+on with a rod made of brambles. Groups of children were busily
+employed in thrusting the full sugar canes between the cylinders; and
+after they were pressed, collecting together the sapless reeds, and
+piling them up in regular heaps.</p>
+
+<p>Next morning the person who officiated as medical superintendant of the
+plantation, showed me all the arrangements of the establishment. He gave
+me an account of his cures and operations, and told me that he often
+found it necessary to amputate, because the slaves purposely injure
+their fingers and arms in the <i>Phalangeles</i> (machines) in order to
+disable themselves. The worthy &AElig;sculapius had never in his life read a
+regular medical work. He had originally been an overseer of slaves,
+and had afterwards turned doctor. He informed me that some time before
+I saw him, ninety negroes, his patients, had died of small-pox in the
+space of nine months, whereby the owner of the plantation had lost
+45,000 dollars. The hospital was clean and well fitted up, but
+over-crowded with sick. Most of them died from intermitting fever, and
+from dropsy and rheumatism which followed it. Not a few of the male
+negroes suffer from a peculiar kind of cutaneous disease, which shows
+itself by large pustules<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> on the arms and breast. After suppuration
+they dry and fall off, but leave indelible spots, which, on a black
+skin, are of a whitish color; on a brown skin, olive-green, and on a
+white skin, black. I never saw the disease in any other part of the
+country except in this valley. Negroes and persons of mixed blood are
+more subject to it than the whites.</p>
+
+<p>The two plantations on the east side of the valley are Chambara and
+Quipico. The latter is celebrated for the fine sugar it produces, and is
+also well known on account of the original character of its late
+proprietor, Castilla. When I rode into the court, I was in a moment
+surrounded by about fifty fine greyhounds, and from every side others
+came springing forward. This was but a remnant of Castilla's collection.
+He was passionately devoted to hunting, and generally kept from 200 to
+300 greyhounds, with which he rode out daily. A bell was rung at certain
+hours to collect the light-footed tribe to their meals. A gallows was
+erected in the court, where the intractable underwent capital punishment
+as a warning to the rest. One day when Castilla went out to hunt, he was
+joined in the chase by an Indian, who brought with him a common mongrel.
+This animal outstripped some of the greyhounds in speed, and quickly
+overtook the deer. Castilla immediately bought the dog, for which he
+gave the immense price of 350 dollars. A few days after he rode out to
+hunt with his best greyhounds, together with the newly-purchased dog.
+The pack being let loose, all the dogs set off in full chase, but the
+mongrel remained quietly beside the horses. On returning to the
+plantation, he was hung up on the gallows as a warning example.</p>
+
+<p>To the north of Huacho, the <i>Pampa del medio mundo</i>, a sand plain, seven
+leagues long, stretches out to the village of Supe. At short successive
+distances farther to the north are the villages of <i>Baranca</i>,
+<i>Pativilca</i> (or rather Pati Huillca), and <i>la Fortaleza</i>. Then there
+intervenes a vast waste, which extends nearly to Huarmay. Between that
+village and the Port of Casma there is a similar long plain of sand.
+Thus do wastes, and fruitful valleys, alternate along the whole coast
+until near Tumbez, on the frontiers of the Republic of the Ecuador.</p>
+
+<p>The whole district is rich in memorable monuments of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> time of the
+Incas. The most important are the remains of the palace of King Chimu
+Cancha, not far from the harbor of Huanchaco, and the ruins of
+Paramanca, near la Fortaleza. Doctor Unanue<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> is of opinion that the
+latter edifice was built to commemorate the peace between King Chimu
+Cancha and his conqueror, Capac Yupanqui; and that of two other
+buildings, one (the larger), situated towards the east, marks the
+dominions of the powerful Inca Pachacutec, and the other (the smaller),
+towards the west, indicates the territory of the conquered Chimu. This
+supposition is, in my opinion, quite erroneous. Independently of the
+plainly-recognizable character of those ruins, the construction of which
+shows them to have been fortifications, their situation bears evidence
+against the inference of Unanue. Supposing the larger building to have
+indicated the position of the Inca Empire, it ought to have been
+situated to the south, and the smaller building would have been to the
+north. The only passable road along the coast led between these two
+fortified hills; and by them the road on that side to the Kingdom of
+Chimu could be cut off. The Incas well knew, from experience, that the
+subdued populations, usually after a longer or a shorter time, again
+revolted, and endeavored to shake off their yoke, and therefore they
+were on their guard against such an occurrence. Capac Yupanqui must
+have greatly mistrusted an enemy so formidable as Chimu Cancha, who
+had only yielded after the most obstinate resistance, and it is no
+slight proof of this that Paramanca<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> was built as a fortress to
+hold the subjugated nations in check. It was not, however, built as a
+monument of victory, for such monuments were always erected in Cozco,
+the capital, and never on the field of battle. Etymology affords no
+solution of this question. Some write Paramonga, others Paramanca. I
+regard the latter as the most correct. Garcilaso de la Vega<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> calls the
+valley Parmunca. In the Quichua dialect <i>Paramanca</i><a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> signifies a
+pot for rain. It is therefore possible that the name may indicate an
+allusion to heavy torrents of rain, which, though now unusual on this
+particular part of the coast, may have occurred in this basin-like
+valley after a great earthquake.</p>
+
+<p>Five leagues to the south of Huacho are the extensive <i>Salinas</i>, or salt
+pits, which supply Peru and Chile with excellent salt. They spread from
+the sea coast to the distance of half a league eastward, and present a
+most extraordinary aspect. On approaching them the traveller might fancy
+he beholds a field of glaciers, on which the sun's rays produce
+wonderful effects of variegated color.</p>
+
+<p>This salt is the produce of a natural evaporation of the sea water,
+which trickles through the porous stones of the coast, and fills every
+intervening hollow. The whole space is parcelled into divisions, called
+fields, from which, according to a definite regulation, square masses,
+weighing each one hundred pounds, are cut. In a few days the holes are
+again filled up with sea water, which, in the space of twelve to
+sixteen, or sometimes twenty to twenty-four months, being evaporated by
+the sun, leaves a precipitate completely filling up the square holes.
+The government has farmed the salinas to a private individual in Huacho,
+who keeps on the spot an overseer with the necessary number of
+laborers. This establishment is an inexhaustible source of wealth, and
+it can only be destroyed by a violent earthquake. In the bay on which
+the salinas border there is very convenient and secure anchoring
+ground, where coasters are constantly lying, ready to receive the
+salt, and convey it to any Peruvian or Chilean port. Most of the
+laborers employed in the salinas suffer from diseases of the skin and
+rheumatism. Water and provisions have to be brought from Huacho. The
+Indians, when they come from the mountains to convey salt, never take
+their llamas to the salinas. They go straight to Huacho, where the
+animals are loaded at the great dep&ocirc;ts. Each llama carries the weight
+of one hundred pounds, which, however, is not, like ordinary burthens,
+laid on the bare back of the animal&mdash;beneath it is placed a layer of
+thick woollen cloth, called a <i>jerga</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>The road southward from the Salinas runs, for the distance of nine
+leagues, through deep sand, chiefly along the sea-coast, and is bounded
+on the east by the <i>Lomas de Lachay</i>. Here flocks of strand snipes and
+flamingoes fly constantly before the traveller, as if to direct his
+course. In the <i>pescadores</i> (fishermen's huts), five leagues from the
+Salinas, brackish water and broiled fish may be obtained, and sometimes
+even clover, which is brought hither, from the distance of several
+miles, to feed the hungry horses. From the pescadores the road crosses
+steep sand-hills, which rise from three to four hundred feet high, and
+fall with a declivity of more than sixty degrees towards the sea. The
+road leads along the side of these hills, and, where the ground is not
+firm, it is exceedingly dangerous. On a false step of the horse the
+ground yields beneath his hoof, and rolls down the declivity; but by due
+care the rider can easily recover a solid footing. There is on one of
+these hills a very large stone, which at a certain distance presents in
+color and form a deceptious similarity to an enormous-sized seal. Almost
+perpendicularly under it is a small bay, inhabited by a multitude of
+seals. The dull crashing sound made by the breakers on the shore,
+mingling with the howling of these animals, makes a gloomy impression on
+the traveller who is passing along the height above them, and creates a
+sort of shuddering sensation. The natives call this place and its sounds
+the <i>Grita Lobos</i> (the Sea-dog's Howl). From this hilly ground the road
+descends into the fruitful valley of the <i>Pasamayo</i>, which contains two
+villages and eighteen plantations.</p>
+
+<p>Chancay, the principal town in this valley, is the residence of a
+sub-prefect. It is a league and a half from the river, and a short
+league from the sea, where there is an inconsiderable and not very safe
+port, which can only be entered by small vessels. The number of
+inhabitants is about 1200, chiefly Indians and Mulattos. Excellent
+fruits and vegetables, good beef, mutton, and poultry, and well-flavored
+fish, are found here in abundance. The houses are all of the poorest
+structure, and are sparingly and rudely furnished. In the neighboring
+farms, some of which are large, as Torreblanco, Pasamayo, &amp;c., maize is
+extensively cultivated for exportation and for food to the swine, which
+are very numerous. In no other valley of Peru are there so many
+earth-fleas, or <i>piques</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> as they are called, particularly about the
+plantations. The <i>pique</i> is a small, white insect, which lives in sand,
+but fastens as a parasite on man and beast, more particularly on swine.
+It attacks man by penetrating the skin, for the most part under the
+toe-nails, where an egg is laid, from which a painful tumor is
+afterwards formed. Should this be neglected, the brood is developed, and
+penetrates further into the flesh. Then follow violent inflammations and
+imposthumes, which sometimes assume so serious a character that the
+amputation of the foot becomes necessary. While the <i>pique</i> is
+penetrating there is no sensation of its presence; it is first felt on
+the development of the egg, and then it is still easy to remove the
+bag which contains it, and the mother with it. The Negresses
+accomplish this with great dexterity. They make an aperture in the
+skin by scratching it with a needle, and then they draw the bag out.
+Should it burst, they take out the egg with the needle; but this is a
+very delicate operation. I have always been able to do it more
+speedily and more securely with the lancet. The hole is commonly of
+the size of a bean, and hot cigar ashes are put into it to destroy any
+eggs or larv&aelig; which may remain. These insects do not always confine
+themselves to the feet; they sometimes attack the body and the face,
+and it is in general extremely difficult for the patient to discover
+how or where he became acquainted with such troublesome companions. I
+once had six tumors, caused by broods of <i>piques</i>, on my right foot,
+and I could not trace the annoyance to any other cause than having
+stopped for a few minutes, while my horse was being saddled, in the
+<i>corral</i>, or yard, of a plantation.</p>
+
+<p>The road from Chancay to the Haciendas of Bisquira, Andahuasi, and the
+village of Sayan, extends in a northeasterly direction, through a dreary
+valley of sand, between rows of sterile hillocks of the most singular
+forms. I had once to travel along twelve leagues of this wearisome road,
+under the most oppressive heat of the sun. The mules were quite
+overcome, and when we reached the <i>Cuesta de los ahorcados</i> (the hill of
+the hanged) they would not move another step. We had to descend and give
+them a long rest. We stretched ourselves under the bellies of the
+animals, the only shade we could get in this treeless waste.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> At last,
+after a very difficult journey, during which we lost ourselves in a
+marsh in the neighborhood of Bisquira, we arrived about midnight at
+Andahuasi. On this road, only two leagues from Chancay, near the
+Hacienda of Chancayllo, are situated the Colcas, most remarkable
+subterraneous structures, of the time of the Incas. According to
+tradition, they were built by the Yuncas, during the campaign of Capac
+Yupanqui against Chimu Cancha, as provision magazines for the numerous
+army, more than 120,000 strong.</p>
+
+<p>At the mouth of the Pasamayo, on the north bank, there are some salinas,
+which, however, are far more inconsiderable than those of Huacho.</p>
+
+<p>The first time I went from Huacho to Lima, I wished to pass over the
+whole road, twenty-eight leagues, in one uninterrupted ride; accordingly
+I left Huacho at two o'clock, P. M., in order that I might cross the
+great sand-flats during the night. A negro who knew the road accompanied
+me. We passed through Chancay at midnight. Some muleteers, lying before
+a hut, called to us, and warned us to stop, as the river had swelled
+very much. Nevertheless we proceeded onward, and by one o'clock we
+reached the Pasamayo, which, in consequence of the heavy rains from the
+mountains, had overflowed its banks. Several travellers had stretched
+themselves on the ground to wait for the morning light, and in the hope
+that the flood would by that time subside. No Chimbadores<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> were to be
+had. My negro guide looked at the water with dismay, and declared that
+he had never before witnessed so furious a swell. However, we had no
+time to lose, and I resolved to attempt the passage of the river.
+Trusting to my well tried horse, which had already carried me safely
+through many difficult coasting journeys, I cautiously rode into the
+river, which became deeper at every step. The overwhelming force of the
+stream was felt by my horse; and he presently lost his footing, though
+he still continued to struggle vigorously against the force of the
+current. At this juncture, some passing clouds obscured the moon, and I
+lost sight of a group of trees which, before leaving the opposite bank,
+I fixed my eye upon as a guiding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> beacon. Quite powerless, my horse
+and I were carried away by the stream, and driven against a rock in
+the middle of the river. I now heard the anxious outcries of my negro
+and the travellers on the bank, whilst the waves rose over my head.
+With a convulsive effort I pulled the bridle, and the horse then
+turning completely round, once more gained his solid footing. I then
+gave him the spur, and the courageous animal dashing again into the
+midst of the current, swam with me to the bank. I rode forward with my
+negro in search of a better fording-place, and after several fruitless
+attempts, we at length found one, and we crossed the river safely. The
+other travellers did not venture to follow our example, but called out
+begging us not to leave them behind. I sent the negro back on my horse
+to bring them over; and the noble animal went backward and forward no
+less than seven times without making one false step. After all this
+exertion, he bore me with unflagging spirit into Lima, where we
+arrived at noon on the following day.</p>
+
+<p>From the Pasamayo, the road runs for the space of two leagues
+tolerably level, and for the most part amidst plantations. Then
+succeed steep sandy hills, for the distance of about four leagues.
+The roads are very wearisome both to horse and rider, especially in
+the declivities towards the plains, where the horse is frequently
+over his knees in sand. In those parts there are also some
+extraordinary atmospheric mirrors, in which we beheld ourselves in
+reflection, riding over our own heads, and our figures magnified to
+gigantic proportions. Six leagues from Chancay, there are two wretched
+huts, forming the tambo, or inn, in which travellers obtain
+refreshment. From thence the road runs through a stony tract,
+partially strewn with large masses of rock, called the <i>Piedras
+gordas</i>, and leading to the marshes which surround the Copacahuana
+plantations. Two leagues further on is the river Chillon, which, like
+the Pasamayo, may generally be easily forded, but which swells
+furiously during heavy falls of rain. At a short distance behind the
+river, the road, called the Camino de Valles, joins that leading to
+Cerro de Pasco. About a league from Lima there is a place called <i>Palo
+seco</i>, which, like <i>Piedras gordas</i>, is a celebrated haunt of robbers.
+The traveller has reason to congratulate himself if he passes these
+two places without an attack.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> The Indians resort to very artful methods of hiding their
+money. They sometimes conceal it between the boards of the boxes in
+which their eggs are packed, or stitch it into the stuffing of their
+asses' saddles. They often submit to be killed rather than avow where
+their money is concealed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> The word Pacchacamac signifies <i>He who created the world
+out of nothing</i>. It is compounded of <i>Paccha</i>, the earth, and <i>camac</i>,
+the participle present of <i>caman</i>, to produce something from nothing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Literally&mdash;"But there, sir, I lost the stirrups." Meaning
+that he did not understand it. The Spanish phrase, <i>Perder los
+estribos</i>, signifies to get confused or embarrassed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> <i>Chola</i> is the common designation for an Indian female.
+The masculine is <i>Cholo</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Nuevo dia del Peru. 1824.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> According to some ancient authors Paramanca was built by
+King Chimu as a frontier fortress against the neighboring nations. There
+is some foundation for this view of the subject, as Chimu Cancha had,
+long before he was attacked by Capac Yupanqui, carried on war most
+fiercely with Cuyz Mancu, King of Pacchacama, and Chuquiz Mancu, King of
+Runahuanac (the present Lunahuana).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> <i>Para</i> (rain) <i>Manca</i> (pot).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Guides, who conduct travellers across rivers, being well
+acquainted with the fords. They are also called Vadeadores.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">The Coast southward of Lima&mdash;&#8203;Chilca&mdash;&#8203;Curious Cigar cases made
+there&mdash;&#8203;Yauyos&mdash;&#8203;Pisco&mdash;&#8203;Journey to Yca&mdash;&#8203;A night on the Sand
+Plains&mdash;&#8203;Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823&mdash;&#8203;Vine Plantations at
+Yca&mdash;&#8203;Brandy and Wine&mdash;&#8203;Don Domingo Elias&mdash;&#8203;Vessels for transporting
+Brandy (Botijas and odres)&mdash;&#8203;Cruel mode of skinning Goats&mdash;&#8203;Negro
+Carnival&mdash;&#8203;Peculiar species of Guinea Pig&mdash;&#8203;The Salamanqueja&mdash;&#8203;Cotton
+Plantations&mdash;&#8203;Quebrada of Huaitara&mdash;&#8203;Sangallan&mdash;&#8203;Guano&mdash;&#8203;Retrospect of the
+Peruvian Coast&mdash;&#8203;Rivers&mdash;&#8203;Medanos&mdash;&#8203;Winds&mdash;&#8203;Change of Seasons&mdash;the
+Garuas&mdash;&#8203;The Lomas&mdash;&#8203;Mammalia&mdash;&#8203;Birds&mdash;&#8203;Amphibia.</p>
+
+
+<p>The coast, southward of Lima, is similar in aspect, climate, and
+character, to those parts north of the city which have just been
+described. Fruitful valleys, villages, and plantations, commodious
+sea-ports, and vast sandy wastes, alternate one with the other. Heat,
+sometimes almost insupportable, is succeeded by chilly and unhealthy
+mists; whilst here and there the scattered monuments of the wealth and
+greatness of bygone ages present a remarkable and painful contrast to
+present poverty and misery.</p>
+
+<p>Proceeding southward of Lima by way of Lurin, we arrive at Chilca, a
+wretched village situated on a soil which affords nothing to supply the
+wants of human existence. It appears an incomprehensible mystery that
+man should have fixed his abode on a spot where Nature has granted
+nothing for his nourishment, not even a drop of pure water; whilst at
+the distance of a few miles, luxuriant valleys offer, spontaneously,
+those products which the most laborious toil must fail to extort from
+the ungrateful soil of Chilca. The hope of wealth from commercial
+speculation or mining industry has peopled many inhospitable shores, and
+has raised populous towns on barren deserts; but at Chilca there are no
+such stimuli of interests. Nevertheless, they may possibly have existed
+in former ages, for the numerous ruins scattered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> around the village
+tend to confirm the opinion that the population was very extensive under
+the government of the Incas. The force of custom and of local attachment
+which frequently chains man to the spot where his progenitors have lived
+happily, is all that can bind the natives of Chilca to their miserable
+dwelling-place. In few villages, as in Chilca, have the Indians for more
+than 300 years so carefully avoided mixing with people of other races.
+They employ themselves in plaiting straw for hats and cigar-cases. The
+latter they make in a singularly beautiful style with white and colored
+straw, which they plait into various figures and patterns&mdash;sometimes
+into names, and even lines of poetry. Some of these cigar-cases sell for
+upwards of a hundred dollars. Fishing is a less profitable occupation to
+the people of Chilca, or, as they are called in the country, the
+Chilque&ntilde;os; for, owing to the great distance, only certain kinds of fish
+can be sent to the Lima market. Near the village there is a bed of very
+strong red-colored salt, which is exported to the mountains, but which
+sells at a lower price than the salt of Huacho.</p>
+
+<p>Five leagues south of Chilca, on the river of the same name, lies the
+village called Ca&ntilde;ete, which is the residence of a Sub-prefect. The very
+interesting province of Yauyos extends from this village in an easterly
+direction towards the Cordilleras. The inhabitants of this province are
+distinguishable by their faces and figures, and also by their manners
+and language, from the Indians of the coast and the mountains. In
+stature they are small. They have expanded foreheads, animated eyes,
+prominent cheek-bones, and wide mouths. Their limbs are slender, and
+their skin is of a swarthy brown. Their dialect, the Cauqui, contains
+many radical words of the Quichua language. After this nation was
+subjugated by the Incas their language was so intermixed with others,
+that it is now very difficult to trace out its origin. It appears to be
+totally different from the Chinchaysuyo language.</p>
+
+<p>Some very considerable sugar plantations, and several villages, lie
+between Ca&ntilde;ete and Pisco. Among the villages, Lunahuana and Chincha
+(upper and lower) are celebrated for their great fertility. Two rivers,
+at the distance of five leagues from each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> other, flow in a parallel
+direction between Chincha and Pisco, and to their waters the valleys are
+indebted for their rich vegetation. On account of their width these
+rivers can only be passed with the assistance of Chimbadores, and many
+travellers annually perish in their incautious attempts to ford them.
+The little town of Pisco is on the left bank of the south river, and
+half a league from it there is a secure harbor with good anchoring
+ground. This town has acquired some importance by the exportation of
+brandy; and it has recently become more active and populous owing to the
+near vicinity of the Guano islands. The custom-house and the port
+captain's office are on the shore, where there is also a large building
+erected by Don Domingo Elias, for a brandy dep&ocirc;t. The little town of
+Pisco has suffered much from the plundering attacks of European pirates,
+from earthquakes, and more recently from the War of Independence.
+Several parts of it have been rebuilt. Within the few last years much
+has been done in the way of improving and ornamenting it. A broad trench
+has been dug round the town, serving the purpose of drainage, and
+thereby greatly contributing to preserve the health of the place. Pisco
+is merely the key to the large interior town of Yca, which is fourteen
+leagues distant. I visited it in the year 1842. The steamer conveyed me
+in eighteen hours from Callao to Pisco, where I hired horses and a
+guide. He was a Catalonian, who had frequently travelled to Yca.</p>
+
+<p>At three o'clock, <small>P. M.</small>, we left Pisco. At first the road passed over
+very hard ground, then through deep sand, which continued till we got
+to Yca. Notwithstanding the heat, which in the month of February is
+insupportable, I was wrapped up in my woollen poncho. Experience had
+taught me that in the hotter districts the change of temperature which
+takes place at night, and causes fever, is least injurious when the
+traveller is protected in warm clothing. My Catalonian guide, who,
+with his arms covered merely by his shirt sleeves, nevertheless
+suffered greatly from the heat, could not comprehend why I had chosen
+such a dress. When I informed him that eleven days before I had, in
+the same clothing, passed a night on the Cordilleras, in the midst of
+snow, he shook his head in token of incredulity. Whilst the bell rang
+for evening prayers we rode into the Huilla Curin Plantation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> which
+is surrounded by a charming grove of palm trees. We stopped for a few
+moments to gather some excellent figs. About midnight a heavy fog
+spread over the plain, and veiled from our sight a cross on the south,
+which had hitherto served to keep us in the right direction. We,
+however, advanced about a league farther. The Catalonian then often
+alighted to smell the sand, in order to ascertain whether we were
+taking the proper course. This is a very good practical method; for in
+deserts through which caravans frequently pass, the dung of the beasts
+of burthen mixed with the sand affords a sure indication of the track.
+When we had got about three quarters of a league farther on, we came
+close against a rock, which my guide&mdash;in whose acquaintance with the
+locality I had the most unbounded confidence&mdash;declared was quite
+unknown to him. There was therefore no doubt that we had got out of
+the right course. I lighted a cigar, and on examining, by its feeble
+light, my pocket compass, I discovered that instead of keeping to the
+south-east we had diverged to the west. As there was now no hope that
+the fog would clear away before day-break, we rolled ourselves in the
+warm sand, to await the coming morning.</p>
+
+<p>I afterwards learned that in this very spot numerous travellers had lost
+their way, and had perished of thirst. In the year 1823, a ship stranded
+on this coast, with three hundred and twenty dragoons on board, under
+the command of Colonel Lavalle. The soldiers succeeded in getting
+ashore, but thirty-six hours afterwards they were lost in this sandy
+desert. When intelligence of the shipwreck reached Pisco, a cavalry
+regiment was despatched to search for the sufferers, and to supply them
+with provisions and water; but when they were found it was discovered
+that one hundred and sixteen men had died from fatigue and thirst, and a
+few days after fifty more perished from exhaustion. It is generally
+supposed that a healthy man can live four or five days unsupplied with
+food and drink. In the temperate climate of Europe, and with bodily
+rest, this, perhaps, may be the case; but in the burning wastes of Peru
+to be deprived of nourishment for only forty-eight hours, and at the
+same time to wander about in deep sand, would be followed by certain
+death. Severe thirst is the most horrible of torments, especially when
+the body is surrounded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> by a medium altogether of an arid nature. At sea
+it can be much longer endured than on a surface of sand.</p>
+
+<p>When the grey dawn of morning appeared we again mounted our horses, and
+rode by my compass in the direction of E.S.E. After riding a few
+leagues, we turned an acute angle, which brought us into the main road,
+and we arrived that forenoon in Yca.</p>
+
+<p>On my return I so arranged my journey as to pass the night in Huilla
+Curin, where the horses were supplied with forage, consisting of the
+shoots and leaves of the Mastick-tree (<i>schinus molle</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Yca is a moderately large and very agreeably situated town. Like most of
+the larger towns on the coast it is peopled with inhabitants of all
+colors, particularly Mestizos. It is the residence of a sub-prefect and
+many rich planters. Scarcely anything but the vine is cultivated in the
+Haciendas of the environs; and this branch of husbandry contributes
+greatly to enrich the province. It is astonishing to see with what
+facility the vine thrives in a soil apparently so unfruitful. The young
+shoots are stuck into the sand almost half a foot deep, then tied up and
+left to themselves. They quickly take root and shoot forth leaves.
+Whilst the surrounding country bears the appearance of a desert, the
+vineyards of Yca are clothed in delightful verdure. The grapes are of
+superior quality, very succulent and sweet. The greater part are used
+for making brandy, which is extremely good and very well flavored. All
+Peru and a great part of Chile are supplied with this liquor from the
+Vale of Yca. The common brandy is called <i>Aguardiente de Pisco</i>, because
+it is shipped at that port. A kind of brandy of superior quality, and
+much dearer, made from Muscatel grapes, is called <i>Aguardiente de
+Italia</i>. It is distinguished by a very exquisite flavor. Very little
+wine is made at Yca. In some plantations they make a thick dark-brown
+kind, which is very sweet, and much liked by the Peruvians, though not
+very agreeable to a European palate. Only one planter, Don Domingo
+Elias,<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> the richest and most <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>speculative cultivator on the whole
+coast, makes wine in the European manner. It is very like the wine of
+Madeira and Teneriffe, only it is more fiery, and contains a more
+considerable quantity of alcohol. Specimens which have been sent to
+Europe have obtained the unqualified approbation of connoisseurs. The
+flavor is considerably improved by a long sea voyage.</p>
+
+<p>The brandy, which is exported by sea, is put into large vessels made of
+clay, called <i>botijas</i>. In form they are like a pear, the broad ends
+being downwards. At the top there is a small aperture, which is
+hermetically closed with gypsum. The large <i>botija</i> when filled weighs
+six or seven arobas. Two are a load for a mule. To the pack-saddle, or
+<i>aparejo</i>, two baskets are fastened, in which the <i>botijas</i> are placed
+with the small ends downwards. These <i>botijas</i> were formerly also used
+for conveying the brandy across the mountains; but, in consequence of
+the dangerous, slippery roads, over which the mules often fell, many
+were broken. Still greater damage was sustained at the springs and
+wells on the coast, for the poor animals, after their long journeys
+through the sandy wastes, rushed, on perceiving water, in full flight
+to the springs. As it happens that there is often room for only five
+or six mules, and from seventy to eighty were often pressing forward,
+a great number of the <i>botijas</i> were unavoidably dashed to pieces in
+spite of all the caution the arrieros could exercise. The annual loss
+of brandy was immense, and to counteract this evil, bags of goatskin
+were introduced. These skins are now generally used for the
+conveyance of brandy across the mountains. The method of skinning the
+goats is the most horribly cruel that can be conceived. A negro hangs
+the living animal up by the horns, and makes a circular incision
+round his neck, which, however, goes no further than to the flesh. He
+then draws the skin from the body of the writhing animal, which
+utters the most frightful cries. When the skin is completely removed,
+and not till then, is the suffering animal killed. The negroes assert
+that the skin is most easily removed in this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> manner, and that the
+<i>odres</i><a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> become thereby more durable. It is to be hoped that
+humanely disposed planters will soon put an end to this barbarous
+and unreasonable practice.</p>
+
+<p>I happened to be in Yca at the time of the celebration of the negro
+carnival, which I will here briefly describe. In some of the principal
+streets of the town large arches are erected, and gaily decorated with
+ribbons. Round these arches negresses and mestizas dance, and endeavor
+to stop the negroes whilst riding at full gallop under the arches. The
+negroes start from the distance of about one hundred paces, and gallop
+straight to the boundary, where the women endeavor to seize the bridle,
+and to throw the rider from his saddle. The task of the men is to ride
+past the women without being stopped; and when they fail in so doing,
+they have to pay a fine, and are hooted into the bargain. It is hard to
+say which is most surprising;&mdash;the speed of the horses, the dexterity of
+the riders, or the courage of the negresses, who fearlessly throw
+themselves in the way of the galloping horses. During the race the
+negroes are pelted with unripe oranges and lemons, which, when thrown by
+the vigorous arm of a zamba, inflict a sufficiently heavy blow. I saw a
+negro gallop to and fro for the space of an hour, at full speed, and
+every time he passed under the arch he dexterously evaded the
+outstretched hands of the women; thus giving proof of uncommon bodily
+strength. While dashing at full speed through the arch of the bridge,
+and leaning forward on the horse's neck, he seized two negresses, one
+with each of his arms, and pulled them into the saddle beside him.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of Yca is hot, and not altogether healthy, for the torrents
+of rain which fall from the hills swell the river so as to make it
+overflow its lower bank, where marshes are formed, in which malaria is
+developed. Most of the plantations in the environs are more healthy.</p>
+
+<p>All the bushes in the vicinity of the town are inhabited by a kind of
+Guinea pig (<i>Cavia Cuttleri</i>, King). These animals are exceedingly
+numerous. After sunrise and towards evening, they leave their lurking
+places and play about in the grass.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> Upon the whole they are not shy,
+and they allow people to approach them pretty closely. The natives
+call this little animal the <i>Cui del Montes</i>, and they believe it to
+be the progenitor of the tame Guinea pig. This notion is, however,
+quite erroneous.</p>
+
+<p>Along the whole of the Peruvian coast there is found a small animal of
+the lizard kind, of which the natives are very much afraid. They call it
+the <i>Salamanqueja</i>. It lives in the fissures of walls, and is sometimes
+seen creeping along the lime plaster of houses. Its bite is believed to
+be mortal. From the descriptions given of this animal, I was curious to
+see it, and I commissioned some persons to procure me one. At last, an
+Indian brought me a specimen very much crushed, and I found that I had
+already got several of them in my collections. I now obtained more of
+them, and the natives beheld me with astonishment carrying them alive in
+my hand. Of the Salamanqueja there are two species, the <i>Diplodactylus
+lepidopygus</i>, Tsch., and the <i>Discodactylus phacophorus</i>, Tsch. They are
+nearly related to each other, being only distinguished by one species
+having an orifice in the thighs, serving as a passage for an issue from
+a gland which secretes a very acrid fluid. This little animal never
+bites; but it is possible that the fluid by touching a fresh wound, or
+scratch, may cause very serious consequences.</p>
+
+<p>To the south of Yca there are some large cotton plantations; the most
+considerable of which belong to Don Domingo Elias. The cotton for
+exportation is shipped at the port of San Nicolas. Many experienced
+captains of ships declare the bay of San Nicolas to be the safest and
+best along the whole of the western coast of South America.</p>
+
+<p>The Quebrada of Huaitara, which stretches to the east of Yca, is the
+principal channel of communication between this part of the coast and
+the rich mountain provinces of Jauja and Huancavelica, and from the
+latter places to Ayacucho and Cosco.</p>
+
+<p>Opposite to Pisco and Chinca there is a group of small islands, of which
+the largest, Sangallan, is six English miles distant from Pisco. These
+islands have of late years become celebrated on account of the great
+quantity of guano that has been exported from them.</p>
+
+<p>Guano (or according to the more correct orthography,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> Huanu)<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> is
+found on these islands in enormous layers of from 35 to 40 feet thick.
+The upper strata are of a greyish-brown color, which lower down becomes
+darker. In the lower strata the color is a rusty red, as if tinged by
+oxide of iron. The Guano becomes progressively more and more solid from
+the surface downward, a circumstance naturally accounted for by the
+gradual deposite of the strata, and the evaporation of the fluid
+particles. Guano is found on all the islands, and on most of the
+uninhabited promontories of the west coast of South America, especially
+in those parts within the tropics. I have often been assured that beds
+of Guano several feet high, covered with earth, are found inland at some
+distance from the sea; but I never met with any, and I have some doubt
+of the correctness of the statement. If, however, these inland strata
+really exist, I am inclined to believe that they can only be found on
+hilly ground; and in that case they afford strong evidence of a
+considerable elevation of the coast.</p>
+
+<p>Guano is formed of the excrements of different kinds of marine birds,
+as mews, divers, sheerbeaks, &amp;c.; but the species which I can name
+with more precision are the following:&mdash;<i>Larus modestus</i>, Tsch.;
+<i>Rhinchops nigra</i>, Lin.; <i>Plotus Anhinga</i>, Lin.; <i>Pelecanus thayus</i>,
+Mol.; <i>Phalacrocorax Gaimardii</i>, and <i>albigula</i>, Tsch. (<i>Pelecanus
+Gaimardii</i>, Less., <i>Carbo albigula</i>, Brandt), and chiefly the <i>Sula
+variegata</i>, Tsch.</p>
+
+<p>The immense flocks of these birds as they fly along the coast appear
+like clouds. When their vast numbers, their extraordinary voracity, and
+the facility with which they procure their food, are considered, one
+cannot be surprised at the magnitude of the beds of Guano, which have
+resulted from uninterrupted accumulations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> during many thousands of
+years. I kept for some days a living <i>Sula variegata</i>, which I fed
+abundantly with fish. The average weight of the excrement daily was
+from 3<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub></span> to five ounces. I have no doubt that when the bird is in a
+state of freedom the weight must be much greater, for these birds are
+constantly plunging into the sea, in order to devour the fishes which
+they find in extraordinary masses around all the islands. When an
+island is inhabited by millions of sea-birds, though two-thirds of
+the guano should be lost while flying, still a very considerable
+stratum would be accumulated in the course of a year.</p>
+
+<p>The marine birds nestle on the uninhabited islands, or on rocks near the
+shore; but they never settle on the flat beach, or any place distant
+from it inland. On this fact, I ground my conjecture that those beds of
+guano in the interior, which may have been removed from the shore by
+important elevations of the coast, are to be found only on hills.</p>
+
+<p>During the first year of the deposit the strata are white, and the guano
+is then called <i>Guano Blanco</i>. In the opinion of the Peruvian
+cultivators, this is the most efficacious kind. It is found in the Punta
+de Hormillos, on the islands of Islay, Jesus, Margarita, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the dealers in guano begin to work one of the beds, the
+island on which it is formed, is abandoned by the birds. It has also
+been remarked, that since the increase of trade and navigation, they
+have withdrawn from the islands in the neighborhood of the ports.</p>
+
+<p>Much has recently been written on the employment and utility of guano;
+but the manner in which it is applied as manure in Peru, seems to be but
+little known. The Peruvians use it chiefly in the cultivation of maize
+and potatoes. A few weeks after the seeds begin to shoot, a little
+hollow is dug round each root, and is filled up with guano, which is
+afterwards covered with a layer of earth. After the lapse of twelve or
+fifteen hours, the whole field is laid under water, and is left in that
+state for some hours. Of the <i>Guano Blanco</i> a less quantity suffices,
+and the field must be more speedily and abundantly watered, otherwise
+the roots would be destroyed. The effect of this manure is incredibly
+rapid. In a few days the growth of a plant is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> doubled. If the manure be
+repeated a second time, but in smaller quantity, a rich harvest is
+certain. At least, the produce will be threefold that which would have
+been obtained from the unmanured soil.</p>
+
+<p>The haciendas of the valley of Chancay have, during the last fifty
+years, consumed annually from 33,000 to 36,000 bushels of guano brought
+from the islands of Chancha and Pisco. The price of the bushel of
+colored guano is one dollar and a quarter, and the price of the white
+from two to three dollars. The price has recently undergone many
+fluctuations, in consequence of the great exports to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The employment of this kind of manure is very ancient in Peru; and there
+is authentic evidence of its having been used in the time of the Incas.
+The white guano was then chiefly found on the islands opposite to
+Chincha; so that for upwards of 600 years the deposit has been
+progressively removed from those islands without any apparent decrease
+of the accumulation. The uniformity of climate on a coast where there is
+not much rain, must contribute to render the Peruvian guano a more arid
+manure than the African, as fewer of the saline particles of the former
+being in solution, they are consequently less subject to evaporation.</p>
+
+<p>From 3&deg; 35&#8242; to 21&deg; 48&#8242; south latitude, a plain of sand, 540 leagues
+long, and varying from 3 to 20 leagues in breadth, stretches along the
+coast of the Pacific Ocean. It is intersected by chains of small
+hillocks, which, extending westward from the Cordilleras, gradually
+diminish in height, and either become blended with the plain, or form
+abrupt promontories, which project into the sea. Between the river Loa,
+which marks the southern frontier of the Peruvian coast, and the Tumbez,
+on the northern boundary, fifty-nine rivers, great and small, pass
+through the line of coast. Proceeding from the avalanches of the Andes
+or the small alpine lakes, they force their way through narrow
+mountain-valleys, irrigate the waste grounds, and then, after brief
+courses, flow into the great ocean.</p>
+
+<p>A fine light yellow drift sand covers hill and dale. It is only where
+rivers intersect the plain that oases of luxuriant vegetation are
+formed. The peril of traversing these plains is greatly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> increased by
+the movability of the sand and the <i>Medanos</i>. The strong winds raise
+immense clouds of dust and sand. The sand rises in columns of from
+eighty to a hundred feet high, which whirl about in all directions, as
+if moved by magic. Sometimes they suddenly overshadow the traveller, who
+only escapes from them by rapid riding.</p>
+
+<p>The medanos are hillock-like elevations of sand, some having a firm,
+others a loose base. The former, which are always crescent-shaped, are
+from ten to twenty feet high, and have an acute crest. The inner side is
+perpendicular, and the outer or bow side forms an angle with a steep
+inclination downward. When driven by violent winds, the medanos pass
+rapidly over the plains. The smaller and lighter ones move quickly
+forwards before the larger ones; but the latter soon overtake and crush
+them, whilst they are themselves shivered by the collision. These
+medanos assume all sorts of extraordinary figures, and sometimes move
+along the plain in rows forming most intricate labyrinths, whereby what
+might otherwise be visible in the distance is withdrawn from the view of
+the traveller. A plain often appears to be covered with a row of
+medanos, and some days afterwards it is again restored to its level and
+uniform aspect. Persons who have the greatest experience of the coast
+are apt to mistake their way, when they encounter these sand-hills.</p>
+
+<p>The medanos with immovable bases are formed on the blocks of rock which
+are scattered about the plain. The sand is driven against them by the
+wind, and as soon as it reaches the top point it descends on the other
+side until that is likewise covered; thus gradually arises a
+conical-formed hill. Entire hillock-chain with acute crests are formed
+in a similar manner. The small hillock-chain, by which the coast is
+intersected obliquely from east to west, is a boundary which arrests the
+progress of the wandering medanos; otherwise fruitful oases would soon
+be converted into barren sand-flats. A correct observation of these
+hillock-chains affords a most certain scale for ascertaining the
+direction of the prevailing wind. On their southern declivities are
+found vast masses of sand drifted thither by the mid-day gales. The
+northern declivity, though not steeper than the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> southern, is only
+sparingly covered with sand. If a hillock-chain somewhat distant from
+the sea extends in a line parallel with the Andes, namely from S.S.E. to
+N.N.W., the western declivity is almost entirely free of sand, as it is
+driven to the plain below by the southeast wind, which constantly
+alternates with the wind from the south.</p>
+
+<p>The movements and new formations in the deserts (like restorations
+from death to life) are only in full activity during the hot season;
+for then the parched sand yields to the slightest pressure of the
+atmosphere. In the cold season its weight increases by the absorption
+of humidity. The particles unite in masses, and more easily resist
+the wind. In the meantime the hillocks also acquire more firmness or
+compression by the increased weight which presses on them from above.</p>
+
+<p>In November, summer commences. The rays of the sun are refracted on the
+light grey sandy carpet, and are reflected back with scorching power.
+Every living thing which does not quickly escape from their influence is
+devoted to certain destruction. No plant takes root in the burning soil,
+and no animal finds food on the arid lifeless surface. No bird, no
+insect moves in the burning atmosphere. Only in the very loftiest
+regions, the king of the air, the majestic condor, may be seen floating,
+with daring wing, on his way to the sea coast. Only where the ocean and
+the desert blend with each other is there life and movement. Flocks of
+carrion crows swarm over the dead remains of marine animals scattered
+along the shore. Otters and seals impart life to the inaccessible rocks;
+hosts of coast birds eagerly pounce on the fish and mollusca cast on
+shore; variegated lizards sport on the sand hillocks; and busy crabs and
+sea spiders work their way by furrows through the humid coast.</p>
+
+<p>The scene changes in May. A thin veil of mist then overspreads the sea
+and the shore. In the following months the thickness of the mist
+increases, and it is only in October that it begins to disperse. In the
+beginning and at the end of the period called winter this mist commonly
+rises between nine and ten o'clock in the morning, and disappears about
+three, <small>P.M.</small> It is heaviest in August and September; and it then lies for
+weeks immoveable on the earth. It does not resolve into what may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> be
+properly called rain, but it becomes a fine minute precipitate which the
+natives call <small>GARUA</small> (thick fog or drizzling rain). Many travellers have
+alleged that there are places on the Peruvian coast which have been
+without rain for centuries. The assertion is to a certain degree
+correct, for there are many districts in which there never is rain
+except after an earthquake, and not always even then.</p>
+
+<p>Though the <i>garua</i> sometimes falls in large drops, still there is
+this distinction between it and rain, that it descends not from
+clouds at a great height, but is formed in the lower atmospheric
+regions, by the union of small bubbles of mist. The average
+perpendicular height over which this fog passes does not exceed one
+thousand two hundred feet; its medium boundary is from seven to eight
+hundred feet. That it is known only within a few miles of the sea is
+a highly curious phenomenon; beyond those few miles it is superseded
+by heavy rains; and the boundary line between the rain and the mist
+may be defined with mathematical precision. I know two plantations,
+the one six leagues from Lima, the other in the neighborhood of
+Huacho: one half of these lands is watered by the garuas, the other
+half by rain, and the boundary line is marked by a wall.</p>
+
+<p>When the mists set in, the chain of hillocks (<i>Lomas</i>) bordering the
+sand-flats on the coasts undergoes a complete change. As if by a stroke
+of magic, blooming vegetation overspreads the soil, which, a few days
+previously, was a mere barren wilderness. Horses and cattle are driven
+into these parts for grazing, and during several months the animals find
+abundance of rich pasture. There is, however, no water; but they do not
+appear to suffer from the want of it, for they are always in good
+healthy condition on leaving the Lomas.</p>
+
+<p>In some parts of northern Peru, where the garuas are scanty, the
+fertility of the soil depends wholly on the mountain rains, for in
+summer most of the rivers are dried up. When there is a deficiency of
+rain, the cattle on the coast suffer greatly. A few years ago a
+haciendado, or cultivator, in the vale of Piura, lost 42,000 sheep;
+the usual flood, without which the necessary fodder could not be
+raised, did not come on at the proper time. At Piura there is such a
+total absence of dew, that a sheet of paper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> left for a whole night
+in the open air does not, in the morning, exhibit the smallest trace
+of humidity. In central and south Peru the moisture scarcely
+penetrates half an inch into the earth.</p>
+
+<p>In the oases the garuas are much heavier than in the adjacent wastes.
+Along the whole of the coast there is no rain, and no vegetation
+throughout a large circuit. The rain commences first in the north at
+Tumbez, and there extensive woods are seen. Towards the east it begins
+first in the valleys of the Cordilleras, which abound in vegetation.
+These very extraordinary phenomena remain as yet unexplained; they,
+however, merit the closest investigation of meteorologists.</p>
+
+<p>I may conclude this chapter by a brief view of the Fauna of the higher
+vertebral animals. In the region of the coast I have found twenty-six
+species of mammalia, only eight of which belong exclusively to the
+coast. Sixteen of the other species are to be found in the mountains or
+in the forests. The relation of this number to the whole of the mammalia
+of Peru is 1:4, 3. Distributed by single orders, they are in the
+following proportions:&mdash;Bats, four species, of which only one
+(<i>Vespertilio innoxius</i>, Gerv.) belongs to this region alone. Beasts of
+prey, ten kinds; among them one of the mephitic class, known to the
+natives by the name of <i>zorillo</i>, or <i>a&ntilde;ash</i>; an otter (<i>Lutra
+chilensis</i>, Ben.); a fox (<i>Canis azar&aelig;</i>, Pr. Max.), which abounds in the
+cotton plantations in the neighborhood of Lima and throughout all the
+Lomas, where he preys on the lambs; several of the feline race, among
+which are the two great American species&mdash;the puma and the ounce, which
+are seldom seen on the coast, but are considerably larger than those in
+the mountains. The American lion is timid, and shuns man. When caught
+young he is easily tamed. The Indians of the northern provinces
+sometimes bring these lions to Lima, and get money for showing them.
+They lead them by a string, or put them in large sacks, and carry them
+about on their backs, until a show-loving crowd assembles around them.
+The ounces are very bold and fierce. They penetrate into plantations,
+and attack children and horses. They very cunningly avoid the numerous
+snares laid for them by the Indians. An encounter with this animal is
+serious and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> dangerous. A hunt seldom ends without some of the pursuers
+being killed or wounded by the animal.</p>
+
+<p>I have already spoken of the seals. There are three kinds of didelphic
+or marsupial animals on the coast. The natives call them <i>mucamuca</i>.
+They live in bushes and shrubberies, and they often find their way into
+the store-rooms of the plantations.</p>
+
+<p>Of the great section of the <i>Rodentia</i>, I know of only seven species in
+Peru; but I have no doubt that this number might be doubled by a careful
+search in the valleys on the coast. The common house-mouse is very
+numerous in Lima. The brown rat appears seldom. It came to Peru only a
+few years ago; but there is reason to apprehend that it will soon be
+very numerous. Probably it has been imported by Hamburgh ships. In
+Callao I saw specimens of some that had been killed. I did not see the
+common black rat in Peru.</p>
+
+<p>The Armadillo (<i>Dasypus tatuay, Desm.</i>, L.) is seldom seen. It is found
+in some of the Yucca and Camote plantations. The negroes eat it, and its
+flesh is said to be good.</p>
+
+<p>Of wild ruminating animals there is only one on the coast: it is a kind
+of Roe (<i>Cervus nemorivagus</i>, F. Cuv., the <i>venado</i> of the natives). The
+venados chiefly inhabit the brushwood along the coast; but after sunset
+they visit the plantations, where they commit considerable damage. They
+are smaller than our European roe, and somewhat more brown. Englishmen
+at Lima go out to hunt them. The natives do not take much interest in
+the chase. This animal is also met with in the coldest regions of the
+Cordilleras; but it does not come down to the old forests, where the Red
+Deer (<i>Cervus rufus</i>, F. Cuv.) supplies its absence.</p>
+
+<p>In the woods which surround some of the plantations in the valleys of
+Lima, wild boars (<i>Chanchos Simarones</i>) are occasionally found. They are
+of immense size. At the plantation called the <i>Hacienda de Caraponga</i>,
+one was killed, of which the head alone was an ordinary burthen for a
+mule.</p>
+
+<p>The number of birds in this very extensive quarter of Peru (the marine
+and river fowl being excepted) is very inconsiderable. The scarcity of
+woods and high trees may probably account for this. Besides the carrion
+vulture, condors collect in great numbers on the shore to prey on the
+stranded whales. Falcons<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> seldom appear, except the small Sparrow Hawk
+(<i>Falco sparverius</i>, L.), which is very numerous in Peru. One of the
+most common birds is the little Earth Owl (<i>Noctua urucurea</i>, Less.),
+which is met with in nearly all the old ruins scattered along the coast.
+The Pearl Owl (<i>Strix perlata</i>, L.) is bred in several plantations, as
+it is found useful in catching mice. Swallows are not very common; they
+do not nestle on the housetops, but on walls at some distance from
+towns. The Peruvians give them the euphonious name, <i>Palomitas de Santa
+Rosa</i> (Santa Rosa's little pigeons). Among the singing-birds the Crowned
+Fly King (<i>Myoarchus coronatus</i>, Cab.) is the most distinguished. The
+head, breast, and belly of this bird are deep red, the wings and back
+very dark brown. He always plants himself on the highest point of a
+tree, flies perpendicularly upward, whirls about in the air singing, and
+drops down again straight to his former perch. The Lime&ntilde;os have given
+this elegant bird a very unbecoming name, which I need not repeat here.
+On some parts of the coast it is called <i>Saca-tu-real</i> (draw out your
+real), because his song sounds like these words. Some fine Tanagers
+(<i>Tanagra frugilega</i>, Tsch.; <i>Tanagra analis</i>, Tsch.) visit the fruit
+gardens round Lima. I saw two birds, of the starling species, the
+red-bellied Picho (<i>Sturnella militaris</i>, Viell.), and the
+glossy-black Chivillo (<i>Cassicus palliatus</i>, Tsch.), which are kept
+in cages on account of their very melodious song. Three kinds of
+parrots, which abound in the valleys on the coast, commit great
+depredations in the maize fields. The largest (<i>Conurus tumultuosus</i>,
+Tsch.) is green, with a red forehead, and some red feathers scattered
+over the body. A second sort builds its nest chiefly on the sides of
+rocks (<i>Conurus rupicola</i>, Tsch.), and only occasionally visits the
+plantations. The third is the smallest, but at the same time the most
+beautiful of the whole (<i>Conurus sitophaga</i>, Tsch.). A fine green
+overspreads all the upper part of the body, a blue fringe borders the
+feathers of the wings; and a bright citron-yellow is diffused over
+the forehead, neck, breast, and belly. It is only seven inches long.
+Pigeons, large and small, swarm in such multitudes over the
+corn-fields, and in the environs, that they may almost be called the
+great plague of the country. One of the finest is the little
+<i>Turtuli</i> (<i>Chaemepelia gracilis</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> Tsch.), on the wing of which
+there is a row of very beautiful shining violet spots. The <i>Cuculi</i>,
+one of the largest pigeons, is a great favorite. It is kept much in
+cages. Its song, which is monotonous, yet very melodious, is kept up
+from the earliest hours of the morning until midday, and it begins
+again nearly at sunset. The song consists merely of a threefold
+repetition of <i>cu-cu-li</i>. After a pause, it resumes the song again.
+There are, however, some of those birds which repeat the <i>cuculi</i> oftener than thrice, and their price increases according to the
+number of their uninterrupted repetitions, which seldom exceed five
+or six. In Cocachacra, however, I heard one of these birds which
+repeated its <i>cuculi</i> fourteen times. The owner would not sell it
+under fourteen gold ounces.</p>
+
+<p>The amphibia on the Peruvian coast are proportionally much better
+represented than the two foregoing classes. The gigantic tortoises
+(<i>Chelonia imbricata</i> and <i>Ch. midas</i>, Schweig.) visit in great
+numbers the few little frequented inlets. The elephant tortoise
+(<i>Testudo Schweigeri</i>) is often found on some islands, and in the
+marshy mouths of several rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Two kinds of Crocodiles (<i>Champsa sclerops</i> and <i>Ch. fissipes</i>, Wagl.)
+inhabit the Rio de la Chira. They grow to the length of fourteen
+or fifteen feet.</p>
+
+<p>Among the lizard class of reptiles, very large bright green Iguanas are
+found on the south coast; for instance, in the Caletas near Merillones,
+&amp;c.; but there are great numbers of the land Agama, of which I found
+several new species, viz., <i>Steirolepis tigris</i>, <i>thoracica</i>,
+<i>quadrivittata</i>, <i>xanthostigma</i>, Tsch.; <i>Liolaemus elegans</i>, Tsch.;
+<i>Ctenoblepharys adspersa</i>, Tsch., &amp;c., &amp;c. I have already mentioned the
+Gecko, called the <i>Salamanqueja</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Serpents upon the whole are rather seldom seen. They belong to
+different kinds, some poisonous, some innoxious (for example,
+<i>Zacholus</i>, <i>Psammophis</i>, <i>Oxyrrhopus</i>, <i>Siphlophis</i>, <i>Ophis</i>, <i>Elaps</i>,
+&amp;c., &amp;c.). A very poisonous viper (<i>Echidna ocellata</i>, Tsch.) inhabits
+the sugar-cane fields. Its bite is almost instantaneously mortal.</p>
+
+<p>The genuine frog is not to be found on the coast, and of the bladder
+frog only two kinds are known (<i>Cystignathus roseus</i> and <i>nodosus</i>,
+Dum. Bibr.). I have found three amphibia of the toad class.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> The Thorn
+toad (<i>Bufo spinulosus</i>, Wiegam.), which has its body thickly covered
+with a thorny kind of warts. The beautiful red spotted toad (<i>Bufo
+thaul</i>), and a very curious and ugly kind with a round, swelled out
+body, a loose skin, and a large bladder under the chin (<i>Anaxyrus
+melancholicus</i>, Tsch.). At night the cry of this animal is a discordant
+melancholy howl.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Elias is eminent not only as an extensive landowner and
+cultivator, but as a statesman. During the revolution of 1843 and 1844,
+he was called upon to place himself at the head of the government. He
+discharged the duties of that high office with singular judgment and
+moderation. He and his lady are distinguished for their courteous and
+liberal hospitality; and many foreign visitors, like myself, look back
+with pleasure on the happiness they derived from the friendship of Don
+Domingo Elias.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> An odre is a goat-skin prepared for carrying wine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> The original word is Huanu, which is a term in the
+Quichua dialect meaning "animal dung;" for example, <i>Huanacuhuanu</i> (excrement of the Huanacu). As the word is now generally used it is an
+abbreviation of <i>Pishu Huanu&mdash;Bird-dung</i>. The Spaniards have converted
+the final syllable <i>nu</i> into <i>no</i>, as they do in all the words adopted
+from the Quichua which have the like termination. The European
+orthography <i>Guano</i>, which is also followed in Spanish America, is
+quite erroneous, for the Quichua language is deficient in the letter
+<i>G</i>, as it is in several other consonants. The <i>H</i>, in the commencement
+of the word, is strongly aspirated, whence the error in the orthography
+of the Spaniards, who have sadly corrupted the language of the
+Autochthones of Peru.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER X.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Roads leading to the Sierra&mdash;&#8203;Chaclacayo and Santa I&ntilde;es&mdash;&#8203;Barometrical
+observations&mdash;&#8203;San Pedro Mama&mdash;&#8203;The Rio Seco&mdash;&#8203;Extraordinary Geological
+Phenomenon&mdash;&#8203;Similar one described by Mr. Darwin&mdash;&#8203;Surco&mdash;&#8203;Diseases
+peculiar to the Villages of Peru&mdash;&#8203;The Verugas&mdash;&#8203;Indian mode of treating
+the disorder&mdash;&#8203;The Bird-catching Spider&mdash;&#8203;Horse-Shoeing&mdash;&#8203;Indian
+Tambos&mdash;&#8203;San Juan de Matucanas&mdash;&#8203;The Thorn-apple and the Tonga&mdash;&#8203;The Tambo
+de Viso&mdash;&#8203;Bridges&mdash;&#8203;San Mateo&mdash;&#8203;Passports&mdash;&#8203;Acchahuari&mdash;&#8203;Malady called the
+Veta&mdash;&#8203;Its effects on horses&mdash;&#8203;Singular tact and caution of
+Mules&mdash;&#8203;Antarangra and Mountain Passes&mdash;&#8203;Curious partition of
+Water&mdash;&#8203;Piedra Parada&mdash;&#8203;Yauli&mdash;&#8203;Indian Smelting Furnaces&mdash;&#8203;Mineral
+Springs&mdash;&#8203;Portuguese Mine owners&mdash;&#8203;Saco&mdash;&#8203;Oroya&mdash;&#8203;Hanging
+Bridges&mdash;&#8203;Huaros&mdash;&#8203;Roads leading from Oroya.</p>
+
+
+<p>From Lima two main roads lead to the Sierra or the mountains. One runs
+northward through the valley of Canta, in the direction of the rich
+silver mines of Cerro de Pasco; the other, taking a more southerly
+direction, passes through the Quebrada of Matucanas, to the villages of
+Tarma, Jauja, and Huancayo; and still further south, leads to
+Huancavelica, Ayacucho, and Cuzco. All the roads running from the coast
+to the Sierra, present a similarity of character. Taking an oblique
+direction from the margin of the coast, they run into one or other of
+the fan-shaped Cordillera valleys, all of which are intersected by
+rivers. Following the course of these rivers, the roads become steeper
+and steeper, and the valleys soon contract into mere ravines,
+terminating at the foot of the Cordillera. The traveller then threads
+his way up the acclivity, amidst stupendous masses of rock, until he
+reaches the lofty ridge. Then a gradual descent leads to the level
+heights, and thence into the deep mountain valleys.</p>
+
+<p>Former travellers having already described the route by way of Canta, I
+will here trace the course through the Quebrada of Matucanas. In so
+doing, I am enabled to present to the reader<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> the results of some
+barometrical observations which are the more interesting, inasmuch as
+the Cordillera here advances more nearly to the coast than at any other
+point.</p>
+
+<p>The most easterly gate of the city of Lima (the Portada de Maravillas)
+opens upon a broad road, which runs directly eastward. At the distance
+of about a league and a half from the city, the road passes over a stone
+bridge called the <i>Puente de Surco</i>, a place famed for robbers. At this
+point the surrounding country presents a wild and dreary aspect. Ranges
+of grey and barren hills encompass the valley; the ground is for the
+most part covered with sand and gravel. Desolate remains of plantations
+and the ruins of habitations bear evidence of the life and activity that
+once animated this desert region, now abandoned by all save the fierce
+bandit and his victim, the solitary traveller.</p>
+
+<p>Along the margins of the river, patches of moor-ground here and there
+serve as pasture. Clover and maize are produced only in those parts
+where the soil is manured and artificially watered. Low brushwood and
+reeds, growing on the banks of the Rimac, supply firewood to the city of
+Lima, and are a source of profit to some of the plantation-owners in
+the valley. At Periachi, four leagues from the capital, the road takes
+a turn to north-east, and continues in that direction, with but little
+deviation, as far as the base of the Cordillera. Two leagues beyond
+Pariachi we reach Chaclacayo, a village containing about thirty
+miserable reed huts. The plantation of Santa I&ntilde;es, a little further
+on, is situated at 2386 feet above the level of the sea.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> Mr.
+Maclean, an English merchant in Lima, who has sent many interesting
+Peruvian plants to the hothouses of England, and who has made some
+very attentive barometrical observations during a journey in the
+interior of the country, calculates the altitude of Chaclacayo at 2265
+feet above the sea.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> Rivero makes it 2010 feet above that level.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>
+The difference between these calculations is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> remarkable; and in more
+considerable altitudes the discrepancy is still more considerable, being
+sometimes as much as from eight to nine hundred feet. I am inclined to
+believe that it is attributable less to inaccuracy of observation than
+to the very imperfect instrument made use of by Rivero. Maclean's
+observations, with some trifling exceptions, correspond with mine. He
+used one of Fortin's barometers, and I one of Lefevre's, which, prior to
+my departure from Europe, had, during several weeks, been regulated at
+the observatory in Paris. Unluckily, this excellent instrument was
+injured by a fall from my horse, and I found it impossible to get it
+repaired. Some barometrical observations made by M. C. Gay, during a
+journey in Peru, in the years 1839-40, with one of Bunten's barometers,
+deviate very considerably from all those above mentioned. Between the
+calculations of Gay and Rivero there is an average difference of from
+six hundred to one thousand feet.</p>
+
+<p>On the road to Pasco, the Hacienda of Cavallero corresponds, in its
+distance from the capital, with the village of Chaclacayo, on the road I
+am here describing. At Chaclacayo wheat and sugar are cultivated. The
+sugar cane thrives well, and might be grown in greater quantity. In some
+of the coast districts I have seen the sugar cane cultivated at the
+height of 4500 feet above the sea; and I have seen it grow
+spontaneously, and attain perfect maturity, as high as 6800 feet.</p>
+
+<p>From Santa I&ntilde;es the road continues gradually ascending to the little
+village of San Pedro Mama, where the two rivers, San Mateo and Santa
+Olaya, unite and form the Rimac. The walls of mountain which enclose the
+valley here rise almost perpendicularly, and afford nestling-places for
+small, richly-plumed parrots (<i>Conurus rupicola</i>, Tsch.). I was much
+surprised to see these birds inhabiting the barren rocks, as the parrot
+always dwells in woody regions, and is found in other places only when
+on its passage. I know no other species of this family, save the one I
+have just mentioned, which permanently nestles on mountains.</p>
+
+<p>Three leagues beyond San Pedro lies the village of Cocachacra. It is a
+small and poor place, but is picturesquely situated, and enjoys a fine
+climate. Its name, signifying <i>coca-field</i>, or <i>plantation</i>, denotes
+that coca must formerly have been cultivated here.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> At present that
+plant is not grown in any part near the coast, as it requires a damp and
+very warm climate. Cocachacra is 5386 feet above the level of the sea.
+Maclean fixes the altitude of San Pedro Mama, Santa Olaya, and
+Cocachacra, at 5331 feet. Supposing this calculation to be correct with
+respect to the latter village, it cannot also apply to San Pedro Mama
+and Santa Olaya, which lie much lower. At the two last-mentioned places
+I made no barometrical observations.</p>
+
+<p>On the Pasco road the hamlet of Llanga is situated, at twelve leagues
+from Lima. On the other road Cocachacra is the same distance from the
+capital; but Cocachacra is about 2400 feet higher than Llanga. Between
+Cavallero and Llanga there is an interesting geological phenomenon,
+which I will here describe.</p>
+
+<p>At the distance of two leagues from Lima the road takes a turn. At first
+it runs direct north, or north-north-west; suddenly it turns to
+north-north-east, and advances along the bank of the river Chillon as
+far as Cavallero. From thence, with slight deviations, it continues in
+the same course to Llanga, but at a considerable distance from the
+river, as the latter takes a wide sweep northward. From Cavallero the
+road runs for the space of three leagues, still ascending, through a
+barren district, along the dry bed of a river, called the Rio Seco. The
+last half-league of the way is very steep, and leads to the ridge of a
+chain of hillocks running diagonally across the valley. The ground is
+strewed with fragments of porphyry and other kinds of rock, like the bed
+of the Rimac. On reaching the ridge of the line of hillocks, the
+traveller beholds on the other side a hollow basin, like the dry bed of
+a lake: a furrow, extending lengthwise through this hollow, is the
+continuation of the bed of the river which is intersected by the chain
+of hills. Descending into the valley, and again following the course of
+the Rio Seco to the distance of about three leagues, we reach the
+village of Alcocoto, and once more arrive on the bank of the Rio de
+Chillon.</p>
+
+<p>Here, therefore, we have evidence of the following remarkable facts,
+viz.:&mdash;that at some former period the river of Chillon flowed
+north-westward from Alcocoto to Cavallero, in the bed that is now
+dry; and that a chain of hills has been upheaved diagonally across the
+valley and the river. By this chain of hills the water,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> being dammed
+up, formed a lake; then it was again driven back; until the stream
+broke into a new course at Alcocoto, by which means the lake emptied
+itself, and, having no new supply of water, it dried up. Now the Rio
+de Chillon flows from Alcocoto to Cavallero, taking a wide turn, first
+westward, next south-westward, and lastly, direct south, until, at a
+sharp angle, it unites with the old bed of the river. The point of
+junction is a quarter of a mile from the Hacienda Cavallero. This is,
+however, not a solitary example of the course of a river being
+interrupted by the uplifting of a ridge of hills. A similar instance
+is mentioned by Mr. Darwin, who, however, did not see it himself, but
+who describes it as follows, from the observation of his countryman,
+Mr. Gill, the engineer:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"Travelling from Casma to Huaraz, not far distant from Lima, he (Mr.
+Gill) found a plain covered with ruins and marks of ancient cultivation,
+but now quite barren. Near it was the dry course of a considerable
+river, whence the water for irrigation had formerly been conducted.
+There was nothing in the appearance of the water-course to indicate that
+the river had not flowed there a few years previously; in some parts,
+beds of sand and gravel were spread out; in others, the solid rock had
+been worn into a broad channel, which in one spot was about forty yards
+in breadth, and eight feet deep. It is self-evident that a person
+following up the course of a stream will always ascend at a greater or
+less inclination. Mr. Gill, therefore, was much astonished, when walking
+up the bed of this ancient river, to find himself suddenly going down
+hill. He imagined that the downward slope had a fall of about forty or
+fifty feet perpendicular. We here have unequivocal evidence that a ridge
+had been uplifted right across the old bed of the stream. From the
+moment the river-course was thus arched the water must necessarily have
+been thrown back, and a new channel formed. From that period, also, the
+neighboring plain must have lost its fertilizing stream, and become a
+desert."<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<p>The inference here deduced is, that the rising took place at a period
+when the district was inhabited and cultivated by men.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> Of the period
+of the uplifting between Cavallero and Alcocoto I could discern no
+proofs. But the impression produced by the dry river bed involuntarily
+suggests the idea that, at no very distant period, it must have been
+the lodgment of a stream; for it is in all respects similar to the
+temporary dry river beds so frequently met with on the coast of Peru.</p>
+
+<p>I made repeated visits to the Rio Seco, and I always contemplated with
+wonder the curious deviation of the river's course. But I must candidly
+confess that during my abode in Peru, I did not venture to attribute
+that deviation to so partial an uplifting; for I was ignorant of the
+existence of any similar phenomenon which would have supported such an
+opinion. Now, however, the example referred to by the eminent English
+geologist, and which has its existence on the same coast of Peru, sets
+all my doubts at rest, and I am quite convinced of the correctness of
+Mr. Darwin's view of the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Having made this digression, I must now carry the reader back to
+Cocachacra. Pursuing the road to the distance of three leagues further,
+we arrive at San Geronimo de Surco. The valley in this part becomes more
+contracted; but on the whole its character is unchanged, with the
+exception that the mountains gradually become higher and steeper, and
+the soil less fertile. The road frequently runs along lofty walls of
+rock, or winds round sharp projections, which overhang deep chasms, in
+passing which the greatest precaution is requisite.</p>
+
+<p>In several of the valleys on the road from the coast to the Sierra, and
+above all in the valley of Surco, there are certain springs, the water
+of which the Indians never drink. When a stranger unguardedly approaches
+one of these springs for the purpose of quenching his thirst, he is
+saluted by warning cries of <i>Es agua de Veruga!</i> (It is veruga water!)
+Even horses and mules are not suffered to refresh themselves at these
+springs, where the water is supposed to have the effect of producing a
+disorder called the <i>Verugas</i>. As the existence of this disease is not
+known in any other country, there appears ground for believing that it
+has its origin in certain local circumstances. The verugas first
+manifests itself by sore throat, pains in the bones, and other feverish
+symptoms. In the course of a few days an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> eruption of red-colored
+pimples, or boils, appears. These pimples sometimes increase in
+magnitude, till, in some parts of the body, they become nearly as large
+as an egg, and blood flows from them to such an excess, that the
+strength of the patient is exhausted, and consumption frequently
+follows. From the small verugas the flow of blood is greatest. I knew an
+instance of a half-caste Indian who from a small veruga below the ankle
+lost two pounds of blood.</p>
+
+<p>I was not able to trace this disease to any other cause than that which
+the Indians assign to it. At all events, it is certain that travellers
+who abstain from drinking the water of the condemned springs, escape the
+verugas; whilst those who only once taste such water, are attacked by
+the disorder. It is the same with mules and horses. One of my mules
+which drank veruga water was attacked by a large tumor on the leg. The
+disease is notoriously prevalent in the village of Santa Olaya.</p>
+
+<p>The medical treatment of the Verugas by the Indians is quite empirical.
+They administer to the patient the infusion of a plant which they call
+<i>Huajra-Huajra</i>; that is, Horn-Horn.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> I never witnessed any
+convincing proof of its efficacy. Its operation appears to be merely
+sudorific. A preparation of white maize is also frequently given, and
+it has the effect of assisting the action of the skin. When the
+eruption of the verugas is tardy, a few spoonfuls of wine are found to
+be of great service. Sudorific and purifying medicines, together with
+cutting out the large verugas, and keeping the wounds for a time in a
+state of suppuration, have heretofore been found the best mode of
+treatment. An accurate chemical analysis of the water which the Indians
+declare to be <i>agua de veruga</i>, would be very desirable.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Quebrada of Canta, where the verugas are less common than in
+that of Matucanas, another disease, called the Uta, is of very frequent
+occurrence. The uta is a sort of cancer, and it is more fearful in its
+consequences than the verugas. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>Probably in no country in the world do
+so many local diseases prevail as in Peru. Every valley has its own
+peculiar disease, which frequently does not extend beyond the boundary
+of a few square miles, and is quite unknown in neighboring districts.
+The origin of these disorders is, doubtless, to be traced to certain
+mineral or vegetable influences as yet unknown. It is remarkable how
+unequally these baneful visitations affect the different races of the
+inhabitants. The Indians and the lighter classes of half-castes are
+most frequently attacked by the verugas; the whites are less liable to
+the disease, whilst the negroes and people of the darker shades of
+mixed blood seldom suffer from it. The Indians and the Chinos are
+particularly liable to the uta. The caracha, of which I have already
+spoken,<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> visits the Negroes, the Zamboes, and the Mulattoes; the
+lighter-complexioned races being much less liable to it.</p>
+
+<p>At Quibe I saw a bird-catching spider (<i>mygale</i>), of extraordinary large
+size. The back part of the body alone measured two inches. Being at some
+distance I supposed it to be one of the rodent animals, and I fired at
+it. To my mortification I discovered my mistake when too late, for the
+specimen was completely destroyed by the shot, and was useless for my
+collection. The Indians assured me that on the margin of the stream
+which flowed near the plantation many larger individuals were to be
+found; but I never saw another of such remarkable size as the one I
+inadvertently destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>San Geronimo de Surco is 6945 feet above the level of the sea. It is a
+long village, and is situated in one of the most fertile parts of the
+valley. The houses are detached one from another, and each is
+surrounded by a little chacra. This place may be regarded as the
+boundary-line between the coast and the Sierra. The climate is
+agreeable&mdash;rather hot than cold. Most of the coast plants thrive here
+with little culture. Bananas, chirimoyas, superb granadillas,
+pomegranates, camotes, &amp;c., grow here in luxuriant abundance. Yuccas I
+did not see: their elevation boundary is lower. San Geronimo de Surco
+is infested with swarms of annoying insects, especially sancudos
+(<i>Culex molestus</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> Kell.), and stinging flies (species of <i>Simoleum</i>),
+which banish sleep from the resting-place of the weary traveller.</p>
+
+<p>In this village there is an old Spaniard who keeps a tambo, and at the
+same time exercises the calling of a farrier. One of my horse's shoes
+being loose, I got him to fasten it on. For hammering in eight nails he
+made me pay half a gold ounce, and at first he demanded twelve dollars.
+He doubtless bore in mind the old Spanish proverb: "<i>Por un clavo se
+pierde una herradura, por una herradura un cavallo, por un cavallo un
+cavallero</i>,"<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> and he felt assured that I must have the damage repaired
+at any price. Shortly after my arrival in the Sierra I got myself
+initiated in the art of horse-shoeing, and constantly carried about with
+me a supply of horse-shoes and nails, a plan which I found was generally
+adopted by travellers in those parts. It is only in the larger Indian
+villages that farriers are to be met with, that is to say in places
+fifty or sixty leagues distant from each other.</p>
+
+<p>From Surco the road runs to the distance of two leagues tolerably
+level, and very close to the river, which, from Cocachacra, bears the
+name of Rio de San Mateo. The next village is San Juan de Matucanas, at
+a little distance from which there is a tambo, situated at the height
+of 8105 feet above the sea.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> These tambos of the Sierra are wretched
+places, but the traveller may find in them shelter, and possibly some
+miserable kind of food. Even in Lima the tambos are not much better. In
+the capital a tambo affords the traveller the accommodation of a room,
+containing a table, a chair, and a bedstead; for it is always
+understood that he brings his mattress and bedding along with him. In
+the interior of the country the accommodation is limited to an empty
+space on the floor, just large enough to spread a mattress upon.
+Whenever the state of the weather permitted I always preferred sleeping
+in the open air. Even on a rainy night a lodging on the outside of the
+door is preferable to the interior of the hut, where Indians, negroes,
+dogs and pigs are all huddled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> together. In these tambos there is
+seldom any scarcity of brandy or chicha; but the hungry traveller
+sometimes cannot get even a potatoe or a bit of maize. Frequently, when
+the Indians really have provisions they will not produce them, because
+they are fearful of not being paid. This suspicion is pardonable
+enough; for when troops march through the villages the inhabitants are
+often cheated by the officers, and ill-treated into the bargain.
+Generally, in this part of the country, the people are civil, and will
+readily sell provisions if they are paid. Not so the Indians of the
+higher mountains eastward of the Cordillera. To the traveller's demand
+for something to eat, their uniform reply is "<i>Manam canchu</i>" (we have
+nothing); and it is often found necessary to resort to force in order
+to convert this monotonous answer into the more agreeable "<i>Ari
+conchu</i>" (here is something).</p>
+
+<p>Matucanas, which is rather a large village, lies on the left bank of the
+Rimac. The houses are of brick, and roofed with straw. The soil round
+this village is fertile, though not favorable to the growth of those
+plants which demand a very warm temperature. The agricultural produce is
+therefore limited to maize, wheat, lucerne (which is very abundant), and
+potatoes; the latter are sent in great quantities to the capital. The
+cactus grows on the hills, and its excellent fruit (<i>tunas</i>) forms also
+an article of trade.</p>
+
+<p>Beyond Matucanas the valley contracts into a narrow ravine no broader
+than the bed of the river, and it gradually assumes a wilder character.
+The way is difficult along the ridge of hills which borders the left
+bank of the river. The vegetation is less monotonous and scanty than in
+the valleys of the coast, and all the fissures of the hills are filled
+with verdure. The stunted willow (<i>Salix Humboldtii</i>, Wild.) grows along
+the banks of the river, and on the less steep declivities is seen the
+red thorn-apple (<i>Datura sanguinea</i>, R. Pav.). To the latter the natives
+give the names <i>Huacacachu</i>, <i>Yerba de Huaca</i>, or <i>Bovachevo</i>; and they
+prepare from its fruit a very powerful narcotic drink, called <i>tonga</i>.
+The Indians believe that by drinking the tonga they are brought into
+communication with the spirits of their forefathers. I once had an
+opportunity of observing an Indian under the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> influence of this drink.
+Shortly after having swallowed the beverage he fell into a heavy stupor:
+he sat with his eyes vacantly fixed on the ground, his mouth
+convulsively closed, and his nostrils dilated. In the course of about a
+quarter of an hour his eyes began to roll, foam issued from his
+half-opened lips, and his whole body was agitated by frightful
+convulsions. These violent symptoms having subsided, a profound sleep of
+several hours succeeded. In the evening I again saw this Indian. He was
+relating to a circle of attentive listeners the particulars of his
+vision, during which he alleged he had held communication with the
+spirits of his forefathers. He appeared very weak and exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>In former times the Indian sorcerers, when they pretended to transport
+themselves into the presence of their deities, drank the juice of the
+thorn-apple, in order to work themselves into a state of ecstasy. Though
+the establishment of Christianity has weaned the Indians from their
+idolatry, yet it has not banished their old superstitions. They still
+believe that they can hold communications with the spirits of their
+ancestors, and that they can obtain from them a clue to the treasures
+concealed in the <i>huacas</i>, or graves; hence the Indian name of the
+thorn-apple&mdash;<i>huacacachu</i>, or grave plant.</p>
+
+<p>A few miles beyond Matucanas there is a lateral valley, larger and more
+pleasant than the principal valley. It is called the Quebrada de Viso,
+and is watered by a little stream. At the point where this Quebrada
+forms a junction with the principal valley is situated the Tambo de
+Viso. It is 9100 feet above the level of the sea.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> At this tambo the
+traveller may find a tolerable night's lodging for himself, and fodder
+for his horse. Here the river is crossed by a bridge, and the road then
+proceeds along the left bank of the river, after having been on the
+right bank all the way from Lima. The bridges across these mountain
+streams are always constructed at points where the river is most
+contracted by the narrow confines of the ravine. They consist merely of
+a few poles made of the trunk of the Maguay-tree (<i>Agave Americana</i>),
+and connected together by transverse <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>ropes; the ropes being overlaid
+with twisted branches and pieces of hoops. These bridges are not more
+than three feet broad, and have no balustrades. When the space between
+the banks of the river is too long for the Maguay stems, strong ropes
+made of twisted ox-hides are substituted. In crossing these bridges
+accidents frequently happen, owing to the hoofs of the horses and mules
+getting entangled in the plaited branches along the pathway. A little
+way beyond San Mateo I narrowly escaped being precipitated, with my
+mule, into the rocky chasm forming the bed of the river.</p>
+
+<p>The road between Viso and San Mateo, a distance of about three
+leagues, is exceedingly difficult and dangerous. The ravine becomes
+narrowed to a mere cleft, between walls of mountain rising on either
+side to the height of more than a thousand feet; sometimes
+perpendicularly, and at other times inclining inwards, so as to form
+gigantic arches. The path runs along the base of these mountains,
+washed by the foaming waves of the stream; or it winds up the side of
+the precipice, over huge fragments of rock, which, being loosened by
+the rain, afford no secure footing for the heavily laden mules.
+Frequently these loosened blocks give way, and roll down into the
+valley. The journey from Viso to San Mateo is associated in my mind
+with the recollection of a most mortifying accident. A mass of rock,
+such as I have just described, gave way, and rolling down the
+precipice, hurled one of my mules into the foaming abyss. My most
+valuable instruments, a portion of my collections, my papers, and&mdash;to
+me an irreparable loss&mdash;a diary carefully and conscientiously kept for
+the space of fourteen months, were in a moment buried in the river.
+Two days afterward the current washed the dead mule ashore at
+Matucanas, but its load was irrecoverably lost.</p>
+
+<p>Every year many beasts of burthen, and even travellers, perish on this
+road. In the Tambo de Viso I met an officer who, with two of his sons,
+was coming from the Sierra. He had placed the youngest before him, and
+the other, a boy of ten years of age, was seated on the mule's
+crupper. When they were within about half a league from Viso, a huge
+mass of rock, rolling down from the mountain, struck the elder boy,
+and hurled him into the river.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> The afflicted father was anxiously
+seeking to recover the body of his lost child.</p>
+
+<p>San Mateo is on the right bank of the river, and is the largest
+village in this valley. It corresponds in situation with Culluay in
+the Quebrada of Canta; as Matucanas corresponds with the village of
+Obrajillo. San Mateo is 10,947 feet above the level of the sea.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>
+The soil produces abundance of potatoes, Ocas (<i>Oxalis tuberosa</i>) and
+Ullucas (<i>Trop&aelig;olum tuberosum</i>). Maize ripens here perfectly, but the
+heads are small. The lucerne is also small, but very abundant; it is
+very much exposed to injury from the frost, and is only good for use
+during the five rainy months of the year. Five hundred feet higher,
+that is to say, about 11,500 feet above the sea, is the boundary
+elevation for the growth of lucerne.</p>
+
+<p>The spirit of hospitality, so generally prevalent among the Sierra
+Indians, does not seem to animate the Cholos of San Mateo. Their manners
+are rude and reserved, and they are very distrustful of strangers. As
+soon as a traveller enters the village, the Alcade and the Rejidores
+make their appearance, and demand his passport. If he cannot produce it,
+he may possibly be put upon a donkey, and conducted to the nearest
+Prefect, or may moreover run the risk of being ill-treated. But,
+fortunately, it is easy to escape such annoyances. Any scrap of printed
+or written paper will answer for a passport, as it rarely happens that
+either the Alcade or the Rejidores can read. On one occasion when my
+passport was demanded, I discovered I had lost it. Fortunately, I had in
+my pocket a bit of waste paper, which I had used instead of wadding in
+loading my gun. I ventured at all hazards to hand it to the Indian
+Rejidor, who having unfolded it stared very gravely at the words <i>Lucia
+di Lammermoor</i>, which he saw printed in large characters. It was the
+bill of the opera I had attended a few evenings before my departure from
+Lima. After examining the bill very attentively, and then scanning me
+very narrowly, the Rejidor returned the paper, with the observation that
+the passport was quite correct.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>From San Mateo the road runs for half a league through a gloomy
+ravine; and then suddenly takes a steep ascent up the side of the
+mountain, over fragments of stones, lying one above another like
+flights of steps. The stream dashes from rock to rock, covering the
+narrow path with foam, and washing away the blocks of stone which, in
+some of the most dangerous parts, serve as barriers along the edge of
+the precipice. On this road long trains of mules are frequently met
+coming from the Sierra. The traveller, at their approach, seeks some
+little recess into which he may creep, and there stand closely jammed
+against the mountain until the train passes by. This is attended by
+great loss of time, owing to the slow and cautious pace at which the
+mules proceed. On such a rencounter in a narrow mountain path, I was
+once obliged to wait for several hours, whilst two hundred mules
+passed by; and at the spot where I and my horse stood, the laden
+animals had scarcely space sufficient to set down their feet at the
+very edge of the pathway. In some places it is perfectly impossible
+either to go on one side or to turn back; and when horses or mules
+meet at these difficult points, one of the animals is obliged to
+plunge into the stream, before the other can have room to pass. The
+numerous curvatures of the road, and the projecting masses of
+mountain, render it impossible to see advancing objects in sufficient
+time to avoid collision.</p>
+
+<p>After having passed this difficult tract, which is called by the natives
+Cacray, we reach the summit of the acclivity down which the mountain
+stream descends. Here the valley presents quite the Sierra character. It
+is no longer confined within steep and rugged mountain walls, but runs
+in undulating contours along the bases of the hills, and gently ascends
+eastward towards the principal chain of the Cordillera. The road is
+sometimes on the right and sometimes on the left bank of the river. Two
+leagues beyond San Mateo lies Chicla, a miserable Indian village, which,
+according to Maclean's calculation, is 12,712 feet above sea level. In
+some of the more sheltered parts barley is planted; but it does not
+ripen, and is merely used as fodder (<i>Alcazer</i>). Chicla is the last
+place in this valley where the soil is in any degree capable of
+cultivation. Half a league further on, there are a few scattered Indian
+huts, called the village of Acchahuari. One of these huts is a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> tambo,
+which can never be forgotten by any unfortunate traveller who may have
+taken up his abode in it. Necessity several times compelled me to seek a
+night's lodging in this horrible tambo; but I never could remain in it
+till morning; and even amidst snow or rain I have been glad to get out,
+and take up my resting-place on the outside of the door. The hostess is
+a dirty old Indian woman, assisted by her daughter; and the hut is
+filthy beyond description. For supper, the old woman cooks a vile mess
+called <i>Chupe</i>, consisting of potatoes and water, mixed with Spanish
+pepper; but it is so dirtily prepared, that nothing but the most deadly
+hunger would induce any one to taste it. The beds consist of sheep-skins
+spread on the damp floor; and one bedchamber serves for the hostess, her
+daughter, her grandchildren, and the travellers; an immense woollen
+counterpane or blanket being spread over the whole party. But woe to the
+unwary traveller who trusts himself in this dormitory! He soon finds
+himself surrounded by enemies from whose attacks it is impossible to
+escape; for the hut is infested with vermin. Even should he withdraw
+into a corner, and make a pillow of his saddle, the annoyance pursues
+him. Add to all this a stifling smoke, and all sorts of mephitic
+exhalations, and troops of guinea-pigs who run about during the whole
+night, and gambol over the faces and bodies of the sleepers,&mdash;and it may
+readily be conceived how anxiously the traveller looks for the dawn of
+morning, when he may escape from the horrors of this miserable tambo.
+Acchahuari is 13,056 feet above the sea level. The climate is very
+ungenial. During the winter months, rain and snow fall without
+intermission; and even during the summer, heavy drifts of snow are not
+unfrequent. From April to July, the medium temperature during the night
+is 4&deg; R.</p>
+
+<p>After passing Cacray the diminished atmospheric pressure begins to
+produce an effect on coast horses which have not been accustomed to
+travel in the Sierra. They are attacked with a malady called the <i>veta</i>,
+which shows itself by difficulty of breathing and trembling. The animals
+are frequently so overpowered that they are unable either to move or
+stand, and if they are not immediately unsaddled and allowed to rest
+they perish. The arrieros consider bleeding a cure for this malady. They
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>sometimes slit the horse's nostrils, a remedy which is probably
+efficacious, as it enables the animal to inhale the air freely. Chopped
+garlic put into the nostrils is supposed to be a preventive of the veta.
+Mules are less liable to the malady probably because they ascend the
+acclivities more slowly than horses. The disease does not attack the
+native horses of the Sierra, for which reason they are better than the
+coast horses for mountain travelling. Mules, however, are preferable to
+either. It is wonderful with what tact and penetration the mule chooses
+his footing. When he doubts the firmness of the ground he passes his
+muzzle over it, or turns up the loose parts with his hoof before he
+ventures to step forward. When he finds himself getting into soft and
+marshy ground he stands stock still, and refuses to obey either stirrup
+or whip. If by accident he sinks into a morass, he makes a halt, and
+waits very contentedly until he receives assistance. But in spite of all
+this sagacity the traveller will not do well to resign himself wholly to
+the guidance of his mule. In ordinary cases these animals allow
+themselves to be guided, and sometimes they appear to think it more safe
+to trust to the bridle than to themselves. One of my mules frequently
+gave me curious proofs of this sort of calculation. When, in very
+difficult parts of the road, I dismounted, in order to walk and lead him
+by the bridle, I found it impossible to get the animal to move either by
+force or persuasion. He spread out his legs, fixed his hoofs firmly into
+the ground, and obstinately resisted all my endeavors to make him move.
+But as soon as I remounted he willingly obeyed every movement of the
+bridle. With this mule I could ride through marshes, which I could never
+do with any other. He appeared to reflect that, as I only dismounted
+when the road was unsafe, his life was in no less danger than mine.</p>
+
+<p>About a league beyond Acchahuari the valley is bounded by the
+principal chain of the Cordillera. The ascent may be gained by two
+different roads. One, the steeper of the two, runs southward, across
+the Piedra Parada; the other, on which the ascent is somewhat easier,
+takes an easterly direction, over Antarangra. We will first trace the
+latter course, which is the most frequented. At the extremity of the
+valley, and twenty-eight leagues from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> the capital, is situated the
+last village, Cashapalca, 13,236 feet above the sea. Its inhabitants
+are chiefly employed in mining. Formerly, vast quantities of silver
+were obtained here. But most of the mines are now either under water
+or exhausted, and the village, with its mine works, has dwindled into
+insignificance. Beyond Cashapalca there is a tract of marshy ground,
+which being passed, a narrow winding road of about two leagues leads
+up the acclivity. The soil is clayey, and thinly bestrewed with alpine
+grass, intermingled with syngenesious and cruciferous plants. Two
+plants which are called by the natives <i>mala yerba</i> and <i>garban
+zillos</i>, and are a deadly poison to mules and horses, grow in great
+abundance here. The numerous skeletons of beasts of burthen seen along
+the road bear evidence of the fatal effects of those plants. Higher up
+the ascent the vegetation becomes more and more scanty, until at
+length it entirely disappears, and nothing is visible but the barren
+rock of the Sierra highlands.</p>
+
+<p>The last division of acclivity is called by the natives the Antarangra
+(copper rock). On it there is a small heap of stones, which I shall
+describe by and by, and a cross made of the stems of the <i>Baccharis</i>.
+From this point the traveller catches a distant glimpse of the
+heaven-towering summit of the Cordillera.</p>
+
+<p>I speedily mounted the ascent, and reached the goal of my journey.
+Here I found myself disappointed in the expectation I had formed of
+commanding an uninterrupted view over boundless space and distance.
+The prospect is greatly circumscribed by numerous rocky elevations,
+which spring up in every direction. The mountain passes running across
+the ridge of the Cordillera are bounded on all sides by rocks,
+sometimes not very high, but at other times rising to the elevation of
+1000 feet. The pass of Antarangra (also called Portachuelo del Tingo,
+or Pachachaca) is 15,600 above the sea.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> Nevertheless it is, during
+a great part of the year, free from snow. Scarcely a quarter of a
+league further northward are the eternal glaciers, and they are
+several hundred feet lower than the Pass. That the Pass itself is not
+permanently covered with snow is a circumstance which may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> probably be
+accounted for by the direction of the atmospheric currents. The east
+winds penetrate into the deep recesses of the valleys, which are
+sheltered against the cold south wind by the adjacent mountain ridge.
+The passes have a gloomy character, and the rugged grandeur of the
+surrounding country presents an aspect of chaotic wildness and
+disorder. The ground is covered with huge masses of rock; and the
+ungenial fruitless soil is shunned alike by plants and animals. The
+thin tendrils of a lichen, here and there twining on a damp mass of
+stone, are the only traces of life. Yet the remains of human industry
+and activity are everywhere observable. On all sides are seen the deep
+cavities which formed the entrances to the now exhausted mines. These
+cavities are sometimes situated at elevated points of the almost
+inaccessible walls of rock, and are occasionally found in the level
+part of the valley, and close on the roadway. Instances have occurred
+of travellers being killed by falling into these holes, when they have
+been covered by thick falls of snow.</p>
+
+<p>It is curious to observe, on the Pass of Antarangra, the partition of
+the waters flowing into the two great oceans, the Atlantic and the
+Pacific. Scarcely thirty paces distant from each other there are two
+small lagunas. That situated most to the west is one of the sources of
+the Rio de San Mateo, which, under the name of the Rimac, falls into the
+Pacific. The other laguna, that to the eastward, sends its waters
+through a succession of small mountain lakes into the Rio de Pachachaca,
+a small tributary to the mighty Amazon river. It is amusing to take a
+cup of water from the one laguna and pour it into the other. I could not
+resist indulging this whim; and in so doing I thought I might possibly
+have sent into the Pacific some drops of the water destined for the
+Atlantic. But the whim, puerile as it may be, nevertheless suggests
+serious reflections on the mighty power of nature, which has thrown up
+these stupendous mountains from the bosom of the earth; and also on the
+testaceous animals found on these heights, memorials of the time when
+the ocean flowed over their lofty summits.</p>
+
+<p>From the ridge the road runs eastward along a branch of the principal
+mountain chain. This branch forms the southern boundary of a
+gently-sloping valley. The declivity is terrace-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>formed, and on each
+terrace there is a small clear lake. This series of lakes is called
+<i>Huascacocha</i> (the chain of lakes). In their waters, as in most of the
+mountain rivers, there is found in great numbers a small species of
+shad-fish (<i>Pygidium dispar</i>, Tsch.). They are caught during the night
+in nets, or by lines, to which the bait is fastened by small
+cactus-thorns.</p>
+
+<p>The third in the series of the lagunas is called <i>Morococha</i> (the
+colored lake). On its banks some buildings have been constructed, for
+the smelting of copper ore. The mines which yield this metal are on the
+southern declivity, close to the road leading down from the Cordillera.
+Formerly these mines were worked for silver, but were not found very
+productive of that metal. Now they are again actively worked, and copper
+is obtained from them. The working of the Peruvian copper mines has
+hitherto been much neglected, though copper ore is exceedingly abundant.</p>
+
+<p>The road from Morococha to Pachachaca is very uniform. The latter
+village, which is situated 12,240 feet above the level of the sea, was
+formerly a place of much greater importance than it now is. In its
+neighborhood there are a number of spacious buildings constructed at
+the time of the unfortunate English mining speculation. Most of them
+are only half finished. At the entrance of the village there is a
+large hacienda. In some of the apartments the flooring is of wood; a
+thing seldom seen in these parts, where the wood for such purposes
+must be brought from the eastern declivity of the Andes: the
+difficulty and expense attending this transport are so considerable,
+that a wooden floor is a great rarity in the habitations of the
+Cordillera. A mine belonging to the hacienda is situated five leagues
+north-west of Pachachaca, and yields rich silver ore; but a great
+part of it is at present under water, and its drainage would be a very
+difficult undertaking.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the point where the two roads across the Cordillera
+separate at Cashapalca, we will now trace the route by way of Piedra
+Parada. This way is shorter than that by Antarangra, but the ascents
+are much steeper. The first objects met with by the traveller on this
+road are some Indian huts, called <i>yauliyacu</i>, and the ruined hacienda
+of San Rafael. These being passed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> the ascent continues over broken
+masses of rock. About 15,200 feet above the sea there is a huge block
+of mountain, called the Piedra Parada, close against which a chapel
+was formerly erected; the mountain forming the back wall of the
+structure. Now there is merely an iron cross, fixed on the upper part
+of the block of mountain. On this spot the Archbishop used formerly to
+celebrate mass, when he was on his rounds through the diocese. The
+chapel was destroyed by lightning, and has not been rebuilt. The pass
+of the Piedra Parada is 16,008 feet above the sea, and is always
+covered with snow. Travellers frequently lose their way in this pass,
+an accident which befel me in March, 1842, when I was proceeding alone
+by that route. Being overtaken by a violent fall of snow, I could
+scarcely see a few paces before me. After wandering about for several
+hours, my horse became weary, and I began to despair of extricating
+myself from the dreary plains of snow. Late in the evening I reached a
+little valley, where, sheltered by some rocks, I passed the night. On
+the following morning I renewed my journey, and after considerable
+exertion I arrived at an Indian hut, where I obtained such directions
+as enabled me to recover the right course.</p>
+
+<p>The eastern declivity of the Pass of Piedra Parada is steeper than that
+of Huascacocha. After a difficult ride of about two leagues, we reach
+first the valley, and then the village of Yauli. The village lies at the
+height of 13,100 feet above the sea, and consists of about one hundred
+and fifty miserable huts, affording habitations for between twelve and
+fourteen thousand Indians, most of whom are employed in mining.</p>
+
+<p>The Cordillera, in the neighborhood of Yauli, is exceedingly rich in
+lead ore, containing silver. Within the circuit of a few miles, above
+eight hundred shafts have been made, but they have not been found
+sufficiently productive to encourage extensive mining works. The
+difficulties which impede mine-working in these parts are caused
+chiefly by the dearness of labor and the scarcity of fuel. There being
+a total want of wood, the only fuel that can be obtained consists of
+the dried dung of sheep, llamas, and huanacus. This fuel is called
+<i>taquia</i>. It produces a very brisk and intense flame, and most of the
+mine-owners prefer it to coal. The process of smelting, as practised
+by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> Indians, though extremely rude and imperfect, is nevertheless
+adapted to local circumstances. All European attempts to improve the
+system of smelting in these districts have either totally failed, or
+in their results have proved less effective than the simple Indian
+method. Complicated furnaces made after European models are
+exceedingly expensive, whilst the natives can construct theirs at the
+cost of fifty or sixty dollars each. These Indian furnaces can,
+moreover, be easily erected in the vicinity of the mines, and when the
+metal is not very abundant the furnaces may be abandoned without any
+great sacrifice. For the price of one European furnace the Indians may
+build more than a dozen, in each of which, notwithstanding the paucity
+of fuel, a considerably greater quantity of metal may be smelted than
+in one of European construction.</p>
+
+<p>About half a league beyond Yauli there are upwards of twenty mineral
+springs, all situated within a circuit of a quarter of a mile. Several
+of them contain saline properties. One is called the <i>Hervidero</i> (the
+whirlpool). It is in the form of a funnel, and at its upper part is
+between ten and twelve feet diameter. Its surface is covered with
+foam. The temperature of the water is only 7&deg; C. higher than the
+atmosphere. Some of these springs are tepid and sulphuric; and the
+temperature of one of them is as high as 89&deg; C. Near some of the
+springs quadrangular basins have been constructed for baths, which are
+said to be very efficacious in cutaneous and rheumatic complaints. The
+climate of Yauli is exceedingly rigorous. In summer the medium
+temperature of the night is 8&deg; C., but the days are mild. In winter,
+on the other hand, the night is +1&deg; C., and the day scarcely +3&deg; C.,
+as the sky is continually overhung with thick clouds, which disperse
+themselves in continual falls of snow. I passed several weeks in Yauli
+and in the wild country around it, and during that time I made many
+valuable additions to my natural history collection.</p>
+
+<p>The distance between Yauli and Pachachaca is two leagues. The road
+descends gently along the right bank of the Rio de Yauli, which forms
+the principal source of the Rio de Oroya. In this direction, as well as
+in other parts adjacent to Yauli, there are numerous remains of mining
+works, formerly the property of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> Portuguese. These works were destroyed
+at the time of the persecution of the Portuguese in Peru, when the
+consul, Juan Bautista, was hanged by the Inquisition, in Lima. Over
+those events there hangs a veil of mystery, which will probably never be
+removed. The Portuguese were the most powerful and intelligent
+mine-owners in Peru, and their prosperity excited the envy of the
+Spanish viceroy. A number of Portuguese emigrants, who came from
+Brazil, to settle in the Peruvian province of Maynas, furnished the
+viceroy with a ground of complaint, real or pretended. He set forth
+that the Portuguese of the eastern parts of South America intended to
+make themselves masters of Peru, and conjointly with the Inquisition
+he commenced coercive measures against them. Their consul was accused
+of heresy, condemned and hanged, and the emigrants were pursued and
+put to death. Some of them escaped into the forests, where they were
+massacred by the Indians, and only a very few succeeded in getting
+back to Brazil. Many of the wealthy Portuguese mine-owners, seeing the
+danger that threatened them, sank their vast treasures in lakes, or
+buried them in retired places in the plains. These treasures consisted
+chiefly of smelted ore and silver coin, and only a very small portion
+was afterwards discovered. Thus were these active and intelligent
+mine-owners sacrificed, either to a chimerical and unfounded
+suspicion, or to a feeling of avarice, which, after all, failed in
+attaining its object. The consequences were disastrous to the country.
+Peruvian mining has never recovered the prosperity which it enjoyed
+under the management of the Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>Between Yauli and Pachachaca the way is difficult, and without an
+accurate knowledge of the route, the traveller is likely to lose his
+way, and may even incur the danger of sinking in the marshes which
+spread along the bank of the river. From Pachachaca a broad and gentle
+sloping valley conducts to La Oroya, a distance of about three leagues.
+In the range of mountains forming the southern boundary of this valley,
+the river winds its way through deep ravines. About half a league from
+Pachachaca there is a ford where the road divides; one division passing
+over the steep mountains of Yanaclara to Jauja, and the other running
+into the wild valleys of Huayhuay. Midway<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> between Pachachaca and La
+Oroya there is a small, miserable Indian village called Saco, which is
+seldom visited by travellers, as it is difficult to procure in it the
+commonest necessaries of food. In this place there is a natural bridge
+across the river, which has worked out a bed for itself beneath the
+rocks. At several points along the course of this river I observed
+similar bridges of rock, but this one only is passable for horses.</p>
+
+<p>La Oroya lies on the left bank of the river of that name, and
+communicates with the right bank by means of a large hanging bridge
+(Puente de Soga). These bridges are composed of four ropes (sogas) made
+of twisted cow-hide, and about the thickness of a man's arm. The four
+ropes are connected together by thinner ones of the same material,
+fastened over them transversely. The whole is covered with branches,
+straw, and roots of the Agave tree. On either side, a rope rather more
+than two feet above the bridge serves as a balustrade. The sogas are
+fastened on each bank of the river by piles, or riveted into the rock.
+During the long continuous rains these bridges become loose and require
+to be tightened; but they are always lower in the middle than at the
+ends, and when passengers are crossing them they swing like hammocks. It
+requires some practice, and a very steady head, to go over the soga
+bridges unaccompanied by a Puentero.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> However strongly made, they are
+not durable; for the changeableness of the weather quickly rots the
+ropes, which are made of untanned leather. They frequently require
+repairing, and travellers have sometimes no alternative but to wait for
+several days until a bridge is passable, or to make a circuit of 20 or
+30 leagues. The Puente de Soga of Oroya is fifty yards long, and one and
+a half broad. It is one of the largest in Peru; but the bridge across
+the Apurimac, in the province of Ayacucho, is nearly twice as long, and
+it is carried over a much deeper gulf.</p>
+
+<p>Another curious kind of bridge is that called the Huaro. It consists
+of a thick rope extending over a river or across a rocky chasm. To
+this rope are affixed a roller, and a strong piece of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> wood formed
+like a yoke, and by means of two smaller ropes, this yoke is drawn
+along the thick rope which forms the bridge. The passenger who has to
+cross the Huaro is tied to the yoke, and grasps it firmly with both
+hands. His feet, which are crossed one over the other, rest on the
+thick rope, and the head is held as erectly as possible. All these
+preliminaries being completed, an Indian, stationed on the opposite
+side of the river or chasm, draws the passenger across the Huaro. This
+is altogether the most disagreeable and dangerous mode of conveyance
+that can possibly be conceived. If the rope breaks, an accident of no
+unfrequent occurrence, the hapless traveller has no chance of escaping
+with life, for being fastened, he can make no effort to save himself.
+Horses and mules are driven by the Indians into the river, and are
+made to swim across it, in doing which they frequently perish,
+especially when being exhausted by a long journey, they have not
+strength to contend against the force of the current.</p>
+
+<p>The village of Oroya, about a quarter of a mile from the bridge, is
+built on a declivity, and according to Maclean's calculation is 12,010
+feet above the level of the sea. It contains fifty-one miserable huts,
+which are the habitations of about two hundred Indians. From Oroya
+several roads branch off into the different mountain districts. The most
+frequented is that over the level height of Cachi-Cachi to Jauja. Along
+this road there are extensive tracts of ground covered with calcareous
+petrifactions. Another road leading to Tarma passes by the ancient Inca
+fortress Huichay. A third, and much frequented road is that by way of
+Huaypacha, and from thence to Junin and Cerro de Pasco.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><p class="center">FOOTNOTES:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> All these calculations are by English feet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> Jardine and Selby's Annals of Natural History.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> Nivelacion barometrica desde el Callao hasta Pasco, por el
+camino de Obrajillo, y desde el mismo lugar hasta la capital por via de
+Tarma, hecha y calculada por Mariano Eduardo Rivero y Usturitz in
+Memorial de Ciencias naturales, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> Darwin's Journal, p. 350</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> The Spaniards term this plant <i>U&ntilde;a de gato</i> (Cat's-claw),
+the stalk being furnished with hooked thorns resembling claws.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> For further information relative to this disease, see my
+communication to Wunderlich and Roser's "<i>Archiv f&uuml;r Physiologische
+Heilkunde</i>."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_153">page 153</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> By a nail is lost a shoe, by a shoe a horse, and by a
+horse a rider.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> According to Maclean, the elevation of Matucanas is 8026
+feet above the level of the sea. I presume that this calculation
+refers to the village itself, which is situated about the eighth of a
+league from the tambo, and lies much lower.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> According to Maclean's calculation, the Tambo de Viso is
+9072 feet above the sea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Maclean states the elevation to be 10,984 feet above
+the sea. Rivero makes it 9570, and Gay 10,408 feet. Gay's is the only
+measurement which in any manner corresponds with mine and Maclean's.
+In general Gay's calculations are between 600 and 800 feet higher
+than ours.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Maclean makes it 15,543 feet; Gay, 15,924 feet; and Rivero,
+only 14,608 feet above the level of the sea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> The <i>Puenteros</i> (Bridge Guides) are Indians who assist
+travellers in crossing these dangerous bridges.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">The Cordillera and the Andes&mdash;&#8203;Signification of the terms&mdash;&#8203;Altitude
+of the Mountains and Passes&mdash;&#8203;Lakes&mdash;&#8203;Metals&mdash;&#8203;Aspect of the
+Cordillera&mdash;&#8203;Shattered Rocks&mdash;&#8203;Maladies caused by the diminished
+Atmospheric Pressure&mdash;&#8203;The Veta and the Surumpe&mdash;&#8203;Mountain Storms&mdash;&#8203;The
+Condor&mdash;&#8203;Its habits&mdash;&#8203;Indian mode of Catching the Bird&mdash;&#8203;The Puna or
+Despoblado&mdash;&#8203;Climate&mdash;&#8203;Currents of Warm Air&mdash;&#8203;Vegetation&mdash;&#8203;Tuberous
+Plant called the Maca&mdash;&#8203;Animals of the Puna&mdash;&#8203;The Llama, the Alpaco,
+the Huanacu and the Vicu&ntilde;a&mdash;&#8203;The Chacu and the Bolas&mdash;&#8203;Household
+Utensils of the Ancient Peruvians&mdash;&#8203;The Viscacha and the
+Chinchilla&mdash;&#8203;Puna Birds and Amphibia&mdash;&#8203;Cattle and Pasture&mdash;&#8203;Indian
+Farms&mdash;&#8203;Shepherds' Huts&mdash;&#8203;Ancient Peruvian Roads and
+Buildings&mdash;&#8203;Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna.</p>
+
+
+<p>Two great mountain chains, running parallel with each other, intersect
+Peru in the direction from S.S.W. to N.N.E. The chain nearest the coast
+of the Pacific is at the average distance of from sixty to seventy
+English miles from the sea. The other chain takes a parallel direction
+but describes throughout its whole course a slight curve eastward. These
+two ranges of mountain are called the Cordilleras, or the Andes: both
+terms being used indiscriminately. Even the creoles of Peru confound
+these two terms, sometimes calling the western chain by one name, and
+sometimes by the other. Nevertheless, a strict distinction ought to be
+observed:&mdash;the western chain should properly be called the Cordillera,
+and the eastern chain the Andes. The latter name is derived from the
+Quichua word Antasuyu; <i>Anta</i> signifying metal generally, but especially
+copper, and <i>Suyu</i> a district; the meaning of Antasuyu, therefore, is
+the metal district. In common parlance, the word Suyu was dropped, and
+the termination <i>a</i> in <i>Anta</i> was converted into <i>is</i>. Hence the word
+<i>Antis</i>, which is employed by all old writers and geographers; and even
+now is in common use among the Indian population of Southern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> Peru. The
+Spaniards, according to their practice of corrupting the words of the
+Quichua language, have transformed Antis into <i>Andes</i>, and they apply
+the name without distinction to the western and the eastern chain of
+mountains.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<p>The old inhabitants of Peru dwelt chiefly along the base of the eastern
+mountain chain, where they drew from the mines the metal which afforded
+material for their tasteful and ingenious workmanship: those mountains
+consequently retained the name of Antis or Andes. In the time of the
+Incas, both chains were called Ritisuyu (Snow-Districts). The Spaniards,
+on the invasion of the country, advancing from the sea-coast, first
+arrived at the western mountains, and to them they gave the name of
+<i>Cordillera</i>, the term commonly employed in the Spanish language, to
+designate any mountain chain. Most of the earlier travellers and
+topographists named the western chain the <i>Cordillera de los Andes</i>, and
+regarded it as the principal chain, of which they considered the eastern
+mountains to be merely a branch. To the eastern range of mountains they
+gave the name of <i>Cordillera Oriental</i>. I will here strictly observe the
+correct denominations, calling the western chain the Cordillera, or the
+coast mountains; and the eastern chain the Andes, or the inner
+Cordillera.</p>
+
+<p>These two great mountain chains stand in respect to height in an inverse
+relation one to the other; that is to say, the greater the elevation of
+the Cordillera, the more considerable is the depression of the Andes. In
+South Peru the ridge of the Cordillera is considerably lower than that
+portion of the Andes which stretches through Bolivia. The medium height
+of the Cordillera in South Peru is 15,000 feet above the sea; but here
+and there particular points rise to a much more considerable elevation.
+The medium height of the Andes is 17,000 feet above the sea. In central
+Peru the Cordillera is higher than the Andes. There the altitude of the
+latter along the body of the chain is 13,000 feet above the sea: on the
+ridge there are a few points some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> hundred feet higher. Between Pasco
+and Loxas the average height of the Cordillera is between 11,000 and
+12,000 feet above the sea; and the average elevation of the Andes at the
+corresponding point is about 2000 feet lower.</p>
+
+<p>The passes do not run through valleys, but always over the ridges of the
+mountains. The highest mountain passes are the Rinconada (16,452 feet
+above the sea); the Piedra Parada (16,008 feet); the Tingo (15,600
+feet); the Huatillas (14,850 feet); the Portachuelo de la Viuda (14,544
+feet); the Altos de Toledo (15,530 feet); and the Altos de los Huesos
+(14,300 feet). In both chains there are innumerable small lakes; these
+are met with in all the mountain passes, and most of them are the
+sources of small rivers.</p>
+
+<p>Both the mountain chains, as well as their lateral branches, are rich in
+metallic produce; but in the principal mountains gold is rare. Some rich
+mines on the coast, and in the province of Arequipa, are now nearly
+exhausted. Wash gold is plentiful in the rivers of North Peru, but it is
+not carefully collected. Silver, which constitutes the principal wealth
+of Peru, is found in greatest abundance in the principal chains, viz.,
+in Northern and Central Peru, in the Cordillera; and in Southern Peru in
+the Andes. It presents itself in all forms and combinations, from the
+pure metal to the lead-ore mixed with silver. Even in the highest
+elevations, in parts scarcely trodden by human footsteps, rich veins of
+silver are discovered. It is scarcely possible to pass half a day in
+these regions without encountering new streaks. Quicksilver is likewise
+found, but in such small quantities, that the gain does not pay the
+labor of the miners. The only quicksilver vein of any magnitude is at
+Huancavelica. Both mountain chains are very rich in copper-ore; but it
+is extracted only from the Cordillera, for the distance of the Andes
+from the coast renders the transport too expensive. The lead and iron
+mines, though amazingly prolific, are not worked; the price of the metal
+being too low to pay the labor.</p>
+
+<p>The Cordillera presents an aspect totally different from that of the
+Andes. It is more wild and rugged, its ridge is broader, and its summits
+less pyramidical. The summits of the Andes terminate in slender sharp
+points like needles. The Cordillera<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> descends in terraces to the level
+heights, whilst the slope of the Andes is uniform and unbroken. The
+summits of the calcareous hills which stretch eastward from the great
+chain of the Cordillera are broken and rugged. Large cubical blocks of
+stone become detached from them, and roll down into the valleys. In the
+Quebrada of Huari near Yanaclara, which is 13,000 feet above the sea, I
+collected among other fragments of rock some of a species which is found
+at Neufchatel in Switzerland. This disintegration, which is the effect
+of protracted rain and cold, imparts to the mountain ridges the most
+singular and beautiful forms; their fantastic outlines appearing like
+the work of human hands. Imagination may easily picture them to be
+monuments of the time of the Incas; for viewed from a distance, they
+look like groups of giants or colossal animals. In former times the
+Indians viewed these masses of rock with devout reverence, for they
+believed them to be the early inhabitants of the earth whom Pacchacamac
+in his anger transformed to stone. I may here notice some very curious
+forms of rock which have long been a subject of controversy among
+Peruvian travellers. On the road leading from Ayacucho to Huancavelica,
+on the level height of Paucara, about a league beyond the village of
+Parcos, there is a considerable number of sand-stone pyramids from eight
+to twenty-two feet high. They are of a reddish-white color; but in many
+places the inclemency of the weather has overspread them with a blackish
+crust. They are detached one from another. Ulloa, in his <i>Noticias
+Americanas</i>, after fully describing these pyramids, declares himself
+doubtful whether they are the work of man or of nature. He inclines to
+regard them as human creations, and suggests that they may possibly have
+been the tombs of distinguished curacas and caciques; but he admits that
+he is not acquainted with any similar monuments in Peru. As each pyramid
+consists of only one block of stone, and all are very regularly shaped,
+Ulloa is not indisposed to believe that the Indians possessed the secret
+art of melting stone. These blocks are, however, of sand-stone, and
+their fractures are the result of the inclemency of the weather. They
+are all pyramidal-shaped, and tolerably equal in size. In several of
+them the points are as sharp and regular as though they had been wrought
+by the chisel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> of the sculptor. These curious pyramids cover the plateau
+along a distance of more than two miles: sometimes standing closely
+together, and sometimes at considerable distances apart. The whole line
+of chalk and slate mountains extending from Ayacucho to Huancavelica is
+shattered, and presents similar, though less regular detritus.</p>
+
+<p>I have, in my last chapter, observed that the Cordillera is the point
+of partition between the waters of the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans.
+All the waters of the eastern declivity of the Cordillera&mdash;all those
+which have their source on the level heights and on the western
+declivity of the Andes,&mdash;flow from thence in the direction of the east,
+and work their way through the eastern mountain chain. Throughout the
+whole extent of South America there is not a single instance of the
+Cordillera being intersected by a river; a fact the more remarkable
+because in Southern Peru and Bolivia, the coast chain is lower than the
+Andes. This interesting phenomenon, though it has deeply engaged the
+attention of geologists, has not yet been satisfactorily explained. I
+concur in the view taken by Mr. Darwin, who observes that it would be
+too rash to assign to the eastern chain of Bolivia and Central Chile, a
+later origin than the western chain (the nearest the Pacific), but that
+the circumstance of the rivers of a lower mountain chain having forced
+their way through a higher chain seems, without this supposition, to be
+enigmatical. Mr. Darwin is of opinion that the phenomenon is assignable
+to a periodical and gradual elevation of the second mountain line (the
+Andes); for a chain of islets would at first appear, and as these were
+lifted up, the tides would be always wearing deeper and broader
+channels between them.</p>
+
+<p>In the heights of the Cordillera the effect of the diminished
+atmospheric pressure on the human frame shows itself in intolerable
+symptoms of weariness and an extreme difficulty of breathing. The
+natives call this malady the <i>Puna</i> or the <i>Soroche</i>; and the Spanish
+Creoles give it the names of <i>Mareo</i> or <i>Veta</i>. Ignorant of its real
+causes they ascribe it to the exhalations of metals, especially
+antimony, which is extensively used in the mining operations. The first
+symptoms of the veta are usually felt at the elevation of 12,600 feet
+above the sea. These<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> symptoms are vertigo, dimness of sight and
+hearing, pains in the head and nausea. Blood flows from the eyes, nose,
+and lips. Fainting fits, spitting of blood, and other dangerous
+symptoms, usually attend severe attacks of veta. The sensations which
+accompany this malady somewhat resemble those of sea-sickness, and hence
+its Spanish name <i>mareo</i>. But sea-sickness is unaccompanied by the
+distressing difficulty of breathing experienced in the veta. This
+disorder sometimes proves fatal, and I once witnessed a case in which
+death was the result. Inhabitants of the coast and Europeans, who for
+the first time visit the lofty regions of the Cordillera, are usually
+attacked with this disorder. Persons in good health and of a spare habit
+speedily recover from it, but on plethoric and stout individuals its
+effects are frequently very severe. After an abode of some time in the
+mountainous regions, the constitution becomes inured to the rarefied
+atmosphere. I suffered only two attacks of the veta; but they were very
+severe. The first was on one of the level heights; and the second on the
+mountain of Antaichahua. The first time I ascended the Cordillera I did
+not experience the slightest illness, and I congratulated myself on
+having escaped the veta; but a year afterwards I had an attack of it,
+though only of a few hours' duration. The veta is felt with great
+severity in some districts of the Cordillera, whilst in others, where
+the altitude is greater, the disorder is scarcely perceptible. Thus it
+would seem that the malady is not caused by diminished atmospheric
+pressure, but is dependent on some unknown climatic circumstances. The
+districts in which the veta prevails with greatest intensity are, for
+the most part, rich in the production of metals, a circumstance which
+has given rise to the idea that it is caused by metallic exhalations.</p>
+
+<p>I have already described the effect of the Puna climate on beasts of
+burthen. Its influence on some of the domestic animals is no less severe
+than on the human race. To cats, it is very fatal, and at the elevation
+of 13,000 feet above the sea those animals cannot live. Numerous trials
+have been made to rear them in the villages of the upper mountains, but
+without effect; for after a few days' abode in those regions, the
+animals die in frightful convulsions; but when in this state they do not
+attempt to bite. I had two good opportunities of observing the disease
+at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> Yauli. Cats attacked in this way are called, by the natives,
+<i>azorochados</i>, and antimony is alleged to be the cause of the distemper.
+Dogs are also liable to it, but it visits them less severely than cats,
+and with care they may be recovered.</p>
+
+<p>Another scourge of the traveller in the Cordillera, is the disease
+called the <i>Surumpe</i>. It is a violent inflammation of the eyes, caused
+by the sudden reflection of the bright rays of the sun on the snow. By
+the rarefied air and the cutting wind, the eyes, being kept in a
+constant state of irritation, are thereby rendered very susceptible to
+the effects of the glaring light. In these regions the sky is often
+for a time completely overshadowed by snow clouds, and the greenish
+yellow of the plain is soon covered by a sheet of snow: then suddenly
+the sun's rays burst through the breaking clouds, and the eyes,
+unprepared for the dazzling glare, are almost blinded. A sharp burning
+pain is immediately felt, and it speedily increases to an intolerable
+degree. The eyes become violently inflamed, and the lids swell and
+bleed. The pain of the surumpe is the most intense that can be
+imagined, and frequently brings on delirium. The sensation resembles
+that which it may be imagined would be felt if cayenne pepper or
+gunpowder were rubbed into the eyes. Chronic inflammation, swelling of
+the eyelids, dimness of sight, and even total blindness are the
+frequent consequences of the surumpe. In the Cordillera, Indians are
+often seen sitting by the road-side shrieking in agony, and unable to
+proceed on their way. They are more liable to the disease than the
+Creoles, who, when travelling in the mountains, protect their eyes by
+green spectacles and veils.</p>
+
+<p>Heavy falls of snow in the Cordillera are usually accompanied by
+thunder and lightning. During five months of the year, from November to
+March, storms are of daily occurrence. They begin, with singular
+regularity, about three o'clock in the afternoon, and continue until
+five or half-past five in the evening. After that time storms of
+thunder and lightning never occur; but the falls of snow sometimes
+continue till midnight. As evening approaches, cold mists are drifted
+from the mountain-tops down upon the plains; but they are dispersed by
+the rays of the morning sun, which in a few hours melt the snow. The
+furious tempests in these regions exceed any idea that can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> formed
+of them, and can only be conceived by those who have witnessed them.
+Some of these mountain districts have acquired an ominous character for
+storms; Antaichahua is one of the places to which this sort of fearful
+celebrity belongs. For hours together flash follows flash, painting
+blood-red cataracts on the naked precipices. The forked lightning darts
+its zig-zag flashes on the mountain-tops, or, running along the ground,
+imprints deep furrows in its course; whilst the atmosphere quivers
+amidst uninterrupted peals of thunder, repeated a thousandfold by the
+mountain echoes. The traveller, overtaken by these terrific storms,
+dismounts from his trembling horse, and takes refuge beneath the
+shelter of some overhanging rock.</p>
+
+<p>In these sterile heights, Nature withholds her fostering influence
+alike from vegetable and animal life. The scantiest vegetation can
+scarcely draw nutriment from the ungenial soil, and animals shun the
+dreary and shelterless wilds. The condor alone finds itself in its
+native element amidst these mountain deserts. On the inaccessible
+summits of the Cordillera that bird builds its nest, and hatches its
+young in the months of April and May. Few animals have attained so
+universal a celebrity as the condor. That bird was known in Europe, at
+a period when his native land was numbered among those fabulous
+regions which are regarded as the scenes of imaginary wonders. The
+most extravagant accounts of the condor were written and read, and
+general credence was granted to every story which travellers brought
+from the fairy land of gold and silver. It was only at the
+commencement of the present century that Humboldt overthrew the
+extravagant notions that previously prevailed respecting the size,
+strength, and habits of that extraordinary bird.</p>
+
+<p>The full-grown condor measures, from the point of the beak to the end
+of the tail, from four feet ten inches to five feet; and from the tip
+of one wing to the other, from twelve to thirteen feet. This bird feeds
+chiefly on carrion: it is only when impelled by hunger that he seizes
+living animals, and even then only the small and defenceless, such as
+the young of sheep, vicu&ntilde;as, and llamas. He cannot raise great weights
+with his feet, which, however, he uses to aid the power of his beak.
+The principal strength of the condor lies in his neck and in his feet;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
+yet he cannot, when flying, carry a weight exceeding eight or ten
+pounds. All accounts of sheep and calves being carried off by condors
+are mere exaggerations. This bird passes a great part of the day in
+sleep, and hovers in quest of prey chiefly in the morning and evening.
+Whilst soaring at a height beyond the reach of human eyes, the
+sharp-sighted condor discerns his prey on the level heights beneath
+him, and darts down upon it with the swiftness of lightning. When a
+bait is laid, it is curious to observe the numbers of condors which
+assemble in a quarter of an hour, in a spot near which not one had been
+previously visible. These birds possess the senses of sight and smell
+in a singularly powerful degree.</p>
+
+<p>Some old travellers, Ulloa among others, have affirmed that the plumage
+of the condor is invulnerable to a musket-ball. This absurdity is
+scarcely worthy of contradiction; but it is nevertheless true that the
+bird has a singular tenacity of life, and that it is seldom killed by
+fire-arms, unless when shot in some vital part. Its plumage,
+particularly on the wings, is very strong and thick. The natives,
+therefore, seldom attempt to shoot the condor: they usually catch him by
+traps or by the laso, or kill him by stones flung from slings, or by the
+<i>Bolas</i>. A curious method of capturing the condor alive is practised in
+the province of Abancay. A fresh cow-hide, with some fragments of flesh
+adhering to it, is spread out on one of the level heights, and an Indian
+provided with ropes creeps beneath it, whilst some others station
+themselves in ambush near the spot, ready to assist him. Presently a
+condor, attracted by the smell of flesh, darts down upon the cow-hide,
+and then the Indian, who is concealed under it, seizes the bird by the
+legs, and binds them fast in the skin, as if in a bag. The captured
+condor flaps his wings, and makes ineffectual attempts to fly; but he is
+speedily secured, and carried in triumph to the nearest village.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians quote numerous instances of young children having been
+attacked by condors. That those birds are sometimes extremely fierce is
+very certain. The following occurrence came within my own knowledge,
+whilst I was in Lima. I had a condor, which, when he first came into my
+possession, was very young. To prevent his escape, as soon as he was
+able to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> fly, he was fastened by the leg to a chain, to which was
+attached a piece of iron of about six pounds weight. He had a large
+court to range in, and he dragged the piece of iron about after him all
+day. When he was a year and a half old he flew away, with the chain and
+iron attached to his leg, and perched on the spire of the church of
+Santo Tomas, whence he was scared away by the carrion hawks. On
+alighting in the street, a Negro attempted to catch him for the purpose
+of bringing him home; upon which he seized the poor creature by the ear,
+and tore it completely off. He then attacked a child in the street (a
+negro boy of three years old), threw him on the ground, and knocked him
+on the head so severely with his beak, that the child died in
+consequence of the injuries. I hoped to have brought this bird alive to
+Europe; but, after being at sea two months on our homeward voyage, he
+died on board the ship in the latitude of Monte Video.</p>
+
+<p>Between the Cordillera and the Andes, at the height of 12,000 feet
+above the sea, there are vast tracts of uninhabited table-lands. These
+are called in the Quichua language the <i>Puna</i>; and the Spaniards give
+them the name of the <i>Despoblado</i> (the uninhabited). These table-lands
+form the upper mountain regions of the South American Highlands. They
+spread over the whole extent of Peru, from north-west to south-east, a
+distance of 350 Spanish miles, continuing through Bolivia, and
+gradually running eastward into the Argentine Republic. With reference
+to geography and natural history, these table-lands present a curious
+contrast to the <i>Llanos</i> (plains) of South America, situated on the
+other side of the Andes to the north-east. Those boundless deserts,
+full of organic life, are, like the Puna, among the most interesting
+characteristics of the New World.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of these regions is not less rigorous than that of the high
+mountain ridges. Cold winds from the west and south-west, blow nearly
+all the year round from the ice-topped Cordillera; and for the space of
+four months these winds are daily accompanied by thunder, lightning, and
+snow-storms. The average state of the thermometer during the cold season
+(which is called summer, because it then seldom snows) is, during the
+night, -5&deg; R.; and at midday, +9&deg; 7&acute; R. In winter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> the mercury seldom
+falls during the night below freezing point, and it continues between
++1&deg; and 0&deg; R.; but at noon it ascends only to 7&deg; R. It is, however,
+quite impossible to determine with precision the medium temperature of
+these regions. For the space of a few hours the heat will frequently
+vary between 18&deg; and 20&deg; R. The transition is the more sensibly felt on
+the fall of the temperature, as it is usually accompanied by
+sharp-biting winds, so keen, that they cut the skin on the face and
+hands. A remarkable effect of the Puna wind is its power of speedily
+drying animal bodies, and thereby preventing putridity. A dead mule is,
+in the course of a few days, converted into a mummy; not even the
+entrails presenting the least trace of decomposition.</p>
+
+<p>It frequently happens that, after being long exposed to these cold
+winds, the traveller enters warm atmospheric currents. These warm
+streams are sometimes only two or three paces, and at other times,
+several hundred feet broad. They run in a parallel direction with each
+other, and one may pass through five or six of them in the course of a
+few hours. On the level heights between Chacapalpa and Huancavelica, I
+remarked that they were especially frequent during the months of August
+and September. According to my repeated observations, I found that these
+warm streams chiefly follow the direction of the Cordillera; namely,
+from S.S.W. to N.N.E. I once travelled the distance of several leagues
+through a succession of these currents of warm air, none of which
+exceeded seven-and-twenty paces in breadth. Their temperature was 11&deg; R.
+higher than that of the adjacent atmosphere. It would appear they are
+not merely temporary, for the mule-drivers can often foretel with
+tolerable accuracy where they will be encountered. The causes of these
+phenomena well merit the investigation of meteorologists.</p>
+
+<p>The aspect of the Puna is singularly monotonous and dreary. The
+expansive levels are scantily covered with grasses of a yellowish-brown
+hue, and are never enlivened by fresh-looking verdure. Here and there,
+at distant intervals, may be seen a few stunted Que&ntilde;ua trees
+(<i>Polylepis racemosa</i>, R. P.), or large patches of ground covered with
+the Ratanhia shrub<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> (<i>Krameria</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> <i>triandria</i>, R. P.). Both are used by
+the Indians as fuel, and for roofing their huts.</p>
+
+<p>The cold climate and sterile soil of the Puna are formidable impediments
+to agriculture. Only one plant is cultivated in these regions with any
+degree of success. It is the <i>maca</i>, a tuberous root grown like the
+potatoe, and like it used as an article of food. In many of the Puna
+districts the maca constitutes the principal sustenance of the
+inhabitants. It has an agreeable, and somewhat sweetish flavor, and when
+boiled in milk it tastes like the chestnut. As far as I am aware this
+plant has not been mentioned by any traveller, nor has its botanical
+character yet been precisely determined. Possibly it is a species of
+Trop&aelig;olum, but of this I am uncertain. The root is about the size of a
+large chestnut. Macas may be kept for more than a year, if, after being
+taken from the earth, they are left a few days to dry in the sun, and
+then exposed to the cold. By this means they become shrivelled and very
+hard. From these dried macas, the Indians prepare a sort of soup or
+rather syrup, which diffuses a sweet, sickly sort of odor, but which,
+when eaten with roasted maize, is not altogether unpalatable. The maca
+thrives best at the height of between 12,000 and 13,000 feet above the
+sea. In the lower districts it is not planted, for the Indians declare
+it to be flavorless when grown there. Besides the maca barley is reared
+in the Puna. I saw there fields of barley 13,200 feet above the sea. It
+does not, however, attain full maturity, seldom even shoots into ears,
+and is cut whilst green as fodder for horses.</p>
+
+<p>But poor and scanty as is the vegetation of the Puna, the animal
+kingdom is there richly and beautifully represented. Those regions are
+the native home of the great Mammalia, which Peru possessed before
+horses and black cattle were introduced by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> Spaniards. I allude to
+the llama and his co-genera the alpaco, the huanacu, and the vicu&ntilde;a.
+On these interesting animals I will subjoin a few observations.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a>
+The two first are kept as domestic animals; the llama perfectly, and
+the alpaco partially tame.</p>
+
+<p>The llama measures from the sole of the hoof to the top of the head, 4
+feet 6 to 8 inches; from the sole of the hoof to the shoulders, from 2
+feet 11 inches to 3 feet. The female is usually smaller and less strong
+than the male, but her wool is finer and better. The color is very
+various; generally brown, with shades of yellow or black; frequently
+speckled, but very rarely quite white or black. The speckled brown llama
+is in some districts called the moromoro.</p>
+
+<p>The young llamas are left with the dam for about the space of a year,
+after which time they are removed and placed with flocks. When about
+four years old, the males and females are separated; the former are
+trained to carry burthens, and the latter are kept in the pastures of
+the level heights. Most of the flocks of llamas are reared in the
+southern Puna provinces, viz.:&mdash;Cuzco and Ayacucho, and from thence
+they are sent to the silver mines of North Peru. The price of a strong
+full-grown llama is from three to four dollars; but if purchased in
+flocks in the provinces above named, they may be had for one and a
+half or two dollars each. Shortly after the conquest the price of one
+of these animals was between eighteen and twenty ducats; but the
+increase of horses, mules, and sheep, lowered their value. The burthen
+carried by the llama should not exceed one hundred and twenty-five
+pounds, and the animal is seldom laden with more than a
+hundred-weight. When the llama finds his burthen too heavy he lies
+down, and cannot be made to rise until some portion of the weight is
+removed from his back. In the silver mines the llamas are of the most
+important utility, as they frequently carry the metal from the mines
+in places where the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> declivities are so steep that neither asses nor
+mules can keep their footing.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians frequently proceed with large flocks of llamas to the coast,
+to procure salt. Their daily journeys are short, never exceeding three
+or four leagues; for the animals will not feed during the night, and
+therefore they are allowed to graze as they go, or to halt for a few
+hours at feeding-time. When resting they make a peculiar humming noise,
+which, when proceeding from a numerous flock at a distance, is like a
+number of &AElig;olian harps sounding in concert.</p>
+
+<p>A flock of laden llamas journeying over the table-lands is a beautiful
+sight. They proceed at a slow and measured pace, gazing eagerly around
+on every side. When any strange object scares them, the flock
+separates, and disperses in various directions, and the arrieros have
+no little difficulty in reassembling them. The Indians are very fond
+of these animals. They adorn them by tying bows of ribbon to their
+ears, and hanging bells round their necks; and before loading, they
+always fondle and caress them affectionately. If, during a journey,
+one of the llamas is fatigued and lies down, the arriero kneels beside
+the animal, and addresses to it the most coaxing and endearing
+expressions. But notwithstanding all the care and attention bestowed
+on them, many llamas perish on every journey to the coast, as they are
+not able to bear the warm climate.</p>
+
+<p>Some old travellers have stated that the Indians employ the llama for
+riding and for draught; but these accounts are quite erroneous. It
+sometimes happens that when crossing a river an Indian lad, to avoid
+getting wet, may mount on the back of one of the llamas; but in such a
+case, he immediately dismounts on reaching the opposite bank. The flesh
+of the llama is spongy, and not agreeable in flavor. Its wool is used
+for making coarse cloths.</p>
+
+<p>The alpaco, or paco, is smaller than the llama. It measures from the
+lower part of the hoof to the top of the head only three feet three
+inches, and to the shoulders two feet and a half. In form it resembles
+the sheep, but it has a longer neck and a more elegant head. The fleece
+of this animal is beautifully soft and very long; in some parts it is
+four or five inches in length. Its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> color is usually either white or
+black; but in some few instances it is speckled. The Indians make
+blankets and ponchos of the alpaco wool. It is also frequently exported
+to Europe, and it sells at a good price in England. The alpacos are kept
+in large flocks, and throughout the whole of the year they graze on the
+level heights. At shearing time only they are driven to the huts. They
+are in consequence very shy, and they run away at the approach of a
+stranger. The obstinacy of the alpaco is remarkable. When one of these
+animals is separated from the flock, he throws himself on the ground,
+and neither force nor persuasion will induce him to rise;&mdash;sometimes
+suffering the severest punishment rather than go the way the driver
+wishes. Few animals seem to require so imperatively the companionship of
+its own species, and it is only when brought to the Indian huts very
+young, that the alpacos can be separated from their flocks.</p>
+
+<p>The largest animal of this family is the huanacu. It measures five feet
+from the bottom of the hoof to the top of the head, and three feet three
+inches to the shoulders. In form it so nearly resembles the llama, that
+until a very recent period, zoologists were of opinion that the llama
+was an improved species of the huanacu, and that the latter was the
+llama in its wild state. In the "Fauna Peruana" I have explained the
+erroneousness of this opinion, and described the specific differences
+existing between the two animals. On the neck, back, and thighs the
+huanacu is of a uniform reddish-brown color. The under part of the body,
+the middle line of the breast, and the inner side of the limbs are of a
+dingy white. The face is dark grey, and the lips of a clear white. Of
+the huanacus there are not those varieties which are found among the
+llamas and the alpacos. The wool is shorter and coarser than that of the
+llama, and it is of nearly uniform length on all parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p>The huanacus live in small herds of five or seven, seldom exceeding
+the latter number. In some districts they are very shy, and retreat
+when any one approaches. If taken very young they may be tamed; but
+they are always ready to fall back into their wild state. It is with
+great difficulty they can be trained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> as beasts of burthen. In the
+menageries of Europe, huanacu brought from Chile are frequently
+represented to be llamas.</p>
+
+<p>The vicu&ntilde;a is a more beautiful animal than any of those just
+described. Its size is between that of the llama and the alpaco. It
+measures from the sole of the foot to the top of the head four feet
+one inch, and two and a half feet to the shoulders. The neck is longer
+and more slender than in either of the other relative species; and
+from them the vicu&ntilde;a is also distinguished by the superior fineness of
+its short, curly wool. The crown of the head, the upper part of the
+neck, the back, and thighs, are of a peculiar reddish-yellow hue,
+called by the people of the country <i>color de vicu&ntilde;a</i>. The lower part
+of the neck, and the inner parts of the limbs, are of a bright ochre
+color, and the breast and lower part of the body are white.</p>
+
+<p>During the rainy season the vicu&ntilde;a inhabits the ridges of the
+Cordillera, where some scanty vegetation is to be found. It never
+ventures up to the naked rocky summits, for its hoofs being accustomed
+only to turfy ground, are very soft and tender. It lives in herds,
+consisting of from six to fifteen females, and one male, who is the
+protector and leader of the herd. Whilst the females are quietly
+grazing, the male stands at the distance of some paces apart, and
+carefully keeps guard over them. At the approach of danger he gives a
+signal, consisting of a sort of whistling sound, and a quick movement of
+the foot. Immediately the herd draws closely together, each animal
+anxiously stretching out its head in the direction of the threatening
+danger. They then take to flight; first moving leisurely and cautiously,
+and then quickening their pace to the utmost degree of speed; whilst the
+male vicu&ntilde;a who covers the retreat frequently halts, to observe the
+movements of the enemy. The females, with singular fidelity and
+affection, reward the watchful care of their protector. If he is wounded
+or killed, they gather round him in a circle, uttering their shrill
+tones of lamentation, and they will suffer themselves to be captured or
+killed, rather than desert him by pursuing their flight. The neigh of
+the vicu&ntilde;a, like that of the other animals of its class, resembles a
+short, sharp whistle. But when the shrill sound vibrates through the
+pure Puna air,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> the practised ear can readily distinguish the cry of the
+vicu&ntilde;a from that of the other animals of the same family.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians seldom employ fire-arms in hunting the vicu&ntilde;as. They catch
+them by what they term the <i>chacu</i>. In this curious hunt, one man at
+least belonging to each family in the Puna villages takes a part, and
+women accompany the train, to officiate as cooks to the hunters. The
+whole company, frequently amounting to seventy or eighty individuals,
+proceeds to the Altos (the most secluded parts of the Puna), which are
+the haunts of the vicu&ntilde;as. They take with them stakes, and a great
+quantity of rope and cord. A spacious open plain is selected, and the
+stakes are driven into the ground in a circle, at intervals of from
+twelve to fifteen feet apart, and are connected together by ropes
+fastened to them at the height of two or two and a half feet from the
+ground. The circular space within the stakes is about half a league in
+circumference, and an opening of about two hundred paces in width is
+left for entrance. On the ropes by which the stakes are fastened
+together the women hang pieces of colored rags, which flutter about in
+the wind. The chacu being fully prepared, the men, some of whom are
+mounted on horseback, range about within a circuit of several miles,
+driving before them all the herds of vicu&ntilde;as they meet with, and forcing
+them into the chacu. When a sufficient number of vicu&ntilde;as is collected,
+the entrance is closed. The timid animals do not attempt to leap over
+the ropes, being frightened by the fluttering rags suspended from them,
+and, when thus secured, the Indians easily kill them by the <i>bolas</i>.
+These bolas consist of three balls, composed either of lead or stone;
+two of them heavy, and the third rather lighter. They are fastened to
+long, elastic strings, made of twisted sinews of the vicu&ntilde;a, and the
+opposite ends of the strings are all tied together. The Indian holds the
+lightest of the three balls in his hand, and swings the two others in a
+wide circle above his head; then, taking his aim at the distance of
+about fifteen or twenty paces, he lets go the hand-ball, upon which all
+the three balls whirl in a circle, and twine round the object aimed at.
+The aim is usually taken at the hind legs of the animals, and the cords
+twisting round them, they become firmly bound. It requires great skill
+and long practice to throw<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> the bolas dexterously, especially when on
+horseback: a novice in the art incurs the risk of dangerously hurting
+either himself or his horse, by not giving the balls the proper swing,
+or by letting go the hand-ball too soon.</p>
+
+<p>The vicu&ntilde;as, after being secured by the bolas, are killed, and the flesh
+is distributed in equal portions among the hunters. The skins belong to
+the Church. The price of a vicu&ntilde;a skin is four reals. When all the
+animals are killed, the stakes, ropes, &amp;c., are packed up carefully, and
+conveyed to another spot, some miles distant, where the chacu is again
+fixed up. The hunting is continued in this manner for the space of a
+week. The number of animals killed during that interval varies according
+to circumstances, being sometimes fifty or sixty, and at other times
+several hundred. During five days I took part in a chacu hunt in the
+Altos of Huayhuay, and in that space of time 122 vicu&ntilde;as were caught.
+With the money obtained by the sale of the skins a new altar was erected
+in the church of the district. The flesh of the vicu&ntilde;a is more tender
+and better flavored than that of the llama. Fine cloth and hats are made
+of the wool. When taken young, the vicu&ntilde;as are easily tamed, and become
+very docile; but when old, they are intractable and malicious. At Tarma
+I possessed a large and very fine vicu&ntilde;a. It used to follow me like a
+dog whenever I went out, whether on foot or on horseback.</p>
+
+<p>The frequent hunting seems not to have the effect of diminishing the
+numbers of these animals. If in the vicinity of the villages where
+chacus are frequently established, they are less numerous than in
+other parts, it is because, to elude the pursuit of the hunters, they
+seek refuge in the Altos, where they are found in vast numbers.
+Several modern travellers have lamented the diminution of the vicu&ntilde;as,
+but without reason. In former times those animals were hunted more
+actively than at present.</p>
+
+<p>Under the dynasty of the Incas, when every useful plant and animal was
+an object of veneration, the Peruvians rendered almost divine worship
+to the llama and his relatives, which exclusively furnished them with
+wool for clothing, and with flesh for food. The temples were adorned
+with large figures of these animals made of gold and silver, and their
+forms were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> represented in domestic utensils made of stone and clay.
+In the valuable collection of Baron Clemens von H&uuml;gel at Vienna, there
+are four of these vessels, composed of porphyry, basalt, and granite,
+representing the four species, viz., the llama, the alpaco, the
+huanacu, and the vicu&ntilde;a. These antiquities are exceedingly scarce, and
+when I was in Peru I was unable to obtain any of them. How the ancient
+Peruvians, without the aid of iron tools, were able to carve stone so
+beautifully, is inconceivable.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the animals above mentioned, several others peculiar to the Puna
+are deserving of remark. Among these are the Tarush (<i>Cervus
+antisiensis</i>, Orb.); the timid roe, which inhabits the high forests
+skirting the Andes; the Viscacha (<i>Lagidium peruanum</i>, May, and <i>L.
+pallipes</i>, Benn.), and the Chinchilla (<i>Eriomys Chinchilla</i>, Licht.),
+whose skin supplies the beautiful fur so much prized by the ladies of
+Europe. The viscachas and chinchillas resemble the rabbit in form and
+color, but they have shorter ears and long rough tails. They live on the
+steep rocky mountains, and in the morning and evening they creep out
+from their holes and crevices to nibble the alpine grasses. At night the
+Indians set before their holes traps made of horse-hair, in which the
+animals are easily caught. The most remarkable of the beasts of prey in
+these high regions is the Atoc (<i>Canis Azar&aelig;</i>, Pr. Max.). It is a
+species of fox, which is found throughout the whole of South America.
+The warmer Puna valleys are inhabited by the Cuguar (<i>Felis concolor</i>,
+L.), or, as the Indians call it, the Poma. When driven by hunger, this
+animal ventures into the loftiest Puna regions, even to the boundary of
+the eternal snow. The wild Hucumari (<i>Ursus ornatus</i>, Fr. Cuv.) but
+seldom wanders into the cold Puna. The hucumari is a large black bear,
+with a white muzzle and light-colored stripes on the breast.</p>
+
+<p>Of the numerous Puna birds, the majority of which may be classed as
+water-fowl, I will notice only a few of the most characteristic. Next
+to the condor, the most remarkable bird of prey is the Huarahuau, or
+the Aloi (<i>Polylorus megalopterus</i>, Cob.),<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> one of the gyr-falcon
+species. This bird, which is a constant inhabitant of the level
+heights, preys on the carcases of dead<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> horses, mules, &amp;c., but never
+attempts to meddle with living animals. It is very harmless, and has
+so little timidity, that it suffers itself to be approached near
+enough to be knocked down with a stick. The Acacli, or Pito (<i>Colaptes
+rupicola</i>, Orb.), flutters about the mountains; it is a woodpecker,
+brown-speckled, with a yellow belly. This bird is seen in very great
+numbers, and it is difficult to imagine how it procures food in the
+Puna, where there are no insects. All the other woodpecker species
+exclusively confine themselves to woody regions.</p>
+
+<p>The thickets of rushy grass are inhabited by the Pishacas, or Yutu, a
+species of partridge (<i>Tinamotis Pentlandii</i>, Vig.) which the Indians
+catch by dogs. These dogs of the Puna Indians are a peculiar race
+(<i>Canis Ing&aelig;</i>, Tsch.). They are distinguished by a small head, a
+pointed muzzle, small erect ears, a tail curling upwards, and a thick
+shaggy skin. They are in a half-wild state, and very surly and
+snappish. They furiously attack strangers, and even after having
+received a deadly wound they will crawl along the ground, and make an
+effort to bite. To white people they appear to have a particular
+antipathy; and sometimes it becomes rather a venturous undertaking for
+a European traveller to approach an Indian hut, for these mountain
+dogs spring up to the sides of the horse, and try to bite the rider's
+legs. They are snarlish and intractable even to their masters, who are
+often obliged to enforce obedience by the help of a stick. Yet these
+dogs are very useful animals for guarding flocks, and they have a keen
+scent for the pishacas, which they catch and kill with a single bite.</p>
+
+<p>There is a very curious little bird in the Puna, about the size of a
+starling. Its plumage is exceedingly pretty, being on the back brown,
+striped with black; on the throat grey, with two dark stripes, and on
+the breast white. This bird has the remarkable peculiarity of making a
+monotonous sound at the close of every hour, during the night. The
+Indians call it the Ingahuallpa, or Cock of the Inga (<i>Thinocorus Ing&aelig;</i>,
+Tsch.), and they associate many superstitious notions with its regular
+hourly cry. The Puna morasses and lagunas are animated by numerous
+feathered inhabitants. Among them is the huachua (<i>Chloephaga
+melanoptera</i>, Eyt.), a species of goose. The plumage of the body<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> is
+dazzlingly white, the wings green, shading into brilliant violet, and
+the feet and beak of a bright red. The Licli (<i>Charadrius resplendens</i>,
+Tsch.) is a plover, whose plumage in color is like that of the huachua,
+but with a sort of metallic brightness. There are two species of ibis
+which belong to the Puna, though they are occasionally seen in some of
+the lower valleys. One is the Bandurria (<i>Theristocus melanopis</i>,
+Wagl.), and the other is the Yanahuico (<i>Ibis Ordi</i>, Bonap.). On the
+lagunas swim large flocks of Quiullas (<i>Larus serranus</i>, Tsch.), white
+mews, with black heads and red beaks, and the gigantic water-hen
+(<i>Fulica gigantea</i>, Soul.). The plumage of the latter is dark-grey, and
+at the root of the red beak there is a large yellow botch, in the form
+of a bean, whence the Indians give this bird the name of <i>Anash sinqui</i>,
+or bean nose. Among the few amphibia found in these regions one is
+particularly remarkable. It is a small kind of toad (<i>Leiuperus
+viridis</i>, Tsch.), and inhabits the boundaries of the perpetual snow.</p>
+
+<p>The grasses of the Puna are used as fodder, and in many of the sheltered
+valleys there are farms (<i>Haciendas de Ganado</i>), where large herds of
+cattle are reared. The owners of some of these farms possess several
+thousand sheep, and from four to five hundred cows. During the rainy
+season the cattle are driven into the Altos. They graze in those high
+regions, often at the altitude of 15,000 feet above the sea. When the
+frost sets in they are brought down to the marshy valleys, and they
+suffer much from insufficiency of pasture. From the wool of the sheep a
+coarse kind of cloth, called Bayeta, is made in the Sierra. Some of this
+wool is exported, and is much prized in Europe. The old black cattle and
+sheep are slaughtered, and their flesh, when dried, is the principal
+food of the inhabitants of the Puna, particularly of the mining
+population. The dried beef is called <i>Charqui</i>, and the mutton is called
+<i>Chalona</i>. The bulls graze in the remote Altos, and most of them are
+reserved for the bull fights in the Sierra villages. As they seldom see
+a human being they become exceedingly wild; so much so that the herdsmen
+are often afraid to approach them. In the daytime they roam about marshy
+places, and at nightfall they retire for shelter beneath some
+overhanging rock. These animals render travelling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> in many parts of the
+Puna extremely dangerous, for they often attack people so suddenly as to
+afford no time for defence. It is true they usually announce their
+approach by a deep bellow; but the open plain seldom presents any
+opportunity for escape. On several occasions a well-aimed shot alone
+saved me from the attack of one of these ferocious bulls.</p>
+
+<p>The walls of the haciendas are of rough unhewn stone. They are divided
+into large square rooms, always damp, cold, and uninhabitable. Beneath
+the straw roofs there usually hang long rows of the stuffed skins of
+foxes; for every Indian who kills an old fox receives, by way of
+reward, a sheep, and for a young one a lamb. The Cholos are therefore
+zealous fox-hunters, and they may possibly succeed in altogether
+extirpating that animal which in some districts is so numerous as to
+be a perfect scourge.</p>
+
+<p>As the sheep, even in the dry season, find pasture more easily than the
+horned cattle, they are left during the whole year in the higher parts
+of the Puna, under the care of Indian shepherds. At night they are
+driven into <i>cerales</i>, large square roofless buildings, and are guarded
+by dogs. The shepherds make a practice of every year burning the dry
+grass of the Puna, in order to improve the growth of the fodder. A Puna
+fire does not, however, present the imposing spectacle of the prairie
+fires, as described by travellers in North America, possibly because the
+Puna straw is shorter, and is always somewhat damp.</p>
+
+<p>The dwellings of the shepherds are built in the same rude style which
+characterizes all the huts in the Puna, and they impress the European
+traveller with a very unfavorable notion of the intelligence of the
+people. The architecture of these huts consists in laying down some
+large stones, in a circle of about eight or ten feet in diameter, by
+way of a foundation. These stones are covered with earth or turf, and
+then with successive layers of stones and earth, until the wall
+attains the height of about four feet: at the point most sheltered
+from the wind, an opening of a foot and a half or two feet high serves
+as a door. On this low circular wall rests the roof, which is formed
+in the following manner. Six or eight magay<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> poles are fastened
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>together, so as to form a point at the top. Over these poles thin
+laths are laid horizontally, and fastened with straw-bands, and the
+whole conical-formed frame-work is overlaid with a covering of Puna
+straw. As a security against the wind, two thick straw-bands are
+crossed over the point of the roof, and at their ends, which hang down
+to the ground, heavy stones are fastened. The whole fabric is then
+completed. The hut at its central point is about eight feet high; but
+at the sides, no more than three and a half or four feet. The entrance
+is so low, that one is obliged to creep in almost bent double; and
+before the aperture hangs a cow-hide, by way of a door.</p>
+
+<p>Internally these huts present miserable pictures of poverty and
+uncleanliness. Two stones serve as a stove, containing a scanty fire fed
+by dry dung (<i>bu&ntilde;egas</i>), and turf (<i>champo</i>). An earthen pot for cooking
+soup, another for roasting maize, two or three gourd-shells for plates,
+and a porongo for containing water, make up the catalogue of the goods
+and chattels in a Puna hut. On dirty sheep-skins spread on the ground,
+sit the Indian and his wife, listlessly munching their coca; whilst the
+naked children roll about paddling in pools of water formed by continual
+drippings from the roof. The other inhabitants of the hut are usually
+three or four hungry dogs, some lambs, and swarms of guinea-pigs.</p>
+
+<p>From all this it will readily be imagined that a Puna hut is no very
+agreeable or inviting retreat. Yet, when worn out by the dangers and
+fatigues of a long day's journey, and exposed to the fury of a
+mountain storm, the weary traveller, heedless of suffocating clouds of
+smoke and mephitic odors, gladly creeps into the rude dwelling. Taking
+up his resting-place on the damp floor, with his saddle-cloth for a
+pillow, he is thankful to find himself once again in a human
+habitation, even though its occupants be not many degrees elevated
+above the brute creation.</p>
+
+<p>In the Puna there are many remains of the great high road of the Incas,
+which led from Cuzco to Quito, stretching through the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> whole extent of
+Peru. It was the grandest work that America possessed before European
+civilisation found its way to that quarter of the world. Even those who
+are unacquainted with the wise dominion of the ancient Peruvian
+sovereigns, their comprehensive laws, and the high civilisation they
+diffused over the whole country, must by this gigantic work be impressed
+with the highest idea of the cultivation of the age; for
+well-constructed roads may always be regarded as proofs of a nation's
+advancement. There is not in Peru at the present time any modern road
+in the most remote degree comparable to the Incas' highway. The best
+preserved fragments which came under my observation were in the
+Altos, between Jauja and Tarma. Judging from these portions, it would
+appear that the road must have been from twenty-five to thirty feet
+broad, and that it was paved with large flat stones. At intervals of
+about twelve paces distant one from another there is a row of smaller
+stones, laid horizontally and a little elevated, so that the road
+ascended, as it were, by a succession of terraces. It was edged on
+each side by a low wall of small stones.</p>
+
+<p>Other remains of ancient Peru, frequently met with in these parts, are
+small buildings, formerly used as stations for the messengers who
+promulgated the commands of the Incas through all parts of the country.
+Some of these buildings are still in a tolerably good state of
+preservation. They were always erected on little hillocks, and at such
+distances apart, that from each station the nearest one on either side
+was discernible. When a messenger was despatched from a station a signal
+was hoisted, and a messenger from the next successive station met him
+halfway, and received from him the despatch, which was in this manner
+forwarded from one station to another till it reached its destination. A
+constant communication was thus kept up between the capital and the most
+distant parts of the country. A proof of the extraordinary rapidity with
+which these communications were carried on is the fact, recorded on
+unquestionable authority, that the royal table in Cuzco was served with
+fresh fish, caught in the sea near the Temple of the Sun in Lurin, a
+distance of more than 200 leagues from Cuzco.</p>
+
+<p>The messenger stations have by some travellers been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> confounded with
+the forts, of which remains are met with along the great Inca road. The
+forts were buildings destined for totally different purposes. They were
+magazines for grain, and were built by the Incas to secure to their
+armies in these barren regions the requisite supplies of food. Vestiges
+of these forts are frequently seen in the Altos of Southern and Central
+Peru. They are broad round towers, usually built against a rocky
+declivity, and with numerous long apertures for the admission of air.</p>
+
+<p>Even the broad level heights in which no trace of human habitations is
+discoverable, have been excavated by the mercenary Peruvian mestizos and
+creoles in search of hidden treasures. Their faith in the existence of
+concealed riches is founded on the following tradition. When the last
+reigning Inca, Atabiliba or Atahuallpa, was made prisoner by Don
+Francisco Pizarro, in Caxamarca, he proposed to ransom himself from the
+Spanish commander. The price he offered for his liberty was to fill with
+gold the cell in which he was confined, to the height of a certain line
+on the wall, which Pizarro marked with his sword. The cell, it may be
+mentioned, was twenty-two feet long and seventeen broad. A quantity of
+gold which the Inca ordered to be collected in Caxamarca and its
+vicinity, when piled up on the floor of the cell, did not reach above
+halfway to the given mark. The Inca then despatched messengers to Cuzco
+to obtain from the royal treasury the gold required to make up the
+deficiency; and accordingly eleven thousand llamas were despatched from
+Cuzco to Caxamarca, each laden with one hundred pounds of gold. But ere
+the treasure reached its destination, Atahuallpa was hanged by the
+advice of Don Diego de Almangra and the Dominican monk Vicente de
+Valverde. The terror-stirring news flew like wild-fire through the land,
+and speedily reached the convoy of Indians, who were driving their
+richly-laden llamas over the level heights into Central Peru. On the
+spot where the intelligence of Atahuallpa's death was communicated to
+them, the dismayed Indians concealed the treasure, and then dispersed.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the number of the llamas was really so considerable as it is
+stated to have been, may fairly be doubted; but that a vast quantity
+of gold was on its way to Caxamarca, and was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> concealed, is a
+well-authenticated fact. That the Indians should never have made any
+attempt to recover this treasure is quite consistent with their
+character. It is not improbable that even now some particular
+individuals among them may know the place of concealment; but a
+certain feeling of awe transmitted through several centuries from
+father to son, has, in their minds, associated the hidden treasure
+with the blood of their last king, and this feeling doubtless prompts
+them to keep the secret inviolate.</p>
+
+<p>From traditionary accounts, which bear the appearance of probability,
+it would appear that the gold was buried somewhere in the Altos of Mito,
+near the valley of Jauja. Searches have frequently been made in that
+vicinity, but no clue to the hiding-place has yet been discovered.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Some derive the word Andes from the people called Antis,
+who dwelt at the foot of these chains of mountains. A province in the
+department of Cuzco, which was probably the chief settlement of that
+nation, still bears the name of Antas.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> From the most remote times the Ratanhia has been employed
+by the Indians as a medicine. It is one of their favorite remedies
+against spitting of blood and dysentery. Most of the Ratanhia exported
+to Europe is obtained in the southern provinces of Peru, particularly in
+Arica and Islay. The extract which is prepared in Peru, and which was
+formerly sent in large quantities to Europe, is now scarcely an object
+of traffic. For several years past no Ratanhia has been shipped from
+Callao, and but very little from Truxillo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> More lengthened information respecting them may be found in
+the "Fauna Peruana." I have there noted all their specific varieties,
+and have corrected the erroneous accounts given of them by some previous
+travellers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> <i>Phalcoboenus montanus</i>, Orb.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> The Magay is the stem of the American Agave. It has a sort
+of spungy sap; but it is covered externally with a strong tough bast.
+The Magay supplies the inhabitants of Upper Peru with an excellent kind
+of light and strong building wood.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XII.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Cerro de Pasco&mdash;&#8203;First discovery of the Mines&mdash;&#8203;Careless mode of working
+them&mdash;&#8203;Mine Owners and Mine Laborers&mdash;&#8203;Amalgamating and
+Refining&mdash;&#8203;Produce of the Mines&mdash;&#8203;Life in Cerro de Pasco&mdash;&#8203;Different
+Classes of the Population&mdash;&#8203;Gaming and Drunkenness&mdash;&#8203;Extravagance and
+Improvidence of the Indian Mine Laborers&mdash;&#8203;The Cerro de San
+Fernando&mdash;&#8203;Other Important Mining Districts in Peru&mdash;&#8203;The Salcedo
+Mine&mdash;&#8203;Castrovireyna&mdash;&#8203;Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of
+Peru&mdash;&#8203;Rich Mines secretly known to the Indians&mdash;&#8203;Roads leading from
+Cerro de Pasco&mdash;&#8203;The Laguna of Chinchaycocha&mdash;&#8203;Battle of Junin&mdash;&#8203;Indian
+Robbers&mdash;&#8203;A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds.</p>
+
+
+<p>Having traversed the long and difficult route from the capital of Peru,
+by way of the wild Cordillera to the level heights of Bombon, and from
+thence having ascended the steep winding acclivities of the mountain
+chain of Olachin, the traveller suddenly beholds in the distance a large
+and populous city. This is the celebrated Cerro de Pasco, famed
+throughout the world for its rich silver mines. It is situated in 10&deg;
+48&#8242; S. latitude and 76&deg; 23&#8242; W. longitude, and at the height of 13,673
+feet above the sea level. It is built in a basin-shaped hollow,
+encircled by barren and precipitous rocks. Between these rocks difficult
+winding roads or paths lead down to the city, which spreads out in
+irregular divisions, surrounded on all sides by little lagunes, or
+swamps. The pleasing impression created by the first view of Cerro de
+Pasco from the heights is very greatly modified on entering the town.
+Crooked, narrow, and dirty streets are bordered by rows of
+irregularly-built houses; and miserable Indian huts abut close against
+well-built dwellings, whose size and structure give a certain European
+character to the city when viewed from a distance. Without bestowing a
+glance on the busy throng which circulates through the streets and
+squares, the varied styles of the buildings sufficiently indicate to the
+observer how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> many different classes of people have united together to
+found, in the tropics, and on the very confines of the perpetual snow, a
+city of such magnitude, and of so motley an aspect. The wild barrenness
+of the surrounding scenery, and the extreme cold of the rigorous
+climate&mdash;the remote and solitary position of the city&mdash;all denote that
+one common bond of union must have drawn together the diversified
+elements which compose the population of Cerro de Pasco. And so it
+really is. In this inhospitable region, where the surface of the soil
+produces nothing, nature has buried boundless stores of wealth in the
+bowels of the earth, and the silver mines of Cerro de Pasco have drawn
+people from all parts of the world to one point, and for one object.</p>
+
+<p>History relates that about two hundred and fifteen years ago an Indian
+shepherd, named Huari Capcha, tended his flocks on a small pampa to the
+south-east of the Lake of Llauricocha, the mother of the great river
+Amazon. One day, when the shepherd had wandered farther than usual from
+his hut, he sought a resting-place on a declivity of the Cerro de
+Santiestevan, and when evening drew in he kindled a fire to protect
+himself against the cold; he then lay down to sleep. When he awoke on
+the following morning, he was amazed to find the stone beneath the ashes
+of his fire melted and turned to silver. He joyfully communicated the
+discovery to his master, Don Jose Ugarte, a Spaniard, who owned a
+hacienda in the Quebrada de Huariaca. Ugarte forthwith repaired to the
+spot, where he found indications of a very rich vein of silver ore,
+which he immediately made active preparations for working. In this mine,
+which is distinguished by the name of <i>La Descubridora</i> (the
+discoverer), silver is still obtained. From the village of Pasco, about
+two leagues distant, where already productive mines were worked, several
+rich mine owners removed to Llauricocha; here they sought and discovered
+new veins, and established new mining works. The vast abundance of the
+ore drew new speculators to the spot; some to work the mines, and others
+to supply the necessary wants of the increasing population. In this
+manner was rapidly founded a city, which, at times when the produce of
+metal is very considerable, counts 18,000 inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>In Cerro de Pasco there are two very remarkable veins of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> silver. One of
+them, the Veta de Colquirirca, runs nearly in a straight line from north
+to south, and has already been traced to the length of 9,600 feet, and
+the breadth of 412; the other vein is the Veta de Pariarirca, which
+takes a direction from east-south-east to west-north-west, and which
+intersects the Veta de Colquirirca precisely, it is supposed, under the
+market-place of the city. Its known extent is 6,400 feet in length, and
+380 feet in breadth. From these large veins numberless smaller ones
+branch off in various directions, so that a net-work of silver may be
+supposed to spread beneath the surface of the earth. Some thousand
+openings or mouths (<i>bocaminas</i>) are the entrances to these mines. Most
+of these entrances are within the city itself, in small houses; and some
+are in the dwellings of the mine-owners. Many of them are exceedingly
+shallow, and not more than five hundred deserve the name of shafts. All
+are worked in a very disorderly and careless way; the grand object of
+their owners being to avoid expense. The dangerous parts in the shafts
+are never walled up, and the excavations proceed without the adoption
+of any measures of security. The consequence is, that accidents caused
+by the falling in of the galleries are of frequent occurrence; and
+every year the lives of numbers of the Indian miners are sacrificed. A
+melancholy example of the effects of this negligence is presented by
+the now ruined mine of Matagente (literally <i>Kill People</i>), in which
+three hundred laborers were killed by the falling in of a shaft. I
+descended into several of the mines, among others into the
+<i>Descubridora</i>, which is one of the deepest, and I always felt that I
+had good reason to congratulate myself on returning to the surface of
+the earth in safety. Rotten blocks of wood and loose stones serve for
+steps, and, where these cannot be placed, the shaft, which in most
+instances runs nearly perpendicular, is descended by the help of rusty
+chains and ropes, whilst loose fragments of rubbish are continually
+falling from the damp walls.</p>
+
+<p>The mine laborers, all of whom are Indians, are of two classes. One
+class consists of those who work in the mines all the year round without
+intermission, and who receive regular wages from the mine owners;&mdash;the
+other class consists of those who make only temporary visits to Cerro de
+Pasco, when they are attracted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> thither by the <i>boyas</i>.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> This latter
+class of laborers are called <i>maquipuros</i>. Most of them come from the
+distant provinces, and they return to their homes when the boya is at an
+end. The mine laborers are also subdivided into two classes, the one
+called <i>barreteros</i>, whose employment consists in breaking the ore; and
+the other called <i>hapires</i>, or <i>chaquiris</i>, who bring up the ore from
+the shaft. The work allotted to the hapires is exceedingly laborious.
+Each load consists of from fifty to seventy-five pounds of metal, which
+is carried in a very irksome and inconvenient manner in an untanned
+hide, called a capacho. The hapire performs his toilsome duty in a state
+of nudity, for, notwithstanding the coldness of the climate, he becomes
+so heated by his laborious exertion, that he is glad to divest himself
+of his clothing. As the work is carried on incessantly day and night,
+the miners are divided into parties called <i>puntas</i>, each party working
+for twelve successive hours. At six o'clock morning and evening the
+<i>puntas</i> are relieved. Each one is under the inspection of a mayor-domo.
+When a mine yields a scanty supply of metal, the laborers are paid in
+money; the barreteros receiving six reals per day, and the hapires only
+four. During the <i>boyas</i> the laborers receive instead of their wages in
+money, a share of the ore. The Indians often try to appropriate to
+themselves surreptitiously pieces of ore; but to do this requires great
+cunning and dexterity, so narrowly are they watched by the mayor-domos.
+Nevertheless, they sometimes succeed. One of the hapires related to me
+how he had contrived to carry off a most valuable piece of silver. He
+fastened it on his back, and then wrapping himself in his poncho, he
+pretended to be so ill, that he obtained permission to quit the mine.
+Two of his confederates who helped him out, assisted him in concealing
+the treasure. The <i>polvorilla</i>, a dark powdery kind of ore, very full of
+silver, used to be abstracted from the mines by the following stratagem.
+The workmen would strip off their clothes, and having moistened the
+whole <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>of their bodies with water, would roll themselves in the
+<i>polvorilla</i> which stuck to them. On their return home they washed off
+the silver-dust and sold it for several dollars. But this trick being
+detected, a stop was soon put to it, for, before leaving the mines, the
+laborers are now required to strip in order to be searched.</p>
+
+<p>The operation of separating the silver from the dross is performed at
+some distance from Cerro de Pasco, in haciendas, belonging to the great
+mine owners. The process is executed in a very clumsy, imperfect, and at
+the same time, a very expensive manner. The amalgamation of the
+quicksilver with the metal is effected by the tramping of horses. The
+animals employed in this way are a small ill-looking race, brought from
+Ayacucho and Cuzco, where they are found in numerous herds. The
+quicksilver speedily has a fatal effect on their hoofs, and after a few
+years the animals become unfit for work. The separation of the metals is
+managed with as little judgment as the amalgamation, and the waste of
+quicksilver is enormous. It is computed that on each mark of silver,
+half a pound of quicksilver is expended. The quicksilver, with the
+exception of some little brought from Idria and Huancavelica, comes from
+Spain in iron jars, each containing about seventy-five pounds weight of
+the metal. In Lima the price of these jars is from sixty to 100 dollars
+each, but they are occasionally sold as high as 135 or 140 dollars.
+Considering the vast losses which the Peruvian mine owners sustain by
+the waste of quicksilver and the defective mode of refining, it may
+fairly be inferred, that their profits are about one-third less than
+they would be under a better system of management.</p>
+
+<p>In Cerro de Pasco there are places called <i>boliches</i>, in which the
+silver is separated from the dross by the same process as that practised
+in the <i>haciendas</i>, only on a smaller scale. In the <i>boliches</i> the
+amalgamation is performed, not by horses but by Indians, who mix the
+quicksilver with the ore by stamping on it with their feet for several
+hours in succession. This occupation they usually perform barefooted,
+and the consequence is, that paralysis and other diseases caused by the
+action of mercury, are very frequent among the persons thus employed.
+The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> owners of the <i>boliches</i>, who are mostly Italians, are not mine
+proprietors. They obtain the metal from the Indians, who give them their
+<i>huachacas</i><a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> in exchange for brandy and other articles. On the other
+hand, the owners of the <i>boliches</i> obtain the money required for their
+speculations from capitalists, who make them pay an enormous interest.
+Nevertheless, many amass considerable fortunes in the course of a few
+years; for they scruple not to take the most unjust advantage of the
+Indians, whose laborious toil is rewarded by little gain.</p>
+
+<p>The law requires that all the silver drawn from the mines of Cerro de
+Pasco shall be conveyed to a government smelting-house, called the
+<i>Callana</i>, there to be cast into bars of one hundred pounds weight, to
+be stamped, and charged with certain imposts. The value of silver in
+Cerro de Pasco varies from seven to eight dollars per mark. The standard
+value in Lima is eight dollars and a half.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to form anything like an accurate estimate of the
+yearly produce of the mines of Cerro de Pasco; for a vast quantity of
+silver is never taken to the Callana, but is smuggled to the coast,
+and from thence shipped for Europe. In the year 1838, no less than
+85,000 marks of contraband silver were conveyed to the sea port of
+Huacho, and safely shipped on board a schooner. The quantity of silver
+annually smelted and stamped in the Callana is from two to three
+hundred thousand marks&mdash;seldom exceeding the latter amount. From 1784
+to 1820, 1826, and 1827, the amount was 8,051,409 marks; in the year
+1784 it was 68,208 marks; and in 1785, 73,455 marks. During seventeen
+years it was under 200,000 marks; and only during three years above
+300,000. The produce of the mines is exceedingly fluctuating. The
+successive revolutions which have agitated the country have tended
+very considerably to check mining operations. On the overthrow of
+Santa Cruz, Don Miguel Otero, the most active and intelligent mine
+owner of Cerro de Pasco, was banished; an event which had a very
+depressing influence on all the mining transactions of that part of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>South America. Within the last few years, however, mining has
+received a new impetus, and attention has been directed to the
+adoption of a more speedy and less expensive system of amalgamation.</p>
+
+<p>As a place of residence Cerro de Pasco is exceedingly disagreeable;
+nothing but the pursuit of wealth can reconcile any one to a long
+abode in it. The climate, like that of the higher Puna, is cold and
+stormy. The better sort of houses are well built, and are provided
+with good English fire-places and chimneys. But however comfortably
+lodged, the new comer cannot easily reconcile himself to the
+reflection that the earth is hollow beneath his feet. Still less
+agreeable is it to be awakened in the night by the incessant hammering
+of the Indian miners. Luckily earthquakes are of rare occurrence in
+those parts: it would require no very violent shock to bury the whole
+city in the bosom of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>Silver being the only produce of the soil, the necessaries of life are
+all exceedingly dear in the Cerro, as they have to be brought from
+distant places. The warehouses are, it is true, always plentifully
+supplied even with the choicest luxuries; but the extortion of venders
+and the abundance of money render prices most exorbitant. The market
+is so well supplied with provisions that it may vie with that of Lima.
+The products of the coast, of the table-lands and the forests, are all
+to be procured in the market of Cerro de Pasco; but the price demanded
+for every article is invariably more than double its worth. House
+rents are also extravagantly high; and the keep of horses is
+exceedingly expensive.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Cerro de Pasco presents a motley assemblage of human
+beings, such as one would scarcely expect to find in a city situated
+at 14,000 feet above the sea, and encircled by wild mountains. The Old
+and the New Worlds seem there to have joined hands, and there is
+scarcely any nation of Europe or America that has not its
+representative in Cerro de Pusco. The Swede and the Sicilian, the
+Canadian and the Argentinian, are all united here at one point, and
+for one object. The inhabitants of this city may be ranked in two
+divisions, viz., traders and miners&mdash;taking both terms in their most
+comprehensive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> sense. The mercantile population consists chiefly of
+Europeans or white Creoles, particularly those who are owners of large
+magazines. The keepers of coffee houses and brandy shops are here, as
+in Lima, chiefly Italians from Genoa. Other shops are kept by the
+Mestizos, and the provision-dealers are chiefly Indians, who bring
+their supplies from remote places.</p>
+
+<p>The mining population may be divided into mine owners (<i>mineros</i>) and
+Indian laborers. The majority of the mineros are descendants of the old
+Spanish families, who, at an early period, became possessors of the
+mines, whence they derived enormous wealth, which most of them
+dissipated in prodigal extravagance. At the present time, only a very
+few of the mineros are rich enough to defray, from their own resources,
+the vast expense attending the operations of mining. They consequently
+raise the required money by loans from the capitalists of Lima, who
+require interest of 100 or 120 per cent., and, moreover, insist on
+having bars of silver at a price below standard value. To these hard
+conditions, together with the custom that has been forced upon the
+miners of paying their laborers in metal, at times when it is very
+abundant, may be traced the cause of the miserable system of
+mine-working practised in Cerro de Pasco. To liquidate his burthensome
+debts the minero makes his laborers dig as much ore as possible from the
+mine, without any precautions being taken to guard against accidents.
+The money-lenders, on the other hand, have no other security for the
+recovery of their re-payment than the promise of the minero, and a
+failure of the usual produce of a mine exposes them to the risk of
+losing the money they have advanced.</p>
+
+<p>Under these circumstances it can scarcely be expected that the character
+and habits of the minero should qualify him to take a high rank in the
+social scale. His insatiable thirst for wealth continually prompts him
+to embark in new enterprises, whereby he frequently loses in one what he
+gains in another. After a mine has been worked without gain for a series
+of years, an unexpected <i>boya</i> probably occurs, and an immense quantity
+of silver may be extracted. But a minero retiring on the proceeds of a
+boya is an event of rare occurrence. A vain hope of increasing fortune
+prompts him to risk the certain for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> uncertain: and the result
+frequently is, that the once prosperous minero has nothing to bequeath
+to his children but a mine heavily burthened with debt. The
+persevering ardor of persons engaged in mining is truly remarkable.
+Unchecked by disappointment, they pursue the career in which they have
+embarked. Even when ruin appears inevitable, the love of money subdues
+the warnings of reason, and hope conjures up, from year to year,
+visionary pictures of riches yet to come.</p>
+
+<p>Joined to this infatuated pursuit of the career once entered on, an
+inordinate passion for cards and dice contributes to ruin many of the
+mineros of Cerro de Pasco. In few other places are such vast sums staked
+at the gaming-table; for the superabundance of silver feeds that
+national vice of the Spaniards and their descendants. From the earliest
+hours of morning cards and dice are in requisition. The mine owner
+leaves his silver stores, and the shop-keeper forsakes his counter, to
+pass a few hours every day at the gaming-table; and card-playing is
+the only amusement in the best houses of the town. The mayordomos,
+after being engaged in the mines throughout the whole day, assemble
+with their comrades in the evening, round the gaming-table, from which
+they often do not rise until six in the morning, when the bell summons
+them to resume their subterraneous occupations. They not unfrequently
+gamble away their share of a boya before any indication of one is
+discernible in the mine.</p>
+
+<p>The working class of miners is composed of Indians, who throng to Cerro
+de Pasco from all the provinces, far and near, especially when boyas are
+expected. At times, when the mines are not very productive, the number
+of Indian laborers amounts to between three and four thousand; but when
+there is a great supply of metal, the ordinary number of mine-workers is
+more than tripled. The Indians labor with a degree of patient industry,
+which it would be vain to expect from European workmen similarly
+circumstanced. This observation applies to the hapires in particular.
+Content with wretched food, and still more wretched lodging, the hapire
+goes through his hard day's work, partaking of no refreshment but coca,
+and at the end of the week (deduction being made for the food, &amp;c.,
+obtained on credit from the minero), he, possibly, finds himself in
+possession of a dollar.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> This sum he spends on his Sunday holiday in
+chicha and brandy, of which he takes as much as his money will pay
+for, or as he can get on credit. When excited by strong drinks, such
+as maize beer, chicha, and brandy, to which they are very much
+addicted, the Indian miners are exceedingly quarrelsome. The laborers
+belonging to the different mines go about the streets rioting and
+attacking each other, and they frequently get involved in dangerous
+affrays. No Sunday or Friday passes over without the occurrence of
+battles, in which knives, sticks, and stones are used as weapons; and
+the actors in these scenes of violence inflict on each other severe
+and often fatal wounds. Any effective police interference to quell
+these street riots, is out of the question.</p>
+
+<p>When an unusually abundant produce of the mines throws extra payment
+into the hands of the mine laborers, they squander their money with the
+most absurd extravagance, and they are excellent customers to the
+European dealers in dress and other articles of luxury. Prompted by a
+ludicrous spirit of imitation, the Indian, in his fits of drunkenness,
+will purchase costly things which he can have no possible use for, and
+which he becomes weary of, after an hour's possession. I once saw an
+Indian purchase a cloak of fine cloth, for which he paid ninety-two
+dollars. He then repaired to a neighboring pulperia,<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> where he drank
+till he became intoxicated, and then, staggering into the street, he
+fell down, and rolled in the kennel. On rising, and discovering that his
+cloak was besmeared with mud, he threw it off, and left it in the
+street, for any one who might choose to pick it up. Such acts of
+reckless prodigality are of daily occurrence. A watchmaker in Cerro de
+Pasco informed me that one day an Indian came to his shop to purchase
+a gold watch. He showed him one, observing that the price was twelve
+gold ounces (204 dollars), and that it would probably be too dear for
+him. The Cholo paid the money, and took the watch; then, after having
+examined it for a few minutes, he dashed it on the ground, observing
+that the thing was of no use to him. When the Indian miner possesses
+money, he never thinks of laying by a part of it, as neither he <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>nor
+any of his family feel the least ambition to improve their miserable
+way of life. With them, drinking is the highest of all gratifications,
+and in the enjoyment of the present moment, they lose sight of all
+considerations for the future. Even those Cholos who come from distant
+parts of the country to share in the rich harvest of the mines of
+Cerro de Pasco, return to their homes as poor as when they left them,
+and with manners and morals vastly deteriorated.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which in point of importance are
+nowise inferior to those of Potosi, there are numerous very rich mining
+districts in Peru. Among the most prolific may be ranked the provinces
+of Pataz, Huamanchuco, Caxamarca, and Hualgayoc. In this last-named
+province is situated the Cerro de San Fernando, on which Alexander Von
+Humboldt has conferred so much celebrity. The rich silver veins were
+discovered there in the year 1771; and there are now upwards of 1400
+bocaminas. On the insulated mountain the veins of metal intersect each
+other in every direction, and they are alike remarkable for being easily
+worked and exceedingly prolific. The mines of Huantaxaya, situated on
+the coast in the neighborhood of Iquique, were also very rich, and the
+silver obtained from them was either pure or containing a very slight
+admixture of foreign substances. They yielded an incredible quantity of
+metal, but they were speedily exhausted; and are now totally barren. The
+chains of hills in the southern districts of Peru contain a multitude of
+very rich mines, of which the most remarkable are those of San Antonio
+de Esquilache, Tamayos, Picotani, Cancharani, and Chupicos; but owing to
+bad working and defective drainage, many of the veins are in a very
+ruinous state, and the metal drawn from them bears no proportion to the
+quantity they contain. The Salcedo mine is very celebrated for the vast
+abundance of its produce, and the tragical end of its original owner.</p>
+
+<p>Don Jose Salcedo, a poor Spaniard, who dwelt in Puno, was in love with a
+young Indian girl, whose mother promised, on condition of his marrying
+her daughter, that she would show him a rich silver mine. Salcedo
+fulfilled the condition, obtained possession of the mine, and worked it
+with the greatest success. The report of his wealth soon roused the envy
+of the Count de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> Lemos, then viceroy of Peru, who sought to possess
+himself of the mine. By his generosity and benevolence Salcedo had
+become a great favorite with the Indian population, and the viceroy took
+advantage of this circumstance to accuse him of high treason, on the
+ground that he was exciting the Indians against the Spanish government.
+Salcedo was arrested, tried, and condemned to death. Whilst he was in
+prison, he begged to be permitted to send to Madrid the documents
+relating to his trial, and to appeal to the mercy of the king. He
+proposed, if the viceroy would grant his request, that he would pay him
+the daily tribute of a bar of silver, from the time when the ship left
+the port of Callao with the documents, until the day of her return. When
+it is recollected that at that period the voyage from Callao to Spain
+occupied from twelve to sixteen months, some idea may be formed of the
+enormous wealth of Salcedo and his mine. The viceroy rejected this
+proposition, ordered Salcedo to be hanged, and set out for Puno to take
+possession of the mine.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<p>But this cruel and unjust proceeding failed in the attainment of its
+object. As soon as Salcedo's death-doom was pronounced, his
+mother-in-law, accompanied by a number of relations and friends,
+repaired to the mine, flooded it with water, destroyed the works, and
+closed up the entrance so effectually that it was impossible to trace it
+out. They then dispersed; but some of them, who were afterwards
+captured, could not be induced, either by promises or tortures, to
+reveal the position of the mouth of the mine, which to this day remains
+undiscovered. All that is known about it is that it was situated in the
+neighborhood of Cerro de Laycacota and Cananchari.</p>
+
+<p>Another extraordinary example of the productiveness of the Peruvian
+mines, is found at San Jose, in the department of Huancavelica. The
+owner of the mines of San Jose requested the viceroy Castro, whose
+friend he was, to become godfather to his first child. The viceroy
+consented, but at the time fixed for the christening, some important
+affair of state prevented him from quitting the capital, and he sent
+the vice-queen to officiate as his proxy. To render honor to his
+illustrious guest, the owner of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> San Jose mines laid down a triple
+row of silver bars along the whole way (and it was no very short
+distance), from his house to church. Over this silver pavement the
+vice-queen accompanied the infant to the church, where it was
+baptized. On her return, her munificent host presented to her the
+whole of the silver road, in token of his gratitude for the honor she
+had conferred on him. Since that time, the mines and the province in
+which they are situated have borne the name of Castrovireyna. In most
+of these mines the works have been discontinued. Owing to defective
+arrangements, one of the richest of these mines fell in, and 122
+workmen were buried in the ruins. Since that catastrophe, the Indians
+refuse to enter the mines. Many stories are related of spirits and
+apparitions said to haunt the mines of Castrovireyna. I was surprised
+to hear these tales, for the imagination of the Indian miners is not
+very fertile in the creation of this sort of superstitious terrors.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the enormous amount of wealth, which the mines of Peru
+have already yielded, and still continue to yield, only a very small
+portion of the silver veins has been worked. It is a well-known fact,
+that the Indians are aware of the existence of many rich mines, the
+situation of which they will never disclose to the whites, nor to the
+detested mestizos. Heretofore mining has been to them all toil and
+little profit, and it has bound them in chains from which they will not
+easily emancipate themselves. For centuries past, the knowledge of some
+of the richest silver mines has been with inviolable secresy transmitted
+from father to son. All endeavors to prevail on them to divulge these
+secrets have hitherto been fruitless. In the village of Huancayo, there
+lived, a few years ago, two brothers, Don Jose and Don Pedro Yriarte,
+two of the most eminent mineros of Peru. Having obtained certain
+intelligence that in the neighboring mountains there existed some veins
+of pure silver, they sent a young man, their agent, to endeavor to gain
+further information on the subject. The agent took up his abode in the
+cottage of a shepherd, to whom, however, he gave not the slightest
+intimation of the object of his mission. After a little time, an
+attachment arose between the young man and the shepherd's daughter, and
+the girl promised to disclose to her lover the position of a very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> rich
+mine. On a certain day, when she was going out to tend her sheep, she
+told him to follow her at a distance, and to notice the spot where she
+would let fall her <i>manta</i>; by turning up the earth on that spot, she
+assured him he would find the mouth of a mine. The young man did as he
+was directed, and after digging for a little time, he discovered a mine
+of considerable depth, containing rich ore. Whilst busily engaged in
+breaking out the metal, he was joined by the girl's father, who
+expressed himself delighted at the discovery, and offered to assist
+him. After they had been at work for some hours, the old Indian handed
+to his companion a cup of chicha, which the young man thankfully
+accepted. But he had no sooner tasted the liquor than he felt ill, and
+he soon became convinced that poison had been mixed with the beverage.
+He snatched up the bag containing the metal he had collected, mounted
+his horse, and with the utmost speed galloped off to Huancayo. There,
+he related to Yriarte all that had occurred, described as accurately
+as he could the situation of the mine, and died on the following
+night. Active measures were immediately set on foot, to trace out the
+mine, but without effect. The Indian and all his family had
+disappeared, and the mine was never discovered.</p>
+
+<p>In Huancayo there also dwelt a Franciscan monk. He was an inveterate
+gamester, and was involved in pecuniary embarrassments. The Indians in
+the neighborhood of his dwelling-place were much attached to him, and
+frequently sent him presents of poultry, cheese, butter, &amp;c. One day,
+after he had been a loser at the gaming-table, he complained bitterly of
+his misfortunes to an Indian, who was his particular friend. After some
+deliberation, the Indian observed, that possibly he could render him
+some assistance; and, accordingly, on the following evening, he brought
+him a large bag full of rich silver ore. This present was several times
+repeated; but the monk, not satisfied, pressed the Indian to show him
+the mine from whence the treasure was drawn. The Indian consented, and
+on an appointed night he came, accompanied by two of his comrades, to
+the dwelling of the Franciscan. They blindfolded him, and each in turn
+carried him on his shoulders to a distance of several leagues, into the
+mountain passes. At length they set him down,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> and the bandage being
+removed from his eyes, he discovered that he was in a small and somewhat
+shallow shaft, and was surrounded by bright masses of silver. He was
+allowed to take as much as he could carry, and when laden with the rich
+prize, he was again blindfolded, and conveyed home in the same manner as
+he had been brought to the mine. Whilst the Indians were conducting him
+home, he hit on the following stratagem. He unfastened his rosary, and
+here and there dropped one of the beads, hoping by this means to be
+enabled to trace his way back on the following day; but in the course of
+a couple of hours his Indian friend again knocked at his door, and
+presenting to him a handful of beads, said, "Father, you dropped your
+rosary on the way, and I have picked it up."</p>
+
+<p>When I was in Jauja, in the year 1841, an Indian whom I had previously
+known, from his having accompanied me on one of my journeys in the
+Sierra, came to me and asked me to lend him a crow-bar. I did so, and
+after a few days, when he returned it, I observed that the end was
+covered with silver. Some time afterwards I learned that this Indian had
+been imprisoned by order of the sub-prefect, because he had offered for
+sale some very rich silver ore, and on being questioned as to where he
+had obtained it, his answer was that he found it on the road; a tale,
+the truth of which was very naturally doubted. The following year, when
+I was again in Jauja, the Indian paid me another visit. He then informed
+me that he had been for several months confined in a dark dungeon and
+half-starved, because the sub-prefect wanted to compel him to reveal the
+situation of a mine which he knew of, but that he would not disclose the
+secret, and adhered firmly to the statement he had made of having found
+the ore. After a little further conversation, he became more
+communicative than I had any reason to expect, though he was fully
+convinced I would not betray him. He confessed to me that he actually
+knew of a large vein containing valuable silver, of which he showed me a
+specimen. He further told me that it was only when he was much in want
+of money that he had recourse to the mine, of which the shaft was not
+very deep; and, moreover, that after closing it up, he always carried
+the loose rubbish away to a distance of some miles, and then covered
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> opening so carefully with turf and cactus, that it was impossible
+for any one to discern it. This Indian dwelt in a miserable hut, about
+three leagues from Jauja, and his occupation was making wooden stirrups,
+which employment scarcely enabled him to earn a scanty subsistence. He
+assured me it was only when he was called upon to pay contributions,
+which the government exacts with merciless rigor, that he had recourse
+to the mine. He then extracted about half an aroba of ore, and sold it
+in Jauja, in order to pay the tax levied on him.</p>
+
+<p>I could quote many well-authenticated instances of the same kind; but
+the above examples sufficiently prove the reluctance of the Indians to
+disclose the secret of their hidden treasures, and their indifference
+about obtaining wealth for themselves. It is true that the Indians are
+not, in all parts of the country, so resolutely reserved as they are in
+Huancayo and Jauja, for all the most important mines have been made
+known to the Spaniards by the natives. But the Peruvian Indians are
+composed of many different races, and though all were united by the
+Incas into one nation, yet they still differ from each other in manners
+and character. The sentiment of hatred towards the whites and their
+descendants has not been kept up in an equal degree among them all. In
+proportion as some are friendly and social with the Creoles, others
+are reserved and distrustful. In general, the Indians regard with
+unfriendly feelings those whites who seek to trace out new mines; for
+they cherish a bitter recollection of the fate of Huari Capcha, the
+discoverer of the mines of Cerro de Pasco, who, it is said, was thrown
+into a dungeon by the Spaniard, Ugarte, and ended his days in
+captivity. I have not met with any proofs of the authenticity of this
+story, but I frequently heard it related by the Indians, who referred
+to it as their justification for withholding from the whites any
+directions for finding mines.</p>
+
+<p>But to return to Cerro de Pasco. That city has, by its wealth, become
+one of the most important in the Peruvian Republic; and under improved
+legislation, and a judicious mining system, it might be rendered still
+more prosperous and fully deserving of its title of "Treasury of
+Peru." Though from its situation Cerro de Pasco is cut off from the
+principal lines of communication with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> other parts of Peru, yet the
+city is itself the central point of four roads, on which there is
+considerable traffic. Westward runs the road to Lima, through the
+Quebrada of Canta, by which all the silver that is not contraband is
+transported to the capital. The silver, when melted into bars, is
+consigned to the care of the mule-drivers, merely on their giving a
+receipt for it; and in this manner they are sometimes entrusted with
+loads of the value of several hundred thousand dollars, which they
+convey to Lima unattended by any guards or escort. There is, however,
+no danger of their being plundered; for the robbers do not take the
+stamped bars of silver. The silver specie, on the other hand, which is
+sent from Lima, is escorted by a military guard as far as Llanga or
+Santa Rosa de Quibe. The escort is not, however, very adequate to
+resist the highway robbers, consisting of numerous bands of armed
+negroes. On the east is the road running through the Quebrada de
+Huarriaca to the town of Huanuco and the Huallaga Forests. The road on
+the north of Cerro de Pasco leads to the village of Huanuco el Viejo,
+one of the most remarkable places of Peru, being full of interesting
+ruins of the time of the Incas. From Huanuco the road leads to Huaraz,
+and from thence to the north coast. The south road passes over the
+level heights to Tarma, Jauja, and the other southern provinces.</p>
+
+<p>From the village of Pasco two roads diverge, the one leading to Lima,
+the other to Tarma. The former crosses the Pampa of Bombon and the
+Diezmo, and continues onward to the Pass of La Viuda. The latter leads
+by way of the Tambo Ninacaca, and the village of Carhuamayo<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> to
+Junin, passing near a very large lake, situated at the height of
+13,000 feet above the sea. This lake is the Laguna de
+Chinchaycocha,<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> which is twelve leagues long, and at its utmost
+breadth measures two leagues and a half. It is the largest of the
+South American lakes, next to the Laguna de Titicaca, which is
+eighty-four English miles long and forty-one broad. As the lake of
+Chinchaycocha loses by various outlets much more water than it
+receives from its tributary sources, it is evident that it must be fed
+by subterraneous springs. Its marshy banks are overgrown by totora
+(<i>Malacoch&aelig;te Totora</i>), and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>are inhabited by numerous water fowl. The
+Indians entertain a superstitious belief that this lake is haunted by
+huge, fish-like animals, who at certain hours of the night leave their
+watery abode to prowl about the adjacent pasture lands, where they
+commit great havoc among the cattle. The southwestern end of the lake
+is intersected by a marshy piece of ground, interspersed with stones,
+called the Calzada, which forms a communication between the two banks
+of the lake. At the distance of about half a league from the lake is a
+village, which, under the Spanish domination, was called Reyes.
+Adjacent to it is the celebrated Pampa of Junin, which, on the 24th
+of August, 1824, was the scene of a battle between the Spanish
+forces, commanded by General Canterac, and the insurgents, headed by
+Don Simon Bolivar. The result of this battle had an important
+influence on the destiny of Peru. It is generally believed that
+treachery in the Spanish army threw the victory into the hands of the
+insurgents. A few days prior to the battle Bolivar is said to have
+received, from the Spanish camp, a letter in cypher, which he
+transmitted for explanation to his minister, Monteagudo, in Cerro de
+Pasco. The answer received from the minister was, that the letter
+recommended Bolivar to attack the enemy without a moment's delay, for
+that on the part of the Spaniards the victory was insured to him. The
+bearer of the letter is still living, and he does not deny that he
+was in the secret of the whole plot. The insurgents were victorious,
+and in commemoration of their triumph they gave to the village of
+Reyes, and to the whole province, the name of Junin, calling them
+after the plain on which the battle was fought.</p>
+
+<p>From Junin, the road runs to the distance of eight leagues across a
+difficult level height, to Cacas, a hamlet containing only a few
+huts. From thence, it is continued three leagues further, through
+several narrow Quebradas, and finally terminates in the beautiful
+valley of Tarma.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the Indians in the neighborhood of Cerro de Pasco, especially
+those who dwell in the Puna, in the direction of Cacas, infest the roads
+for the purpose of plunder. They conceal themselves behind the rocks,
+where they lie in wait for travellers, whom they severely wound, and
+sometimes even kill, by stones hurled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> from their slings. When great
+boyas occur in the mines of the Cerro, these roads are so unsafe that it
+is not prudent to travel, except in well-armed parties. The solitary
+traveller who seeks a night's lodging in one of the Puna huts, exposes
+himself to great peril; for the host not unfrequently assassinates his
+sleeping guest. Nor is there much greater security in villages, such as
+Junin and Carhuamayo. Only a few years ago, the bodies of three
+travellers were found in the house of the Alcalde of Junin, the
+principal authority in the village. The travellers had sought shelter
+for the night, and were inhumanly murdered. Every year persons known to
+have been travelling in these parts, mysteriously disappear, and there
+is every reason to believe they have been murdered by the Indians. Many
+of these Indians are mine laborers, who, for their incorrigible
+turpitude, have been banished from the Cerro, and who live by pillage.</p>
+
+<p>I will close this chapter with a brief description of four-and-twenty
+hours which I passed during a journey in the wildest part of the Puna
+region.</p>
+
+<p>On the 12th of January, 1840, having passed the night in the hut of a
+Puna shepherd, I awoke next morning at day-break. The sun was just
+beginning to cast a light tinge of red on the snow-capped tops of the
+Cordillera. Through the aperture in the roof of the hut, which served
+the purpose of a chimney, there penetrated a feeble light, just
+sufficient to show the misery and poverty that prevailed in the interior
+of the habitation. I rose from the resting-place on which, only a few
+hours previously, I had stretched myself exhausted by cold and fatigue,
+and raising the cow-hide, which closed the doorway of the hut, I crept
+out to make preparations for the continuance of my journey.</p>
+
+<p>I saddled my mule, and put into one of the saddle-bags a small supply
+of food. Whilst I was thus engaged, one of those fierce little dogs
+which are domiciled in every Indian hut, slily watched my movements;
+and though he had rested at the foot of my bed during the night, yet he
+was only prevented, by the repeated threats of his master, from making
+an attack upon me. My Indian host handed me my gun; I paid for my
+night's lodging by a few reals and some paper cigars; and having asked
+him to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> direct me on my way, I rode off whilst he was expressing his
+gratitude, and his kind wishes in the words, "<i>Dios lo pague!</i>"</p>
+
+<p>The sky was overhung by a thick mist, and the snow which had fallen
+during the night covered the ground as far as the eye could reach. On my
+way I met an old Indian woman driving her sheep. The bleating flock
+moved slowly on, leaving a deep furrow in the snow, and seeming
+impatient till the genial sun should dispel the mist and dissolve the
+white covering which overspread their scanty pasture. A little further
+on I met the son of this same Indian shepherdess. He and his dog were
+busily engaged in catching partridges, destined to be sold on the
+following Sunday, in the nearest village.</p>
+
+<p>My road lay along a gentle acclivity, interspersed with rocks and
+swamps, which often obliged me to make wide detours. The swamps (or as
+the natives call them, <i>Attoladeros</i>) are dangerous enemies to
+travellers in the Puna, who, with their horses and mules, sometimes
+sink into them and perish. Even in the most open parts of the country
+it is not easy to discern the swamps, and the ground often sinks
+beneath the rider where he least expects it. At length the sun began to
+disperse the mist, and the snow gradually melted beneath his burning
+rays. Inspired with new vigor, I took a survey of the wild solitude
+around me. I was now on one of the level heights, about 14,000 feet
+above the sea. On both sides arose the high Cordillera summits crowned
+with eternal ice; detached peaks here and there towering to the skies.
+Behind me lay, deep and deeper, the dark valleys of the lower mountain
+regions, which, with the scarcely discernible Indian villages, receded
+in the distance, till they blended with the line of the horizon. Before
+me stretched the immeasurable extent of the level heights, at intervals
+broken by ridges of hills. It seemed as though here, in the snow plains
+of the Cordillera, Nature had breathed out her last breath. Here life
+and death meet together as it were to maintain the eternal struggle
+between being and annihilation.</p>
+
+<p>How little life had the sun yet wakened around me! The dull yellow Puna
+grass, scarcely the length of one's finger, blended its tint with the
+greenish hue of the glaciers. Advancing further on my onward course, how
+joyfully I greeted as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> old acquaintance the purple gentiana and the
+brown calceolaria! With what pleasure I counted the yellow blossoms of
+the echino-cactus! and presently the sight of the ananas-cactus pictured
+in my mind all the luxuriance of the primeval forests. These cacti were
+growing amidst rushes and mosses and syngeneses, which the frost had
+changed to a rusty brown hue. Not a butterfly fluttered in the rarefied
+atmosphere; no fly nor winged insect of any kind was discernible. A
+beetle or a toad creeping from their holes, or a lizard warming himself
+in the sun, are all that reward the search of the naturalist.</p>
+
+<p>As I journeyed onward, animate life awakened in rich variety around me.
+Birds, few in species, but numerous in individuals, everywhere met my
+view. Herds of vicu&ntilde;as approached me with curious gaze, and then on a
+sudden fled with the swiftness of the wind. In the distance I observed
+stately groups of huanacus turning cautiously to look at me, and then
+passing on. The Puna stag (<i>tarush</i>) slowly advanced from his lair in
+the mountain recesses, and fixed on me his large, black, wondering eyes;
+whilst the nimble rock rabbits (<i>viscachas</i>) playfully disported and
+nibbled the scanty herbage growing in the mountain crevices.</p>
+
+<p>I had wandered for some hours admiring the varieties of life in this
+peculiar alpine region, when I stumbled against a dead mule. The poor
+animal had probably sunk beneath his burthen, and had been left by his
+driver to perish of cold and hunger. My presence startled three
+voracious condors, which were feeding on the dead carcass. These kings
+of the air proudly shook their crowned heads, and darted at me furious
+glances with their blood-red eyes. Two of them rose on their giant
+wings, and in narrowing circles hovered threateningly above my head,
+whilst the third, croaking fiercely, kept guard over the booty. I
+cocked my gun in readiness for defence, and cautiously rode past the
+menacing group, without the least desire of further disturbing their
+banquet. These condors were the only hostile animals I encountered in
+this part of the Puna.</p>
+
+<p>It was now two o'clock in the afternoon, and I had ridden on a
+continuous though gradual ascent since sunrise. My panting mule
+slackened his pace, and seemed unwilling to mount a rather<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> steep ascent
+which we had now arrived at. To relieve him I dismounted, and began
+walking at a rapid pace. But I soon felt the influence of the rarefied
+atmosphere, and I experienced an oppressive sensation which I had never
+known before. I stood still for a few moments to recover myself, and
+then tried to advance; but an indescribable oppression overcame me. My
+heart throbbed audibly; my breathing was short and interrupted. A
+world's weight seemed to lie upon my chest; my lips swelled and burst;
+the capillary vessels of my eyelids gave way, and blood flowed from
+them. In a few moments my senses began to leave me. I could neither see,
+hear, nor feel distinctly. A grey mist floated before my eyes, and I
+felt myself involved in that struggle between life and death which, a
+short time before, I fancied I could discern on the face of nature. Had
+all the riches of earth, or the glories of heaven, awaited me a hundred
+feet higher, I could not have stretched out my hand towards them.</p>
+
+<p>In this half senseless state I lay stretched on the ground, until I felt
+sufficiently recovered to remount my mule. One of the Puna storms was
+now gathering, thunder and lightning accompanied a heavy fall of snow,
+which very soon lay a foot deep on the ground. In a short time I
+discovered that I had missed my way. Had I then known the Puna as well
+as I afterwards did, I should have shaped my course by the flight of
+birds. But unluckily I pursued the fresh track of a herd of vicu&ntilde;as,
+which led me directly into a swamp. My mule sank, and was unable to
+extricate himself. I was almost in despair. Nevertheless, I cautiously
+alighted, and with incredible difficulty I succeeded in digging out with
+a dagger the mud in which the animal's legs were firmly fixed, and at
+length I got him back to a solid footing. After wandering about in
+various directions, I at length recovered the right path, which was
+marked by numerous skeletons protruding above the snow. These were the
+remains of beasts of burthen, which had perished on their journeys; a
+welcome, though an ominous guide to the wandering traveller. The clouds
+now suddenly separated, and the blazing light of the tropical sun glared
+dazzlingly on the white plain of snow. In a moment I felt my eyes
+stricken with <i>surumpe</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Suffering the most violent pain, and tormented by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> apprehension of
+blindness, I with great difficulty pursued my way. My mule could
+scarcely wade through the sward, which was becoming more and more
+thick; and night was advancing. I had lost all feeling in my feet, my
+benumbed fingers could scarcely hold the bridle, and I well knew that
+the nearest point at which I could obtain the shelter of a human
+habitation was eight German miles distant. I was beginning to give
+myself up for lost, when I observed a cave beneath an overhanging rock.
+Mother Nature, in whose service I had undertaken my long and perilous
+wanderings, at that critical juncture, provided for me a retreat,
+though in one of her rudest sheltering places. I entered the cave,
+which protected me securely against the wind and the snow. Having
+unsaddled my mule, I made a bed of my saddle clothes and poncho. I tied
+the animal to a stone, and whilst he eagerly regaled himself with the
+little grass that was not buried beneath the snow, I satisfied my
+hunger with some roasted maize and cheese.</p>
+
+<p>Exhausted by the fatigue of the day, I lay down to sleep; but no sooner
+had I fallen into a slumber, than I was awaked by a violent smarting
+in my eyes, occasioned by the <i>surumpe</i>. There was no longer any hope
+of sleep. The night seemed endless. When the dawn of morning appeared,
+I made an effort to open my eyes, which were closed with coagulated
+blood. On looking around me I beheld all the horror of my situation. A
+human corpse had served for my pillow. Shuddering I went in search of
+my mule, for I was eager to hurry from this dismal spot; but my misery
+was not yet at an end. The poor beast lay dead on the ground; in his
+ravenous hunger he had eaten of the poisonous <i>garbancillo</i>. What
+could I do! In despair I turned back to the cave.</p>
+
+<p>The sun had now fully risen, and his genial rays diffused warmth over
+this frozen region. Somewhat roused by the reviving light and life
+around me, I began to examine the body of my lifeless companion. Haply,
+thought I, he may be one of my own race; a traveller who has perished
+of cold and hunger. No. He was a half-caste Indian, and many deadly
+wounds on his head showed that he had died of the slings of Indian
+robbers,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> who had stripped him even of his clothes, and concealed the
+body in the cave.</p>
+
+<p>I seized my gun and shot a rock rabbit, then collecting some fuel, I
+kindled a fire, and roasted the little animal, which afforded me a no
+very savory breakfast. I then waited patiently in the hope that some
+timely help would deliver me from my dreary situation.</p>
+
+<p>It was about noon. I heard a monotonous short cry. With joy I
+recognized the well-known sound. I climbed up the nearest rock, and
+looking down into a hollow, I perceived two Indians whom I had seen the
+day before, driving their llamas to the nearest mine works. I prevailed
+on them, by the gift of a little tobacco, to let me have one of their
+llamas to carry my luggage, and having strewed a few handfuls of earth
+on the corpse of the murdered man, I departed. The scene of the
+incidents above described was the Cave of Le&ntilde;as, in the Altos which
+lead southward to the Quebrada of Huaitara.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> A mine is said to be in <i>boya</i> when it yields an
+unusually abundant supply of metal. Owing to the great number of mines
+in Cerro de Pasco, some of them are always in this prolific state.
+There are times when the <i>boyas</i> bring such an influx of miners to
+Cerro de Pasco that the population is augmented to double or triple its
+ordinary amount.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Huachacas are the portions of ore which are distributed
+among the Indians at the time of the <i>boyas</i>, instead of their wages
+being paid in money.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> A shop in which chicha, brandy, &amp;c., are vended.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> The date of Salcedo's death was May, 1669.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Ninacaca is 12,853 feet, and Carhuamayo 13,087 feet above
+the sea level.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> It is also called the Laguna de Reyes, and the Laguna de
+Junin.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">The Sierra&mdash;&#8203;Its Climate and Productions&mdash;&#8203;Inhabitants&mdash;&#8203;Trade&mdash;&#8203;Eggs
+circulated as money&mdash;&#8203;Mestizos in the Sierra&mdash;&#8203;Their Idleness and Love of
+Gaming and Betting&mdash;&#8203;Agriculture&mdash;&#8203;The Quinua Plant, a substitute for
+Potatoes&mdash;&#8203;Growth of Vegetables and Fruits in the Sierra&mdash;&#8203;Rural
+Festivals at the Seasons of Sowing and Reaping&mdash;&#8203;Skill of the Indians in
+various Handicrafts&mdash;&#8203;Excess of Brandy-Drinking&mdash;&#8203;Chicha&mdash;&#8203;Disgusting mode
+of making it&mdash;&#8203;Festivals of Saints&mdash;&#8203;Dances and Bull-Fights&mdash;&#8203;Celebration
+of Christmas-Day, New-Year's Day, Palm Sunday, and Good
+Friday&mdash;&#8203;Contributions levied on the Indians&mdash;&#8203;Tardy and Irregular
+Transmission of Letters&mdash;&#8203;Trade in Mules&mdash;&#8203;General Style of Building in
+the Towns and Villages of the Sierra&mdash;&#8203;Ceja de la Monta&ntilde;a.</p>
+
+<p>The Peruvian highlands, or level heights, described in a previous
+chapter under the designation of the Puna, are intersected by numerous
+valleys situated several thousand feet lower than the level heights,
+from which they totally differ in character and aspect. These valleys
+are called the Sierra. The inhabitants of Lima usually comprehend under
+the term Sierra, the whole interior of Peru, and every Indian who is not
+an inhabitant of the coast, or of the forest regions, is called by them
+a <i>Serrano</i>. But strictly speaking, the Sierra includes only the valleys
+between the Cordillera and the Andes, and I shall here use the term in
+its more limited and proper sense.</p>
+
+<p>In the Sierra there are only two seasons throughout the year. The winter
+or rainy season commences in October; but the rains are neither so heavy
+nor so continuous as in the forest districts. The falls of rain seldom
+last longer than two or three days in succession. Storms of thunder and
+lightning are very frequent in the Sierra; they are not accompanied by
+snow as in the Puna, but often by hail. The thermometer never falls
+below +4&deg; R., and during the daytime it is on the average at +11&deg; R. In
+April the summer season sets in, bringing with it an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> uninterrupted
+succession of warm bright days. The nights in summer are colder than in
+winter. In a summer night the thermometer will sometimes fall below
+freezing point, and the cold is often very severe. About noon the heat
+is oppressive, though the average heat of the day does not exceed 13, 9&deg;
+R. During the summer season the horizon is frequently obscured by heavy
+dark clouds, which seldom break over the valleys, but continue frowning
+over the hills. The natives call these portentous clouds <i>Misti
+Manchari</i> (terror of the whites),<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> because the inhabitants of the
+coast always regard them as indicative of stormy weather.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of the Sierra favors the natural fruitfulness of the soil,
+which richly repays the labor of the husbandman; but plants, peculiar to
+the warm tropical regions, do not thrive well here. Prior to the
+European emigration to Peru, only maize, quinua (<i>Chenopodium Quinoa</i>,
+L.), and a few tuberous roots were grown in the Sierra; but since the
+Spanish conquest, the European cereals, lucerne, and various kinds of
+vegetables are cultivated with perfect success. But the eye of the
+traveller seeks in vain for those stately forests which clothe the
+mountainous districts of Europe; the barren acclivities afford nurture
+only for the agave-tree, and some very large species of cactus. Groups
+of willow trees (<i>Salix Humboldtii</i>), which attain the height of about
+twenty or twenty-five feet, together with the quinua-tree, form here and
+there little thickets on the banks of rivers.</p>
+
+<p>These regions, so favored by nature, have from the earliest period
+been the chosen dwelling-places of the Peruvians; and therefore in the
+Sierra, which, measured by its superficies, is not of very great
+extent, the population has increased more than in any other part of
+Peru. The valleys already contain numerous towns, villages, and
+hamlets, which would rise in importance, if they had greater facility
+of communication one with another. But they are surrounded on all
+sides by mountains, which can be crossed only by circuitous and
+dangerous routes. The few <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>accessible pathways are alternately up
+rugged ascents, and down steep declivities; or winding through narrow
+ravines, nearly choked up by broken fragments of rock, they lead to
+the dreary and barren level heights.</p>
+
+<p>The Serranos, or inhabitants of the Sierra, especially those who dwell
+in the smaller villages, are chiefly Indians. In the towns and larger
+villages, the mestizos are numerous. The whites are very thinly
+scattered over the Sierra; but many of the mestizos are very anxious to
+be thought white Creoles. A rich serrano, who bears in his features the
+stamp of his Indian descent, will frequently try to pass himself off to
+a foreigner for an old Spaniard. Here, even more than on the coast, the
+mestizo is ambitious to rank himself on a level with the white, whilst
+he affects to regard the Indian as an inferior being.</p>
+
+<p>The few Spaniards who reside in the Sierra are men who have served in
+the Spanish army, and who, at the close of the war of independence,
+settled in that part of Peru. Many of them keep shops in the towns and
+villages, and others, by advantageous marriages, have become the
+possessors of haciendas. Those who have enriched themselves in this way
+are remarkable alike for ignorance and pride, and give themselves the
+most ludicrous airs of assumed dignity. The Creoles are the principal
+dealers in articles of European commerce. They journey to Lima twice or
+thrice a year to make their purchases, which consist in white and
+printed calicoes, woollen cloths, hard-wares, leather, soap, wax, and
+indigo. In the Sierra, indigo is a very considerable article of traffic:
+the Indians use a great quantity of it for dyeing their clothes; blue
+being their favorite color. Wax is also in great demand; for in the
+religious ceremonies, which are almost of daily occurrence, a vast
+quantity of tapers is consumed. The principal articles of traffic
+produced by the natives are woollen ponchos and blankets, unspun colored
+wool, saddle-cloths, stirrups and horseshoes. The last-named articles
+are purchased chiefly by the arrieros of the coast. It may seem strange
+that stores of horseshoes should be kept ready made; but so it is; for
+though in Europe we make the shoe to fit the hoof, yet in Peru it is the
+practice to cut the hoof to fit the shoe. On Yca brandy more money is
+expended than on every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> other article of trade combined. The quantity of
+that spirit annually transported to the Sierra exceeds belief. To see
+the Indians on Sundays and festival days thronging to the shops of the
+spirit dealers, with their jugs and bottles, one might fairly presume
+that more brandy is drunk in the Sierra in one day, than in many of the
+towns of Europe in a year. In some parts&mdash;for example, in the province
+of Jauja&mdash;hens' eggs are circulated as small coin, forty-eight or fifty
+being counted for a dollar. In the market-place and in the shops the
+Indians make most of their purchases with this brittle sort of money:
+one will give two or three eggs for brandy, another for indigo, and a
+third for cigars. These eggs are packed in boxes by the shop-keepers,
+and sent to Lima. From Jauja alone, several thousand loads of eggs are
+annually forwarded to the capital.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the mestizos possess little estates (<i>chacras</i>), the produce of
+which, consisting of grain, vegetables and clover, is disposed of in the
+towns of the Sierra, or in the mining districts of the Puna. As the
+profits arising from the chacras usually suffice to provide their owners
+with a comfortable subsistence, the mestizos pass their lives in
+idleness and pleasure. They spend the chief portion of the day in the
+true Spanish style, gossiping in groups in the streets, and wrapped in
+their mantles. When the state of the weather does not admit of this sort
+of out-door lounging the time is passed in gaming or cock-fighting. This
+latter diversion is no less in favor in the Sierra than in Lima. Such
+enormous bets are laid at these cock-fights, that the losses frequently
+entail ruin on persons of tolerably good fortune.</p>
+
+<p>The agriculture of the Sierra is wholly consigned to the Indians, who
+either cultivate their own lands, or for very poor wages labor for the
+mestizos. In September, the ground is ploughed and prepared for sowing,
+which operation is performed in October, and the reaping takes place in
+April or May. By this means the seed is left in the ground throughout
+all the rainy season. In February violent frost frequently comes on
+during the night, by which the seed is so much injured that the harvest
+fails, and the scarcity occasions severe suffering and even famine. When
+the cold clear nights create apprehensions of damage to the seed, the
+people form themselves into processions, and go<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> through the villages
+and towns imploring the mercy of Heaven. In the dead of the night it is
+no unusual thing to be aroused by the ringing of bells. The inhabitants
+then get up and hurry to church, where the solemn processions are
+formed. Penitents clothed in sackcloth go through the streets, scourging
+themselves; and the Indians, in their native language, utter prayers and
+offer up vows to Heaven. For the space of some hours an incessant
+movement and agitation pervade the streets, and when day begins to dawn
+the people return to their homes, trembling between hope and fear. The
+fate of the Indians, when their harvest fails them, is indeed truly
+miserable, for, abstemious as they are, they can scarcely procure
+wherewith to satisfy their hunger. In the year 1840, which was a period
+of scarcity, I saw the starving Indian children roaming about the
+fields, and eating the grass like cattle.</p>
+
+<p>Maize is the species of grain most extensively cultivated in the Sierra:
+it is of excellent quality, though smaller than that grown on the coast.
+Wheat, though it thrives well, is cultivated only in a very limited
+quantity, and the bread made from it is exceedingly bad. The other
+species of European grain, barley excepted, are unknown to the Serranos.
+To compensate for the want of them, they have the quinua (<i>Chenopodium
+Quinoa</i>, L.), which is at once a nutritious, wholesome, and pleasant
+article of food. The leaves of this plant, before it attains full
+maturity, are eaten like spinach; but it is the seeds which are most
+generally used as food. They are prepared in a variety of ways, but most
+frequently boiled in milk or in broth, and sometimes cooked with cheese
+and Spanish pepper. The dried stems of the quinua are used as fuel.
+Experiments in the cultivation of this plant have been tried in some
+parts of Germany, and with considerable success. It would appear,
+however, that its flavor is not much liked; a circumstance rather
+surprising to the traveller who has tasted it in Peru, where it is
+regarded in the light of a delicacy. It were to be wished that the
+general cultivation of the quinua could be introduced throughout Europe;
+for during the prevalence of the potatoe disease this plant would be
+found of the greatest utility. It is a well-known fact that potatoes and
+tea, two articles now in such universal use, were not liked on their
+first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> introduction into Europe. The quinua plant, which yields a
+wholesome article of food, would thrive perfectly in our hemisphere,
+and, though in its hitherto limited trial it has not found favor, there
+is no reason to conclude that it may not at a future time become an
+object of general consumption.</p>
+
+<p>Four kinds of tuberous plants are successfully cultivated in the Sierra;
+viz., the potatoe, the ulluco, the oca, and the mashua. Of potatoes
+there are several varieties, and all grow in perfection. The ulluco
+(<i>Trop&aelig;olum tuberosum</i>) is smaller than the potatoe, and is very various
+in its form, being either round, oblong, straight, or curved. The skin
+is thin, and of a reddish-yellow color, and the inside is green. When
+simply boiled in water it is insipid, but is very savory when cooked as
+a <i>picante</i>. The oca (<i>Oxalis tuberosa</i>) is an oval-shaped root; the
+skin pale red, and the inside white. It is watery, and has a sweetish
+taste; for which reason it is much liked by the Peruvians. The mashua is
+the root of a plant as yet unknown to botanists. It is cultivated and
+cooked in the same manner as those already described. In form, however,
+it differs from them all. It is of a flat pyramidal shape, and the lower
+end terminates in a fibrous point. It is watery, and insipid to the
+taste; but is nevertheless much eaten by the Serranos. As the mashua
+roots will not keep, they are not transported from the places in which
+they are grown, and, therefore, are not known in Lima. The Indians use
+the mashua as a medicine: they consider it an efficacious remedy in
+cases of dropsy, indigestion, and dysentery.</p>
+
+<p>The vegetables and fruits of Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm
+Sierra valleys; yet but few of them have been transplanted thither, and
+those few are but little esteemed. Some of the cabbage and salad
+species, together with onions, garlic, and several kinds of pulse, are
+all that are cultivated. It is remarkable that in these regions no
+indigenous fruit-trees are to be seen. The only fruit really belonging
+to the Sierra is the Tuna. In some of the sheltered ravines, or, as they
+are called, Quebradas, oranges, lemons, and granadillas flourish at the
+height of 10,000 feet above sea level. The fruits which have been
+transplanted from Europe are for the most part indifferent, as not the
+least care is bestowed on their cultivation. The effect of this neglect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>
+is particularly obvious in apples, pears, and damson-plums. Cherries and
+chestnuts are unknown in these parts; but on the other hand, peaches and
+apricots (<i>duraznos</i>) grow in amazing abundance, and many very fine
+species are found, especially in the southern provinces. Excursions to
+the <i>duraznales</i> (apricot gardens), in the months of April and May, to
+eat the ripe fruit fresh plucked from the trees, are among the most
+favorite recreations of the Serranos. Some of the Sierra districts are
+celebrated throughout Peru for their abundance of fruit. This luxuriance
+is particularly remarkable in several of the deep valleys, for instance,
+in Huanta; but, strictly speaking, these deep valleys partake less of
+the character of the Sierra than of the higher forest regions.</p>
+
+<p>The periods of sowing and reaping are celebrated by the Indians with
+merry-making, a custom which has descended from the time of the Incas,
+when those periods corresponded with the two great divisions of the
+year. Even a scanty harvest, an event of frequent occurrence, occasions
+no interruption to these rustic festivals. Bands of music, consisting of
+trumpets, fiddles, and flutes, play whilst the corn is cut down, and
+during their work, the laborers freely regale themselves with chicha,
+huge barrels of which are placed for their unrestrained use. The
+consequence is, that they are almost continually intoxicated; and yet
+whilst in this state it is no unusual thing to see them dancing with
+heavy loads of sheaves on their heads. Their dinner is cooked in the
+fields, in large pots and kettles, and to partake of it they all sit
+down on the ground in rows, one behind another. The wheat and barley
+when cut are spread out in little heaps on the ground, and, instead of
+thrashing, the grain is pressed out of the ears by the tramping of
+horses, the animals being driven round and round in a circle. As soon as
+this process is ended, the agents of the Government and the priests make
+their appearance to claim the tithes.</p>
+
+<p>In the larger villages and towns of the Sierra, the Indians frequently
+employ themselves in handicrafts, in some of which they attain a high
+degree of perfection, for they are not wanting either in talent or in
+mechanical dexterity. As goldsmiths they are remarkably skilful, and in
+this branch of industry they produce<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> work which, for taste and
+exquisite finish, cannot be excelled in the capitals of Europe. The
+various kinds of vessels and figures of silver wire (<i>filigranas</i>), made
+by the cholos in Ayacucho, have always been favorite articles of
+ornament in Spain. The Indians of Jauja are very skilful in working
+iron, and the objects of their workmanship are much esteemed throughout
+Peru. Of leather also they make various things in very beautiful style;
+and saddle-cloths, bridles, &amp;c., of their manufacture are much more
+elegant and infinitely cheaper than those made in Lima. In Cuzco and the
+adjacent provinces many of the Indians evince considerable talent in
+oil-painting. Their productions in this way are, of course, far from
+being master-pieces; but when we look on the paintings which decorate
+their churches, and reflect that the artists have been shut out from the
+advantages of education and study; and moreover, when we consider the
+coarse materials with which the pictures have been painted, it must be
+acknowledged that they indicate a degree of talent, which, if duly
+cultivated, would soar far above mediocrity. In Tarma and its
+neighborhood the natives weave an exquisitely fine description of
+woollen cloth. They make ponchos of vicu&ntilde;a wool, which sell for 100 or
+120 dollars each, and which are equal to the finest European cloth.
+The beauty of these Indian textures is truly wonderful, considering
+the rude process of weaving practised by the natives. They work
+various colors, figures, and inscriptions in the cloth, and do all
+this with a rapidity which equals the operations of ordinary looms.
+The most valuable textures they weave are those produced from the wool
+of the vicu&ntilde;a and the alpaco. They likewise make very fine textures of
+cotton and silk. It is curious that the Indians of each province have
+some particular branch of industry to which they exclusively apply
+themselves, to the neglect of all others.</p>
+
+<p>The Serranos are a very sociable people. In the towns they keep up a
+continual round of evening parties, in which singing and dancing are
+favorite amusements; but on these occasions they indulge in
+brandy-drinking to a terrible excess. As soon as a party is assembled,
+bottles and glasses are introduced, and each individual, ladies as well
+as gentlemen, drinks to the health of the company. For a party of thirty
+or more persons, not more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> than three or four glasses are brought in, so
+that one glass is passed repeatedly from hand to hand, and from mouth to
+mouth. The quantity of brandy drunk at one of the evening parties called
+in the Sierra <i>Jaranas</i>, is almost incredible. According to my
+observation, I should say that a bottle to each individual, ladies
+included, is a fair average estimate, the bottles being of the size of
+those used in Europe for claret. In the year 1839, whilst I was residing
+for a time in one of the largest towns of the Sierra, a ball was given
+in honor of the Chilian General Bulnes; on that occasion the brandy
+flowed in such quantities, that, when morning came, some members of the
+company were found lying on the floor of the ball-room in a state of
+intoxication. These facts naturally create an impression very
+unfavorable to the inhabitants of the Sierra; but a due allowance must
+be made for the want of education and the force of habit on the part of
+those who fall into these excesses. These people possess so many
+excellent moral qualities, that it would be unjust to condemn them
+solely on account of these orgies. The Serrano is far from being
+addicted to habitual drunkenness, notwithstanding his intemperate use of
+strong drinks amidst the excitement of company.</p>
+
+<p>But if the vice of excessive drinking be occasionally indulged in among
+the better class of people of the Sierra, it is much more frequent among
+the Indian inhabitants. Every one of their often-recurring festivals is
+celebrated by a drinking bout, at which enormous quantities of brandy
+and chicha are consumed. In some districts of the Sierra the chicha is
+prepared in a peculiar and very disgusting manner by the Indians.
+Instead of crushing the <i>jora</i> (dried maize-grain) between two stones,
+which is the usual method, the Indians bruise it with their teeth. For
+this purpose a group of men and women range themselves in a circle round
+a heap of <i>jora</i>; each gathers up a handful, chews it, and then ejects
+it from the mouth into a vessel allotted for its reception. This mass,
+after being boiled in water, and left to ferment, is the much admired
+<i>chicha mascada</i> (that is to say, <i>chewed chicha</i>), the flavor of which
+is said to surpass that of the same beverage made in any other way. But
+they who have been eye-witnesses of the disgusting process, and who bear
+in mind various other preparations of Indian cookery in which the teeth
+perform a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> part, require some fortitude ere they yield to the pressing
+invitation of the hospitable Serrano, and taste the proffered nectar.</p>
+
+<p>When it is wished to make the chicha particularly strong and well
+flavored, it is poured into an earthen jar along with several pounds of
+beef. This jar is made perfectly air-tight, and buried several feet deep
+in the ground, where it is left for the space of several years. On the
+birth of a child it is customary to bury a <i>botija</i> full of chicha,
+which, on the marriage of the same child, is opened and drunk. This
+chicha has a very agreeable flavor, but is so exceedingly potent, that a
+single glass of it is sufficient to intoxicate a practised
+chicha-drinker, or, as they say in the country, a <i>chichero</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Every village in the Sierra has its own tutelary saint, whose festival
+is celebrated with great solemnity. Bull-fights and dances constitute
+the principal diversions on these occasions. These dances are relics of
+the <i>Raym&iacute;</i> or monthly dances, by which the Incas used to mark the
+divisions of time; and they are among the most interesting customs
+peculiar to these parts of Peru. The dancers wear dresses similar to
+those worn by the ancient Peruvians when they took part in the <i>Raym&iacute;</i>.
+Their faces and arms are painted in various colors, and they wear
+feather caps and feather ponchos. They have bracelets and anklets, and
+they are armed with clubs, wooden swords, and bows and arrows. Their
+music, too, is also similar to that of their forefathers. Their
+instruments consist of a sort of pipe or flute made of reed, and a drum
+composed simply of a hoop with a skin stretched upon it. To the
+inharmonious sound of these instruments, accompanying monotonous Quichua
+songs, the dances commence with those solemn movements with which the
+Incas used to worship the sun: they then suddenly assume a more joyous
+character, and at last change to the wild war-dance, in which the mimic
+contest, stimulated by copious libations of chicha, frequently ends in a
+real fight. In the larger towns, where the Mestizo portion of the
+population predominates, these dances are discouraged, and in course of
+time they will probably be entirely discontinued, though they are
+scrupulously adhered to by the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>On festival days, bull-fights constitute the most favorite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> popular
+diversion. In the Sierra this barbarous sport is conducted with even
+more recklessness and cruelty than in the <i>Corridas</i> of Lima. Every
+occasion on which an entertainment of this sort takes place is attended
+with loss of life, and sometimes the sacrifice both of men and horses is
+very considerable. During my residence in Jauja, fourteen Indians and
+nineteen horses were killed or seriously wounded in a bull-fight; yet
+catastrophes of this kind appear to make no impression on the people.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the church festivals are celebrated by the Indians of the
+Sierra, in a manner which imparts a peculiar coloring to the religious
+solemnities. In the midnight mass on Christmas Eve, they imitate in the
+churches the sounds made by various animals. The singing of birds, the
+crowing of cocks, the braying of asses, the bleating of sheep, &amp;c., are
+simulated so perfectly, that a stranger is inclined to believe that the
+animals have assembled in the temple to participate in the solemnity. At
+the termination of the mass, troops of women perambulate the streets,
+during the remainder of the night. Their long black hair flows loosely
+over their bare shoulders; and in their hands they carry poles with
+long fluttering strips of paper fixed to the ends of them. They
+occasionally dance and sing peculiarly beautiful melodies, accompanied
+by a harp, a fiddle, and a flute; and they mark the measure of the
+music by the movement of their poles.</p>
+
+<p>The celebration of Christmas-day is marked by the appearance of what are
+termed the <i>Negritos</i>. These are Indians, with their faces concealed by
+hideous negro masks. Their dress consists of a loose red robe, richly
+wrought with gold and silver thread, white pantaloons, and their hats
+are adorned with waving black feathers. In their hands they carry gourd
+bottles, painted in various gay colors, and containing dried seeds.
+Whilst they sing, the <i>Negritos</i> shake these gourds, and mark the time
+by the rattling of the dried seeds. They perform the dances of the
+Guinea negroes, and imitate the attitudes and language of a race which
+they hold in abhorrence and contempt. For the space of three days and
+nights these negritos parade the streets, entering the houses and
+demanding chicha and brandy, with which the inhabitants are glad to
+supply them, to avoid violence and insult.</p>
+
+<p>On New Year's Day other groups of mummers, called <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span><i>Corcobados</i>,
+perambulate the streets. They are enveloped in cloaks of coarse grey
+woollen cloth, their head-gear consists of an old vicu&ntilde;a hat, with a
+horse's tail dangling behind. Their features are disguised by ludicrous
+masks with long beards; and, bestriding long sticks or poles, they move
+about accompanied by burlesque music. Every remarkable incident that has
+occurred in the families of the town during the course of the year, is
+made the subject of a song in the Quichua language; and these songs are
+sung in the streets by the <i>Corcobados</i>. Matrimonial quarrels are
+favorite subjects, and are always painted with high comic effect in
+these satirical songs. The Corcobados go about for two days; and they
+usually wind up their performances by drinking and fighting. When two
+groups of these Corcobados meet together, and the one party assails with
+ridicule anything which the other is disposed to defend, a terrible
+affray usually ensues, and the sticks which have served as hobby-horses,
+are converted into weapons of attack.</p>
+
+<p>In order to facilitate the conversion of the idolatrous Indians, the
+Spanish monks who accompanied Pizarro's army, sought to render the
+Christian religion as attractive as possible in the eyes of the heathen
+aborigines of Peru. With this view they conceived the idea of
+dramatizing certain scenes in the life of Christ, and having them
+represented in the churches. In the larger towns these performances have
+long since been discontinued, but they are still kept up in most of the
+villages of the Sierra; indeed the efforts made by enlightened
+ecclesiastics for their suppression, have been met with violent
+opposition on the part of the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>On Palm Sunday, an image of the Saviour seated on an ass is paraded
+about the principal streets of the town or village. The Indians strew
+twigs of palm over the animal, and contend one with another for the
+honor of throwing their ponchos down on the ground, in order that the
+ass may walk over them. The animal employed in this ceremony is, when
+very young, singled out for the purpose, and is never suffered to carry
+any burthen save the holy image. He is fed by the people, and at every
+door at which he stops, the inmates of the house pamper him up with the
+best fodder they can procure. The ass is looked upon as something almost
+sacred, and is never named by any other appellation than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> the <i>Burro de
+Nuestro Se&ntilde;or</i> (our Lord's ass). In some villages I have seen these
+animals so fat that they were scarcely able to walk.</p>
+
+<p>Good Friday is solemnized in a manner the effect of which, to the
+unprejudiced foreigner, is partly burlesque and partly seriously
+impressive. From the early dawn of morning the church is thronged with
+Indians, who spend the day in fasting and prayer. At two in the
+afternoon a large image of the Saviour is brought from the sacristy and
+laid down in front of the altar. Immediately all the persons in the
+church rush forward with pieces of cotton to touch the wounds. This
+gives rise to a struggle, in which angry words and blows are
+interchanged; in short, there ensues a disgraceful scene of uproar,
+which is only checked by the interposition of one of the priests. Order
+being restored, the sacred image is fixed on the cross by three very
+large silver nails, and the head is encircled by a rich silver crown. On
+each side are the crosses of the two thieves. Having gaped at this
+spectacle to their hearts' content, the cholos retire from the church.
+At eight in the evening they reassemble to witness the solemn ceremony
+of taking down the Saviour from the cross. The church is then
+brilliantly lighted up. At the foot of the cross stand four white-robed
+priests, called <i>los Santos Varones</i> (the holy men), whose office it is
+to take down the image. At a little distance from them, on a sort of
+stage or platform, stands a figure representing the Virgin Mary. This
+figure is dressed in black, with a white cap on its head. A priest, in a
+long discourse, explains the scene to the assembled people, and at the
+close of the address, turning to the Santos Varones, he says, "Ye holy
+men, ascend the ladders of the cross, and bring down the body of the
+Redeemer!" Two of the Santos Varones mount with hammers in their hands,
+and the priest then says, "Ye holy man, on the right of the Saviour,
+strike the first blow on the nail of the hand, and take it out!" The
+command is obeyed, and no sooner is the stroke of the hammer heard, than
+deep groans and sounds of anguish resound through the church; whilst the
+cry of "<i>Misericordia! misericordia!</i>" repeated by a thousand imploring
+voices, produces an indescribable sensation of awe and melancholy. The
+nail is handed to one of the priests standing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> at the foot of the altar,
+who transfers it to another, and this one in his turn presents it to the
+figure of the Virgin. To that figure the priest then turns and addresses
+himself, saying: "Thou afflicted mother, approach and receive the nail
+which pierced the right hand of thy holy Son!" The priest steps forward
+a few paces, and the figure, by some concealed mechanism, advances to
+meet him, receives the nail with both hands, lays it on a silver plate,
+dries its eyes, and then returns to its place in the middle of the
+platform. The same ceremony is repeated when the two other nails are
+taken out. Throughout the whole performance of these solemnities, an
+uninterrupted groaning and howling is kept up by the Indians, who at
+every stroke of the hammer raise their cries of <i>Misericordia!</i> These
+sounds of anguish reach their climax when the priest consigns the body
+of the Saviour to the charge of the Virgin. The image is laid in a
+coffin tastefully adorned with flowers, which, together with the figure
+of the Virgin Mary, is paraded through the streets. Whilst this
+nocturnal procession, lighted by thousands of wax tapers, is making the
+circuit of the town, a party of Indians busy themselves in erecting
+before the church door twelve arches decorated with flowers. Between
+every two of the arches they lay flowers on the ground, arranging them
+in various figures and designs. These flower-carpets are singularly
+ingenious and pretty. Each one is the work of two cholos, neither of
+whom seems to bestow any attention to what his comrade is doing; and
+yet, with a wonderful harmony of operation, they create the most
+tasteful designs&mdash;arabesques, animals, and landscapes, which grow, as it
+were by magic, under their hands. Whilst I was in Tarma, I was at once
+interested and astonished to observe on one of these flower-carpets the
+figure of the Austrian double eagle. On inquiry I learned from an Indian
+that it had been copied from the quicksilver jars, exported from Idria
+to Peru. On the return of the procession to the church, a hymn, with
+harp accompaniment, is sung to the Virgin, as the figure is carried
+under the arches of flowers. The bier of the Saviour is then deposited
+in the church, where it is watched throughout the night.</p>
+
+<p>On the following morning, at four o'clock, the ceremony of hanging Judas
+takes place in front of the church. A figure of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> Judas, the size of
+life, is filled with squibs and crackers, and is frequently made to bear
+a resemblance to some obnoxious inhabitant of the place. After the match
+is applied to the combustible figure, the cholos dance around it, and
+exult in the blowing up of their enemy.</p>
+
+<p>In the Sierra, as well as on the coast, the priests are usually the
+tyrants rather than the guardians of their flocks; and they would
+frequently be the objects of hatred and vengeance but for the
+deep-rooted and almost idolatrous reverence which the Indians cherish
+for priestcraft. It is disgusting to see the Peruvian priests, who
+usually treat the Indians like brutes, behaving with the most degrading
+servility when they want to get money from them. The love of the Indians
+for strong drinks is a vice which the priests turn to their own
+advantage. For the sake of the fees they frequently order religious
+festivals, which are joyfully hailed by the Indians, because they never
+fail to end in drinking bouts.</p>
+
+<p>Added to the ill treatment of the priests, the Indians are most unjustly
+oppressed by the civil authorities. In the frequent movements of troops
+from one place to another, they are exposed to great losses and
+vexations. They are compelled to perform the hardest duties without
+payment, and often the produce of their fields is laid under
+contribution, or their horses and mules are pressed into the service of
+the military. When intelligence is received of the march of a battalion,
+the natives convey their cattle to some remote place of concealment in
+the mountains, for they seldom recover possession of them if once they
+fall into the hands of the soldiery.</p>
+
+<p>Every fortnight a mail is despatched with letters from Lima to Tarma,
+Jauja, Huancavelica, Ayacucha, Cuzco, and into Bolivia; another
+proceeds to the northern provinces; a third to Arequipa and the
+southern provinces; and every week one is despatched to Cerro de
+Pasco. In Lima, the letter-bag is consigned to the charge of an
+Indian, who conveys it on the back of a mule to the next station,<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a>
+where it is received by another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> Indian; and in this manner, handed
+from cholo to cholo, the letter-bag traverses the whole of its
+destined route, unaccompanied by an official courier. As soon as the
+mail arrives at a station, a flag is displayed at the house of the
+post-master, to intimate to those who expect letters that they may
+receive them; for they are not sent round to the persons to whom they
+are addressed, and it is sometimes even a favor to get them three or
+four days after their arrival. The Peruvian post is as tardy as it is
+ill-regulated. On one of my journeys, I started from Lima two days
+after the departure of the mail. On the road I overtook and passed the
+Indian who had charge of the letters, and, without hurrying myself, I
+arrived in Tarma a day and a half before him. Ascending the
+Cordillera, I once met an Indian very leisurely driving his ass before
+him with the mail-bag fastened to its back. Between the towns which do
+not lie in the regular line of route, there is no post-office
+communication; for example, between Pasco and Caxamarca, or between
+Pasco and Tarma, or Jauja; and when it is wished to despatch letters
+from one to another of these towns, private messengers must be
+employed. The consequence is, that business, which in Europe would be
+conducted through the medium of correspondence, can be arranged only
+by personal communication in Peru. Travelling is difficult, but not
+very expensive, as every one possesses horses or mules.</p>
+
+<p>The best mules employed in the Sierra are obtained from the province
+of Tucuman in Buenos Ayres. Formerly the arrieros used annually to
+bring droves of several thousand mules through Bolivia and the
+Peruvian Sierra, selling as many as they could on the way, and taking
+to Cerro de Pasco those that remained unsold. During the Spanish
+domination, the mule trade was in the hands of the Government, to
+whose agents it afforded ample opportunity for the exercise of
+injustice and extortion. It was one of the most oppressive of the
+<i>repartimientos</i>.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> Every Indian was compelled to purchase a mule,
+and was not allowed even the privilege of choosing the animal. The
+mules were distributed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>by the authorities, and were tied to the doors
+of the houses for whose occupants they were destined. After the
+distribution of the mules, a collector went round to receive the
+payment. During the war in Buenos Ayres the traffic in mules suffered
+very considerably. For the space of twelve years not a mule had been
+brought from that part of South America to Peru, when in 1840 the
+Tucumanians revisited the Sierra with their droves of mules. They were
+joyfully welcomed by the Serranos, who gave good prices for the
+animals, and since then the traffic has begun to revive.</p>
+
+<p>In tracing the characteristic features of the Sierra, I have as far as
+possible confined myself to generalities, and I will not now weary the
+reader by entering upon a minute description of particular towns and
+villages. All are built pretty nearly after one model. The large
+quadrangular Plaza is closed on three of its sides with buildings, among
+which there is always the Government house (<i>cabildo</i>), and the public
+jail; the fourth side is occupied by a church. From this Plaza run in
+straight lines eight streets, more or less broad, and these streets are
+crossed at right angles by others; all presenting the same uniformity as
+in Lima. The houses are roomy, surrounded by court-yards, and consist of
+a ground-floor and a story above, but very frequently of the
+ground-floor only. The walls are of brick, and the roofs are tiled.
+The churches are in very bad taste, with the exception of a few in the
+larger towns, which have a good appearance externally, and are richly
+decorated within. The smaller Indian villages are poor and dirty, and
+are built with little attention to regularity. But even in them the
+quadrangular Plaza is never wanting, and at least four straight
+streets issue from it.</p>
+
+<p>The Sierra is by far the most populous part of Peru. The banks of the
+rivers flowing through the fertile valleys are thickly clustered with
+villages, which give a peculiar charm to the landscape, doubly pleasing
+to the eye of the traveller who comes from the barren parts of the
+country. The cultivated lands afford evidence of progressive
+improvement, and it is easy to imagine the flourishing condition to
+which this country might arrive with increased population.</p>
+
+<p>From the Sierra two separate roads lead to the eastern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> declivity of the
+Andes. One lies along the banks of the mountain rivers, and the other
+passes over the ridges of the mountains. The first way is very
+difficult, and scarcely practicable, for in some parts the streams flow
+through narrow ravines, bordered on each side by perpendicular rocks,
+and occasionally their course is hidden amidst impenetrable forests. The
+other way, across the mountains, leads again into the Puna region, and
+from thence over the steep ridges of the Andes to their barren summits.
+Descending from these summits, we arrive on the sharp ridges of one of
+the many side branches of the Puna Cordillera, which run eastward. The
+Peruvians call these sharp mountain ridges <i>Cuchillas</i> (knives). After
+crossing the Andes, and descending a few hundred feet lower, in the
+direction of the east, the traveller beholds a country totally different
+from that which he left on the western declivity of the mountains. On
+the eastern side the soil is richly covered with vegetation. From the
+cuchillas the road ascends to some higher ridges, crowned with stunted
+trees and brushwood, which, gradually spreading upward, blend with the
+high forests. These wooded ridges are called by the natives <i>Ceja de la
+Monta&ntilde;a</i> (the mist of the mountains). In these regions the climate is
+generally more mild than in the Sierra, for the mercury never falls to
+freezing point, and in the middle part of the day it never rises so
+high as in the warm Sierra valleys. Throughout the whole year the
+<i>Ceja de la Monta&ntilde;a</i> is overshadowed by thick mists, rising from the
+rivers in the valleys. In the dry season these mists are absorbed by
+the sun's rays, but in winter they float in thick clouds over the
+hills, and discharge themselves in endless torrents of rain. The damp
+vapors have an injurious effect on the health of the inhabitants of
+these districts, which are, however, very thinly populated, as the
+constant moisture unfits the soil for the cultivation of anything
+except potatoes. The pure alpine air of the Puna is preferred by the
+Indians to the vapory atmosphere of the Ceja.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> The Indians apply the designation <i>Misti</i>, meaning
+<i>Mestizo</i>, to all persons except Indians or Negroes, whether they be
+Europeans or White Creoles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> The distance from one station to another varies from six
+to twelve miles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> <i>Repartimientos</i> (literally, distributions) were the
+compulsory sale of articles by the provincial authorities.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Road to the Primeval Forests&mdash;&#8203;Barbacoas, or Indian Suspension
+Bridges&mdash;&#8203;Vegetation&mdash;&#8203;Hollow Passes&mdash;&#8203;Zoology&mdash;the
+Monta&ntilde;a&mdash;&#8203;Plantations&mdash;&#8203;Inhabitants&mdash;&#8203;Trade in Peruvian Bark&mdash;&#8203;Wandering
+Indians&mdash;&#8203;Wild Indians or Indios Bravos&mdash;&#8203;Languages, Manners, and
+Customs of the Indios Bravos&mdash;&#8203;Dress&mdash;&#8203;Warlike Weapons and Hunting
+Arms&mdash;&#8203;Dwellings&mdash;&#8203;Religion&mdash;&#8203;Physical formation of the Wild Indian
+Tribes&mdash;&#8203;Animals of the Aboriginal Forests&mdash;&#8203;Mammalia&mdash;&#8203;Hunting the
+Ounce&mdash;&#8203;Birds&mdash;&#8203;Amphibia&mdash;&#8203;Poisonous Serpents&mdash;&#8203;Huaco&mdash;&#8203;Insects&mdash;&#8203;Plants.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Ceja de la Monta&ntilde;a, we will trace the route to the Aboriginal
+forests, which extend eastwardly from the bases of the Andes. The whole
+plain is overspread by a thick veil of mist, which does not disperse
+until about noon, and then an undulating dark green canopy clouds the
+vapory atmosphere. A European, whose heart throbs at the bare idea of
+one of those vast virgin forests, gazes anxiously forward on the
+boundless distance, and finds the pace of his cautious mule too tardy
+for his impatient hopes and wishes. He beholds in perspective the goal
+of his long journey. Nature, in all her virginal freshness and grandeur,
+opens to his astonished eyes, and he feels a sensation of delight he
+never before experienced. Regardless of present toil and danger, he sees
+only the pleasure to come. But he is soon drawn back to cool reality,
+and is forcibly reminded of the truth, that every enjoyment must be
+earned by labor. The road is broken, narrow, and steep; over the woody
+sides of the hill it is easily passable; but as soon as it begins to
+descend, it presents all those difficulties which have been
+interestingly described by the early travellers in Peru. The scanty
+population of the surrounding districts, the native listlessness of the
+Indians, and their indifference to the conveniences of life, are
+obstacles to the making of roads which might be passable without
+difficulty and danger. However, where nature from the state of the
+country<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> has compelled man to establish a communication, it is executed
+in the most rude and unsatisfactory manner. A most decided proof of this
+is apparent in the bridges called <i>barbacoas</i>, which are constructed
+where the way is through a <i>derumbo</i>, or a small narrow mountain-pass,
+or where there is an obstruction caused by a rock which cannot be passed
+circuitously. The barbacoas are constructed in the following manner.
+Stakes from three to three and a half feet long are driven into the
+ground, or into the crevices of rocks. Over the ends of these stakes are
+fastened strong branches of trees, the interstices are filled up with
+mud, and the whole is covered by a sort of matting composed of plaited
+branches and reeds. If the ground admits of it, which is seldom the
+case, a pile of stones is built up beneath the barbacoa, extending to at
+least one half its breadth. When it is considered that there is,
+probably, on the one side of this bridge, a rock inclining at a very
+acute angle, or an almost perpendicular declivity of a hill of loose
+earth, and that on the other side there yawns a deep abyss against which
+there is not the least protection, the traveller may well be pardoned if
+he shudders as he passes over the creaking and shaking barbacoa. These
+fragile bridges are often so much worn, that the feet of the mules slip
+through the layers of mud and reeds, and whilst making efforts to
+disengage themselves, the animals fall over the edge of the barbacoa,
+and are hurled into the chasm below, dragging down the crazy structure
+along with them. In consequence of these accidents, the way is often for
+weeks, or even months, impassable.</p>
+
+<p>In the construction of these rude bridges, I observed that the Indians,
+in their simplicity, always faithfully copy their great instructress,
+nature. The majority of the plants growing in these regions belong, if I
+may use the expression, to an a&euml;rial vegetation. The small, gnarled,
+low-branched trees, have often scarcely one half of their roots in the
+earth: the other half spreads over the surface of the soil; then winding
+round the roots or branches of some neighboring plant, fastens on it,
+and intimately uniting with it, forms a kind of suspension bridge, over
+which the intertwining of numerous luxuriant climbing plants makes a
+strong, impenetrable network. All the trees and shrubs are covered with
+innumerable parasites, which, in the higher<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> regions, are met with in
+their smaller forms, as lichens, mosses, &amp;c.; but lower down, in the
+course of the various transformations they undergo, they appear in
+larger development.</p>
+
+<p>The whole vegetable kingdom here is stamped by a peculiar character. It
+presents immense fulness and luxuriance: it spreads widely, with but
+little upward development, rising on the average only a few feet above
+the earth. Trees, shrubs, and tendrils, in endless complication of
+color, entwine together, sometimes fostering, sometimes crushing each
+other. Out of the remains of the dead arises a new generation, with an
+increase of vital impulse. It seems as though the ice-crowned Andes
+looked down with envy on the luxuriant vegetation of the forests, and
+sought to blight it by sending down cold, nightly winds. The low
+temperature of the night counteracts that extreme development which
+the humidity of the soil and the great heat of the day promote. But
+what the vegetation loses in upward growth it gains in superficial
+extension, and thereby it secures more protection against the
+ever-alternating temperature.</p>
+
+<p>The further we descend the eastern declivity, the more difficult becomes
+the way. During the rainy season deep fissures are worked out by the
+flow of waters; the ground is slippery and full of holes. The sides of
+these hollow passes are often so close together that the rider cannot
+keep his legs down on each side of his mule, and is obliged to raise up
+his feet and thrust them forward. When beasts of burthen, coming in
+opposite directions, meet in these places, the direst confusion ensues,
+and frequently sanguinary conflicts arise among the Indians. The weaker
+party are then obliged to unload their mules, and the poor beasts are
+dragged backward by their hind legs, until they reach a point at which
+there is sufficient space for the others to pass. When I was proceeding
+through one of these cavities on Christmas-eve, 1840, I encountered a
+heavily laden ass coming down a steep declivity. Ere I had time to leap
+from my saddle, the ass came direct upon me with such force that my
+horse was driven backwards by the concussion, and I was thrown. Ten
+months afterwards, another encounter of the same kind threatened me with
+a similar disaster, and to save myself I had no alternative but to shoot
+the ass. The Indian who was driving the animal neglected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> the usual
+warning cry, given by the arrieros when they enter those dangerous
+passes, and he was regardless of my repeated calls desiring him to stop.</p>
+
+<p>In some steep places, with the view of improving the roads, the Indians
+lay down large stones in the form of steps; but to ride over these rude
+flights of steps is no easy task, for the stones are small, and are
+placed at the distance of a foot and a half or two feet apart. The mule
+begins by placing his hind feet on the first stone, then springing
+forward he reaches the third stone with his fore feet, at the same time
+placing his hind feet to the second. By this man&oelig;uvre the mule's body
+is kept at full stretch, and the rider is obliged to lean forward over
+the animal's neck to avoid being thrown head-foremost by the violent
+jerks when the mule springs from step to step. It is absolute torture
+to ride down a descent of five or six leagues, along a road such as I
+have just described: willingly would the harassed rider dismount and
+pursue his course on foot; but were he to attempt to do so, the mule
+would stand stock still. I have already remarked the singular
+obstinacy with which the mules refuse to proceed when their riders
+dismount, and it sometimes gives rise to very comical scenes. On my
+way to Vitoc, I was passing through a ravine in which the uprooted
+trunk of a tree was resting slantwise against a rock. Though there was
+not room for me to ride under it, yet there was sufficient space to
+allow my mule to pass, and I accordingly dismounted; but all my
+efforts to drive the animal forward were fruitless. I had no
+alternative but to ride close up to the tree, then spurring the mule,
+I quickly slipped out of the saddle, and seizing the trunk of the
+tree, I hung to it until the mule had passed on.</p>
+
+<p>No less difficult and dangerous are the steep declivities over loamy
+soils, which are frequently met with in these districts. On them the
+mule has no firm footing, and is in danger of slipping down at every
+step. But the wonderful instinct of these animals enables them to
+overcome the difficulty. They approximate the hind and fore feet in
+the manner of the Chamois goat, when he is about to make a spring, and
+lowering the hinder part of the body in a position, half sitting half
+standing, they slide down the smooth declivity. At first this sliding
+movement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> creates a very unpleasant feeling of apprehension, which is
+not altogether removed by frequent repetitions. Accidents frequently
+occur, in which both mule and rider are mortally injured.</p>
+
+<p>There is more variety of animals in these regions than in the
+mountainous parts; but they have few peculiarities of character. The
+swift-footed roe of the Cordillera roams here and dwells in the
+thickets, avoiding the warm forest. The dark brown coati (<i>Nasua
+montana</i>, Tsch.) howls, and digs at the roots of trees in search of
+food; the shy opossum crawls fearfully under the foliage; the lazy
+armadillo creeps into his hole; but the ounce and the lion seldom
+stray hither to contest with the black bear (<i>Ursus frugilegus</i>,
+Tsch.) the possession of his territory. The little hairy tapir
+(<i>Tapirus villosus</i>, Wagn.) ventures only at twilight out of his close
+ambush to forage in the long grass.</p>
+
+<p>Of the birds there is not much variety of species; but all are
+remarkable for gay-colored plumage. Among the most characteristic of
+these districts are the red-bellied tanagra (<i>Tanagra igniventris</i>,
+Orb.), the fire-colored pyranga (<i>Ph&oelig;nisoma bivittata</i>, Tsch.), two
+species of the crow, one of which is of a fine blue color (<i>Cyanocorax
+viridicyanus</i>, G. R. Gray), the other green on the back and bright
+yellow on the belly (<i>Cyanoc. peruanus</i>, Cab.). The Indians call the
+latter <i>Quienquien</i>, as it utters a sort of screaming sound resembling
+these syllables. Individual birds belonging to the Penelope family (<i>P.
+rufiventris</i> and <i>adspersa</i>, Tsch.) and the green pepper-eater
+(<i>Pteroglossus c&aelig;ruleo-cinctus</i>, Tsch., <i>Pt. atrogularis</i>, Sturm.) are
+found in the lower forests.</p>
+
+<p>Proceeding still further downward we at length reach the <i>Monta&ntilde;a</i>. The
+Peruvians apply this name to the vast aboriginal forests which extend
+across the whole country from north to south along the eastern foot of
+the Andes. Those which lie higher, and in which the spaces between the
+lofty trees are overgrown with thick masses of bushes and twining
+plants, are called by the natives simply <i>Monta&ntilde;as</i>. Those which are
+free from these intermediate masses of vegetation they call <i>Monta&ntilde;as
+reales</i> (royal mountains). At first sight they produce the impression of
+a virgin forest of oaks.</p>
+
+<p>The distance from the Ceja to the district properly called the Monta&ntilde;a
+is very various at different points. In some parts it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> takes six or
+eight days' hard riding; in other directions the traveller may, in the
+morning, leave the snow-covered Puna huts, and at sunset, on the
+uninhabited margin of the primeval forest, he may taste pine-apples
+and bananas of his own gathering. Such a day certainly deserves to
+form an epoch in his life; for in the course of a few hours he passes
+through the most opposite climates of the earth, and the gradual
+progression of the development of the vegetable world is spread out in
+visible reality before him.</p>
+
+<p>The Monta&ntilde;as of Peru are, in general, but thinly peopled with Christian
+Indians. They are employed either in cultivating their own fields, or in
+working as day-laborers in the great plantations. The productions of the
+haciendas consist chiefly of sugar, coffee, maize, coca, tobacco,
+oranges, bananas, and pine-apples, which are sent to the Sierra. The
+cultivation of bark, balsams, gums, honey and wax, also occupies a
+great number of Indians.</p>
+
+<p>The plantation buildings stand on rising grounds. The walls are
+constructed of reeds, the interstices being filled up with loam, and the
+roofs are of straw or palm leaves. Around the buildings are the fields
+allotted to cultivation, in which the soils favorable to the production
+of certain plants are selected. The coffee usually grows round the
+house, and an adjacent building contains the store-rooms. The
+fruit-trees grow along the margins of the maize fields; marshy ground
+is selected for the sugar fields; in the vicinity of brooks and
+streams the useful banana flourishes; the pine-trees are ranged in
+rows on the hot, dry declivities, and the coca is found to thrive best
+in warm, hollow dells.</p>
+
+<p>As the humidity of the atmosphere, added to the multitudes of insects,
+mice and rats, prevents any lengthened preservation of provisions, the
+cultivators sell or exchange them as speedily as possible; hence arises
+a very active intercourse in business between the Monta&ntilde;as and the
+Sierra. The mountain Indians bring llamas, dried meat, potatoes, bark,
+and salt, to exchange for fruit; it is very seldom that any money
+circulates in this traffic. Only the owners of plantations sell their
+productions for ready money, with which they purchase, in the upland
+towns, European goods, particularly printed and plain cottons, coarse
+woollen stuffs, knives, hatchets, fishing-tackle, &amp;c.; with these goods
+they pay their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> laborers, charging them for every article five or even
+six times its value. As there is throughout these forest regions a great
+want of men, the plantation owners endeavor to get the few Indians who
+settle voluntarily on their property, fixed to it for ever. They sell
+them indispensable necessaries at an extravagant price, on condition of
+their paying for them by field labor.</p>
+
+<p>I have seen an Indian give five days' labor, from six o'clock in the
+morning to sunset, for a red pocket-handkerchief, which in Germany would
+not be worth four groschen. The desire to possess showy articles, the
+necessity of obtaining materials for his wretched clothing, or
+implements to enable him, in his few free hours, to cultivate his own
+field, and, above all, his passion for coca and intoxicating drinks, all
+prompt the Indian to incur debt upon debt to the plantation owner. The
+sugar-cane is seldom used in the forest plantations for making sugar.
+The juice is usually converted into the cakes called <i>chancacas</i>, which
+have been already mentioned, or it is made into <i>guarapo</i>, a strong
+liquor, which the Indians spare no effort to procure. When they begin to
+be intoxicated, they desire more and more of the liquor, which is
+readily given, as it is the interest of the owners to supply it. After
+some days of extreme abstinence they return to their work, and then the
+Mayordomo shows them how much their debt has increased, and the
+astonished Indian finds that he must labor for several months to pay it;
+thus these unfortunate beings are fastened in the fetters of slavery.
+Their treatment is, in general, most tyrannical. The Negro slave is
+far more happy than the free Indians in the haciendas of this part of
+Peru. At sunrise all the laborers must assemble in the courtyard of
+the plantation, where the Mayordomo prescribes to them their day's
+work, and gives them the necessary implements. They are compelled to
+work in the most oppressive heat, and are only allowed to rest thrice
+for a few minutes, at times fixed, for chewing their coca and for
+dinner. For indolence or obstinacy they suffer corporal punishment,
+usually by being put into a kind of stocks, called the <span class="smcap">Cepo</span>, in which
+the culprit stands from twelve to forty-eight hours, with his neck or
+legs fixed between two blocks of wood.</p>
+
+<p>The labor of bringing the forest lands into a productive state is one of
+the severest tasks in the Monta&ntilde;as, and it can only be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> performed in the
+hottest season of the year. As the soil is always moist, and the
+vegetation full of sap, the trees must be cut down about the end of the
+rainy season, and after drying for some months they are burned; but they
+are seldom brought into a state of such aridity as to be destroyed by
+the action of the fire. This is a considerable obstruction to the
+progress of raising plants; for the seed must be sown between the felled
+trees, which are perhaps only half-charred, and are still damp. In
+consequence of this, the practice is, in the first year, to plant maize
+at the places where the burnt trees are laid; the maize grows in almost
+incredible abundance, and the result is a singularly rich harvest, after
+which, part of the burned wood is removed. The same process is renewed
+after every harvest, until all the burnt trees are cleared off and a
+free field gained for the cultivation of the perennial plants.</p>
+
+<p>Far more fortunate than the Indians who are neighbors of the
+plantations, are those who live far back in the interior of the
+forests, and who, in consequence of their great distance from any
+settlement, seldom have intercourse with the civilized world. Content
+with what bounteous nature offers them, and ignorant of the wants of
+more refined life, they seek nothing beyond such things as they can,
+without any great efforts, obtain in the districts in which they
+dwell. There they plant their little patches of ground, the care of
+which is consigned to the women. The men takes their bows and arrows
+and set out on hunting expeditions, during which they are for weeks,
+often months, absent from their homes. The rainy season drives them
+back to their huts, where they indulge in indolent repose, which is
+only occasionally suspended when they are engaged in fishing. The
+return of the sunny sky draws them out again on their expeditions, in
+which they collect a sufficient supply of food for the year.</p>
+
+<p>But wherever these Indians have settled on the banks of great rivers,
+the trading intercourse produces an alteration in their mode of life.
+Europeans and Creoles then try to create among them, as among the
+plantation Indians, a desire to satisfy unnecessary wants, and thereby
+they are induced to collect the valuable productions of the forests.
+In the loftier districts of the Monta&ntilde;as the Peruvian bark is found:
+the lower and more marshy places<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> produce the sarsaparilla, and a sort
+of wood for dyeing called <i>Llangua</i>. This last-named article has not
+yet found its way to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In the month of May the Indians assemble to collect the Peruvian bark,
+for which purpose they repair to the extensive Cinchona woods. One of
+the party climbs a high tree to obtain, if possible, an uninterrupted
+view over the forest, and to spy out the <i>Manchas</i>, or spots where there
+are groups of Peruvian bark trees. The men who thus spy out the trees
+are called <i>Cateadores</i>, or searchers. It requires great experience to
+single out, in the dark leaf-covered expanse, the Cinchona groups merely
+by the particular tint of the foliage, which often differs but very
+little from that of the surrounding trees. As soon as the cateador has
+marked out and correctly fixed upon the mancha, he descends to his
+companions, and leads them with wonderful precision through the almost
+impenetrable forest to the group. A hut is immediately built, which
+serves as a resting-place during night, and is also used for drying
+and preserving the bark. The tree is felled as near the root as
+possible, divided into pieces, each from three to four feet long, and
+with a short curved knife a longitudinal incision is made in the bark.
+After a few days, if the pieces are found to be getting dry, the bark
+already incised is stripped off in long slips, which are placed in the
+hut, or in hot weather laid before it to dry. In many parts,
+particularly in the central and southern districts of Peru, where the
+moisture is not very great, the bark is dried in the forest, and the
+slips are packed in large bundles. In other districts, on the
+contrary, the bark is rolled up green, and sent to the neighboring
+villages, where it is dried. Towards the end of September the
+<i>Cascarilleros</i><a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> return to their homes.</p>
+
+<p>In the more early periods of South American history, the bark was a
+principal article of Peruvian commerce. Since the commencement of the
+present century its value has, however, considerably diminished, chiefly
+in consequence of adulterated and inferior kinds, which are supplied
+from other quarters, perhaps also on account of the more frequent use of
+quinine; for in the production of the alkaloids less bark is employed
+than was for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span>merly used in substance. During the war of independence the
+bark trade received its death-blow, and for the space of several years
+scarcely more than a few hundred-weights of bark were exported from
+Peru. The Monta&ntilde;as of Huanuco, which once furnished all the apothecaries
+of Europe with the "divine medicine," are beginning again to yield
+supplies. From the roots of the felled trees a vigorous after-growth has
+commenced. In the Monta&ntilde;as of Huamalies a kind of bark is found, the
+nature of which is not yet defined by botanists; and from the Monta&ntilde;as
+of Urubamba comes the highly esteemed <i>Cascarilla de Cuzco</i>, which
+contains an alkaloid, named <i>Cusconin</i>.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> Possibly the medicinal
+bark may again become a flourishing branch of trade for Peru, though
+it can never again recover the importance which was attached to it a
+century ago. During my residence in Peru, a plan was in agitation for
+establishing a quinine manufactory at Huanuco. The plan, if well
+carried out, would certainly be attended with success. There is in
+Bolivia an establishment of this kind conducted by a Frenchman; but
+the quinine produced is very impure. The inhabitants of the Peruvian
+forests drink an infusion of the green bark as a remedy against
+intermitting fever. I have found it in many cases much more
+efficacious than the dried kind, for less than half the usual dose
+produces, in a short time, convalescence, and the patient is secure
+against returning febrile attacks.</p>
+
+<p>A class of Indians who live far back in the heart of the woods of
+Southern Peru and Bolivia employ themselves almost exclusively in
+gathering balsams and odorous gums from resinous plants, many of which
+are burned in the churches as incense. They also collect various
+objects, supposed to be sympathetic remedies, such as the claws of the
+tapir, against falling sickness; and the teeth of poisonous snakes
+which, carefully fixed in leaves, and stuck into the tubes of rushes,
+are regarded as powerful specifics against headache and blindness.
+Various salves, plasters, powders, seeds, roots, barks, &amp;c., to each of
+which is attributed some infallible curative power, are prepared and
+brought to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> market by the Indians. When the rainy season sets in they
+leave the forest and proceed in parties to the mountainous country. On
+these occasions, contrary to the general custom of the Indians, the men,
+not the women, carry the burthens. They are accompanied by the women as
+far as the Sierra; for the loads, which are often very heavy, graze the
+backs of the men who carry them, and the women then act as surgeons. The
+injured part is first carefully washed with copaiba balsam, moistened,
+then covered with leaves fixed on with small strips of leather, overlaid
+with the hide of some forest animal. These operations being performed,
+the loads are again fastened on the backs of the Indians. In their
+native forests these people wear but little clothing. Their dress is
+limited to a sort of loose tunic without sleeves for the women, and for
+the men merely a piece of cloth fastened round the waist. They go
+barefooted; but they paint their feet and legs with the juice of the
+Huito (<i>Genipa oblongifolia</i>, R. Pav.) in such a manner that they seem
+to be wearing half-boots. The juice of the Huito has the effect of
+protecting them against the stings of insects. The coloring adheres so
+strongly to the skin that it cannot be washed off by water; but oil
+speedily removes it. In the Sierra these Indians put on warmer clothing,
+and on their feet they wear a kind of boots called <i>aspargetas</i>, made of
+the plaited tendrils of plants.</p>
+
+<p>The stock of balsams and drugs being disposed of, the Indians, after a
+few months' absence, return to their homes. Some of them, however,
+wander to the distance of two or three hundred leagues from their native
+forests, traversing the greater part of Peru, and even visiting Lima,
+carrying large flask gourds filled with balsams. These wandering tribes
+seek frequent contact with other nations. They are not distrustful and
+reserved, but, on the contrary, annoyingly communicative. It is not easy
+to discover the cause of this exception, or to ascertain the time when
+the Indians began to travel the country as physicians and apothecaries.
+The earliest writers on the oldest epochs of Peruvian history make no
+mention of this race of medical pedlars.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians here alluded to all profess Christianity, and must, as
+<i>Indios Christianos</i>, in strict correctness, be distinguished from the
+wild Indians, <i>Indios Bravos</i>, who exclusively inhabit the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> eastern
+Monta&ntilde;as of Peru, towards the frontiers of Brazil. These Indios Bravos
+comprehend numerous tribes, each of which has its own customs, religion,
+and also, in general, its own language. Only very few of them are known,
+for since the overthrow of the missions there is little communication
+with them. Respecting the Indios Bravos who inhabit the Monta&ntilde;as of
+Southern Peru, I have been unable to collect any accurate information.
+They remain quite unknown, for impenetrable wilds intervene between them
+and the civilized world, and seldom has a European foot ventured into
+their territory. The wild Indians in Central Peru are most set against
+the Christians, particularly those called Iscuchanos, in the Monta&ntilde;a de
+Huanta, and those known by the name of Chunchos, in the Monta&ntilde;a de
+Vitoc. The Iscuchanos sometimes maintain with the inhabitants of Huanta
+a trade of barter; but this intercourse is occasionally interrupted by
+long intervals of hostility, during which the Iscuchanos, though rather
+an inoffensive race, commit various depredations on the Huantanos;
+driving the cattle from the pastures, carrying off the produce of the
+soil, and spreading terror throughout the whole district. Some years
+ago, when the inhabitants of Huanta had assembled for the procession of
+the Festival of Corpus Christi, a troop of Iscuchanos came upon them
+with wild bulls, turning the infuriated animals against the procession,
+which was dispersed, and many of the Huantanos were killed or severely
+wounded. These Iscuchanos are so favored by the locality of the district
+they inhabit, that even were a military expedition sent to drive them
+farther back into the woods, it would probably be unsuccessful.</p>
+
+<p>The Chunchos are far more dangerous, and are one of the most formidable
+races of the Indios Bravos. They inhabit the most southern part of the
+Pampa del Sacramento (the terra incognita of Peru), and chiefly the
+district through which flow the rivers Chanchamayo and Perene. Those
+regions are inhabited by a great number of tribes, most of which are
+only known by name. The frontier neighbors of the Chunchos are the
+sanguinary Campas or Antes who destroyed the missions of Jesus Maria in
+Pangoa, and who still occasionally pay hostile visits to San
+Buenaventura de Chavini, the extreme Christian outpost in the Monta&ntilde;a de
+Andamarca. The savage race of the Casibos, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> enemies of all the
+surrounding populations, inhabit the banks of the river Pachitea. This
+race maintains incessant war with all the surrounding tribes, and
+constantly seeks to destroy them. According to the accounts of the
+missionaries, they, as well as the Antes and Chunchos, are still
+cannibals, and undertake warlike expeditions for the purpose of
+capturing prisoners, whom they devour. After the rainy season, when
+the Simirinches, the Amapuahas, or Consbos, hunt in the western
+forests, they often fall into the hands of the Casibos, who imitate in
+perfection the cries of the forest animals, so that the hunters are
+treacherously misled, and being captured, are carried off as victims.
+Many horrible accounts of this barbarous tribe were related by the
+missionaries centuries ago, when romantic stories and exaggerations of
+every kind were the order of the day; but the most recent
+communications of the missionaries from Ocopa confirm the fact, that
+in the year 1842, the Casibos continued to be savage Anthropophagi. It
+is worthy of remark that they never eat women, a fact which some may
+be inclined to attribute to respect for the female sex. It is,
+however, assignable to a different feeling. All the South American
+Indians, who still remain under the influence of sorcery and
+empiricism, consider women in the light of impure and evil beings, and
+calculated to injure them. Among a few of the less rude nations this
+aversion is apparent in domestic life, in a certain unconquerable
+contempt of females. With the Anthropophagi the feeling extends,
+fortunately, to their flesh, which is held to be poisonous.</p>
+
+<p>The languages spoken by the wild Indian tribes are very various. From
+the Mara&ntilde;on to Omaguas, Quichua, the language of the Incas, is spoken.
+On the left bank of the Ucayali the dialect of the Panos prevails. On
+the right bank the Cascas, the Sinabus, and the Diabus, preserve their
+own idioms, which are so different that those races are reciprocally
+unable to communicate with each other. On Upper Ucayali evidences of
+common origin are said to be apparent between the Simirinches, Campas,
+Runaguas, and Mochobos. But on this subject no accurate conclusions
+can be formed; for the accounts given by the missions in early periods
+were very imperfect, and most of the races are so intractable that it
+has since been impossible to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> collect correct information. According
+to the accounts of travelled missionaries which I had the opportunity
+of examining in the convent of Ocopa, it appears that, besides the
+Quichua, the idioms spoken by the Panos, Cascas, Simirinches, and the
+Chunchos, may be set down as dialects of decidedly different origins.</p>
+
+<p>The mode of living among all these Indians is very much the same. War
+and hunting in summer, and repairing their warlike weapons in winter,
+are the occupations of the men. The women cultivate the fields, lay up
+the stores of provisions, fish, spin and cook. Their clothes are of the
+most simple kind. Many of the races wear no clothing, and have their
+bodies wholly or partially bedaubed with paint. The men of some races
+wear a kind of shirt without sleeves, and the women a petticoat reaching
+from the waist to the knees. These garments are made of cotton obtained
+from the uncultivated tree <i>Bombax</i>, and their color is white, blue, or
+red. The custom of boring the ears, the nose, and the under lip, for the
+insertion of some ornament, is much practised, particularly by the
+Panos, Shipeos, and Pirras. They paint their bodies, but not exactly in
+the tattoo manner; they confine themselves to single stripes. The Sensis
+women draw two stripes from the shoulder, over each breast, down to the
+pit of the stomach; the Pirras women paint a band in the form of a
+girdle round the waist, and they have three of a darker color round each
+thigh. These stripes, when once laid on, can never be removed by
+washing. They are made with the unripe fruit of one of the Rubiacace&aelig;.
+Some tribes paint the face only; others, on the contrary, do not touch
+that part; but bedaub with colors their arms, feet, and breasts.</p>
+
+<p>In hunting, bows and arrows are the principal weapons used by the
+Indians. In war they use, besides bows and arrows, clubs and a kind of
+sword made of wood. The arrows are reeds, five or six feet long, and
+of the thickness of a finger. The point is of very hard wood, and is
+strongly barbed by notches and with sharp fish teeth about three
+inches long. To the other extremity of the arrow colored feathers are
+always affixed.</p>
+
+<p>Among many Indians, particularly in the western and northern districts
+of the Pampa del Sacramento, the <i>Pocuna</i> is a weapon much used in
+hunting. It is made of a long reed, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> measures eight or ten, or even
+more, feet. At one end are fixed two teeth of a javali, or white-lipped
+peccary (<i>Dicotyles labiatus</i>), on which the reed is rested when taking
+aim. The arrows, which are only one and a half or two inches long, are
+made of the thick part of a strong cactus stem. In general their small
+arrows are poisoned, for otherwise the wound would be too inconsiderable
+to kill even a little bird. The poison for arrows differs almost with
+every tribe, and very mysterious ceremonies are observed at its
+preparation. On this account the art of preparing it, and the
+ingredients employed, are only very partially known to Europeans. Their
+elements are obtained from several plants not yet defined botanically,
+among which the <i>Apihuasca</i> and poison capsicum are much resorted to.
+Infusions of the leaves of a very strong kind of tobacco, and of the
+Sana&ntilde;o (<i>Tabern&aelig;montana Sana&ntilde;o</i>, R. P.), and of Euphorbiace&aelig;, are also
+taken. Some modern travellers, contrary to the testimony of the oldest
+writers on Peru, have asserted that no animal substance is employed in
+the poison for arrows. I am, however, enabled to state, on the authority
+of an Indian who had himself often made the poison, that not only the
+black and very poisonous emmet (<i>Cryptacereo atrato affin</i>), but also
+the teeth of the formidable serpent, known to the Indians by the name of
+Miuamaru or Jergon (<i>Lachesis picta</i>, Tsch.), are used for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The wound of the poisoned arrow is fatal and rapid. Men and large
+mammalia die in about four or five minutes after receiving the wound;
+the smaller mammiferous animals and birds, in two minutes. The blow-reed
+sends these deadly arrows with great certainty to the distance of
+thirty-two or thirty-six paces. Hunting with the blow-reed must be long
+practised in order to acquire dexterity in its use, and great caution is
+requisite to avoid being self-wounded by the small sharp arrows. An
+example came to my knowledge in the case of an Indian who let an arrow
+fall unobserved from his quiver; he trod upon it, and it penetrated the
+sole of his foot; in a very short time he was a corpse.</p>
+
+<p>The club called <i>Matusino</i> is four or five feet long, and is encircled
+in a spiral form at the thick end, by a row of deer's horns. A single
+long horn is fastened in the centre, the chief<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> use of which is to
+stick it in the earth when the club is rested. Only a few races of
+upper and lower Ucayali and the Sensis use this formidable weapon,
+which is very inconvenient and obstructive in passing through thick
+forests. The <i>macana</i>, or wooden sword, is made of strong <i>chunta</i>.
+The color of this wood is a deep blackish brown; it is very hard and
+heavy, and is always used for implements which require great
+durability and strength. The macana is about four feet long, one inch
+thick, and from five to six inches broad; towards the hilt end the
+breadth is about three inches, and it is rounded. It is so well cut
+and polished, that a sabre scarcely excels it in sharpness. The weapon
+is so heavy that it requires both hands to wield it.</p>
+
+<p>There are not only offensive, but also defensive, weapons. One of the
+latter is the <i>viche</i>, a very simple shield, one and a half or two feet
+in diameter. It consists of a strong frame of twisted creeping plants,
+over which the skin of a deer or tapir is stretched and fastened with
+twine. On the inside there are two holds for the arm; the edge is
+adorned with colored feathers.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians of the races above noticed seldom live in villages, but
+chiefly in huts scattered through the forests. Sometimes they construct
+a few of their dwellings near together, and so form a hamlet. Their huts
+are either quadrangular, oblong, or circular. The walls consist of
+strong stems of trees, bound together by twining plants; and the roof is
+of palm leaves laid over a skeleton of reeds. The entrance, which is on
+the side opposite to the prevailing wind, is left open, and but seldom
+protected by a door. At Chanchamayo I saw a very simple kind of hut
+among the Chunchos. It resembled an open umbrella with the handle stuck
+in the earth. The single wall, which also formed its roof, consisted of
+eight long reeds: they spread out below in the form of a fan, standing
+obliquely on the earth, and fastened to three stems of trees. On this
+simple skeleton were laid lengthways the leaves of the omero, a kind of
+palm. A strong stem fixed firmly in the earth, extended obliquely to the
+middle of the inner side of the wall, and two thinner stems on each
+side, served as supports for this frail building. According to the
+direction of the wind the hut is turned round.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian huts all stand detached from each other, and they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> are seldom
+divided internally into apartments. They occupy very little ground,
+never more than sixty square feet of superficies. In the principal
+settlement of an Indian race, the huts are scattered over a circuit of
+some miles in the forests.</p>
+
+<p>Any form of government is a thing quite unknown to most of the Indios
+Bravos of Peru. Uniformity of speech, manners, and arms, unite together
+a number of Indians, who thus form a race, but there is among them no
+bond of subjection, or of duty to any government, either voluntarily
+chosen, or self-constituted. Among the inhabitants of Lower Ucayali,
+however, the oldest, or the bravest individuals of each race are either
+publicly, or silently recognised as chiefs. Respect to age prevails only
+among a few of the races, as the Setebos, Mayorhunas, and Panos. Among
+others, as the Campos, Casibos, and Cunchos, the old are put to death.
+It is a general custom of the wild Indians to kill their aged prisoners
+immediately on their being captured.</p>
+
+<p>Social meetings among these races are of rare occurrence. Gloomy,
+reserved, and distrustful, the Indian is only at ease in the circle he
+has himself formed. When, however, the general interest of the race is
+in question, then he comes boldly forward in support of the whole. The
+usual assemblages are for the arrangement of long hunting excursions,
+and warlike expeditions. The departures and the returns are celebrated
+by tumultuous feasts, in which intoxicating drinks flow freely. Most of
+the liquors are prepared from Yucca, or the fruits of the Chunta, called
+the <i>Mazato</i>, or other species of palms. In the most remote forests, and
+among the most insulated tribes, the preparation of intoxicating liquors
+is known; and there certainly is not in all South America an Indian race
+which is not familiar with it. Wild dances form part of the
+entertainments, and the banquet usually ends with a sanguinary battle.</p>
+
+<p>Marriage in most races is celebrated socially, but not among those in
+which polygamy prevails. The formula observed on the occasion differs in
+different tribes; in some the union is effected under painful ceremonies
+to the bride, in others with fasting and penitential torments to the
+bridegroom. In general the Indian selects a wife for himself. In the
+greater number of tribes a maiden is set up as a prize, and the young
+men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> commence a life or death contest for her. The oldest warriors are
+arbitrators, and from their hands the conqueror receives the prize. This
+is the practice among the inhabitants of the Rio de Santa Catalina. With
+them, as well as with most of the tribes of Western Ucayali, the birth
+of a child is festively celebrated. The oldest individuals of the race
+assemble to receive the child, which is repeatedly blown on to drive
+demons and sickness away from it; the name of an animal is then given
+to it, and, according to Don Pedro Beltran, the witnesses of the
+ceremony mark with a wooden pencil some hieroglyphic characters on two
+leaves, which are carefully preserved, and on the death of the Indian,
+deposited in the grave with him.</p>
+
+<p>The dead are buried in the huts. The survivors having testified their
+sorrow by a melancholy howl three times repeated, leave the place and
+build a new residence for themselves in a distant district. They break
+in pieces all the household furniture of the deceased, but they bury
+with him his warlike weapons and his agricultural implements, under the
+conviction that he will use them in the place to which he is going. A
+peculiar custom among several races is this: the oldest son cuts a
+piece from the heel of his deceased father, which he hangs round his
+neck, and wears as a sacred relic. Some of the tribes on the Perene
+and Capanegua do not, like most wild nations, respect the remains of
+the dead, but throw the bodies into the forest unburied, to be
+devoured by beasts of prey.</p>
+
+<p>Very little is correctly known of the religion of the Peruvian Indios
+Bravos. All believe in the existence of superior beings, and distinguish
+them as good and evil; and they are accordingly venerated from
+gratitude, or from fear. The former they regard as beneficent; but the
+latter as having the power of bringing into exercise all the destroying
+forces of nature. These people, therefore, find in the sky, in the air,
+and on the earth, objects for their adoration. Certain constellations
+are regarded as favorable phenomena, while others are looked at with a
+secret horror. The sun is by all gladly worshipped, more particularly by
+the descendants of those who in early times stood in connexion with the
+Incas. On the other hand, they pay but a reluctant tribute to the moon,
+perhaps because by its pale light fearful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> images are reflected around
+them in the forests, and because its phases are to them involved in
+impenetrable mystery. They ascribe thunder and lightning to demoniacal
+influences, and to the same origin they attribute certain winds which
+have an injurious influence on their health. But their religious notions
+are not connected exclusively with the phenomena of nature, which are to
+them inexplicable. With all their ideas on surrounding nature, two
+conflicting principles are invariably connected, one of which is
+believed to be beneficial, the other injurious to them. In the animals
+of the forest, the plants, the stones, in everything, they trace these
+beneficent or demoniacal powers. Every idea, every action is with them a
+consequence of the influence of one of these two powers, and free will
+is impossible. Though a rude materialism cripples the intelligence of
+these Indians, yet they seem to be sensible of the connexion between
+that which is perceptible to their senses, and something
+higher&mdash;something beyond the sphere of corporeal perception. But of the
+nature of this higher something they have no comprehension, nor do they
+endeavor to render to themselves any account of it. They are satisfied
+with an obscure idea of the difference between the visible and the
+invisible; but still this idea is so contracted that they always give to
+the spiritual a corporeal form: and they attribute to natural objects
+with which they come most in contact, the possession of good or evil
+qualities, thus assigning to them the nature of spiritual beings.</p>
+
+<p>None of these tribes appear, as yet, to have advanced so far as to be
+impressed with the persuasion that the whole of nature is guided by
+unchangeable laws over which one will presides. In general, they have
+no idea of a spiritual unity, and are utter strangers to the knowledge
+of one God. They all, however, believe in the immortality of the soul.
+They see the lifeless body, they have certain proof that the earthly
+integument is no longer the abode of the soul; but, as they can form
+no notion of anything spiritual entirely self-existent, they imagine
+that their dead will, in new life, appear under a new bodily form. The
+several tribes differ greatly in their belief of the nature of the
+metamorphoses which they expect to take place. Those who look forward
+to the re-appearance of the deceased in human life, bury<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> with the men
+hunting and agricultural instruments; but their notions even on this
+head are not very clear, and when questioned on the subject their
+answers are very confused. They say that they are going to a very
+beautiful place, far from their present dwelling; but, according to
+their conception, it appears that the place, though distant, is still
+on earth. Those races who believe in metamorphoses into the forms of
+the lower animals, are persuaded that the dead in their new forms will
+inhabit the woods around their homes, and avenge the wrongs they have
+suffered during life. This is the belief of the inhabitants of Upper
+Ucayali and Pachitea.</p>
+
+<p>In considering the physical formation of the wild Indians, we may class
+them according to their natural divisions, viz., the inhabitants of the
+more highly situated lands, or mountains, and those of the low hot flat
+country. The former dwell on the eastern side of the hill-chain,
+dividing the river territory of the Huallaga and Ucayali, and spreading
+to the banks of the Chauchamayo, Perene, and Apurimac. These are the
+Iscuchanos. They are rather tall and generally slim; their limbs are
+vigorous; their hands and feet small, and in walking their toes are much
+turned in. The head is proportionally large, with very strong bones; the
+forehead is low, the eyes small and animated, the nose large and rather
+sharp, the cheek-bones a little prominent. The mouth is not large, and
+the lips are delicately formed, but often disfigured by ornaments. The
+ears are small, quite the reverse of those of the Indians of the flat
+lands. The pointed chin is only sparingly covered with beard, which does
+not appear until advanced age, and on the cheeks there is none. The hair
+of the head is long, stiff, and of a brilliant black. Many of the tribes
+dye their hair; the Chunchos dye it red, and the Antis are said to dye
+it blue; as to the latter color it appears to me improbable, but I
+mention it on the authority of Friar Leceta. The skin is fine and soft,
+the color a deep rusty brown. In speaking of the South American Indians,
+it is usual to describe their skin as copper color, but this term is
+incorrect, for there certainly is no single tribe to which it might be
+perfectly applicable. It appears to me that the color of all is much
+fainter,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> and tending more to brown or yellow. "Rusty brown," if the
+expression may be used, appears to me far more descriptive.</p>
+
+<p>The second natural section of the wild Indians inhabits the northern
+part of the Pampa del Sacramento, the banks of the Ucayali, and of the
+Mara&ntilde;on. They are smaller than those just described. There is a
+certain peculiarity in the make of these people; for though they are
+broad over the shoulders yet their chests are flat, and their shoulder
+blades lie low. Their limbs are lank, and their hands rather small;
+the soles of the feet are broad and flat. The face is broad, the eyes
+long shaped, the pupil deeply set, the nose is flat, with large
+oblique nostrils, and the cheek-bones are prominent. The mouth is
+wide, the lips thick, and among some tribes the mouth and nose are
+very close together. The chin is small and round, the ears large and
+standing out from the head. The hair and beard of these Indians are
+the same as in those of the hilly country. The color of the skin
+varies much; in some it is a light reddish brown; in others, a kind of
+yellow, very like that of the Mongols. The women of all these tribes
+are exceedingly ugly, and far from corresponding with the picture a
+European imagination might form of the daughters of the aboriginal
+forests. These women soon become old, for they not only fulfil female
+duties, but execute the greater part of those severer labors which
+ought to fall to the share of the stronger sex.</p>
+
+<p>To the above outline sketch of the human inhabitants of the aboriginal
+forests, I will now add some description of the animal world, as it came
+under my observation in those luxuriant regions.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike the peaceful repose which presides over animal life on the level
+heights, are the constant aggressions and combats which prevail in the
+forest regions. There the strong attack the weak, and the cunning
+inveigle the unwary: strength and intelligence, caution and instinct,
+are unceasingly in active operation. The variegated forms and colors
+which meet the eye, and the multifarious cries and tones which resound
+through the woods, form, altogether, the most singular contrast. The
+gold-feathered colibri hums lightly through the air, soaring over the
+heavy, sombre-colored tapir. The sprightly singing-bird pours forth his
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>melodious chants amidst the thick foliage of the aged trees, whilst the
+fierce ounce, prowling for his prey, growls as he passes over their
+enormous, spreading roots. Slowly do the eye and the ear learn to
+distinguish individuals in the vast mass of apparent chaotic confusion,
+and to recognise quickly fleeting forms, or distant resounding sounds.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of the animal world is here developed to the view, and it
+would be difficult to assign the predominance to any one class. Yet,
+perhaps, the variegated feathered tribe is relatively most extensively
+represented. The number of the mammalia is also important. They are
+seldom seen by the hunter during the day, but twilight draws them from
+their hiding-places.</p>
+
+<p>Troops of monkeys skip from tree to tree, looking timidly around, and
+uttering mournful howls. Among them are swarms of the black marimonda
+(<i>Ateles</i>), with slender long arms and red-brown or black faces; in some
+the faces are encircled with white hair (<i>Ateles marginatus</i>, Geoff.),
+which gives them a striking resemblance to an old negro. Next is seen a
+group of silver-grey monkeys (<i>Lagothrix Humboldtii</i>, Geoff.), stalking
+over heaps of broken branches and twigs in search of a resting-place.
+These monkeys, which are the largest in South America, are about three
+feet high, and are bold and vicious. When wounded they take a position
+of defence against the hunter, struggling, and uttering loud cries, upon
+which their companions hasten down from the trees to assist them. But
+soon a short stifled cry is heard: it is the cry of mortal convulsion.
+That sound drives them instantly back, and they disperse in wild flight.
+The sly sayu ventures to approach the dwellings of men, where he
+plunders maize fields with incredible dexterity. The delicate
+silky-haired monkey, shivering at every cool breeze or shower of rain,
+and starting at the slightest noise, creeps for shelter into the
+thicket, where he lies peeping with his penetrating eyes in the
+direction of the apprehended danger.</p>
+
+<p>At sunset swarms of bats flutter through field and forest in all
+directions, and greedily devour the insects which in the twilight awaken
+to full activity. Some of these bats (<i>Phyllostoma hastatum</i>, Geoff.)
+are remarkable for their expanse of wing, which measures nearly two
+feet. Others are distinguished for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> ugliness and for their offensive
+smell. These latter fly into the Indian huts at night and greatly annoy
+the inhabitants, who cannot get rid of them by fire or smoke, or any
+other means, until at the midnight hour they retire of their own accord.
+Not less troublesome are the leaf-nosed bats (<i>Phyllostoma</i>), which
+attack both man and beast. This bat rubs up the skin of his victim, from
+which he sucks the blood. The domestic animals suffer greatly from the
+nocturnal attacks of these bats, and many are destroyed by the
+exhaustion consequent on the repeated blood-sucking. The blood drawn by
+the bat itself does not exceed a few ounces; but if, when satisfied, it
+drops down to the ground, or flies away, the wound continues to bleed
+for a long time, and in the morning the animal is often found in a very
+weak condition, and covered with blood. One of my mules, on which a
+leaf-nosed bat made a nightly attack, was only saved by having his back
+rubbed with an ointment made of spirits of camphor, soap and petroleum.
+The blood-suckers have such an aversion to the smell of this ointment
+that on its application they ceased to approach the mule. These bats are
+very mischievous in the plantations of the forests, where beasts of
+burden and horned cattle are exposed to their attacks. Whether they
+venture to assail man has been a much disputed question. Several
+travellers declare that they do not. I may, however, mention a case
+which occurred within my own knowledge. A bat (<i>Ph. erythromos</i>, Tsch.)
+fastened on the nose of an Indian lying intoxicated in a plantation, and
+sucked so much blood that it was unable to fly away. The slight wound
+was followed by such severe inflammation and swelling that the features
+of the Cholo were not recognisable.</p>
+
+<p>Many beasts of prey, and among them some of formidable strength and
+fierceness, make havoc among the other animals of the forests. In the
+lofty Monta&ntilde;as the black bear (<i>U. frugilegus</i>, Tsch.) roams as wild as
+his fellow-depredator of the Cordillera. He often enters the maize
+fields of the Indians, breaks the stalks of the plants and drags the
+green tops away to his hole. When this bear cannot obtain his customary
+vegetable food, consisting chiefly of the fruits of a pandanea
+(<i>Phytelephas</i>), he watches for the deer and wild boars, or attacks the
+oxen employed to turn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> the machinery in the sugar-mills: he has even
+been known to assail solitary travellers. The lively coatis traverse the
+forests in flocks. They collect round the roots of trees and search for
+the larv&aelig; of insects; light-footed, they climb up bush and tree to find
+birds' nests, and feast on the eggs and the young. With a monotonous
+howl, not unlike that made by some dogs on a clear moonlight night, the
+yellow-breasted glutton (<i>Galictis barbara</i>, Wieg.), the omeyro of the
+Indians, announces his presence. But the most fierce of all these wild
+forest animals are those of the feline class. The spotless dark-grey
+yaguarundi, not much larger than the wild cat of Europe, pursues all
+kinds of birds, particularly the pigeon, the partridge, and the
+penelope. The oscollo (<i>F. celidogaster</i>, Tem.), the uturunca (<i>F.
+pardalis</i>, L.), and the long-tailed, yellowish-grey tiger-cat (<i>F.
+macrourura</i>, Pr. M.), all lie in wait, not only for the weaker mammalia,
+but sometimes they even venture into the plantations and kill dogs and
+poultry. The maneless Mexican Lion (the puma) roams through the upper
+regions of the forest, where he has almost undisputed hunting-ground. He
+fearlessly assails victims who cannot effectually defend themselves,
+such as the horse, the mule, and the ass, and he tears large pieces of
+flesh from their ribs; but he does not venture to meddle with oxen. He
+shuns men, and in the forest he even flies from the unarmed Indian. I
+fired at a very large puma, which immediately fled, roaring loudly.
+When severely wounded and driven into a corner, this animal frequently
+commences a combat of despair, and sometimes kills the hunter. The
+puma measures in length about four feet, and in height more than two
+feet. More direful than any of the felines mentioned above is the
+sanguinary ounce,<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> which possesses vast strength, and is of a most
+savage disposition. Though the favorite haunts of this animal are the
+expansive Pajonales, yet he frequently takes up his abode in the
+vicinity of villages and plantations, spreading terror among the
+inhabitants. Far from being intimidated at the sight of men, he often
+attacks individuals, and when pressed by hunger is not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> afraid, even
+in broad daylight, to slip into the forest villages in order to carry
+off food, and the booty, when once seized, is not easily recovered.</p>
+
+<p>An amusing example of this occurred in the Monta&ntilde;a of Vitoc. An Indian
+one night heard his only pig squeaking loudly, as if in pain. He
+hastened to the door of his hut to see what was the matter, and he
+discovered that an ounce had seized the pig by the head, and was
+carrying it off. The Cholo, who determined to make an effort to recover
+his property, seized the pig by the hind legs, and endeavored to drag it
+from the grasp of the robber. This contest was kept up for some time,
+the ounce, with his eyes glaring in the darkness, holding fast the head
+of the pig, and the Indian pulling it hard by the legs. At length the
+Indian's wife came to the door of the hut with a lighted fagot, and the
+scared ounce, with terrible howlings, slowly retired to the forest. In
+general the Indians have a great dread of these animals, and seldom
+venture singly into the parts they frequent. The ounce hunter is the
+only one who ventures to approach them. He is armed with a long spear,
+with which he gives the ferocious animal a death-blow. He lets the ounce
+come within a few paces of him without making the least show either of
+flight or attack. If, however, the stroke he aims does not immediately
+reach the seat of life, the hunter, in general, becomes the victim of
+his bold attempt. Before he can stand on his defence, the wounded ounce
+drags him to the ground, and tears the flesh from his bones.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the villagers collect their dogs together for a general hunt.
+They drive the ounce into a place from whence there is no escape, or
+often up a tree, where they shoot him with long arrows sent from their
+bows or blow-tubes. In a few places snares are laid, or large holes are
+dug, and a sharp-pointed stake is stuck in the middle, covered with
+stalks and branches of trees, on which the bait is laid. The ounce is,
+however, too cunning to be easily caught in traps, and it is only when
+pressed by hunger that he can be tempted by a bait. In some districts
+the ounces have increased so greatly, and done so much damage, that the
+natives have been compelled to remove and settle in other places. I need
+only refer to the Quebrada of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span>Mayunmarca, in the Monta&ntilde;a of Huanta,
+near the road to Anco. There once stood the little village of Mayumarca,
+which has been abandoned for more than a hundred years, as it was found
+that the jaguars annually decimated the inhabitants; this Quebrada is
+still in such bad repute that not a single Indian will venture into it.</p>
+
+<p>There is a black variety of the ounce, by many erroneously regarded as a
+distinct species. It has the identical marks of the common jaguar, or
+ounce, only its color is a dark, blackish-brown, whereby the whole of
+the black spots are rendered indistinct. On the lower banks of the
+Ucayali and the Mara&ntilde;on this dark variety is more frequently met with
+than in the higher forests; in the Monta&ntilde;as of Huanta and Urubamba it is
+also not uncommon. It is upon the whole larger, stronger, and more
+daring than the lighter kind, and I have actually seen many black
+skins which exceeded the usual length; but of specific distinctions
+there is no indication. The superstitious Indians assign extraordinary
+powers to everything that departs from the common course; the black
+ounce is, accordingly, supposed to possess singular properties. The
+yana chinca holds a prominent place in the religious ceremonies of
+some of the Indian races.</p>
+
+<p>Turning from these fierce natives of the forest, we will now take a
+glimpse at the peaceful inhabitants of those umbrageous regions. In
+the hollow stems of trees, or among their canopied branches, are found
+the timid marsupial animals (<i>Did. impavida</i>, and <i>noctivaga</i>, Tsch.).
+These animals remain in obscure holes until the sun sinks beneath the
+horizon, when they slip out in search of insects and fruit. Not
+unfrequently they penetrate into the slightly guarded Indian huts,
+creeping into every corner, until at last they are caught in traps
+baited with pieces of banana and pine-apple. The lofty
+<i>Terebinthace&aelig;</i>, with their walnut-like fruit, are inhabited by
+swarms of squirrels, which strongly remind the European of his own
+woods. Numbers of the mouse family, from the small tree-mouse
+(<i>Drymomys parvulus</i>, Tsch.) to the large, loathsome, spinous rat
+(<i>Echinomys leptosoma</i>, Wagn.) swarm over all the Monta&ntilde;as, and love
+to approximate to the dwellings of man. These animals destroy the
+gathered harvest, and even in these remote regions they become a
+plague. It is a striking fact, that certain animals are almost
+inseparable from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> man. They keep with him, or follow him wherever he
+settles. The mouse genus is one of these. On the coast, mice are not
+the same as on the mountains, and in the forests they are again
+different. Everywhere they leave their original dwelling-places, which
+they exchange for an abode with man. As the mouse and the rat attack
+the gathered fruits of the earth, the agouti preys on those yet
+standing in the field. These animals are seldom found in the depths of
+the forest, but more frequently on its edge near the chacras of the
+Indians. Shortly before sunset they leave the thickets, and stealthily
+repair to the maize, yucca, and anana fields, where they scratch up the
+root and eat the grain and fruit; but the slightest noise drives them
+back to their holes. In the deeper recesses of the forest resounds the
+monotonous, drawling cry of the sloth. Here we have a symbol of life
+under the utmost degree of listlessness, and of the greatest
+insensibility in a state of languid repose. This emblem of misery fixes
+itself on an almost leafless bough, and there remains defenceless; a
+ready prey to any assailant. Better defended is the scale-covered
+armadillo, with his coat of mail. Towards evening he burrows deep holes
+in the earth, and searches for the larv&aelig; of insects, or he ventures out
+of the forest, and visits the yucca fields, where he digs up the
+well-flavored roots. The ant-eater rakes up with his long curved claws
+the crowded resorts of ants, stretches out his long, spiral, and
+adhesive tongue, into the midst of the moving swarm, and draws it back
+covered with a multitude of crawling insects.</p>
+
+<p>In the soft marshy grounds, or in the damp shady recesses of the
+forests, the heavy tapir reposes during the heat of the day; but when
+the fresh coolness of evening sets in, he roves through the forest,
+tears the tender twigs from the bushes, or seeks food in the
+grass-covered Pajonales. Sometimes a multitude of tapirs sally from the
+forests into the cultivated fields, to the great alarm of the Indians. A
+broad furrow marks the tract along which they have passed, and the
+plants they encounter in their progress are trampled down or devoured.
+Such a visit is particularly fatal to the coca fields; for the tapirs
+are extremely fond of the leaves of the low-growing coca plant, and they
+often,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> in one night, destroy a coca field which has cost a poor Indian
+the hard labor of a year.</p>
+
+<p>Flocks of the umbilical hog, or peccary, traverse the level Monta&ntilde;as. If
+one of them is attacked by the hunter, a whole troop falls furiously on
+him, and it is only by promptly climbing up a tree that he can escape;
+then, whizzing and grunting, they surround the stem, and with their
+snouts turn up the earth round the root, as if intending to pull down
+the tree and so get at their enemy. The stag lurks in the thicket to
+withdraw from the eyes of the greedy ounce; but towards evening he
+leaves his hiding place, and sometimes strays beyond the boundary of the
+forest; he ventures into the maize fields of the plantations, where he
+tarries until night is far advanced.</p>
+
+<p>The same diversity of nature and habits is seen in the numerous hosts of
+birds that inhabit the leafy canopies of the forest. On the loftiest
+trees, or on detached rocks, eagles, kites, and falcons, build their
+eyries. The most formidable of these birds of prey, both for boldness
+and strength, the <i>Morphnus harpyia</i>, Cab., darts down on the largest
+animals, and fears not to encounter the fiercest inhabitants of the
+forest. The owl (<i>Noctua</i>, <i>Scops</i>, <i>Strix</i>), and the goat-milker
+(<i>Caprimulgus</i>, <i>Hydropsalis</i>, <i>Chordiles</i>), fly with softly flapping
+wings to their hunting quarters to surprise their victims while asleep.
+In the hilly parts of the Monta&ntilde;as the black ox-bird (<i>Cephalopterus
+ornatus</i>, Geoff.), the <i>Toropishu</i> of the Indians, fills the forest with
+his distant bellow, similar to the roaring of a bull. The <i>Tunqui</i><a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a>
+inhabits the same district. This bird is of the size of a cock; the body
+is bright red, but the wings are black. The head is surmounted by a tuft
+of red feathers, beneath which the orange bill projects with a slight
+curve. It lives sociably with other birds in thickets, or among Cinchona
+trees, the fruit of which is part of its food. Its harsh <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>cry resembles
+the grunt of the hog, and forms a striking contrast to its beautiful
+plumage. Numberless fly-catchers and shrikes (<i>Muscicapid&aelig;</i> and
+<i>Laniad&aelig;</i>) hover on tree and bush, watching for the passing insects,
+which they snatch up with extraordinary dexterity. Finches twitter on
+the summits of the loftiest trees beyond the reach of the hunter's shot:
+they are distinguished, like the <i>Ampelid&aelig;</i>, who, however, live amongst
+the lower bushes, by the lively and almost dazzling colors of their
+feathers. In modest plumage of cinnamon-brown, with head and neck of
+dark olive, the <i>Organista</i><a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> raises, in the most woody parts of the
+forest, her enchanting song, which is usually the prognostic of an
+approaching storm. The tender, melancholy strains and the singular
+clearness of the innumerable modulations charm the ear of the astonished
+traveller, who, as if arrested by an invisible power, stops to listen to
+the syren, unmindful of the danger of the threatening storm. On old
+decayed stumps of trees the busy creeper<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> and the variegated
+woodpecker are seen pecking the insects from under the loose bark, or by
+their tapping bring them out of their concealed crevices; while the
+red-tailed potter-bird (<i>Opetiorynchus ruficandus</i>, Pr. Max.) builds his
+dwelling of potter's clay, or loam, as firmly as if it were destined to
+last for ever. The pouched starlings<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> hang their nests, often four or
+five feet long, on the slender branches of trees, where they swing to
+and fro with the slightest breath of wind. Like a dazzling flash of
+colored light the colibri (humming-bird) appears and disappears. No
+combination of gorgeous coloring can exceed that which is presented in
+the plumage of the golden-tailed humming or fly-bird (<i>Trochilus
+chrysurus</i>, Cuv.) which haunts the warm primeval forests, but it is
+still more frequently found in the pure atmosphere of the ceja-girded
+Monta&ntilde;as. The silky cuckoo (<i>Trogon heliothrix</i>, Tsch.) retires into the
+thickest masses of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> foliage, from which its soft rose-colored plumage
+peeps out like a flower. The cry of the voracious chuquimbis<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a>
+accompanies the traveller from his first steps in the Monta&ntilde;as to his
+entrance into the primeval forests, where he finds their relative, <i>Dios
+te de</i>.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> This bird accompanies its significant cry by throwing back
+its head and making a kind of rocking movement of its body. The Indians,
+who are always disposed to connect superstitious ideas with the natural
+objects they see around them, believe that some great misfortune will
+befall any one who may shoot this bird, because it utters the sacred
+word, <i>Dios</i>. Long trains of green parrots fill the air with their noisy
+chattering. One kind of these birds (<i>Ps. mercenarius</i>, Tsch.) is
+remarkable for regular migrations. Every morning they sally forth in
+flocks from the upper to the lower forests, where they pass the day, and
+they regularly return before sunset to their roosting-places. From year
+to year these parrots leave their night quarters daily at the same hour,
+and return with equal punctuality before sunset. This regularity of
+departing and returning has caused the natives to give them the name of
+<i>Jornaleros</i> (day-laborers). From the depth of the forests sounds often
+arise which resemble human voices, and the astonished hunter then
+believes that he is in the vicinity of his companions, or, perhaps, of
+hostile Indians. He eagerly listens, and it is only when well acquainted
+with the sounds of the winged inhabitants of the woods that he can
+recognise the melancholy tones of the wood-pigeons (<i>C. infuscata</i>,
+Licht.; <i>C. melancholica</i>, Tsch.). When day begins to depart, groups of
+the pheasant-like Hachahuallpa<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> assemble, and with the cry of <i>Ven
+ac&aacute;</i>, <i>Ven ac&aacute;</i>,<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> summon their distant companions.</p>
+
+<p>Not only are the trees of the forests peopled with myriads of birds,
+but the earth has also its feathered inhabitants, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> seldom soar
+above the level of the soil. They build their nests among the roots
+and fallen branches, and depend for movement more on their feet than
+on their wings. Among those members of the winged tribe, who show no
+disposition to soar into the regions of air, we find here the
+turcassa, a pigeon with richly-shaded plumage; the beautifully
+speckled toothed fowl (<i>Odontophorus speciosus</i>, Tsch.), and
+short-tailed grass fowl, or crake,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> whose flesh when cooked is
+delicately white and finely flavored. In marshy places and on the
+slimy banks of rivers, the jabiru (<i>Mycteria americana</i>, L.) loves to
+wade, together with the rose-colored spoon-bill (<i>Platalea ajaja</i>,
+L.); the fish-devouring ibis (<i>Tantalus loculator</i>, L.), the
+curved-billed snipe (<i>Rhynchoea Hil&aelig;rea</i>, Val.), the party-colored
+cranes, plovers, land-rails, shrites, and even sea-swallows.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> In
+the rivers there are ducks: these birds are, perhaps, carried down by
+the currents from the Andes, or, possibly, they fly in great trains
+from the inner waters of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>Of the amphibia in the principal forests of Peru, only the great
+fresh-water tortoise (<i>Hydraspis expansa</i>, Fitz.) is useful to the
+natives. On the sandy banks of rivers this animal buries its eggs, from
+which the Indians extract oil: its flesh, also, supplies well-flavored
+food. All other animals of this class are objects of terror, or at least
+of aversion, to the Indians. In the warm sand of the river banks, lies
+the lazy caiman.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> He keeps his jaws wide open, only closing them to
+swallow the innumerable flies which he catches on his tongue. To the
+helplessness of these animals when on land, the natives have to be
+thankful that they are not the most dangerous scourges of the forest: in
+water, their boldness and swiftness of motion are fearful. The number of
+lizards here is not great, nor do they attain so considerable a size as
+in other equatorial regions. The serpents are to be feared, and on
+approaching them, it is not easy to decide at the first view whether
+they belong to a poisonous or innoxious species. In the forests, where
+the fallen leaves lie in thick, moist layers, the foot of the hunter
+sinks deep at every step. Multitudes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> venomous amphibia are hatched
+in the half-putrescent vegetable matter, and he who inadvertently steps
+on one of these animals may consider himself uncommonly fortunate if he
+can effect his retreat without being wounded. But it is not merely in
+these places, which seem assigned by nature for their abode, that
+loathsome reptiles are found: they creep between the roots of large
+trees, under the thickly interwoven brushwood, on the open grass plots,
+and in the maize and sugar-cane fields of the Indians: nay, they crawl
+even into their huts, and most fortunate is it for the inhabitants of
+those districts that the number of the venomous, compared with the
+innoxious reptiles, is comparatively small. Of the poisonous serpents,
+only a few kinds are known whose bite is attended with very dangerous
+consequences. The <i>Miuamaru</i>, or <i>Jergon</i> (<i>Lachesis picta</i>, Tsch.), is,
+at most, three feet long, with a broad, heart-shaped head, and a thick
+upper lip. It haunts the higher forests, while in those lower down his
+place is filled by his no less fearful relative <i>Flammon</i> (<i>Lachesis
+rhombeata</i>, Prince Max.), which is six or seven feet in length. These
+serpents are usually seen coiled almost in a circle, the head thrust
+forward, and the fierce, treacherous-looking eyes glaring around,
+watching for prey, upon which they pounce with the swiftness of an
+arrow; then, coiling themselves up again, they look tranquilly on the
+death-struggle of the victim. It would appear that these amphibia have
+a perfect consciousness of the dreadful effect of their poisonous
+weapon, for they use it when they are neither attacked nor threatened,
+and they wound not merely animals fit for their food, but all that
+come within their reach. More formidable than the two snakes just
+described, but happily much less common, is the brown, ten-inch long
+viper.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> It is brown, with two rows of black circular spots. The
+effect of its bite is so rapid, that it kills a strong man in two or
+three minutes. So convinced are the natives of its inevitably fatal
+result, that they never seek any remedy; but immediately on receiving
+the wound, lay themselves down to die. In the Monta&ntilde;as of Pangoa this
+viper abounds more than in any other district, and never<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> without
+apprehension do the Cholos undertake their annual journey for the coca
+harvest, as they fear to fall victims to the bite of this viper. The
+warning sound of the rattlesnake is seldom heard in the hot Monta&ntilde;as,
+and never in the higher regions.</p>
+
+<p>Nature, who in almost all things has established an equilibrium,
+supplies the natives with remedies against the bite of the serpent. One
+of the cures most generally resorted to is the root of the amarucachu
+(<i>Polianthes tuberosa</i>, L.), cut into slips and laid upon the wound.
+Another is the juice of the creeping plant called vejuco de huaco
+(<i>Mikania Huaco</i>, Kth.), which is already very widely celebrated. This
+latter remedy was discovered by the negroes of the equatorial province,
+Choco. They remarked that a sparrow-hawk, called the <i>huaco</i>, picked up
+snakes for its principal food, and when bitten by one it flew to the
+vejuco and ate some of the leaves. At length the Indians thought of
+making the experiment on themselves, and when bitten by serpents they
+drank the expressed juice of the leaves of the vejuco, and constantly
+found that the wound was thereby rendered harmless. The use of this
+excellent plant soon became general; and in some places the belief of
+the preservative power of the vejuco juice was carried so far that men
+in good health were inoculated with it. In this process some spoonfuls
+of the expressed fluid are drunk, and afterwards some drops are put into
+incisions made in the hands, feet, and breast. The fluid is rubbed into
+the wounds by fresh vejuco leaves. After this operation, according to
+the testimony of persons worthy of credit, the bite of the poisonous
+snake fails for a long time to have any evil effect. Besides the two
+plants mentioned above, many others are used with more or less favorable
+results. The inhabitants of the Monta&ntilde;a also resort to other means,
+which are too absurd to be detailed here; yet their medicines are often
+of benefit, for their operation is violently reactive. They usually
+produce the effect of repeated emetics, and cause great perspiration.
+There is much difference in the modes of external treatment of the
+wound, and burning is often employed. I saw an Indian apply to his
+wife's foot, which had been bitten, a plaster, consisting of moist
+gunpowder, pulverised sulphur, and finely-chopped tobacco, mixed up
+together. He laid this over the wounded part and set<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> fire to it. This
+application, in connexion with one of the nausea-exciting remedies taken
+inwardly, had a successful result.</p>
+
+<p>Innoxious snakes<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> wind on tendrilled climbing plants, or lie like
+necklaces of coral on the brown decayed leaves (<i>Elap. affinis</i>, Fitz.).
+Where the branches of rivers enter the gloomy forests and form little
+narrow lagunes, over which the high trees spread in vaulted cupolas
+almost impervious to the light of day, there dwells the powerful giant
+snake (<i>Eunectes murinus</i>, Wagl.), called by the Indians, in their
+figurative language, <i>yacumaman</i>, "mother of the waters." Stretched in
+listless repose, or winding round the stem of an old tree, bathing her
+tail in the cool lagune, she watches wistfully for the animals of the
+forest who come to the waters to quench their thirst. Whilst she gazes
+at her distant prey, the fascinating power of her eyes seems to subdue
+the trembling victim, and, unable even to attempt escape, he falls an
+easy sacrifice.</p>
+
+<p>The amphibia of the frog species, which lie concealed in silent repose
+during the day, raise, after sunset, their far-sounding voices. The
+violet colored throat-bladder (<i>Cystignathus silvestris</i>, Tsch.)
+maintains his loud, uniform croak beneath the bushes, or penetrates into
+the huts of the inhabitants. The <i>trapichero</i>, or sugar-mill frog, is a
+large species, almost half a foot in length. Its croak resembles very
+much the grating sound caused by the working of a sugar mill, for which
+reason the natives have given it the name of trapichero, or the
+<i>sugar-miller</i>. The croaking of these frogs, whose manifold tones blend
+together in confused union, augments not a little the distressing
+dreariness of a forest night.</p>
+
+<p>Of the numerous species of insects which swarm in these regions, few are
+remarkable for beauty; but many fix attention by their peculiar habits.
+The bites and stings of numbers of them are very dangerous, and it
+requires much caution to guard against their attacks.</p>
+
+<p>Variegated butterflies flutter noiselessly among the spreading branches
+of the trees, or sun themselves on the warm masses of fallen leaves. The
+most remarkable of these butterflies is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> large atlas, whose
+brilliant blue tints shine out with lustrous radiance in the dim light
+of the forest. Along the banks of rivers, and especially in hot marshy
+spots, small musquitoes swarm. The bite of this animal produces an
+intolerable burning sensation, and often causes considerable
+inflammation. But more troublesome, and also much more numerous, are the
+stinging-flies (<i>sancudos</i>). On my first arrival in the Monta&ntilde;a, I lay
+several days exceedingly ill in consequence of severe swelling of the
+head and limbs, caused by the bites of these insects. To the inhabitant
+of the forest the sancudos are an incessant torment. In no season of the
+year, in no hour of the day or night, is there any respite from their
+attacks. Rubbing the body with unctuous substances, together with the
+caustic juices of certain plants, and at night enclosing one's self in a
+tent made of <i>tucuyo</i> (cotton cloth), or palm-tree bast, are the only
+means of protection against their painful stings. The clothes commonly
+worn are not sufficient, for they are perforated by the long sting of
+the larger species, particularly of the much-dreaded
+<i>huir-pasimi-sancudo</i> (Lip-gnat). Regularly every evening at twilight
+fresh swarms of these mischievous insects make their appearance.</p>
+
+<p>The ticks (<i>ixodes</i>) are a class of insects destined by nature for the
+suction of plants; but they often forsake trees, shrubs, and grasses, to
+fasten on man and other animals. With their long sharp stings they make
+punctures, in which they insert their heads, and thereby occasion very
+painful sores. These insects appear to have no preference for any
+particular class of animals. They are often found on the hair of dead
+mammalia, and among the feathers of birds which have been shot; even the
+toad, the frog, and the scaly lizard are not spared by them. Much more
+troublesome than these insects are the antanas, which are not visible to
+the naked eye. They penetrate the surface of the skin, and introduce
+themselves beneath it, where they propagate with incredible rapidity;
+and when some thousands of them are collected together, a blackish spot
+appears, which quickly spreads. If these insects are not destroyed when
+they first introduce themselves into the punctures, they multiply with
+incalculable rapidity, destroying the skin, and all the tender parts in
+contact with it. Washing with brandy, which is often found to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> be a
+remedy against the less mischievous isancos, is not sufficient for the
+removal of the antanas. For their extirpation the only effectual remedy
+is frequently bathing the part affected with a mixture of spirits of
+wine and corrosive sublimate.</p>
+
+<p>Who can describe the countless myriads of ants which swarm through the
+forests? Every shrub is full of creeping life, and the decayed
+vegetation affords harbor for some peculiar kinds of these insects.
+The large yellow <i>puca-&ccedil;i&ccedil;i</i> is seen in multitudes in the open air,
+and it even penetrates into the dwellings. This insect does not bite,
+but its crawling creates great irritation to the skin. The small black
+<i>yana-&ccedil;i&ccedil;i</i>, on the contrary, inflicts most painful punctures. A very
+mischievous species of stinging ant is the black <i>sunchiron</i>. This
+insect inflicts a puncture with a long sting, which he carries in the
+rear of his body. The wound is exceedingly painful, and is sometimes
+attended by dangerous consequences. My travelling companion, C. Klee,
+being stung by one of these ants, suffered such severe pain and
+fever, that he was for a short while delirious. A few nights
+afterwards, a similar attack was made on myself during sleep. It
+suddenly awoke me, and caused me to start up with a convulsive
+spring. I must confess that I never, in my whole life, experienced
+such severe pain as I did at that moment.</p>
+
+<p>A most remarkable phenomenon is exhibited by the swarms of the species
+called the <i>&ntilde;aui-huacan-&ccedil;i&ccedil;i</i>,<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> the great <i>wandering ant</i>. They
+appear suddenly in trains of countless myriads, and proceed forward in
+a straight direction, without stopping. The small, the weak, and the
+neuters are placed in the centre, while the large and the strong flank
+the army, and look out for prey. These swarms, called by the natives
+<i>Chacus</i>, sometimes enter a hut and clear it of all insects, amphibia,
+and other disagreeable guests. This work being accomplished, they again
+form themselves into a long train, and move onwards. The united force
+of these small creatures is vast, and there is no approach to the
+fabulous, when it is related that not only snakes, but also large
+mammalia, such as agoutis, armadillas, &amp;c., on being surprised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> by
+them, are soon killed. On the light dry parts of the higher Monta&ntilde;as we
+find the large conical dwellings of the termes so firmly built, that
+they are impenetrable even to rifle shot. They sometimes stand singly,
+sometimes together, in long lines. In form they strongly resemble the
+simple, conical Puna huts.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving the animal kingdom of these forest regions, which I have
+here sketched only briefly and fragmentally, I must notice two insects,
+the <i>Cucaracha</i> and the <i>Chilicabra</i>, species of the Cockroach
+(<i>Blatta</i>). They are exceedingly numerous and troublesome. The
+Cucaracha, which more particularly infests the deep regions of the
+forest, is an inch and a half long, and above half an inch broad; it is
+reddish brown, with a yellow neck. The Chilicabra, though smaller, is
+more mischievous, by reason of its greater numbers. They settle in the
+huts, where they destroy provisions, gnaw clothes, get into beds, and
+into the dishes at meal time. These insects defy every precaution that
+can be taken against their tormenting attacks. Luckily, nature has
+provided enemies for their destruction. Among these is a small reddish
+yellow ant, called by the Indians, the <i>Pucchu-&ccedil;i&ccedil;i</i>, a useful member
+of the ant family, for it pursues and destroys the mischievous
+cockroaches. There is also a very elegant little bird, called the
+<i>Cucarachero</i> (<i>Troglodytes audax</i>, Tsch.) which wages war against
+these insects. On seizing one of them it first bites off the head, then
+devours the body, and throws away the tough wings. These operations
+being completed, it hops to the nearest bush, and tunes its melodious
+song, the sounds of which closely resemble the words "<i>Acabe la
+tarea!</i>" a name which the Indians give to this bird.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> I could yet
+fill many pages with descriptions of insects which are dangerous or
+troublesome, and among them are included the julus, measuring six
+inches in length, the large black and red scorpion, not forgetting the
+numerous poisonous wasps and the cicadas. However, those which have
+been noticed will suffice <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>to afford an idea of the ever-active
+movements of animal life in the forests.</p>
+
+<p>Willingly would I take a view of the vegetation of the virgin forests,
+and attempt to sketch its progressive developments and alternations
+from the hilly Monta&ntilde;as of the eastern declivities of the Andes to the
+humid level banks of the larger rivers; but I do not feel myself
+competent to undertake a labor to which former travellers intimately
+acquainted with the world of plants have already rendered full
+justice.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> Being devoted to the study of zoology, and,
+unfortunately, too little familiar with botany, I have confined myself
+to a description of the general impression produced by the luxuriant
+growth of the soil, without entering into the individualities of the
+vegetation. In the more highly situated Monta&ntilde;as, where the cinchona
+is found in the place of its nativity, the gigantic orchid&aelig;, the
+numerous fern plants, the tree-like nettles, the wonderful bignonias,
+and the numerous, impenetrable complications of climbing plants,
+powerfully rivet the attention of the observer. Lower down, in the
+lighter forest soil, amidst numerous shrubs and climbers, the eye
+delights to dwell on the manifold forms of the stately palm, on the
+terebinthace&aelig;, on the thickly-leaved balsam-yielding leguminos&aelig;, on
+the luxuriant laurels, on the pandane&aelig; or the large-leaved heliconias,
+and on the solane&aelig;, with their gigantic blossoms and thousands of
+flowers. Descending still further, the flat lands of the forest assume
+a dark and gloomy aspect. The massive foliage of trees overarches
+stems which are the growth of centuries, and form a canopy almost
+impervious to the light of day. On the slimy soil no small shrub
+uprears its head, no flowering plant unfolds its blossom. The mighty
+trees stand alone, and erect in rows, like gravestones in a
+churchyard; and the child of darkness&mdash;the rapidly-shooting
+mushroom&mdash;finds genial nurture on the warm humid earth.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Bark-gatherers. The Peruvians call the bark
+<i>cascarilla</i>, and they point out the distinctions of a great number of
+species and varieties.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> From Cuzco, the ancient residence of the Incas. It was
+discovered by the French chemists Corriol and Pelletier, in the
+Cascarilla which is shipped in Arica; hence this alkaloid is also
+called <i>Aricin</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> The Indian name for this animal is <i>Chaque chinca</i>. The
+black variety <i>Yana chinca</i> is called by the Spaniards <i>Tigre</i> or
+<i>Yaguar</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> <i>Rupicola peruviana</i>, Ch. Dum. The color of the female
+is reddish brown, and she is named by the natives <i>Tunqui mulato</i>; the
+male is called <i>Tunqui Colorado</i>. In some parts of the Monta&ntilde;a the
+<i>Cephalopterus ornatus</i> is called <i>Yana Tunqui</i>. Thus, even the
+Indians have observed the relationship of these birds, which, classed
+according to our system of natural history, actually belong to one
+family, the <i>Ampelid&aelig;</i>. Their affinity is indicated very correctly by
+the Indian name.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> The Organistas of Peru, Brazil, and Guiana, &amp;c.,
+mentioned by so many travellers, all belong to the family of the
+Troglodytin&aelig;, to the two genera, <i>Troglodytes</i>, Vieill, and
+<i>Cyphorhinus</i>, Cab. The Peruvian Organista above alluded to, is the
+<i>Troglodytes leucophrys</i>, Tsch. In Guiana it appears to be the
+<i>Cyphorhinus carinatus</i>, Cab.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> <i>Xenops</i>, <i>Anabates</i>, <i>Dendrocolaptes</i>, and many other
+kinds of <i>Capito</i> and <i>Picus</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> These are different kinds of <i>Cassicus</i> and <i>Icterus</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Kinds of Pteroglossus. Those most frequently met with in
+the Monta&ntilde;as are the <i>Pt. atrogularis</i>, Sturm; <i>Pt. c&oelig;ruleocinctus</i>,
+Tsch. (<i>Aulacorhynchus</i>, Orb.); and <i>Pt. Derbianus</i>, Gould.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> <i>Dios te de</i> signifies <i>May God give it thee</i>. The sound
+which is interpreted, <i>Dios te de</i> resembles very much the cry of most
+of the Toucans, or pepper-eaters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Several kinds of Penelope.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> The cry of this bird closely resembles the Spanish words
+<i>Ven ac&aacute;</i> (Come hither).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> Seven species of Crypturus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> <i>Sterna erythrorhynchos</i>, Prince Max., <i>St.
+magnirostris</i>, Licht.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> <i>Champsa fissipes, sclerops et nigra</i>, Wagl.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> <i>Echidna ocellata</i>, Tsch. This is the only species of the
+viper family belonging to South America, as yet known.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> <i>Sphenocephalus melanogenys</i>, Tsch.; <i>Lygophis Reginae</i>,
+Wagl.; <i>L. taeniurus</i>, Tsch.; <i>L. elegans</i>, Tsch.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> From <i>&ntilde;aui</i>, the eye, <i>huacay</i>, to cry, and <i>&ccedil;i&ccedil;i</i>, the
+ant;&mdash;so called by the Indians, because the pain of its numerous stings
+brings tears into the eyes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> "<i>Acabe la tarea</i>" may be translated "<i>My task is
+finished</i>." But the Indians are not very consistent in their
+interpretations of the song of the <i>Cucarachero</i>; for in some districts,
+they contend that it repeats the words&mdash;<i>Casa te Soltera</i>, "<i>Go and get
+married, Maiden</i>."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> A. von Humboldt, von Martius, and, in particular, P&ouml;ppig,
+who has published a narrative of his journey through Peru, distinguished
+by its precision, and written in a style so elegant and simple that its
+perusal affords the utmost interest and pleasure.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XV.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Monta&ntilde;a of San Carlos de Vitoc&mdash;&#8203;Villages&mdash;&#8203;Hacienda of Maraynioc&mdash;the
+Coca Plant&mdash;&#8203;Mode of Cultivating and Gathering it&mdash;&#8203;Mastication of
+Coca&mdash;&#8203;Evil Consequences of its excessive Use&mdash;&#8203;Its Nutritious
+Qualities&mdash;&#8203;Indian Superstitions connected with the Coca
+Plant&mdash;&#8203;Suggestions for its Introduction in the European
+Navies&mdash;&#8203;Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo&mdash;&#8203;The Chunchos&mdash;&#8203;Missions
+to Cerro de la Sal&mdash;&#8203;Juan Santos Atahuallpa&mdash;&#8203;The Franciscan
+Monks&mdash;&#8203;Depopulation of Vitoc.</p>
+
+<p>The Monta&ntilde;a of San Carlos de Vitoc is, without exception, one of the
+most interesting districts of Peru. It has on the one side, and at a
+short distance, the populous villages of the Sierra, and on the other it
+borders on the forests, through which the wild Indians range in their
+hunting excursions. It was formerly the principal key to the missionary
+stations of the Pampa del Sacramento, the Chanchamayo, Perenc, and Upper
+Ucayali. It is only twenty leagues distant from Tarma, from whence the
+road leads through the fertile valley Acobamba, to Palca. Eastward of
+the latter place are the ruins of a fort, which in former times must
+have been a place of considerable importance. The wild Indians have
+repeatedly made hostile sallies from their forests, and it is only by
+this bulwark, which, with four small field-pieces, completely defends
+the narrow valley, that they have been checked in their advance on
+Tarma. An exceedingly steep path runs about a league and a half up the
+acclivity; then, becoming somewhat more level, it extends to the base of
+the crest, which at that part is about 14,000 feet above the level of
+the sea. Here the aspect of the Andes is by no means so imposing as that
+of the Cordillera, for the glaciers and steep rocky summits are wanting.
+The highest peaks rise only about 200 feet above the crest. As in the
+Cordillera, the eastern declivity inclines much more gently than the
+western, but the road is marshy, and is interspersed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> with large
+hollows, into which the mules often fall and are killed. After passing
+over the Andes, two leagues further, we come to the hacienda
+Maraynioc, where numerous herds of cattle are kept. Round the hacienda
+there are potato plantations, and the potatoes reared here are so
+excellent, that they are celebrated throughout the whole Sierra. Every
+morning the sky is obscured by heavy clouds; it rains regularly two days
+in the week, and there are frequent falls of snow; yet notwithstanding
+this excessive humidity, a bad harvest is an event never to be
+apprehended. The cultivation of maize is, however, found to be
+impracticable here, for soon after germination the ears rot. A small
+stream flows past the hacienda, and after a course of about three
+leagues, it reaches the Monta&ntilde;a de Vitoc. Formerly, the road ran close
+along the bank of this stream, but in consequence of the repeated
+depopulation of Vitoc, it became neglected, and at length impassable.
+The way is now over the Cuchillo, or sharp edge of a mountain ridge, and
+it must be at least four times longer than the course formerly taken.
+From Maraynioc the road proceeds, for the length of a league, through a
+valley overgrown with brushwood, and then rises to a lateral branch of
+the Andes, which is almost as high as the main chain. The Indians call
+this ridge, <i>Manam rimacunan</i> ("Thou shall not speak!"), for a heavy
+wind, accompanied by drifting snow, blows constantly, and renders it
+scarcely possible to open the mouth to utter a word. From Manarimacunan,
+downwards, to the lower Monta&ntilde;a, the road passes over stones laid in
+<i>echelon</i> form, and through a very slippery hollow way, which descends
+rapidly downward, and is surrounded by almost impenetrable woods; the
+only open and level place is the field of Chilpes, which is a few
+hundred paces long.</p>
+
+<p>Here it is highly interesting to contemplate the rapid increase of
+vegetation, and the varied changes in the animal world. From the brink
+of a ridge where only feeble vegetation can be seen, we descend a few
+leagues and speedily find ourselves in the region of the Cinchona tree,
+and in the evening we are among lofty palms. The first human dwellings
+seen on entering the Monta&ntilde;a are half a dozen small huts, forming the
+hamlet Amaruyo, formerly called Sibis, and immediately after we come to
+the village of Vitoc. It consists of about fifty wretched huts, and has
+a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> small church, in which worship is performed twice a year for the
+inhabitants of the whole valley.</p>
+
+<p>Vitoc is surrounded by two rivers, which unite in a sharp angle, called
+the Tingo, and which separate the valley from the territory of the wild
+Indians. The valley is deep, and the surrounding heights are broken by
+many quebradas. The soil is very fruitful, and the locality is less than
+some others infested with troublesome insects; yet it is but scantily
+peopled, for, besides the two villages and the Hacienda of Maraynioc,
+already mentioned, it contains only a few scattered chacras. The
+inhabitants of this, the most favored district of the Monta&ntilde;as, scarcely
+amount to 200. The villagers employ themselves chiefly in the
+cultivation of pines, which are sent to Lima. The Indians of Palca and
+Tapo bring them potatoes, salt, and butcher's meat, for which the
+villagers exchange their pine-apples. The fruit is conveyed by asses
+to the coast, where, however, it seldom arrives in good condition. The
+other productions of the Monta&ntilde;a are maize, oranges, bananas, paltas,
+Spanish pepper, &amp;c.; but these articles are sold only in the Sierra.
+Each inhabitant of the village cultivates his own piece of ground,
+which he can enlarge when he pleases; but these people are too
+indolent to devote themselves seriously to agriculture. It is only
+when the governor in Tarma compels them to pay the annual
+contribution, that they make an effort to augment their earnings; they
+then seek a market for the products of their cultivation, and sell
+them for ready money. Vitoc and some of the villages in its
+neighborhood form altogether only one ecclesiastical community, whose
+pastor lives in Tarma the whole year round. He goes to Pucara only
+once in six or eight months, to read a couple of masses, and to
+solemnize marriages and christenings, but chiefly to collect fees for
+burials which may have taken place during his absence.</p>
+
+<p>The plantation of Pacchapata is of considerable extent, but produces
+very little. The system of repartimientos, already described, by which
+the poor Indian is kept in a state of slavery by advances of clothing,
+meat, brandy, &amp;c., is practised in this hacienda to a great extent. The
+laborer who is set down in the plantation-book as a debtor for ten or
+twelve dollars, has a good chance of remaining during the rest of his
+life a tributary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> slave; for if he tries by prolonged labor to relieve
+himself from the debt the owner of the plantation causes brandy to be
+made, and this is too great a temptation to be resisted by an Indian.
+The butcher's meat given to the laboring Indians in general consists of
+<i>Chalonas</i>, that is, the dried flesh of sheep which have died in the
+haciendas of the hilly districts. For a meagre, tough, unwholesome
+chalona the Indian has to add a dollar and a half or two dollars to his
+debt, while a living sheep in the Sierra would not cost half the price.
+It is the same with other articles furnished by the haciendas. European
+importations, such as can be purchased at very low prices in the Sierra,
+are sold at high profits by the owners of plantations to the poor
+Indians, who have to repay them by long and severe labor.</p>
+
+<p>At Pacchapata, besides maize, yuccas, and fruits, sugar, coffee, and
+coca are also cultivated. The sugar-cane grows in abundance, and is of
+good quality. An excellent kind of coffee is grown here; the bean is
+slightly globular, and its color is a greenish blue. In former times the
+viceroy used to send the coffee of Vitoc as a highly-esteemed present to
+the court of Madrid. The coca is also very fine, and yields three
+harvests in the year; which, however, is only the case in a few of the
+Monta&ntilde;as, as, for example, at Pangoa and Huanta. I may here subjoin
+some notice of this highly interesting plant.</p>
+
+<p>The coca (<i>Erythroxylon coca</i>, Lam.) is a shrub about six feet in
+height, with bright green leaves and white blossoms. The latter are
+succeeded by small scarlet berries. It is raised from the seed, in
+garden-beds called <i>almazigas</i>. When the young shoots are one and a half
+or two feet high, they are removed to regularly laid out coca fields
+(<i>cocales</i>), where they are planted at the distance of about three spans
+from each other. The coca requires humidity; therefore, during the first
+year or two after it is planted in the fields, maize is sown between the
+<i>matas</i>, or young shoots, to screen them from the too great influence of
+the sun. When the leaves are ripe, that is to say, when on being bent
+they crack or break off, the gathering commences. The leaves are
+stripped from the branches, a task usually performed by women, and it
+requires great care lest the tender leaves and young twigs should be
+injured. In some districts, the Indians<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> are so very careful in
+gathering the coca, that, instead of stripping off the leaves, they cut
+them from the stem by making an incision with their nails. The plant
+thus rendered leafless is soon again overgrown with verdant foliage.
+After being gathered, the leaves are spread out on coarse woollen cloths
+and dried in the sun. The color of the leaves when dried is a pale
+green. The drying is an operation which likewise demands great care
+and attention, for if the leaves imbibe damp, they become dark
+colored, and then they sell for a much lower price than when they are
+green. The dry coca is finely packed in woollen sacks, and covered
+with sand. These sacks are of various sizes and colors, in different
+parts of the Monta&ntilde;as. In Huanuco they are grey or black, and when
+filled weigh from 75 to 80 pounds. In Vitoc they are grey and white,
+and contain 150 pounds. In Huanta and Anco they are small in size, and
+black or brown in color, and contain merely one aroba. In the Monta&ntilde;as
+of Urubamba, Calca, and Paucartambo, the coca leaves are put into
+small baskets called <i>cestos</i>, and covered with sand. Great care is
+also requisite in the carriage of the coca, for if damp be allowed to
+penetrate the sack, the leaves become hot, or as the natives express
+it, <i>Se calientan</i>, and are thereby rendered useless.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians masticate the coca. Each individual carries a leathern
+pouch, called the <i>huallqui</i>, or the <i>chuspa</i>, and a small flask gourd,
+called the <i>ishcupuru</i>. The pouch contains a supply of coca leaves, and
+the gourd is filled with pulverised unslaked lime. Usually four times,
+but never less than three times a day, the Indian suspends his labor,
+for the purpose of masticating coca. This operation (which is termed
+<i>chacchar</i> or <i>acullicar</i>) is performed in the following manner: some of
+the coca leaves, the stalks having been carefully picked off, are
+masticated until they form a small ball, or as it is called an
+<i>acullico</i>. A thin slip of damp wood is then thrust into the
+<i>ishcupuru</i>, or gourd, and when drawn out some portion of the powdered
+lime adheres to it. The <i>acullico</i>, or ball of masticated coca leaves,
+is, whilst still lying in the mouth, punctured with this slip of wood,
+until the lime mixing with it, gives it a proper relish, and the
+abundant flow of saliva thus excited is partly expectorated and partly
+swallowed. When the ball ceases to emit juice, it is thrown away, and
+a new one is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> formed by the mastication of a fresh mouthfull of coca
+leaves. In Cerro de Pasco, and in places still further south, the
+Indians use, instead of unslaked lime, a preparation of the pungent
+ashes of the quinua (<i>Chenopodium Quinua</i>, L.). This preparation is
+called <i>Llucta</i> or <i>Llipta</i>. In using it a piece is broken off and
+masticated along with the <i>acullico</i>. In some of the Monta&ntilde;a regions
+the Llucta is made from the ashes of the musa root. The application of
+the unslaked lime demands some precaution, for if it comes in direct
+contact with the lips and gums, it causes a very painful burning.
+During a fatiguing ride across the level heights, where, owing to the
+cold wind, I experienced a difficulty of respiration, my Arriero
+recommended me to chew coca, assuring me that I would experience great
+relief from so doing. He lent me his <i>huallqui</i>, but owing to my
+awkward manner of using it, I cauterized my lips so severely that I
+did not venture on a second experiment.</p>
+
+<p>The flavor of coca is not unpleasant. It is slightly bitter, aromatic,
+and similar to the worst kind of green tea. When mixed with the ashes of
+the musa root it is somewhat piquant, and more pleasant to European
+palates than it is without that addition. The smell of the fresh dried
+leaves in a mass is almost overpowering; but this smell entirely goes
+when they are packed in the sacks. All who masticate coca have a very
+bad breath, pale lips and gums, greenish and stumpy teeth, and an ugly
+black mark at the angles of the mouth. An inveterate <i>coquero</i>, or coca
+chewer, is known at the first glance. His unsteady gait, his
+yellow-colored skin, his dim and sunken eyes encircled by a purple ring,
+his quivering lips and his general apathy, all bear evidence of the
+baneful effects of the coca juice when taken in excess. All the mountain
+Indians are addicted more or less to the practice of masticating coca.
+Each man consumes, on the average, between an ounce and an ounce and a
+half per day, and on festival days about double that quantity. The
+owners of mines and plantations allow their laborers to suspend their
+work three times a day for the <i>chacchar</i>, which usually occupies
+upwards of a quarter of an hour; and after that they smoke a paper
+cigar, which they allege crowns the zest of the coca mastication. He
+who indulges for a time in the use of coca finds it difficult, indeed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span>
+almost impossible, to relinquish it. This fact I saw exemplified in
+the cases of several persons of high respectability in Lima, who are
+in the habit of retiring daily to a private apartment for the purpose
+of masticating coca. They could not do this openly, because among the
+refined class of Peruvians the chacchar is looked upon as a low and
+vulgar practice, befitting only to the laboring Indians. Yet,
+Europeans occasionally allow themselves to fall into this habit; and I
+knew two in Lima, the one an Italian and the other a Biscayan, who
+were confirmed coqueros in the strictest sense of the word. In Cerro
+de Pasco there are societies having even Englishmen for their members,
+which meet on certain evenings for the chacchar. In these places,
+instead of lime or ashes, sugar is served along with the coca leaves.
+A member of one of these clubs informed me that on the few first
+trials the sugar was found very agreeable, but that afterwards the
+palate required some more pungent ingredient.</p>
+
+<p>The operation of the coca is similar to that of narcotics administered
+in small doses. Its effects may be compared to those produced by the
+thorn-apple rather than to those arising from opium. I have already
+noticed the consequences resulting from drinking the decoction of the
+datura.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> In the inveterate coquero similar symptoms are observable,
+but in a mitigated degree. I may mention one circumstance attending the
+use of coca, which appears hitherto to have escaped notice: it is,
+that after the mastication of a great quantity of coca the eye seems
+unable to bear light, and there is a marked distension of the pupil. I
+have also observed this peculiarity of the eye in one who had drunk a
+strong extract of the infusion of coca leaves. In the effects
+consequent on the use of opium and coca there is this distinction,
+that coca, when taken even in the utmost excess, never causes a total
+alienation of the mental powers or induces sleep; but, like opium, it
+excites the sensibility of the brain, and the repeated excitement,
+occasioned by its intemperate use after a series of years, wears out
+mental vigor and activity.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well known fact, confirmed by long observation and experience,
+that the Indians who regularly masticate coca require <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>but little food,
+and, nevertheless, go through excessive labor with apparent ease. They,
+therefore, ascribe the most extraordinary qualities to the coca, and
+even believe that it might be made entirely a substitute for food.
+Setting aside all extravagant and visionary notions on the subject, I am
+clearly of opinion that the moderate use of coca is not merely
+innoxious, but that it may even be very conducive to health. In support
+of this conclusion, I may refer to the numerous examples of longevity
+among Indians who, almost from the age of boyhood, have been
+in the habit of masticating coca three times a day, and who in the
+course of their lives have consumed no less than two thousand seven
+hundred pounds, yet, nevertheless, enjoy perfect health.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> The food of
+the Indians consists almost exclusively of vegetable substances,
+especially roasted maize and barley converted into flour by crushing,
+which they eat without the admixture of any other substance. The
+continued use of this farinaceous food occasions severe obstructions,
+which the well known aperient qualities of the coca counteract, and many
+serious diseases are thereby prevented. That the coca is in the highest
+degree nutritious, is a fact beyond dispute. The incredible fatigues
+endured by the Peruvian infantry, with very spare diet, but with the
+regular use of coca; the laborious toil of the Indian miner, kept up,
+under similar circumstances, throughout a long series of years;
+certainly afford sufficient ground for attributing to the coca leaves,
+not a quality of mere temporary stimulus, but a powerful nutritive
+principle. Of the great power of the Indians in enduring fatigue with no
+other sustenance than coca, I may here mention an example. A Cholo of
+Huari, named Hatun Huamang, was employed by me in very laborious
+digging. During the whole time he was in my service, viz., five days and
+nights, he never tasted any food, and took only two hours' sleep
+nightly. But at intervals of two and a half or three hours, he regularly
+masticated about half an ounce of coca leaves, and he kept an acullico<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span>
+continually in his mouth. I was constantly beside him, and therefore I
+had the opportunity of closely observing him. The work for which I
+engaged him being finished, he accompanied me on a two days' journey of
+twenty-three leagues across the level heights. Though on foot, he kept
+up with the pace of my mule, and halted only for the <i>chacchar</i>. On
+leaving me, he declared that he would willingly engage himself again for
+the same amount of work, and that he would go through it without food if
+I would but allow him a sufficient supply of coca. The village priest
+assured me that this man was sixty-two years of age, and that he had
+never known him to be ill in his life.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians maintain that coca is the best preventive of that difficulty
+of respiration felt in the rapid ascents of the Cordillera and the Puna.
+Of this fact I was fully convinced by my own personal experience. I
+speak here, not of the mastication of the leaves, but of their decoction
+taken as a beverage. When I was in the Puna, at the height of 14,000
+feet above the level of the sea, I drank, always before going out to
+hunt, a strong infusion of coca leaves. I could then during the whole
+day climb the heights and follow the swift-footed wild animals without
+experiencing any greater difficulty of breathing than I should have felt
+in similar rapid movement on the coast. Moreover, I did not suffer from
+the symptoms of cerebral excitement or uneasiness which other travellers
+have observed. The reason perhaps is, that I only drank this decoction
+in the cold Puna, where the nervous system is far less susceptible than
+in the climate of the forests. However, I always felt a sense of great
+satiety after taking the coca infusion, and I did not feel a desire for
+my next meal until after the time at which I usually took it.</p>
+
+<p>By the Peruvian Indians the coca plant is regarded as something sacred
+and mysterious, and it sustained an important part in the religion of
+the Incas. In all ceremonies, whether religious or warlike, it was
+introduced, for producing smoke at the great offerings, or as the
+sacrifice itself. During divine worship the priests chewed coca leaves,
+and unless they were supplied with them, it was believed that the favor
+of the gods could not be propitiated. It was also deemed necessary that
+the supplicator for divine grace should approach the priests with an
+<i>Acullico</i> in his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> mouth. It was believed that any business undertaken
+without the benediction of coca leaves could not prosper; and to the
+shrub itself worship was rendered. During an interval of more than 300
+years Christianity has not been able to subdue the deep-rooted idolatry;
+for everywhere we find traces of belief in the mysterious power of this
+plant. The excavators in the mines of Cerro de Pasco throw masticated
+coca on hard veins of metal, in the belief that it softens the ore, and
+renders it more easy to work. The origin of this custom is easily
+explained, when it is recollected, that in the time of the Incas it was
+believed that the <i>Coyas</i>, or the deities of metals, rendered the
+mountains impenetrable, if they were not propitiated by the odor of
+coca. The Indians, even at the present time, put coca leaves into the
+mouths of dead persons, to secure to them a favorable reception on their
+entrance into another world, and when a Peruvian Indian on a journey
+falls in with a mummy, he, with timid reverence, presents to it some
+coca leaves as his pious offering.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the conquest of Peru, when the Spaniards treated the Indians
+and all their customs with contempt, coca became an object of aversion
+to the whites. The reverence rendered by the natives to the coca plant
+induced the Spaniards to believe that it possessed some demoniacal
+influence. The officers of the government and the clergy, therefore,
+endeavored, by all possible means, to extirpate its use, and this is one
+cause, hitherto overlooked, of the hatred with which the Indians
+regarded the Spaniards. In the second council held at Lima, in 1567,
+coca was described "as a worthless object, fitted for the misuse and
+superstition of the Indians;" and a royal decree of October 18, 1569,
+expressly declares that the notions entertained by the natives that coca
+gives them strength, is an "illusion of the devil" (<i>una elusion del
+Demonio</i>). The Peruvian mine owners were the first to discover the
+importance of the <i>chacchar</i> in assisting the Indians to go through
+their excessive labor, and they, together with the plantation owners,
+became the most earnest defenders of coca. The consequence was, that, in
+defiance of royal and ecclesiastical ordinances, its use increased
+rather than diminished. One of the warmest advocates of the plant was
+the Jesuit Don Antonio Julian, who, in a work entitled, "Perla de
+America," laments<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> that coca is not introduced into Europe instead of
+tea and coffee. "It is," he observes, "melancholy to reflect that the
+poor of Europe cannot obtain this preservative against hunger and
+thirst; that our working people are not supported by this strengthening
+plant in their long-continued labors."<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> In the year 1793, Dr. Don
+Pedro Nolasco Crespo pointed out in a treatise the important advantages
+that would be derived from the use of the coca plant, if introduced into
+the European navies, and he expresses a wish that experiments of its
+utility in that way could be tried. Though it is not probable that Dr.
+Crespo's wish will ever be realized, yet there is little doubt that the
+use of coca as a beverage on board ship would be attended with very
+beneficial results. It would afford a nutritious refreshment to seamen
+in the exercise of their laborious duties, and would greatly assist in
+counteracting the unwholesome effects of salt provisions. As a stimulant
+it would be far less injurious than ardent spirits, for which it might
+be substituted without fear of any of the evil consequences experienced
+by the <i>coqueros</i>. After a long and attentive observation of the effects
+of coca, I am fully convinced that its use, in moderation, is no way
+detrimental to health; and that without it the Peruvian Indian, with his
+spare diet, would be incapable of going through the labor which he now
+performs. The coca plant must be considered as a great blessing to Peru.
+It is an essential means of preserving the nationality of the Indians,
+and in some measure mitigating the melancholy fate of that once great
+race which disease and excessive labor now threaten to destroy.</p>
+
+<p>In former times the cultivation of coca in the Monta&ntilde;a de Vitoc was very
+considerable. Upwards of 4,000 arobas used to be annually forwarded to
+the market of Tarma. Now only fifty arobas are sent. Vitoc produces no
+fodder for horses or mules; those animals, therefore, are very lean and
+feeble in this district, and are usually unfit for work after two years.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>Indeed, they suffer so much from the attacks of the blood-sucking bat
+and the gad-fly (<i>tabano</i>), that after being only a few weeks in the
+Monta&ntilde;a de Vitoc, their strength is exhausted, and they are scarcely
+able to reach the Puna. Black cattle, on the contrary, thrive
+excellently; but it is not possible to keep up herds, for the young
+calves are all devoured by the numerous animals of prey. The llamas,
+which the Cholos bring from Tapo to Vitoc, are so enfeebled and overcome
+by the journey, that on the second day after their arrival it is often
+found necessary to send them to a colder district.</p>
+
+<p>In this Monta&ntilde;a the large animals of prey seldom approach human
+habitations, though sometimes the ounce pays them a visit, and the
+Cuguar descends from the Ceja. Other animals of the feline genus are
+very numerous, and their depredations render it impossible to breed
+poultry. Even the fabulous animal, called the <i>carbunculo</i>, is said to
+have been seen oftener than once in Vitoc. In almost every place I
+visited on the coast, in the Sierra, and in the Monta&ntilde;as, extraordinary
+stories concerning this animal were related; and many persons even
+assured me they had seen him. The carbunculo is represented to be of the
+size of a fox, with long black hair, and is only visible at night, when
+it slinks slowly through the thickets. If followed, he opens a flap or
+valve in the forehead, from under which an extraordinary, brilliant, and
+dazzling light issues. The natives believe that this light proceeds from
+a brilliant precious stone, and that any fool hardy person who may
+venture to grasp at it rashly is blinded; then the flap is let down, and
+the animal disappears in the darkness. Such are the stories related by
+the Indians; and it appears that the belief of the existence of the
+carbunculo has prevailed in Peru from the earliest times, and certainly
+before the conquest, so that its introduction cannot be attributed to
+the Spaniards. It is even prevalent among many of the wild Indian
+tribes, by whom the early missionaries were told the stories which they
+in their turn repeated about the animal. As yet nobody has been
+fortunate enough to capture such an animal, though the Spaniards always
+showed themselves very desirous to obtain possession of the precious
+jewel; and the viceroys, in their official instructions to the
+missionaries, placed the carbunculo in the first order of desiderata.
+What animal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> may have served as a foundation for those fabulous stories,
+it is certainly difficult to decide; probably a different one in each
+particular district. On the coast it may have been the <i>a&ntilde;ash</i> (one of
+the mephitic animals), which seeks for his food only at night. I have
+often observed for a moment a singularly brilliant flashing in the eyes
+of that animal when irritated.</p>
+
+<p>The worst enemies of the delightful Monta&ntilde;a de Vitoc are the wild
+Indians, who are only separated from the Christian Indians by the two
+rivers Aynamayo and Tullumayo. They belong to the ferocious race of the
+<i>Chunchos</i>, and in their savage manners they somewhat resemble the
+Casibos and Campas. They have their chief residence in Chibatizo, nine
+leagues from Pucara. Only three leagues from Pacchapata, at the
+confluence of the Chanchamayo and Tullumayo, they have a pretty large
+village; and Palmapata, which they temporarily took possession of, is
+situated still nearer. They frequently extend their hunting excursions
+to the banks of the great rivers, and make inroads upon the territory of
+Vitoc, cruelly murdering all the Cholos they meet with. Any kind of
+friendly intercourse with them is impracticable. I took some pains to
+accomplish that object, but without success. While they were on their
+hunting expeditions I have left in their huts knives, fish-hooks,
+ear-rings, and other things. In return for these presents they left for
+me some of their edible roots, among which were yuccas, but all were
+poisoned, so that, had we not observed caution, I and my venturous
+companion, Klee, might have fallen victims to the treachery of these
+Indians. The Chunchos, when on their expeditions, are almost in a state
+of nudity. Sometimes they wear a short whitish-brown shirt without
+sleeves. This garment, when worn by the chiefs, is red. Most of them dye
+their hair with achote (<i>Bixa Orellana</i>, L.), a deep vermilion, and
+paint the face and breast of the same color. Their weapons consist of a
+bow of chonta (<i>Guilielma speciosa</i>), with which they use two kinds of
+arrows. One kind are very long, with round points and barbs of chonta;
+the others are shorter, and have points made of reed, which inflict deep
+wounds, very difficult to be healed. They also use the great wooden
+sword, the <i>macana</i>. A cross having been put up in the forest, they
+fastened to it a few days afterwards a macana and two arrows, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span>
+symbols of irreconcilable enmity to Christians. Their warlike instrument
+is a reed, two feet long and four inches broad, through which their
+howlings resound in horrible discord.</p>
+
+<p>It is a custom with the inhabitants of Vitoc to undertake two
+expeditions every year against the Chunchos. They are the most laughable
+enterprises imaginable. All the Cholos of the valley, with the Alcalde
+at their head, or rather in the midst of them, proceed, armed with
+sticks, axes, forest knives, and <i>two</i> muskets,<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> to explore the banks
+of both rivers. The front ranks advance with drums beating, and a number
+of Indians carry large calabashes filled with guarapo, to which they pay
+their earnest devotions every half hour. When by accident some of the
+Chunchos are seen, the Cholos fly with all the rapidity that terror can
+inspire, and cannot be got together again till they reach their village;
+then they raise a tremendous shout, and when safe in their dwellings
+boast proudly of their heroic deeds.</p>
+
+<p>The Chunchos are in possession of a very rich bed of salt, some twelve
+or fourteen leagues from Vitoc, from whence they permit the neighboring
+tribes with whom they are at peace, to supply themselves with salt.
+Hostile tribes, such as the Campas and the Callisecas, sometimes attempt
+to carry away salt, and then a sanguinary contest ensues. This stratum
+of salt comes from the top of a hill, called the Cerro de la Sal, and it
+runs in the direction from south-west to north-east, to the length of
+nearly three leagues, covering a breadth of about thirty ells. The salt
+is mixed with red earth. It is probably a continuation of the great salt
+bed of Maynas, stretching eastward along the left bank of the Perene. It
+may be presumed that it does not extend as far as the immense Pajonal,
+as the Campas go for their salt to the Cerro de la Sal.</p>
+
+<p>In former times various attempts were made to convert the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span>Chunchos to
+Christianity; and these attempts were partially successful. The first
+missionary who ventured among them was the intrepid Fray Geronimo
+Ximenes. In 1635 he penetrated from Huancabamba to the Cerro de la Sal,
+and there preached the gospel in the language of the people. He built a
+chapel, and then directed his course south-west to Vitoc, where he
+founded the village San Buenaventura. Two years after he embarked on the
+Chanchamayo, with the intention of extending his mission to the Campas
+tribe, by whom he was killed, together with his companion, Fray
+Christoval Larios, and twenty-eight other Spaniards. Several
+missionaries subsequently proceeded to the Cerro de la Sal, and found
+favor with the natives, so that in 1640 they had no less than seven
+villages of converted Chunchos, Amagas, and Campas; but only a few years
+afterwards all the missionaries and soldiers were killed and the chapels
+were destroyed. The Franciscan monks, inspired by their indefatigable
+zeal, ventured in 1671, on a new mission to the fatal Cerro de la Sal;
+and they had the good fortune to found a village in which eight hundred
+Neophytes were collected. A second and smaller village was founded in
+the vicinity of the destroyed San Buenaventura, and named Santa Rosa de
+Quimiri; but the avarice of some Spaniards who fancied there were gold
+mines in the Cerro de la Sal, induced them to get the missions withdrawn
+from the superintendence of the priests, and to turn the whole into a
+political system. Then commenced the oppression of the Indians in those
+parts. The consequence was a great insurrection in 1674, when all the
+whites were massacred. Thus were the labors of the missionaries a second
+time annihilated. Every attempt for the conversion of Indians was for a
+long time fruitless, and the missionaries who ventured to approach them
+were shot. After the lapse of about thirty years, during which interval
+the Chunchos had fallen back to their original savage state, the founder
+of the Convent of Ocopa, Fray Francisco de San Jose, with four priests
+and two lay brothers, penetrated into the valley of Vitoc, and entered
+upon the territory of the Chunchos. At this time (1709) Vitoc was first
+peopled, and in the course of twenty years six large villages were
+built. In the year 1739 these missions, again flourishing, counted ten
+Christian villages<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> and three thousand baptized Indians. Three years
+afterwards the Indian insurrection, headed by the apostate Juan Santos,
+destroyed all the missions of Central Peru.</p>
+
+<p>Juan Santos was an Indian born at Huamanga, and he claimed descent from
+the last of the Incas. This claim was probably well founded, for before
+the revolt he was called Atahuallpa, which was the name of the Inca put
+to death by Pizarro. Juan Santos was haughty, high spirited, and clever.
+In the year 1741 he killed, in a quarrel, a Spaniard of high rank, and
+to elude the pursuit of justice, he fled to the forests. There he
+brooded over plans for taking vengeance on the oppressors of his
+country. He first addressed himself to the tribes of the Campas, and
+having gained them over, he proceeded to Quisopongo in the Pajonal. From
+thence, in the year 1742, he made his first attack on the mission of the
+Cerro de la Sal. The Spaniards had already been warned of the intended
+rising, but they considered it too unimportant to call for serious
+measures of repression; and whilst lulling themselves in their imagined
+security, they were surprised and massacred by the Indians. The
+insurrection spread with incredible rapidity. Juan Santos himself led
+all the principal attacks. In one night he took the fortress of Quimiri
+with sixty-five men, all of whom were massacred in the most cruel
+manner. The well-defended fort of Paucartambo was next taken by a small
+number of Chunchos, commanded by Juan Santos. All the Christian churches
+were destroyed by the insurgents. The sacred images and the priests were
+tied together, and cast into the rivers; the villages were burned, and
+the cultivated fields laid waste. The number of Spanish soldiers killed
+in this insurrection was 245; the number of priests, 26. In the course
+of a few weeks all the missions of central Peru were completely
+destroyed, and terror spread even to the mountains. The Spanish
+government found it necessary to adopt the most vigorous measures, for
+there was reason to fear that the mountain Indians would revolt. Castles
+and forts were built on the frontiers of all the Monta&ntilde;as and strongly
+garrisoned; but the insurrection did not extend further. The ultimate
+fate of Juan Santos Atahuallpa has never been satisfactorily
+ascertained. Some assert that he became a powerful ruler, and that as
+long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> as he lived the races of the Chunchos, Paca&ntilde;es, Chichirrenes,
+Campas, and Simirinches, were united. On an old manuscript in the
+monastery of Ocopa I found a marginal note, in which it was said, "As to
+the monster, the apostate Juan Santos Atahuallpa, after his diabolical
+destruction of our missions, the wrath of God was directed against him
+in the most fearful manner. He died the death of Herod, for his living
+body was devoured by worms."</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after the tragical downfall of these missions, two priests, Fra
+Francisco Otasua and Fray Salvador Pando, visited the ruins of Quimiri,
+and endeavored to conciliate the rebels; but in vain. After three
+months, during which they suffered dreadful ill treatment from the
+Chunchos, they returned to the monastery of Ocopa.</p>
+
+<p>These missionaries were all monks of the order of San Francisco. Their
+active zeal and heroic submission to any sacrifice in furtherance of the
+cause in which they were embarked must excite at once astonishment and
+admiration. Undaunted by incredible privations and laborious exertions
+in the pathless forests, without food or shelter; undismayed by the
+continual apprehension of a violent and cruel death, they courageously
+obeyed the inward impulse which inspired them to preach the gospel to
+the wild Indians. When intelligence was received of the violent death of
+one of the brotherhood, others immediately offered to supply the place
+of the victim, and the superiors of the order had much difficulty in
+restraining the zealous monks. In the central and northern missions of
+Peru, 129 Franciscan monks were murdered by the wild Indians. Those
+who compose that number are recorded by name, but many others
+disappeared without leaving a trace of what had become of them, and of
+course they are not included in the list. The number of lay brethren
+who perished is much greater. It is indeed melancholy to reflect how
+little advantage has been obtained by the sacrifice of so many
+valuable lives. The missions have nearly all disappeared, and the
+Indians have now retrograded into the savage state in which they were
+before the conquest of Peru.</p>
+
+<p>The Franciscan monks were mild and patient teachers. They proceeded on
+the principle of leaving the Christian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> religion to act for itself, and
+they scorned to promote it by any kind of compulsion. The Dominicans, on
+the other hand, who came to Peru with the conquerors, preached
+Christianity with fire and sword. The Jesuits, who headed the missions
+of Southern Peru, adopted the one way or the other, as they found most
+advantageous to the object they had in view. By this means they secured
+the attachment of the neophytes, and retained most of their conversions.
+Many of the Jesuit missionaries were highly intelligent and
+well-informed men. We are indebted to them for important geographical
+and statistical information, and in particular for some philological
+works of great value, viz., a grammar and dictionary of the language of
+every tribe they converted. The Dominican monks, who were mere ignorant
+fanatics, sacrificed to their blind zeal for conversion all the
+monuments of the early civilization of the Peruvians, and restrained,
+rather than promoted, the intellectual development of the people. The
+Franciscans, animated by pious inspiration, earnestly preached the
+doctrines of Christ to the wild inhabitants of the distant forests; but
+they communicated little information to the rest of world. A few
+imperfect maps, and some scanty notices on the manners and customs of
+the Indians, are the whole amount of their laical labors.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1779 an attempt was again made to penetrate to the Cerro de
+la Sal, and a road was opened leading from Palca to Chanchamayo, where a
+fort was built; but at the expiration of five years the government
+destroyed it, as continued irruptions of the Chunchos could not be
+checked. In 1784, the governor of Tarma, Don Juan Maria de Galvas,
+supported by the Superior of Ocopa, Fray Manuel Sobreviela, visited the
+valley of Vitoc, which had been abandoned since the Indian insurrection.
+The new village of San Teodoro de Pucara was founded, and the destroyed
+fort, Santa Ana de Colla, was rebuilt. The Monta&ntilde;a was soon peopled, and
+in a short time it contained upwards of forty haciendas and large
+chacras. The village of Sorriano, scarcely two leagues from Colla, was
+then inhabited by Chunchos, who showed a willingness to maintain
+friendly intercourse with the occupants of Vitoc, from whom they took
+meat, tools, and other things, which they repaid by agricultural labor.
+Unfortunately, the plantation owners soon began to take an undue<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>
+advantage of this friendly intercourse, and to charge exorbitant prices
+for the articles required by the Indians. For a pin or a needle they
+demanded two days' work, for a fishing-hook four, and for a wretched
+knife, eight, ten, or more. A rupture was the consequence. The Chunchos
+burned their own village, and returned again to Chanchamayo. Still,
+however, they continued on a sort of amicable footing with the Cholos,
+until one of the latter wantonly shot a Chuncho at a festival. The tribe
+then mustered in thousands to avenge the murder. They destroyed the
+Christian villages, and massacred all the inhabitants who were not able
+to fly. Thus was Vitoc once more depopulated: Cardenas, the military
+governor of Tarma, made a fresh endeavor to restore the cultivation of
+this fine valley. He made the road again passable, laid out the large
+plantation Chuntabamba, built and garrisoned the Colla fort. The site of
+the former Chuncho village, Sorriano, was converted into a <i>cocal</i> (or
+coca field), and the Monta&ntilde;a began once more to assume a flourishing
+aspect. Still, however, the Chunchos continued to harass their
+neighbors, particularly during the time of the coca harvest, which could
+not be gathered without military protection. During one of the harvests
+a laborer was shot by the wild Indians, which so terrified the Cholos,
+that they all fled to Sorriano. Soon after, Cardenas died, and the coca
+plantation being neglected, became a waste. A few years afterwards the
+hacienda of Pacchapata was laid out. During the war of independence the
+Spaniards destroyed Fort Colla, and the inhabitants of Vitoc were left
+without any means of defence against their savage enemies. The last
+attempt to reduce the Chunchos to subjection and order was made by a
+military expedition under the command of General Don Francisco de Paula
+de Otero, but owing to ill-arranged plans it totally failed. No more
+than twenty-five years have elapsed since the valley of Vitoc, with its
+rich plantations, was in the most flourishing prosperity. Now only faint
+traces of its past cultivation are discernible.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the Monta&ntilde;a of Vitoc is the history of all the Monta&ntilde;as
+of Peru. In all, we perceive the alternate rise and decline of
+cultivation and civilization, caused by the efforts of the missionaries,
+and the incursions of the wild Indians. Throughout<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> all these districts
+the present condition exhibits a marked inferiority to the past, a
+circumstance which may be accounted for by the long-continued civil war,
+during the contest for independence. Nevertheless, the internal
+tranquillity of the country, and the increasing population, suggest
+favorable prognostics for the future.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> See <a href="#Page_189">page 189</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> I allude here to individuals (and such cases are by no
+means singular) who have attained the great age of 130. Supposing these
+Indians to have begun to masticate coca at ten years old, and calculate
+their daily consumption as a minimum at one ounce, the result is the
+consumption of twenty-seven hundred weight, in 120 years.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> The worthy Padre forgets the high price that would be
+charged for coca in Europe. In Tarma and Huenuco the aroba (twenty-five
+pounds) costs at an average six Spanish dollars; add to this the
+carriage to Lima, the freight to Europe, custom-house duties, &amp;c., and
+this price would be nearly doubled.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> The whole valley of Vitoc can furnish only two muskets,
+and these are in as useless a state as possible. As for powder, there
+is a constant want of it. During my residence in Vitoc I usually gave
+the Alcalde some of my powder when he went out with his Cholos, or
+when there was a firing on festival days. The want of a suitable
+number of muskets, and sufficient powder in the dangerous vicinity of
+the Chunchos, is characteristic of the improvidence of the
+inhabitants of Vitoc.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVI.</h2>
+
+<p class="summary">Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians&mdash;&#8203;The
+Repartimiento and the Mita&mdash;&#8203;Indian Insurrections&mdash;&#8203;Tupac Amaru&mdash;&#8203;His
+Capture and Execution&mdash;&#8203;War of Independence&mdash;&#8203;Character of the Peruvian
+Indians&mdash;&#8203;Music&mdash;&#8203;Dress&mdash;&#8203;Superstitions&mdash;&#8203;Longevity&mdash;&#8203;Diminished
+Population of Peru&mdash;&#8203;Languages spoken by the Aboriginal
+Inhabitants&mdash;&#8203;Specimen of Quichua Poetry&mdash;&#8203;The Yaravies&mdash;&#8203;The
+Quipu&mdash;&#8203;Water Conduits&mdash;&#8203;Ancient Buildings&mdash;&#8203;Fortresses&mdash;&#8203;Idols&mdash;&#8203;Domestic
+Utensils&mdash;&#8203;Ancient Peruvian Graves&mdash;&#8203;Mode of Burying the Dead&mdash;&#8203;Mummies.</p>
+
+
+<p>A glance at the history of Peru serves to show that prior to the Spanish
+conquest the Indians were the subjects of a dynasty, to which they
+rendered willing obedience. We find, indeed, an uninterrupted series of
+revolutions and wars, arising out of the continued extension of the
+empire, to which nations differing one from another in language,
+religion, and manners, were gradually annexed. For some time after their
+subjugation these nations struggled to recover their independence, but
+the wise and mild government of the Incas gradually restored peace, and
+established unity. In course of time, the magnitude of the empire led to
+its downfall. Huayna Inca-Capac divided his dominions between his two
+sons. To the elder, Huascar, he gave the southern portion of the empire,
+and to the younger, Atahuallpa, he gave the northern division. Between
+the two brothers there arose disputes, which led to a sanguinary war;
+and in that fatal interval, Pizarro, with his invading forces, landed in
+Peru. With a degree of speed, which internal union among the people
+would have rendered impossible, the Spaniards made themselves masters of
+the country, massacred alike sovereigns and subjects, destroyed the
+sanctuaries, and established a new religion and new laws. The barbarous
+cruelties by which that religion and those laws were upheld are too well
+known to require repetition here. Of the many oppressive measures to
+which the Spaniards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> enforced submission from the conquered people, I
+will briefly notice two: the <i>Repartimiento</i> and the <i>Mita</i>. The
+Repartimiento was the distribution, among the natives, of articles of
+European production. These distributions were under the superintendence
+of the provincial authorities, the corregidores, and the sub-delegados.
+The law was doubtless intended, in its origin, for the advantage and
+convenience of the native Indians, by supplying them with necessaries at
+a reasonable price. But, subsequently, the Repartimiento became a source
+of oppression and fraud, in the hands of the provincial authorities. All
+the corregidores and sub-delegados became traders. They purchased
+consignments of manufactured goods from Europe, at a cheap rate, and
+sold them to the Indians at exorbitant prices. To add to the grievance,
+the articles thus forced upon the natives were, in many instances, not
+necessaries, but objects of luxury utterly useless to them. Even more
+oppressive and cruel than the Repartimiento, was the Mita, which
+consisted of the forced labor of the Indians in the mines and
+plantations. Every Spaniard who wished to work a mine, obtained from the
+corregidor a certain number of Indians, to each of whom he gave daily
+four reals as wages, with the agreement of paying to the government a
+yearly tax of eight dollars. The condition of the Indians who were
+distributed to the plantation owners was even worse than that of the
+mine laborers; they received only two reals per day, and were required
+to work in the fields from three in the morning until after sunset. The
+Indians employed in this compulsory labor, whether in the mines or the
+plantations, were called <i>Mitas</i>. But there was another sort of forced
+labor, for which no wages were paid. It was indeed less toilsome than
+working in the mines and plantations, yet the Indians employed in it
+were frequently subject to much ill-treatment. I allude to domestic
+service in the houses of the corregidores, sub-delegados, and priests.
+The Indians thus employed were called <i>Pongos</i>, and they were required
+to continue in their places for the space of a year, after which they
+were discharged. A corregidor frequently had half a dozen of these
+pongos, whom he provided with miserable food and wretched clothing.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>In the mines and plantations countless numbers of Indians were annually
+swept away by the excessive labor consequent on the mita. Some writers
+estimate at nine millions the number of Indians sacrificed in the mines
+in the course of three centuries. This estimate is certainly too high;
+but three millions more may be added for the number of victims of the
+mita in the plantations.</p>
+
+<p>That the government in Spain should have tolerated this barbarous
+system, so obviously calculated to bring ruin on the nation, may
+naturally be matter of surprise. But a glance at the Indian laws (<i>Leyes
+de Indias</i>) suffices to show the distinction between the intentions of
+the Spanish government and the corrupt legislation of the country. The
+laws are, with some few exceptions, conceived in a mild spirit, and show
+that their framers had in view the well-being of the colonies. The
+execution of these laws was consigned to the superintendence of what was
+termed the Indian council (<i>Consejo de Indias</i>). This council consisted
+of a certain number of men who resided in Spain, and who either were
+only in part acquainted with the real state of things in South America,
+or were bribed by Indian gold to wink at the abuses committed there.
+From this council were chosen the viceroys and high authorities of the
+colonies, who, whilst in the exercise of their official functions,
+amassed enormous wealth by unjust exactions from the Indians. One of the
+latest viceroys of Peru was a man who arrived in Lima in a state of
+utter poverty, and who, in the short space of three years, amassed the
+immense sum of five millions of dollars.</p>
+
+<p>Could it be matter of surprise if at length the Indians rose against
+their oppressors, and made an effort to shake off the heavy yoke of
+their tyrants? For two hundred years they had borne it silently, without
+a single attempt to emancipate themselves. Juan Santos Atahuallpa was
+the first who stirred up revolt against the Spaniards. The insurrection
+which he had headed, though deemed too insignificant to fix the
+attention of the short-sighted government of Lima, nevertheless,
+convinced the Indians that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>they were strong enough to make a stand
+against their oppressors. Several partial risings in Southern Peru were
+speedily put down; a leader was wanted to organize the disconnected
+plans and movements of the insurgents. This want was at length supplied
+in the person of the ill-fated Tupac Amaru, cacique of Tungasuca, a
+descendant of the last Inca.</p>
+
+<p>The event which caused Tupac Amaru to attempt a movement against the
+Spaniards occurred in 1780. In that year, the corregidor of Tinta, Don
+Antonio Ariaga, made repartimientos to the amount of 340,000 dollars,
+and with the most cruel rigor enforced payment of the useless articles
+distributed. The cacique of Tungasuca assembled the irritated Indians,
+who seized the corregidor and hanged him. This was the signal for a
+general rising in all the neighboring districts. The forces of Tupac
+Amaru augmented daily. He was invested with the title of Inca, and
+treated with the honors due to sovereignty. For several months an active
+war was maintained in the Puna, where several towns and villages were
+taken by the insurgents. Tupac Amaru had made himself master of the
+village of Chucuito, and was preparing to advance upon Cuzco, when,
+about the end of April, 1781, he, and all his family, were made
+prisoners by the Spaniards. He was tried and condemned to death,
+together with his wife, two sons, his brother-in-law, and several other
+individuals of note among the Indians.</p>
+
+<p>But the execution of Tupac Amaru, which was marked by circumstances of
+monstrous barbarity, far from stemming the tide of revolution, served
+only to stimulate the vengeance of the insurgents. They once more
+mustered their warlike bands, under the command of Casimiro Tupac Amaru,
+the brother of the late cacique, his son Andres, and an intrepid Indian
+chief, named Nicacatari. The latter, assisted by Andres, burned several
+villages of Upper Peru, and murdered all the whites. They next advanced
+upon the strongly fortified town of Sorrata, whither the Spaniards of
+the surrounding districts had fled for protection. The town was taken by
+the insurgents, and the inhabitants, 22,000 in number, inhumanly put to
+death, with the exception of eighty-seven priests and monks. The Indians
+then advanced westwards, defeating several Spanish corps, and spreading
+terror<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> and dismay through the country. But, that which neither the arms
+nor the executions of the Spaniards could accomplish, was effected by
+their gold. A treacherous Indian, bribed by the promise of a large
+reward, conducted a division of Spanish soldiers to the spot where the
+chiefs were accustomed to meet, unattended by any guard, to hold their
+council. They were surprised, captured, and condemned to death. Once
+more deprived of leaders, the Indians disbanded and withdrew, some to
+their homes, and others into the forests. Numberless victims paid the
+debt of retribution to the Spanish government, which now adopted every
+measure that could tend to annihilate the nationality of the native
+Indians. Their dances, their music, their dress&mdash;all that could revive
+the remembrance of their progenitors, was condemned to rigorous
+prohibition; they were even forbidden the use of their mother tongue,
+the Quichua language. The only beneficial result of these wars, in which
+upwards of a hundred thousand lives were sacrificed, was the abolition
+of the Repartimientos, which had been the cause of the insurrections.</p>
+
+<p>Peace was now, at least to appearance, restored; and if, occasionally,
+symptoms of disturbance arose, they were immediately repressed. This
+state of things continued until the Creoles themselves gave the signal
+of revolt, and the War of Independence broke out in all the Spanish
+colonies of South America. In this enterprise the Indians readily took
+part. But it is a great mistake to suppose that the Indian natives made
+common cause with the Creoles against the Spaniards for the purpose of
+bringing about the present form of government. They wished to emancipate
+themselves in order to establish their own dynasty and a government
+modelled after that of their forefathers. They wanted not a republic,
+but a monarchy, and a sovereign chosen from the sacred race of the
+Incas. Having no clear comprehension of the real object of the War of
+Independence, the Indians, when they saw whites fighting against whites,
+directed their hostility against all <i>Pucacuncas</i> (pale faces) without
+distinction, killing loyalists or patriots, just as they happened to
+fall in their way. This hatred was so bitterly manifested, that in some
+provinces all the whites and mestizos were obliged to fly, even though
+they were the most decided enemies of the Spanish loyalists.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> In Jauja
+the Indians vowed not to leave even a white dog or a white fowl alive,
+and they even scraped the whitewash from the walls of the houses.</p>
+
+<p>The provisional government ordered levies of troops to be made in the
+provinces which had fallen into the hands of the patriots; and then, for
+the first time, Indians were enrolled in the army as regular troops. But
+it was only in a very few districts that they voluntarily took part in
+the conflict for independence: they performed the forced service of
+conscripts, and whenever an opportunity enabled them to retire from it,
+they did so. The Spanish dominion being overthrown, the war terminated,
+and a republican constitution was established. The Indians then clearly
+perceived that they had been made the tools of the leaders of the
+revolution. Upon the whole, their condition was but little improved; for
+if they were relieved from some oppressive laws, other hardships weighed
+heavily on them, and they found that they still were slaves in the land
+of their fathers. The creoles, like the Spaniards, will draw the string
+of despotism till it snaps. Then will arise another Indian insurrection
+like that headed by Tupac Amaru, but with a more successful result.
+After a fearful struggle, they may reconquer their fatherland, and
+re-establish their ancient constitution; and can it be matter of
+surprise if they wreak cruel vengeance on the enemies of their race?</p>
+
+<p>Since the War of Independence, the Indians have made immense progress.
+During the civil war, which was kept up uninterruptedly for the space of
+twenty years, they were taught military man&oelig;uvres and the use of
+fire-arms. After every lost battle the retreating Indians carried with
+them in their flight their muskets, which they still keep carefully
+concealed. They are also acquainted with the manufacture of gunpowder,
+of which in all their festivals they use great quantities for squibs and
+rockets. The materials for the preparation of gunpowder are found in
+abundance in the valleys of the Sierra.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1841, when I was passing through a miserable village on the
+confines of one of the Monta&ntilde;as of Central Peru, I took up my abode for
+some days in the hut of an Indian, and whilst there I accidentally saw
+eighteen muskets which were deposited in a place of concealment. I,
+quite unsuspectingly,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> inquired of the Indian, why he thought it
+requisite to keep so many weapons of defence? He replied, with a
+sinister frown, that the time would come when he should find them
+useful. I could easily perceive that my accidental discovery was by no
+means agreeable to him; and from the very marked change which I observed
+in his manner. I deemed it prudent to withdraw from the village and its
+vicinity. Whilst my horse was being saddled, I noticed my host and some
+of his confidential friends engaged in very earnest conversation, and I
+could easily perceive that I was the subject of it. On my departure the
+Indian asked me, with apparent friendliness of manner, which way I was
+going? When I was beyond the sphere of his observation, I deemed it
+prudent to proceed quite in an opposite direction from the route which I
+told him I intended to take.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the Peruvian Indian is essentially gloomy. It was not
+always so, if we may give credit to the animated pictures drawn by early
+travellers in Peru; but three hundred years of oppression and suffering
+have impressed their melancholy stamp on the feelings and manners of the
+people. This gloominess is strikingly manifested in their songs, their
+dances, their dress, and their whole domestic economy. The favorite
+musical instruments of the Indians are those called the <i>Pututo</i> and the
+<i>Jaina</i>. The former is a large conch, on which they perform mournful
+music, as the accompaniment of their funeral dances. In early times this
+conch was employed in the solemnities of royal interments; now its use
+is exclusively reserved for the anniversaries held in commemoration of
+certain events connected with the fallen Inca dynasty. The <i>Jaina</i> appears to be of more modern origin; it is a rude kind of clarionet,
+made from a reed. Its tone is indescribably melancholy, and it produces
+an extraordinary impression on the natives. If a group of Indians are
+rioting and drinking, or engaged in furious conflict with each other,
+and the sound of the <i>Jaina</i> is suddenly heard, the tumult ceases, as if
+by a stroke of magic. A dead stillness prevails, and all listen devoutly
+to the magic tones of the simple reed; tones which frequently draw tears
+from the eyes of the apathetic Indian.</p>
+
+<p>Their garments are all of dark and sombre hues. Dark blue is a favorite
+color, and appears to be generally adopted for mourning;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> for whenever
+the Indians follow a corpse to the grave, they always wear dark blue
+ponchos. The dress of the men usually consists of short trowsers, of
+coarse brown cloth, fastened round the waist by a girdle, and a woollen
+or cotton shirt. They seldom wear a jacket, the ponchos of Alpaca wool
+being always the outer garment. On their feet they wear sandals of
+untanned leather, which merely cover the toes, and are fastened round
+the ancle.</p>
+
+<p>The dress of the women consists of a loose under garment, without
+sleeves, and made of coarse blue woollen cloth. It is confined round the
+waist by a broad girdle, called the <i>huccau</i>. Over the arms are drawn
+black sleeves, reaching from the wrist to about the middle of the upper
+arm. A sort of robe or tunic, called the <i>anacu</i>, descends from the
+shoulders to the knees. It is fastened, not in front, but on one side.
+This garment is made of a thin sort of woollen stuff. It is always
+black, being worn in token of mourning for the Incas. On the occasion of
+certain festivals, the Indian women wear a particolored dress, called a
+<i>faldillin</i>. This garment frequently exhibits the most glaring contrasts
+of color, one half being bright red, and the other yellow, in addition
+to which it is sometimes adorned with flowers of brilliant hues, and
+tasteless, gold embroidery. A <i>mantilla</i>, consisting of a narrow piece
+of woollen cloth, passed over the shoulders, and fastened under the
+chin, either with a long silver pin, or a cactus-thorn, completes the
+costume. In this mantilla, or in a poncho, mothers are accustomed to
+wrap their infants, and fastening them to their backs, they carry them
+about in this manner for a whole day, whilst engaged in their work.</p>
+
+<p>In their domestic relations, the Indians are unsocial and gloomy.
+Husband, wife, and children live together with but little appearance of
+affection. The children seem to approach their parents timidly, and
+whole days sometimes elapse without the interchange of a word of
+kindness between them. When the Indian is not engaged in out-door work,
+he sits gloomily in his hut, chewing coca, and brooding silently over
+his own thoughts. To his friend he is more communicative than to his
+wife. With the former, he will often discourse, apparently on some
+secret topic, for the space of half a night; nevertheless, he cannot be
+accused of treating his wife with any degree of cruelty, or of
+regarding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> her merely in the light of his slave, as is customary among
+many uncivilized races of people.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the official authorities, to which the Government exacts
+obedience, the Peruvian Indian acknowledges other authorities, whose
+functions and power are similar to those which existed under the Inca
+dynasty. In like manner, though they have embraced the Christian faith,
+yet they obstinately adhere to certain religious ceremonies, which have
+been transmitted to them by their idolatrous progenitors. Thus their
+religion is a singular combination of Christian principles and
+heathenish forms. Hitherto the most patient and intelligent of their
+religious instructors have failed to outroot this attachment to old
+forms. The Christian religion has been spread among the Indians by
+force; and for centuries past, they have regarded the priests only in
+the light of tyrants, who make religion a cloak for the most scandalous
+pecuniary extortions, and whose conduct is in direct opposition to the
+doctrines they profess. If they render to them unconditional obedience,
+accompanied by a sort of timid reverence, it is to be attributed less to
+the operation of the Christian principle, than to a lingering attachment
+to the theocratic government of the Incas, which has impressed the
+Peruvians with a sacred awe of religion.</p>
+
+<p>The superstition with which the Indians are so deeply imbued is adverse
+to the inculcation of pure religious faith; it is the more difficult to
+be eradicated, inasmuch as it has its origin in early tradition, and has
+in later times been singularly blended with the Catholic form of
+worship. Of this superstition I may here adduce some examples. As soon
+as a dying person draws his last breath, the relatives, or persons in
+attendance, put coca leaves into the mouth of the corpse, and light a
+wax candle. They then collect together the household goods and clothes
+of the deceased and wash them in the nearest river. They put on the dead
+clothes, which are made after the pattern of a monk's habit, and they
+hang round the neck of the corpse a little bag, containing seeds of
+coca, maize, barley, quinua, &amp;c., for his plantations in the next world.
+In the evening ashes are strewed on the floor of the room, and the door
+is securely fastened. Next morning the ashes are carefully examined to
+ascertain whether they show any impression of footsteps; and imagination
+readily traces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> marks, which are alleged to have been produced by the
+feet of birds, dogs, cats, oxen, or llamas. The destiny of the dead
+person is construed by the foot-marks which are supposed to be
+discernible. The worst marks are those of hens' claws, which are
+believed to denote that the soul of the deceased is doomed to
+irrevocable perdition. The marks of the hoofs of llamas are considered
+favorable, and are believed to indicate that the soul, after a short
+purgatory, will be transferred to the joys of paradise. The funeral is
+conducted according to Christian forms, and under the superintendence of
+a priest. But as soon as the priest takes his departure food is put into
+the grave along with the dead body, which is interred without a coffin.
+I have sometimes seen one of the nearest relatives leap into the grave
+and strike the body with his foot, but the meaning of this strange
+proceeding I never could clearly understand. Some curious ceremonies are
+observed on All Souls' Day. In every house in which a member of the
+family has died in the course of the year, a table is laid out with
+brandy, coca, tobacco, together with some of the favorite dishes of the
+deceased person, and the chamber is kept closed the whole day. The
+family firmly believe that the spirit of their departed relative on that
+day revisits his earthly abode, and partakes of the repast that is
+spread out on the table. A widow usually wears mourning for the space of
+twelve months. In some provinces, on the anniversary of her husband's
+death, the widow puts on a bridal dress, and over it her ordinary
+garments. All her relatives visit her in her dwelling, where, to the
+accompaniment of doleful music, she takes the lead in a funeral dance.
+As the hour approaches at which the husband died in the previous year,
+the dancing and the music become more and more mournful; but whenever
+the hour is past one of the female friends approaches the widow and
+removes her black mantilla. The other females then strip off the rest of
+her mourning garments, and adorn her head with flowers. At length she
+appears in a complete bridal dress. The musicians strike up a lively
+strain, to which the whole party dance, and the evening is passed in
+drinking and merry-making.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Peruvian Indians there are marked varieties of form and
+complexion. These differences are most distinctly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> observable between
+the inhabitants of the coast and those of the mountain and forest
+regions. In general, the Peruvian Indian is of middle height, rather
+slender, and not very robust. The coast Indians are more plump than the
+inhabitants of other districts, because they lead a less laborious life,
+and are less exposed to privations. It is scarcely possible to trace any
+particular national physiognomy among the Indians. In each province a
+distinct character is observable in the features of the inhabitants. The
+varieties of feature are less distinctly marked than the differences of
+complexion. The peculiar tints of the skin are decidedly defined, and
+indicate respectively the inhabitants of the three principal regions.
+The colder the climate, the fairer is the skin. For example, the color
+of the Puna Indian is a dark red-brown; that of the native of the Sierra
+is considerably lighter; it is a rusty red, but still darker than that
+of the coast Indians; and the natives of the forests are yellow, nearly
+approaching to maize color. These differences are singularly striking,
+when one has an opportunity of seeing the inhabitants of the different
+regions in juxtaposition. It is curious that the Cholos of the Puna,
+when they settle in the forests, become only a very little clearer; and
+that, on the other hand, the yellow Indians of the Monta&ntilde;a, after being
+several years in the Puna, still retain their characteristic tint. The
+women are, on the whole, extremely ugly, with round, inexpressive faces.
+Their hands and feet are very small.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians are, on the average, remarkable for longevity, though they
+frequently shorten their lives by the intemperate use of strong drinks.
+Instances are not rare of Indians living to be 120 or 130 years of age,
+and retaining full possession of their bodily and mental powers.
+Stevenson mentions that on examining the church registers of Barranca,
+he found that within an interval of seven years, eleven Indians had been
+interred, whose united ages amounted to 1207, being an average of 109
+years to each. In the year 1839 there was living in the valley of Jauja
+an Indian who, according to the baptismal register shown to me by the
+priest, was born in the year 1697. He himself declared that he had not
+for the space of ninety years tasted a drop of water, having drunk
+nothing but chicha. Since he was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> eleven years of age, he alleged that
+he had masticated coca, at least three times every day, and that he had
+eaten animal food only on Sundays; on all the other days of the week he
+had lived on maize, quinua, and barley. The Indians retain their teeth
+and hair in extreme old age; and it is remarkable that their hair never
+becomes white, and very seldom even grey. Those individuals whose
+advanced ages have been mentioned above, had all fine black hair.</p>
+
+<p>Since the Spanish conquest, the population of Peru has diminished in an
+almost incredible degree. When we read the accounts given by the old
+historiographers of the vast armies which the Incas had at their
+command; when we behold the ruins of the gigantic buildings, and of the
+numerous towns and villages scattered over Peru, it is difficult to
+conceive how the land could have been so depopulated in the lapse of
+three centuries. At the time of the conquest it was easy, in a short
+space of time, to raise an army of 300,000 men, and, moreover, to form
+an important reserved force; whilst now, the Government, even with the
+utmost efforts, can scarcely assemble 10,000 or 12,000 men. According to
+the census drawn up in 1836, Peru did not contain more than 1,400,000
+men, being not quite so many as were contained at an earlier period in
+the department of Cuzco alone. Unfortunately there is no possibility of
+obtaining anything approaching to accurate estimates of the population
+of early periods; and even if such documents existed, it would be
+difficult to deduce from them a comparison between Peru as it now is,
+and Peru at the period when Bolivia, a part of Buenos Ayres, and
+Columbia, belonged to the mighty empire. I will here quote only one
+example of the immense diminution of the population. Father Melendez
+mentions that shortly after the conquest, the parish of Ancallama, in
+the province of Chancay, contained 30,000 Indians fit for service (that
+is to say, between the ages of eighteen and fifty); now, the same parish
+contains at most 140 individuals, of whom one-third are Mestizos. The
+whole coast of Peru, now almost totally depopulated, was once so thickly
+inhabited, that to subdue King Chimu, in North Peru alone, an army of
+80,000 men was requisite. The causes of the diminished Indian population
+of Peru have been so frequently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> and fully detailed by previous writers,
+that I need not here do more than briefly advert to them. They are found
+in the extensive and reckless massacres committed by the Spaniards
+during the struggle of the conquest; in the suicides and voluntary
+deaths resorted to by the natives to escape from the power of their
+oppressors; in the mita, the small-pox, the scarlet fever, and the
+introduction of brandy. The mita alone, especially the labor in the
+mines, has swept away four times as many Indians as all the other causes
+combined. Since the abolition of the mita, the Indian population has
+been on the increase, though there has not yet been time for any marked
+result to become manifest; the more especially, considering the numbers
+of lives sacrificed during the frequent civil wars. Nevertheless, it is
+easy to foresee that a decided augmentation of the Indian inhabitants of
+the western parts of South America will, ere long, be apparent.</p>
+
+<p>Among the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru a variety of languages are in
+use. In the southern parts of the country, particularly about Cuzco, the
+<i>Quichua</i> is spoken. It was the dialect of the court, and that which was
+most generally diffused, and the Spaniards therefore called it <i>la
+lengua general</i>. In the highlands of Central Peru, the Chinchaysuyo
+language prevailed. The Indians of the coast, who belonged to the race
+of the Chunchos, spoke the <i>Yunga</i>. The <i>Kauqui</i> was the language of
+that part of Central Peru which corresponds with the present province of
+Yauyos. The inhabitants of the north-eastern parts of Peru, as far as
+the Huallaga, spoke the <i>Lama</i> language,<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> and the natives of the
+highland regions of Quito spoke the <i>Quite&ntilde;a</i>.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> These different
+languages, which, with the exception of the Lama, proceed all from one
+source, differ so considerably, that the inhabitants of the several
+districts were reciprocally incapable of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> understanding each other, and
+the Incas found it necessary to introduce the Quichua among all the
+nations they subdued. The other dialects were thereby much corrupted,
+and at the time of the Spanish invasion, they were seldom correctly
+spoken. This corruption was naturally increased more and more after the
+arrival of the Spaniards, by the introduction of a new language. Only
+for a few of the new articles brought by the Spaniards to Peru did the
+Indians form new names, taking the roots of the words from their own
+language: for most things they adopted the Spanish names. By this means,
+but still more by the future intercourse of the people with the
+invaders, the purity of the natural language rapidly disappeared in
+proportion to the influence which the Spaniards obtained by their
+increase in numbers and moral superiority. At present the Quichua is a
+compound of all the dialects and the Spanish; it is spoken in the
+greatest purity in the southern provinces, though even there it is much
+intermixed with Aymara words. In Central Peru the Chinchaysuyo prevails,
+and on the coast the Spanish and the Yunga. The present Indians and
+people of mixed blood, who of necessity must speak the ever-changing
+Quichua, and also the Spanish, speak both in so corrupt a manner, that
+it is frequently almost impossible to understand them.</p>
+
+<p>The family of the Incas had a secret language of their own, which was
+not learned by subjects. This language is now almost totally lost, not
+more than two dozen words of it being preserved. In early times, the
+Quichua language was much cultivated. It was used officially in public
+speaking, and professors were sent by the Inca family into the provinces
+to teach it correctly. For poetry, the Quichua language was not very
+well adapted, owing to the difficult conjugation of the verbs, and the
+awkward blending of pronouns with substantives. Nevertheless, the poetic
+art was zealously cultivated under the Incas. They paid certain poets
+(called the <i>Haravicus</i>), for writing festival dramas in verse, and also
+for composing love-songs and heroic poems. Few of these heroic poems
+have been preserved, a circumstance the more to be regretted, as many of
+them would doubtless have been important historical documents; but for
+that very reason, the Spaniards spared no pains to obliterate every
+trace of them. Some of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> love-songs have, however, been preserved. In
+Quichua poetry, the lines are short, and seldom thoroughly rhythmical.
+Rhymes were only exceptional, and were never sought for. The poetry was,
+therefore, merely a sort of broken prose.</p>
+
+<p>A specimen of one of the best of the Quichua love-songs is given by
+<i>Garcilaso de la Vega</i>, in his "Commentaries and Poems." It is copied
+from papers left by a monk named Blas Valera; and some lines of it are
+here subjoined. The subject is an old Peruvian tradition:&mdash;A maiden of
+royal blood (<i>&ntilde;usta</i>) is appointed by the Creator of the world
+(<i>Pacchacamac</i>) in heaven, to pour water and snow on the earth out of
+a pitcher; her brother breaks the pitcher, whereupon thunder and
+lightning arise.</p>
+
+<table width="80%" summary="Quichua song and translation">
+<tr><td class="tdl">
+Cumac &ntilde;usta<br />
+Turallayquim<br />
+Puynuyquita<br />
+Paquicayan<br />
+Hina mantara<br />
+Cunu&ntilde;unun<br />
+Yllapantac
+</td>
+
+<td class="tdl">
+Beautiful Princess,<br />
+Thy Pitcher<br />
+Thy brother hath broken<br />
+Here in Pieces;<br />
+For that blow<br />
+It thunders; and lightning<br />
+Flashes all around.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There were, however, instances of versification which may properly be
+called poetry. Of this the <i>Yaravies</i>, or elegies, afford some fair
+examples. These poems have for their subjects unfortunate love, or
+sorrow for the dead. They were recited or sung by one or more voices,
+with an accompaniment of melancholy music, and made a great impression
+on the hearers. A foreigner, who for the first time hears one of these
+<i>Yaravies</i> sung, even though he may not understand the Quichua words, is
+nevertheless deeply moved by the melody. The strain is sad and sweet. No
+other music is at once so dismal and so tender. What the <i>donina</i> is as
+an instrument, the <i>yaravie</i> is in singing; both convey the expression
+of a deeply troubled heart. The <i>yaravie</i> has been imitated by the
+Spaniards in their own language, and some of the imitations are very
+beautiful; but they have not been able to reach the deep melancholy of
+the Quichua elegy. The modern poetry of the Indians is inferior to the
+old; the words are a mixture of Quichua and Spanish, and are scarcely
+intelligible. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> Spanish words have often Quichua terminations affixed
+to them; on the other hand, sometimes the Quichua words are inflected
+after the Spanish manner, making altogether a barbarous compound.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Peruvians had no manuscript characters for single sounds;
+but they had a method by which they composed words and incorporated
+ideas. This method consisted in the dexterous intertwining of knots on
+strings, so as to render them auxiliaries to the memory. The instrument
+consisting of these strings and knots was called the <span class="smcap">Quipu</span>. It was
+composed of one thick head or top string, to which, at certain
+distances, thinner ones were fastened. The top string was much thicker
+than these pendent strings, and consisted of two doubly twisted threads,
+over which two single threads were wound. The branches, if I may apply
+the term to these pendent strings, were fastened to the top ones by a
+simple loop; the knots were made in the pendent strings, and were either
+single or manifold. The lengths of the strings used in making the quipu
+were various. The transverse or top string often measures several yards,
+and sometimes only a foot long; the branches are seldom more than two
+feet long, and in general they are much shorter.</p>
+
+<p>The strings were often of different colors; each having its own
+particular signification. The color for soldiers was red; for gold,
+yellow; for silver, white; for corn, green, &amp;c. This writing by knots
+was especially employed for numerical and statistical tables; each
+single knot representing ten; each double knot stood for one hundred;
+each triple knot for one thousand, &amp;c.; two single knots standing
+together made twenty; and two double knots, two hundred.</p>
+
+<p>This method of calculation is still practised by the shepherds of the
+Puna. They explained it to me, and I could, with very little trouble,
+construe their quipus. On the first branch or string they usually placed
+the numbers of the bulls; on the second, that of the cows; the latter
+being classed into those which were milked, and those which were not
+milked; on the next string were numbered the calves, according to their
+ages and sizes. Then came the sheep, in several subdivisions. Next
+followed the number of foxes killed, the quantity of salt consumed,
+and,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> finally, the cattle that had been slaughtered. Other quipus showed
+the produce of the herds in milk, cheese, wool, &amp;c. Each list was
+distinguished by a particular color, or by some peculiarity in the
+twisting of the string.</p>
+
+<p>In this manner the ancient Peruvians kept the accounts of their army. On
+one string were numbered the soldiers armed with slings; on another, the
+spearmen; on a third, those who carried clubs, &amp;c. In the same manner
+the military reports were prepared. In every town some expert men were
+appointed to tie the knots of the quipu, and to explain them. These men
+were called <i>quipucamayocuna</i> (literally, officers of the knots).
+Imperfect as was this method, yet in the flourishing period of the Inca
+government the appointed officers had acquired great dexterity in
+unriddling the meaning of the knots. It, however, seldom happened that
+they had to read a quipu without some verbal commentary. Something was
+always required to be added if the quipu came from a distant province,
+to explain whether it related to the numbering of the population, to
+tributes, or to war, &amp;c. Through long-continued practice, the officers
+who had charge of the quipus became so perfect in their duties, that
+they could with facility communicate the laws and ordinances, and all
+the most important events of the kingdom, by their knots.</p>
+
+<p>All attempts made in modern times to decipher Peruvian quipus have
+been unsatisfactory in their results. The principal obstacle to
+deciphering those found in graves, consists in the want of the oral
+communication requisite for pointing out the subjects to which they
+refer. Such communication was necessary, even in former times, to the
+most learned quipucamayocuna. Most of the quipus here alluded to seem
+to be accounts of the population of particular towns or provinces,
+tax-lists, and information relating to the property of the deceased.
+Some Indians in the southern provinces of Peru are understood to
+possess a perfect knowledge of some of the ancient quipus, from
+information transmitted to them from their ancestors. But they keep
+that knowledge profoundly secret, particularly from the whites. The
+ancient Peruvians also used a certain kind of hieroglyphics, which
+they engraved in stone, and preserved in their temples.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> Notices of
+these hieroglyphics are given by some of the early writers. There
+appears to be a great similarity between these Peruvian hieroglyphics
+and those found in Mexico and Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>I have already mentioned one of the largest and most wonderful works of
+Peruvian antiquity, namely, the great military road which passes through
+the whole empire leading from Cuzco to Quitu, and which has many highly
+important lateral branches. The magnificent water-conduits, by which
+barren sand wastes and sterile hills were converted into fruitful
+plantations, are monuments of equivalent greatness. Traces of these
+water-conduits are to be seen throughout the whole of Peru, and even
+where the canals themselves no longer exist, the divisional boundaries
+of the fields they watered are still discernible. In many districts
+where the valleys of the Sierra run into the Puna&mdash;(I allude here only
+to the declivities above Tarmatambo, on the road towards Jauja)&mdash;there
+may be seen many square fields of uniform size, each of which is
+surrounded by a low stone wall; these fields are at present overgrown
+with Puna grass, and are not fit for cultivation. They are what were
+called <i>Tapu</i> lands, which were distributed to every subject of the Inca
+empire, so that each family enjoyed the produce arising from the
+cultivation of a certain portion of ground. These Tapu lands were
+watered by skilfully constructed aqueducts, whereby they were rendered
+suitable for agriculture. The Spaniards having destroyed the conduits,
+the reservoirs dried up, and the soil became barren. Many of these
+conduits were subterraneous, and it is now no longer possible to find
+them; in some parts they were constructed with pipes of gold, which the
+Spaniards eagerly seized as valuable booty.</p>
+
+<p>There still exist vast remains of well-constructed colossal buildings,
+as palaces, fortresses, and temples. The walls of these edifices were
+built of square stones, so finely cut, and joined so closely together,
+that between any two there is not space sufficient to insert the edge of
+the thinnest paper. In the royal palace of Cuzco, and in the Temple of
+the Sun, a fusion of gold or silver was used for cement between the
+stones. This was, however, only employed as a luxury; for in other great
+edifices, for example, in the baths of Huamalies in the province<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> of
+Jauja, stones are kept together by their own weight and the precision of
+the workmanship. These stones are of very considerable magnitude; some
+being from twelve to sixteen feet long, from eight to ten feet high, and
+equally broad. They are not all square; some are polygonal, and some
+spherical, but they were all joined one to another with the same
+exactness: of this a remarkable example is presented in the highly
+interesting ruins of the palace of Limatambo. A question which naturally
+suggests itself is,&mdash;how did the ancient Peruvians, without iron tools,
+hew these vast stones, and afterwards work the different fragments so
+skilfully? The first point is to me quite inexplicable; the second may
+possibly be accounted for by friction; the softest of two stones which
+was to be brought into a particular shape being rubbed by a harder, and
+afterwards polished by pyritous plants. The removal of the block from
+the quarry where it was excavated to the place of its destination, and
+the raising of fragments of stone to considerable heights, could only
+have been effected by the co-operation of thousands of men, for no kind
+of elevating machinery or lever was then known.</p>
+
+<p>The fortresses give a high idea of the progress made by the ancient
+Peruvians in architectural art. These structures were surrounded by
+ramparts and trenches. The larger ones were protected by the solidity of
+the walls, and the smaller ones by difficulty of access. The approaches
+to them were chiefly subterraneous; and thereby, they were enabled to
+maintain secret communication with the palaces and temples in their
+neighborhood. The subterraneous communications were carefully
+constructed; they were of the height of a man, and in general from three
+to four feet broad. In some parts they contract suddenly in width, and
+the walls on each side are built with sharp pointed stones, so that
+there is no getting between them, except by a lateral movement. In other
+parts they occasionally become so low, that it is impossible to advance,
+except by creeping on all fours. Every circumstance had been made a
+subject of strict calculation; it had been well considered how treasures
+might be removed from the palaces and temples to the fortresses, and
+placed securely beyond the reach of an enemy, for in the rear of every
+narrow pass there were ample spaces for soldiers, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> might dispute the
+advance of a whole army. Besides the remains of the fortress of Cuzco,
+which are gradually disappearing every year, the most important are
+those of Calcahilares and Huillcahuaman. Less interesting, though still
+very curious, are the ruins of Chimu-canchu in Manische, near Truxillo,
+which are not of stone but of brick. The architecture of the small
+fortress of <i>Huichay</i>, two leagues from Tarma, which defended the
+entrance to that valley, is very remarkable. The front is built of small
+but firmly united stones, and covers a large cavity, in which there are
+numerous divisions, intended for the preservation of warlike stores, and
+for quartering soldiers. On the steep declivity of the hill there had
+been a deep trench, between which there was a wall fourteen feet higher,
+flanked by three bastions. Around this fortress nitre is found in great
+abundance. It is now collected by the Huancas (the inhabitants of the
+valley of Jauja), for making gunpowder. The diggings for nitre have
+almost obliterated the entrance to the cavity, and the fortress is
+already so much injured that possibly in another century scarcely a
+trace of the edifice will remain. Notwithstanding a search of several
+days, I did not succeed in discovering the mouth of the cavity, though
+an old Indian, who, years ago, had often visited it, pointed out to me
+what he supposed to be its precise situation. The walls of
+perpendicular rock in the neighborhood of Huichay are often 60 to 80
+feet high, and the clefts or fissures in them are filled up with small
+stones. It would be incomprehensible how the Indians ascended to
+perform this labor, were it not perceived that they have hollowed
+passages in the mountain. It would appear they must have had
+dwellings, or stores for provisions, on the higher part of the hill,
+for small windows are often perceptible in walls of masonry.</p>
+
+<p>The old Indian villages of the Sierra are for the most part situated on
+heights, or sharp ridges, which are now completely barren, as they no
+longer receive the artificial watering with which they were formerly
+supplied. All lie open to the east, so that the inhabitants could behold
+their Deity the moment he appeared on the horizon. All large towns had a
+square in their centre, where the religious dances were performed. From
+the square a certain number of regular roads or streets always ran<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> in
+the direction of the four quarters of the firmament. There are great
+varieties in the construction of the houses. Small insignificant huts
+often stand close to a palace having twenty or twenty-five windows in
+one front. Private dwellings in the mountainous parts are built of
+unhewn stone, cemented with a very strong calcareous mortar. On the
+coast the walls are of brick. In the departments of Junin and Ayacucho,
+I met with the ruins of great villages, consisting of dwellings of a
+peculiar construction, in the form of a tower. Each house is
+quadrangular, with a diameter of about six feet, and seventeen or
+eighteen feet high. The walls are from one to one and a half feet thick.
+The doors, which open to the east or south, are only a foot and a half
+high, and two feet wide. After creeping in (which is a work of some
+difficulty) the explorer finds himself in an apartment about five and a
+half feet in height, and of equal breadth, without any windows. In the
+walls there are closets or cupboards, which served to contain domestic
+utensils, food, &amp;c. Earthen pots with maize, coca, and other things, are
+still often found in these closets. The ceiling of the room is
+overlaid with flat plates of stone, and in the centre an aperture, two
+feet wide, is left, forming a communication with the second floor,
+which is precisely like the first, but has two small windows. The roof
+of this apartment has also an aperture, affording access to the third
+floor, the ceiling of which forms the roof of the house, and consists
+of rather thick plates of stone. The upper room is usually less lofty
+than the two rooms below it, and seems to have been used as a
+provision store-room. I found in one of these upper rooms the mummy of
+a child very well embalmed. The family appear to have lived chiefly on
+the ground-floors. The place for cooking is often plainly perceptible.
+The second floor was probably the sleeping apartment. In the course of
+my travels, when overtaken by storms, I often retreated for shelter
+into one of these ruined dwellings.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Peruvians frequently buried their dead in their own houses,
+and then removed from them. This custom appears to have been very
+general about the time of the Spanish conquest, when a great number of
+Indians committed suicide in despair. Household utensils were placed in
+the graves, when the dead<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> were buried in the houses, as well as when
+they were interred in other places. In many houses in which I made
+diggings I regularly found the following arrangement. Under a stratum of
+earth two feet deep lay the body, in a state of good preservation, and
+generally, but not always, in a sitting posture. On clearing away
+another stratum of earth equally deep there is found a variety of
+household vessels for cooking, together with water-pots of clay, gourds,
+hunting and fishing implements, &amp;c. There is frequently a third layer of
+earth, beneath which the gold and silver vessels and the household
+deities are deposited. The idols are of clay, stone, and copper, or of
+the precious metals. Those of clay are hollow, flat, compressed, and in
+most instances the faces are painted. Those of stone are of granite,
+porphyry, or sand-stone. These stone images are solid, and often several
+feet high. The golden idols are always hollow; but they exhibit no
+distinct trace of the soldering. They are of various sizes; some of them
+weigh three quarters of a pound. Those of silver are always solid. All
+these images of deities have the same physiognomy, and
+disproportionately large head. In most instances the head is covered by
+a peculiar kind of cap.</p>
+
+<p>The vessels used for holding water or other liquids are very various in
+color and form. Most of them exhibit ludicrous caricatures of human
+figures; others are unrecognisable representations of animals or fancy
+figures. These vessels have in general two apertures, one by which they
+were filled, and the other by which the liquid was poured out. On
+filling them a feeble flute-like sound is heard. It is occasioned by the
+air escaping through the other aperture. Most of these vessels are made
+of red or black clay, well glazed. Those for holding chicha were very
+capacious. Some of them, which have been found hermetically closed, have
+contained chicha upwards of three hundred years old, and remarkable for
+a very smoky flavor. On the vessels made of gourds fanciful figures are
+generally carved. Gold drinking cups have been found, adorned with well
+executed embossed ornaments, and like the images, showing no trace of
+soldering. Among the warlike weapons, the stone battle-axes are very
+remarkable; they have at both ends a tube, in which the handle was fixed
+by ligatures. Articles for person<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>al adornment, such as nose and lip
+rings, neck chains, pins, bracelets, and ancle bands, are usually of
+gold, and set with small colored shells. The sceptres of the Incas are
+of gold, and exquisitely wrought; those of the Curacas of silver; and
+those of the Caciques of copper, sometimes gilt.</p>
+
+<p>Idols and utensils made of wood are very rarely found. It would appear
+that the ancient Peruvians found more difficulty in the working of wood
+than that of metal and stone. The Peruvians give to all objects dug up
+from the old graves, the name of <i>Huaqueros</i>, from Huaca, the word for
+grave in the Quichua language.</p>
+
+<p>The huacas or graves vary in form or magnitude. When destined for single
+individuals they were made small; but when for families, they were of
+considerable extent. On the sandy soil of the coast, no elevation marks
+the spot where the bodies are interred; but further inland (though still
+in the coast region), the graves are for the most part elevated and
+arched, and are built of bricks. In the Sierra the tombs are of stone,
+quadrangular, oval, or of an obelisk form.</p>
+
+<p>In the huacas, the bodies are found in a sitting position, and supported
+by stones or reeds: the face turned towards the east. In front of the
+body it was customary to place two rows of pots containing quinua,
+maize, potatoes, dried llama flesh, and other kinds of provisions, and
+these pots were all covered with small lids. On each side of the body
+were ranged cooking utensils, and vessels containing water and chicha.
+The body and all the objects deposited in the grave were covered with a
+layer of sand, above which were spread various articles of clothing.
+Over these was placed another layer of sand, and then the tomb was built
+above the whole.</p>
+
+<p>The bodies are found wrapped in several coverings; and when first taken
+out of the graves, they have the appearance of unfinished statues; the
+position of the head, knees, and feet being alone recognisable. A strong
+net-work, composed of twisted straw or bast incloses a thick rush mat,
+in which the body is wrapped. These coverings being removed, there is
+found a broad, woollen bandage, passing round the body, and fastening
+the rushes or sticks which support it in a sitting position. Under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> this
+bandage is a red or party-colored covering which goes over the whole
+body; and beneath this are one or two yellowish-white coverings,
+strongly sewed up. On removing these coverings, there are found some
+pots or drinking cups, a few ornaments, the <i>Huallqui</i> with coca, and in
+most instances a silver or gold idol suspended from the neck of the
+body. The undermost wrapper consists of a cloth of rather fine texture.
+Probably it was originally white, but time has changed it to a
+reddish-yellow. This covering being unsewed, the naked corpse appears;
+the head alone being encircled with two or three bandages, called
+<i>Huinchas</i>. The body is always in a sitting posture; the knees being
+drawn up towards the face, and the arms crossed over the breast, in
+such a manner that the chin rests between the two clenched hands. The
+wrists are tied together, and the ligature with which they are
+fastened is passed round the neck. This, which was evidently done only
+to keep the hands fixed in the required position, has led some
+commentators on Peruvian antiquities to suppose that the bodies found
+with strings round the necks were those of hanged persons. In the
+mouth there is a thin piece of gold, silver or copper; most of the
+bodies are in a good state of preservation, though the features are
+not discernible. The hair is always found perfectly free from decay;
+and that of the females is beautifully plaited.</p>
+
+<p>The question has arisen, whether these bodies were embalmed, or whether
+their preservation is merely the result of the mummifying nature of the
+climate. Both conjectures have found zealous supporters. Don Francisco
+Barrero, keeper of the Museum of Natural History in Lima, mentions, in
+the <i>Memorial de Ciencias Naturales</i>,<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> that among the ancient
+Peruvians certain men were appointed as embalmers, and he describes the
+process they adopted as follows:&mdash;They first extracted the brain through
+the nose, then took out the eyes, and stopped up the sockets with
+cotton. The bowels, lungs, and even the tongue, were removed, after
+which the body and skull were filled with a kind of powder, which
+immediately after it is taken out of the mummies, diffuses a slight
+odor of turpentine; this odor, however, it soon loses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> on being
+exposed to the action of the air. The face, hands, and feet, were
+rubbed over with an oily substance, after which the body was incased
+in the envelopes above described. I am disposed to believe that this
+process never had any existence, save in the imagination of Barrera:
+it indeed resembles the manner in which the Egyptians prepared their
+mummies; but no such method was practised among the Indians. The
+mummies collected in the museum of Lima present not the slightest
+trace of this powder, or indeed of any kind of preservative
+material&mdash;a fact which is mentioned by the director of that
+establishment, Don E. Mariano de Rivero, in his <i>Antiguedades
+Peruanas</i>.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p>
+
+<p>On those parts of the coast where it never rains, the combined heat of
+the sun and the sand has dried up the bodies; in the mountain districts,
+the pure atmosphere and the peculiarly drying nature of the wind have
+produced the same effect. Similar appearances may be traced to different
+circumstances. Of this fact the burial ground of Huacho, and the
+mummified animals seen on the level heights, furnish the most convincing
+proofs. In districts exposed to frequent rain, mummies are found in very
+bad preservation, most of them being mere skeletons. All are in sitting
+postures. In those parts of the Sierra where the soil is impregnated
+with nitre, bodies, which must have lain in the ground for several
+centuries, are found in a very fresh condition, notwithstanding the
+humidity.</p>
+
+<p>Garcilaso de la Vega and the Padre Acosta state that the ancient
+Peruvians were acquainted with the art of embalming, but that they
+employed it only for the bodies of their kings. In the Temple of the Sun
+at Cuzco, there were found excellently preserved mummies of the Incas,
+each seated on a throne. Several years after the Spanish conquest, these
+mummies were conveyed to Lima, and were buried in the court of the
+hospital of San Andres. It is deeply to be deplored that the fanaticism
+of the Spanish conquerors should have destroyed these interesting
+remains of the ancient sovereigns of Peru.</p>
+
+<p>The facts adduced in the course of this volume, relative to the
+barbarous colonization system of the Spaniards, must sufficiently <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span>prove
+how adverse was Spanish dominion to the improvement of the natives, and
+to the prosperity of the country. For Peru, Nature's bounteously favored
+land, let us hope that there is reserved a future, happier than either
+the past or the present!</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><p class="center"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Even to this day the custom of forced domestic service is
+kept up in some parts of the Sierra, where the priest is allowed the
+services of a female cook, who is called a <i>Mita</i>, and a man servant,
+for whom the name of <i>Pongo</i> is reserved. These servants are kept for
+the space of a week.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Adelung, in his "Review of all Languages," considers the
+Calchaqui (still spoken in Tucuman) to be a dialect of the Quichua. It
+is, however, a dialect of the Aymara. Adelung makes another mistake
+when he observes, that the Lama language is spoken in the neighborhood
+of Truxillo.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> Of the <i>Quichua</i>, <i>Quite&ntilde;a</i>, and <i>Lama</i> languages
+several grammars and dictionaries exist. Of the <i>Kauqui</i> only single
+words have been preserved. There is a very imperfect dictionary of the
+<i>Chinchaysuyo</i> by Figueredo. Of the <i>Yunga</i> there is a grammar with a
+<i>Confesionario</i> and Prayers by Fernando de Carrera&mdash;a very scarce work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Vol. II., p. 106.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Published in 1846.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><b><small>THE END.</small></b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="tnote">
+<p><b>Transcriber's Notes:</b></p>
+
+<p>Inconsistencies in hyphenation retained. (brush-wood, brushwood;
+court-yard, courtyard; day-break, daybreak; goat-skin, goat-skin;
+hair-dressers, hairdressers; horse-shoes, horseshoes;
+house-tops, housetops; light-house, lighthouse;
+mayor-domos, mayordomos; mid-day, midday; needle-woman, needlewoman;
+net-work; network; nick-name, nickname; north-west, northwest;
+run-away, runaway; sea-ports, seaports; shop-keeper/s, shopkeeper/s;
+south-east, southeast; south-west, southwest; two-fold, twofold)</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistency in abbreviation "P. M." Sometimes it is "P.M." without a
+space. Sometimes the abbreviation is rendered in smaller size capital
+letters while at other times it is the same size as regular text
+capital letters. The style of the original text is retained in all
+cases (including, for the html version, relative font size).</p>
+
+<p>Page 22, inserted opening quote mark. ("<i>Las diez han</i>)</p>
+
+<p>Page 25, species of fox "<i>Canis Azar&aelig;</i>" is attributed to "Wild." Not
+consistent with Page 174 "<i>Canis azar&aelig;</i>" attributed to "Pr. Max." and
+to Page 221 "<i>Canis Azar&aelig;</i>" also attributed to "Pr. Max." Mismatch in
+captialization and also in name of discoverer. Original text retained
+in all cases.</p>
+
+<p>Page 25, "III." changed to "Ill." (<i>Scolopax frenata</i>, Ill.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 59, "heterogegeous" changed to "heterogeneous". (heterogeneous objects are jumbled)</p>
+
+<p>Page 67, "Limena" retained. Elsewhere in the text it is "Lime&ntilde;a".
+(Limena is a noble specimen)</p>
+
+<p>Page 75, "grostesque" changed to "grotesque". (painted with grotesque
+figures)</p>
+
+<p>Page 85, inserted missing comma. (Alsop &amp; Co., Templeman)</p>
+
+<p>Page 108, unusual word "recal" retained. Possibly "recall". (The
+ladies of Lima recal)</p>
+
+<p>Page 112, missing degree sign added. (December 28, at 6 in the morning, 26·0° C.;)</p>
+
+<p>Page 117, "vavors" changed to "vapors". (there were seen fiery vapors)</p>
+
+<p>Page 135, "litttle" changed to "little". (full of little egg-shaped)</p>
+
+<p>Footnote 42, unusual phrase "no thing" retained. (He who created the
+world out of no thing)</p>
+
+<p>Page 154, unusual spelling of placename "Cozco" retained. Elsewhere in
+text it is "Cuzco". (erected in Cozco, the capital)</p>
+
+<p>Page 168, inserted missing period. (<i>Pelecanus thayus</i>, Mol.;)</p>
+
+<p>Page 172, compass directions "SS.E" changed to "S.S.E"; "NN.W."
+changed to "N.N.W." (Andes, namely from S.S.E.) (N.N.W., the western
+declivity)</p>
+
+<p>Page 177, "Eschidna" changed to "Echidna". See other occurrence at
+Footnote 93. (<i>Echidna ocellata</i>, Tsch.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 178, "melancholv" changed to "melancholy". (melancholy howl)</p>
+
+<p>Page 180, inconsistent spelling of placename "Periachi", later on
+"Pariachi". Original text retained for both. (At Periachi, four
+leagues from) (Two leagues beyond Pariachi)</p>
+
+<p>Page 182, inserted hyphen. (river of Chillon flowed north-westward)</p>
+
+<p>Page 198, unusual spelling "befel" retained. Possibly "befell". (an
+accident which befel me)</p>
+
+<p>Page 209, "swenllig" changed to "swelling". (inflammation, swelling
+of)</p>
+
+<p>Page 218, "jus" changed to "just". (than any of those just)</p>
+
+<p>Page 222, "sent" changed to "scent". (scent for the pishacas)</p>
+
+<p>Page 278, ungrammatical construction "The men takes" retained. (The
+men takes their bows)</p>
+
+<p>Page 284, period changed to comma. (Quichua, the idioms spoken)</p>
+
+<p>Page 288, period added. (festively celebrated.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 299, inserted missing opening round bracket. (... fly-catchers and
+shrikes (<i>Muscicapid&aelig;</i> and....)</p>
+
+<p>Page 301, unusual bird name "shrites" retained. Possibly "shrikes".
+(shrites, and even sea-swallows)</p>
+
+<p>Page 301, "tsch." changed to "Tsch." (<i>Odontophorus speciosus</i>, Tsch.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 325, "Fra" retained. Fra is acceptable as a title for friars but
+elsewhere in this text "Fray" is used. (two priests, Fra Francisco
+Otasua and Fray Salvador)</p>
+
+<p>Page 327, "coco" changed to "coca", coco is possible but coca more
+likely from context. (the coca plantation being neglected)</p>
+
+<p>Footnotes frequently have missing end of paragraph/sentence
+punctuation. Periods added.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the
+Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests, by J. J. von Tschudi
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,13675 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the
+Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests, by J. J. von Tschudi
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests
+
+Author: J. J. von Tschudi
+
+Translator: Thomasina Ross
+
+Release Date: October 3, 2008 [EBook #26745]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS IN PERU ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: NATIVES OF VALPARAISO.]
+
+[Illustration: CHILIAN HORSEMANSHIP.]
+
+
+
+
+  TRAVELS
+
+  IN PERU,
+
+  ON THE COAST, IN THE SIERRA, ACROSS THE CORDILLERAS
+  AND THE ANDES, INTO THE PRIMEVAL FORESTS.
+
+
+  BY DR. J. J. VON TSCHUDI.
+
+
+  TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN
+
+  BY THOMASINA ROSS.
+
+
+  NEW EDITION, COMPLETE IN ONE VOLUME.
+
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  A. S. BARNES & CO., 51 JOHN-STREET.
+  CINCINNATI: H. W. DERBY.
+  1854.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The Work from which the present Volume is translated consists of
+extracts from the Author's Journal, accompanied by his recollections
+and observations. The absence of chronological arrangement will be
+sufficiently accounted for, when it is explained that the zoological
+investigations for which the journey was undertaken frequently
+required the Author to make repeated visits to one particular place or
+district, or to remain for a considerable time within the narrow
+circuit of a few miles; and sometimes to travel rapidly over vast
+tracts of country. Disclaiming any intention of making one of those
+travelling romances, with which the tourist literature of the day is
+overstocked, the Author has confined himself to a plain description of
+facts and things as they came within the sphere of his own observation.
+But though Dr. Tschudi lays claim to no merit beyond the truthfulness
+of his narrative, yet the reader will no doubt readily concede to him
+the merit of extensive information, and happy descriptive talent. His
+pictures of Nature, especially those relating to the animal world, are
+frequently imbued with much of the charm of thought and style which
+characterizes the writings of Buffon.
+
+Lima, the oldest and most interesting of the cities founded by the
+Spaniards on the western coast of South America, has been frequently
+described; but no previous writer has painted so animated a picture of
+the city and its inhabitants, as that contained in the following volume.
+After quitting the capital of Peru, Dr. Tschudi went over ground
+previously untrodden by any European traveller. He visited the Western
+Sierra, the mighty chain of the Cordilleras, the boundless level
+heights, the deep mountain valleys on the eastern declivity of the
+Andes, and the vast primeval forests. Whilst recounting his wanderings
+in these distant regions, he describes not only the country and the
+people, but every object of novelty and interest in the animal,
+vegetable, and mineral creations.
+
+Those lovers of Natural History who are familiar with the German
+language, and who may wish to make themselves extensively acquainted
+with the animal world, in those parts of Peru visited by Dr. Tschudi,
+will find abundant information on the subject in his work, with plates,
+entitled "Untersuchungen ueber die Fauna Peruana." The present
+Publication, though containing a vast deal to interest the naturalist,
+is addressed to the general reader, and will, it is presumed, gratify
+curiosity respecting the highly interesting and little known regions to
+which it relates. It may fairly be said that no previous writer has
+given so comprehensive a picture of Peru; combining, with animated
+sketches of life and manners, a fund of valuable information on Natural
+History and Commerce.
+
+                                                                 T. R.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+                                                                     PAGE
+
+Embarkation at Havre--The Voyage--Arrival at the Island of
+Chiloe--Landing--The Gyr-Falcon--Punta Arena--The Island of
+Chiloe described--Climate and Cultivation--Cattle--The Bay--San
+Carlos--The Governor's House--Poverty and Wretchedness of the
+Inhabitants of the Town--Strange method of Ploughing--Coasting
+Vessels--Smuggling--Zoology--Departure from Chiloe                      1
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+Valparaiso and the adjacent country--The Bay--Aspect of the
+Town--Lighthouses--Forts--Custom House--Exchange--Hotels and
+Taverns--War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation--First
+Expedition--Preparations for the Second Expedition--Embarkation
+of the Troops--Close of the Port--July Festival in honor of
+the French Revolution--The _Muele_, or Mole--Police--_Serenos_,
+or Watchmen--Movable Prisons--Clubs--Trade of
+Valparaiso--Santiago--Zoology                                          15
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+Juan Fernandez--Robinson Crusoe--Passage to Callao--San
+Lorenzo--Rise and fall of the coast--Mr. Darwin's opinions
+on this subject--Callao--The Fortress--Siege by the
+Spaniards--General Rodil--Siege by the Chilians--The
+Colocolo--Pirates--Zoology--Road to Lima                               26
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+Lima--Situation and extent of the City--Streets,
+Houses, Churches and Convents--San Pedro--The
+Jesuits--Nunneries--Beatarios--Hospitals--San Andres--The
+Foundling House--The Pantheon--The Palace--The Plaza
+Mayor--Pizarro--The Cabildo--Fountains--Palace of the
+Inquisition--The University--National Library--Museum of
+Natural History and Antiquities--Academy of Design--The
+Mint--The Theatre--Circus for Cock-fighting--The Bridge--The
+City Wall--Santa Catalina--Barracks                                    42
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+Population of Lima--Its diminution--Different races of the
+Inhabitants--Their characteristics--Amusements--Education--The Women
+of Lima--Their Costume--the _Saya y Manto_--Female domestic
+life--Love of dress--Beatas--Indians--Slaves--Bosales--Free
+Creoles--Negroes--Negresses--Black Creoles--Their
+varieties--Mestizos--Mulattoes--Pelanganas--Zambos--Chinos--Foreigners
+in Lima--Corruption of the Spanish language                            63
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+Primary Schools--Colleges--The University--Monks--Saints--Santo
+Toribio and Santa Rosa--Religious Processions--Raising the Host--The
+Noche Buena--The Carnival--Paseos, or Public Promenades--Ice--Riding
+and Driving--Horses--Their Equipments and Training--Mules--Lottery
+in Lima--Cookery--Breakfasts, Dinners, &c.--Coffee-houses and
+Restaurants--Markets--The _Plazo Firme del Acho_--Bull Fights          89
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+Geographical Situation of Lima--Height above Sea
+level--Temperature--Diseases--Statistical Tables of Births and
+Deaths--Earthquakes--The Valley of Lima--The River Rimac--Aqueducts,
+Trenches, &c.--Irrigation--Plantations--Cotton--Sugar--Various
+kinds of Grain--Maize--Potatoes, and other tuberous
+roots--Pulse--Cabbage--Plants used for Seasoning--Clover--The Olive
+and other Oil Trees--Fruits--Figs and Grapes--The Chirimoya--The
+Palta--The Banana and other Fruits                                    111
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+Robbers on the coast of Peru--The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo--The
+Corps of Montoneros--Watering Places near Lima--Surco, Atte and
+Lurin--Pacchacamac--Ruins of the Temple of the Sun--Difficulties of
+Travelling on the Coast of Peru--Sea Passage to Huacho--Indian
+Canoes--Ichthyological Collections--An old Spaniard's recollections
+of Alexander Von Humboldt--The Padre Requena--Huacho--Plundering of
+Burial Places--Huaura--Malaria--The Sugar Plantation at
+Luhmayo--Quipico--Ancient Peruvian Ruins--The Salinas, or Salt
+Pits--Gritalobos--Chancay--The Piques--Mode of extracting
+them--Valley of the Pasamayo--Extraordinary Atmospheric
+Mirrors--Piedras Gordas--Palo Seco                                    137
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+The Coast southward of Lima--Chilca--Curious Cigar cases made
+there--Yauyos--Pisco--Journey to Yea--A night on the Sand
+Plains--Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823--Vine Plantations at
+Yea--Brandy and Wine--Don Domingo Elias--Vessels for transporting
+Brandy (Botijas and Odres)--Cruel mode of skinning Goats--Negro
+Carnival--Peculiar species of Guinea Pig--The Salamanqueja--Cotton
+Plantations--Quebrada of Huaitara--Sangallan--Guano--Retrospect of
+the Peruvian Coast--Rivers--Medanos--Winds--Change of Seasons--The
+Garuas--The Lomas--Mammalia--Birds--Amphibia                          160
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+Roads leading to the Sierra--Chaclacayo and Santa Ines--Barometrical
+observations--San Pedro Mama--The Rio Seco--Extraordinary Geological
+Phenomenon--Similar one described by Mr. Darwin--Surco--Diseases
+peculiar to the Villages of Peru--The Verugas--Indian mode of
+treating the disorder--The Bird-catching Spider--Horse-Shoeing--Indian
+Tambos--San Juan de Matucanas--The Thorn-apple and the Tonga--The
+Tambo de Viso--Bridges--San Mateo--Passports--Acchahuari--Malady
+called the Veta--Its effects on horses--Singular tact and caution
+of Mules--Antarangra and Mountain Passes--Curious partition of
+Water--Piedra Parada--Yauli--Indian Smelting Furnaces--Mineral
+Springs--Portuguese Mine owners--Saco--Oroya--Hanging
+Bridges--Huaros--Roads leading from Oroya                             179
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+The Cordillera and the Andes--Signification of the terms--Altitude
+of the Mountains and Passes--Lakes--Metals--Aspect of the
+Cordillera--Shattered Rocks--Maladies caused by the diminished
+Atmospheric Pressure--The Veta and the Surumpe--Mountain Storms--The
+Condor--Its habits--Indian mode of Catching the Bird--The Puna or
+Despoblado--Climate--Currents of Warm Air--Vegetation--Tuberous
+Plant called the Maca--Animals of the Puna--The Llama, the Alpaco,
+the Huanacu and the Vicuna--The Chacu and the Bolas--Household
+Utensils of the Ancient Peruvians--The Viscacha and the
+Chinchilla--Puna Birds and Amphibia--Cattle and Pasture--Indian
+Farms--Shepherds' Huts--Ancient Peruvian Roads and
+Buildings--Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna              203
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+Cerro de Pasco--First discovery of the Mines--Careless mode of
+working them--Mine Owners and Mine Laborers--Amalgamating and
+Refining--Produce of the Mines--Life in Cerro de Pasco--Different
+Classes of the Population--Gaming and Drunkenness--Extravagance
+and Improvidence of the Indian Mine Laborers--The Cerro de San
+Fernando--Other Important Mining Districts in Peru--The Salcedo Mine
+Castrovireyna--Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of Peru--Rich
+Mines secretly known to the Indians--Roads leading from Cerro de
+Pasco--The Laguna of Chinchaycocha--Battle of Junin--Indian
+Robbers--A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds                          229
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+The Sierra--Its Climate and Productions--Inhabitants--Trade--Eggs
+circulated as money--Mestizos in the Sierra--Their Idleness
+and Love of Gaming and Betting--Agriculture--The Quinua Plant,
+a substitute for Potatoes--Growth of Vegetables and Fruits
+in the Sierra--Rural Festivals at the Seasons of Sowing and
+Reaping--Skill of the Indians in various Handicrafts--Excess of
+Brandy-Drinking--Chicha--Disgusting mode of making it--Festivals of
+Saints--Dances and Bull-Fights--Celebration of Christmas-Day,
+New-Year's Day, Palm Sunday, and Good Friday--Contributions levied
+on the Indians--Tardy and Irregular Transmission of Letters--Trade
+in Mules--General Style of Building in the Towns and Villages of
+the Sierra--Ceja de la Montana                                        253
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+Road to the Primeval Forests--Barbacoas, or Indian Suspension
+Bridges--Vegetation--Hollow Passes--Zoology--the Montana
+Plantations--Inhabitants--Trade in Peruvian Bark--Wandering
+Indians--Wild Indians or Indios Braves--Languages,
+Manners, and Customs of the Indios Bravos--Dress--Warlike
+Weapons and Hunting Arms--Dwellings--Religion--Physical
+formation of the Wild Indian Tribes--Animals of the Aboriginal
+Forests--Mammalia--Hunting the Ounce--Birds--Amphibia--Poisonous
+Serpents--Huaco--Insects--Plants                                      271
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+Montana of San Carlos de Vitoc--Villages--Hacienda of
+Maraynioc--the Coca Plant--Mode of Cultivating and Gathering
+it--Mastication of Coca--Evil Consequences of its excessive
+Use--Its Nutritious Qualities--Indian Superstitions connected
+with the Coca Plant--Suggestions for its Introduction in
+the European Navies--Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo--The
+Chunchos--Missions to Cerro de la Sal--Juan Santos Atahuallpa--The
+Franciscan Monks--Depopulation of Vitoc                               309
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians--The
+Repartimiento and the Mita--Indian Insurrections--Tupac Amaru--His
+Capture and Execution--War of Independence--Character of the Peruvian
+Indians--Music--Dress--Superstitions--Longevity--Diminished Population
+of Peru--Languages spoken by the Aboriginal Inhabitants--Specimen of
+Quichua Poetry--The Yaravies--The Quipu--Water Conduits--Ancient
+Buildings--Fortresses--Idols--Domestic Utensils--Ancient Peruvian
+Graves--Mode of Burying the Dead--Mummies                             329
+
+
+
+
+TRAVELS IN PERU.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+Embarkation at Havre--The Voyage--Arrival at the Island of
+Chiloe--Landing--The Gyr-Falcon--Punta Arena--The Island of
+Chiloe described--Climate and Cultivation--Cattle--The Bay--San
+Carlos--The Governor's House--Poverty and Wretchedness of the
+Inhabitants of the Town--Strange method of Ploughing--Coasting
+Vessels--Smuggling--Zoology--Departure from Chiloe.
+
+
+On the 27th of February, 1838, I sailed from Havre-de-Grace on board the
+"Edmond." This vessel, though a French merchantman, was freighted with a
+cargo of Swiss manufactured goods, suited to any commercial transactions
+which might be entered into in the course of a circumnavigatory voyage.
+It was a boisterous morning. A fall of snow and heavy clouds soon
+intercepted our view of the coast of France, and not one cheering
+sunbeam shone out to betoken for us a favorable voyage. We passed down
+the British Channel, where the multitude of vessels, and the flags of
+all nations, presented an enlivening picture, and we finally cleared it
+on the 5th of March. Favored by a brisk north wind, we soon reached
+Madeira and came in sight of Teneriffe, the peak being just perceptible
+on the skirt of the horizon. Easterly breezes soon brought us to the
+island of Fogo, which, having passed on the 35th day of our voyage, we
+received the usual marine baptism, and participated in all the
+ceremonies observed on crossing the equator. We soon reached the tropic
+of Capricorn, and endeavored to gain the channel between the Falkland
+Islands and Patagonia; but unfavorable winds obliged us to direct our
+course eastwards, from the Island of Soledad to the Staten Islands. On
+the 3d of March we made the longitude of Cape Horn, but were not able to
+double it until we got into the 60th degree of south latitude. In those
+dangerous waters, where it is admitted by the boldest English sailors
+that the waves rage more furiously than in any other part of the world,
+we encountered great risk and difficulty. For twenty-two days we were
+driven about on the fearfully agitated sea, southward of Tierra del
+Fuego, and were only saved from being buried in the deep, by the
+excellent build and soundness of our ship.
+
+We suffered much, and were long delayed by this storm; but when it
+subsided, a smart breeze sprang up from the southward, and we held our
+course along the Pacific to the coast of Chile. After a voyage of 99
+days we cast anchor on Sunday the 5th of June, in the Bay of San Carlos.
+Like the day of our departure from Europe, that of our arrival off
+Chiloe was gloomy and overcast. Heavy clouds obscured the
+long-looked-for island, and its picturesque shore could only be seen,
+when, at intervals, the wind dispersed the dark atmospheric veil. We had
+no sooner cast anchor than several boats came alongside rowed by
+Indians, who offered us potatoes, cabbage, fish, and water, in exchange
+for tobacco. Only those who have been long at sea can form an idea of
+the gratification which fresh provisions, especially vegetables, afford
+to the weary voyager. In a couple of hours, the harbor-master came on
+board to examine the ship, the cargo, &c., and to give us permission to
+go ashore. The long-boat being got out, and well manned, we stepped into
+it, and were conveyed to the harbor. The Bay of San Carlos being
+shallow, large ships, or vessels, heavily laden, are obliged to go three
+English miles or more from the landing-place before they can anchor. Our
+boat was gaily decorated and newly painted; but this was mere outside
+show, for it was in a very unsound condition. During our passage through
+the tropics, the sun had melted the pitch between the planks of the
+boat, which lay on the deck keel uppermost. In this crazy boat, we had
+scarcely got a quarter of a league from the ship, when the water rushed
+in so forcibly through all the cracks and fissures, that it was soon
+more than ankle deep. Unluckily the sailors had forgotten to put on
+board a bucket or anything for baling out the water, so that we were
+obliged to use our hats and boots for that purpose. Fourteen persons
+were crowded together in this leaky boat, and the water continued
+rising, until at length we began to be seriously apprehensive for our
+safety, when, fortunately, our situation was observed by the people on
+shore. They promptly prepared to send out a boat to our assistance, but
+just as it was got afloat, we succeeded in reaching the pier, happy once
+more to set our feet on _terra firma_.
+
+Our first business was to seek shelter and refreshment. There is no
+tavern in San Carlos, but there is a sort of substitute for one, kept
+by an old Corsican, named Filippi, where captains of ships usually
+take up their quarters. Filippi, who recognized an old acquaintance in
+one of our party, received us very kindly, and showed us to apartments
+which certainly had no claim to the merits of either cleanliness or
+convenience. They were long, dark, quadrangular rooms, without
+windows, and were destitute of any article of furniture, except a bed
+in a kind of recess.
+
+As soon as I got on shore, I saw a multitude of small birds of prey.
+They keep in flocks, like our sparrows, hopping about everywhere, and
+perching on the hedges and house-tops. I anxiously wished for an
+opportunity to make myself better acquainted with one of them.
+Presuming that shooting in the town might be displeasing to the
+inhabitants, who would naturally claim to themselves a sort of
+exclusive sporting right, I took my gun down to the sea-shore, and
+there shot one of the birds. It belonged to the Gyr-Falcon family
+(_Polyboriniae_), and was one of the species peculiar to South America
+(_Polyborus chimango_, Vieil). The whole of the upper part of the body
+is brown, but single feathers here and there have a whitish-brown
+edge. On the tail are several indistinct oblique stripes. The
+under-part of the body is whitish-brown, and is also marked with
+transverse stripes feebly defined. The bird I shot measured from the
+point of the beak to the end of the tail 1 foot 6-1/2 inches. Though
+these Gyr-Falcons live socially together, yet they are very greedy and
+contentious about their prey. They snap up, as food, all the offal
+thrown out of doors; and thus they render themselves serviceable to
+the inhabitants, who consequently do not destroy them. In some of the
+valleys of Peru, I met with these birds again, but very rarely and
+always single and solitary. I continued my excursions on the
+sea-shore, but with little satisfaction, for the pouring rain had
+driven animals of every kind to their lurking-holes. After a few days,
+I went on board the "Edmond," for the purpose of visiting PUNTA ARENA,
+a town on the side of the bay, whither our boat used to be sent for
+fresh water. The ground surrounding the spring whence the ships obtain
+supplies of water, is sandy, and it becomes exceedingly marshy further
+inland. After wandering about for a few hours, I found myself quite
+lost in a morass, out of which I had to work my way with no little
+difficulty. The whole produce of my hard day's sport consisted of an
+awlbeak, a small dark-brown bird (_Opethiorhyncus patagonicus_), and
+some land-snails. On our return, as we were nearing the ship, we
+killed a seal (_Otaria chilensis_, Muell.), which was rising after a
+dive, close to the boat.
+
+On the 22d of June, all our ship's company were on board by order of
+the captain. We weighed anchor, and cruized about for some time. At
+length, about five in the afternoon, we returned, and the ship was
+anchored again precisely on the spot she had left a few hours before.
+It was set down in the log-book that the wind was not sufficiently
+favorable to allow the ship to pass out safely through the narrow
+entrance to the bay. But all on board were well aware that this was
+merely a pretence on the part of the captain, who, for some reason or
+other, wished to stop longer at San Carlos.
+
+I was very much pleased at this opportunity of prolonging my stay at the
+Island of Chiloe, hoping that better weather would enable me to make an
+excursion into the interior. But the sky still continued overcast, and
+the rain poured incessantly. One day, however, I undertook a journey to
+Castro, in company with the French Charge d'Affaires to Peru, one of my
+fellow passengers on the voyage. A merchant accommodated us with two
+horses, saddled in the Chilian manner; but he warned us to be on our
+guard, as horses were often restive when just returned from their summer
+pasturage. We set off very promisingly. The commencement of our ride was
+pleasant enough, though the road was steep and very difficult. It
+sometimes lay over smooth slippery stones, then through deep marshes, or
+over scattered logs of wood, which bore evidence of attempts to render
+the ground passable, by this rude kind of paving. After we had ridden
+for several hours in the forest, the rain checked our further progress,
+and we turned, to retrace our way back. Our horses seemed well pleased
+with the project of returning home. For a time they proceeded with
+wonderful steadiness; but on coming to a part of the road where the
+ground was comparatively level and firm, they quickened their pace, and
+at length dashed forward through the wood, uncontrolled by the bridle.
+The long narrow saddle, with its woollen covering, the crescent-shaped
+wooden stirrups, and the heavy spurs, with their clumsy rowels, baffled
+all our skill in horsemanship, and it was with no little difficulty we
+kept our seats. We thought it best to give the animals the rein, and
+they galloped through the umbrageous thickets, until at last, panting
+and breathless, they stuck in a morass. Here we recovered our control
+over them, and pursued the remainder of our journey without further
+accident, though we were drenched to the skin on our return to the town.
+
+On subsequent days, I took my rambles on foot, and found myself richly
+rewarded thereby. The long evenings we spent in the company of our host
+and the harbor-master, from both of whom I obtained some useful
+information respecting the island.
+
+Chiloe is one of the largest islands of the Archipelago which extends
+along the west coast of South America, from 42 deg. south lat. to the
+Straits of Magellan. It is about 23 German miles long, and 10 broad. A
+magnificent, but almost inaccessible forest covers the unbroken line of
+hills stretching along Chiloe, and gives to the island a charming aspect
+of undulating luxuriance. Seldom, however, can the eye command a
+distinct view of those verdant hills; for overhanging clouds surcharged
+with rain, almost constantly veil the spreading tops of the trees. At
+most parts of the shore the declivity is rapid. There are many inlets,
+which, though small, afford secure anchorage; but there are no harbors
+of any magnitude. While Castro was the capital of the island, Chacao was
+the principal port; but San Carlos having become the residence of the
+governor, this latter place is considered the chief harbor; and with
+reason, for its secure, tranquil bay unites all the advantages the
+navigator can desire on the stormy coast of South Chile. At Chacao, on
+the contrary, reefs and strong currents render the entrance dangerous
+and the anchorage insecure.
+
+Chiloe is but little cultivated, and scantily populated. If the
+statement of my informant, the harbor-master, be correct, Chiloe and the
+adjacent small islands contain only from 48,000 to 50,000 inhabitants,
+part of whom live in _ranchos_ (huts), and part in a few villages. Next
+to San Carlos, and the half-deserted Castro, to which the title of
+"City" is given, the chief places are Chacao, Vilipilli, Cucao, Velinoe.
+It is only in the neighborhood of these towns or villages that the
+forest trees have been felled, and their removal has uncovered a fertile
+soil, which would reward by a hundred-fold the labor of the husbandman.
+
+The climate of the island is moist and cool, and upon the whole very
+unpleasant. During the winter months, the sun is seldom seen; and it is
+a proverbial saying in Chiloe, that it rains six days of the week, and
+is cloudy on the seventh. In summer there are occasionally fine days,
+though seldom two in succession. The thick forests are therefore never
+dry, and beneath the trees, the vegetation of the marshy soil is
+peculiarly luxuriant. The constant moisture is one of the greatest
+obstacles to agriculture. To clear the ground for cultivation, it would
+be necessary to burn the forests, and as the trees are always damp, that
+could not be done without great difficulty. To some kinds of culture the
+soil is not favorable. The cereals, for example, seldom thrive in
+Chiloe; the seed rots after the ear is formed. Maize grows best; though
+it shoots too much into leaf, and bears only small grain. The damp soil,
+on the other hand, is favorable to potatoes, of which vast quantities
+are planted. There is a degenerate kind of potato, very abundant in
+Chiloe. On bisection it exhibits a greater or lesser number of
+concentric rings, alternately white and violet; sometimes all of the
+latter color. It is well known that southern Chile is the native land of
+the potato. In Chiloe and also in the neighboring islands, potatoes grow
+wild; but, both in size and flavor, they are far inferior to the
+cultivated kind. Like the maize, they shoot up in large leaves and
+stalks. The climate is also very favorable to the different kinds of the
+cabbage plant; but peas and beans do not thrive there.
+
+In the forests there are often clear spots on which the grass grows to a
+great height, and supplies excellent pasturage for numerous herds of
+cattle. The inhabitants of Chiloe breed for their own use, horses, oxen,
+sheep, and swine. The horses are small, and not handsomely formed, but
+very spirited and strong. Some are scarcely twelve hands high. The cows
+are small and lank, and the same may be said of the swine and sheep. It
+is remarkable that all the rams have more than two horns; the greater
+number have three, and many are furnished with four or five. I
+afterwards observed the same in Peru. The domestic animals on this
+island, notwithstanding the abundance of food, are small, and
+sickly-looking. I believe the cause to be want of care, for they remain
+all the year round exposed to every sort of weather and discomfort.
+
+The population of Chiloe consists of Whites, Indians, and people of
+mixed blood. The Indians are now few in number, and those few are
+chiefly in the southern part of the island, and the adjacent islets.
+They are of the Araucana race, and appear to be a sept between that
+race and the people of Tierra del Fuego, on the one side, and the
+Pampas Indians on the other. People of mixed races form by far the
+greater portion of the population. They are met with in every variety
+of amalgamation. Taken in general, they are the reverse of handsome.
+They are short and thick-set, and have long, straight coarse hair.
+Their faces are round and full, their eyes small, and the expression
+of their countenances is unintelligent. The whites are either
+Chilenos or Spaniards: the latter are almost the only Europeans
+who have become settlers here.
+
+The principal town, San Carlos, called by the natives "Ancud," lies on
+the northern coast of a very fine bay. Without a good chart, the
+entrance to this bay is difficult. Numerous small islands form a
+labyrinth, out of which vessels, if not commanded by very experienced
+pilots, cannot easily be extricated. Besides, near the land, the sky is
+usually obscured by clouds which prevent any observation for the
+latitude, as the sun's altitude cannot be taken even at noon; and when
+the sun gets lower, the hills, which would serve as guiding points,
+cease to be distinctly seen.
+
+Several whalers, which for some days vainly endeavored to work through
+this passage, were afterwards obliged to direct their course northward,
+and to cast anchor in Valivia. One of the largest islands at the
+entrance of the bay is San Sebastian, where there are numerous herds of
+cattle. Cochino is a small island, distant only a few miles from San
+Carlos. It is hilly, and thickly crowned with brush-wood. It has only
+one landing-place, and that is rather insecure for boats. The water of
+the bay is remarkably clear and good; only round the little island of
+Cochino, and along the harbor, it is covered with an immense quantity of
+sea-moss, which often renders the landing difficult. It frequently
+happens that commanders of ships, wishing to go on board to make sail
+during the night, get out of the right course, and instead of going to
+the ship, steer to Cochino and get into the moss, where their boats
+stick fast, till returning daylight enables them to work their way out.
+
+The poor inhabitants boil this sea-moss and eat it. It is very salt
+and slimy, and is difficult of digestion. Among the people of Chiloe,
+this sea-moss occupies an important place in surgery. When a leg or an
+arm is broken, after bringing the bone into its proper position, a
+broad layer of the moss is bound round the fractured limb. In drying,
+the slime causes it to adhere to the skin, and thus it forms a fast
+bandage, which cannot be ruffled or shifted. After the lapse of a few
+weeks, when the bones have become firmly united, the bandage is
+loosened by being bathed with tepid water, and it is then easily
+removed. The Indians of Chiloe were acquainted, long before the French
+surgeons, with the use of the paste bandage.
+
+The town of San Carlos is dirty; the streets unpaved, narrow, and
+crooked. The houses, with few exceptions, are wretched wooden huts, for
+the most part without windows; but there is a board divided in the
+middle horizontally, the upper part of which being open, it serves for a
+window, and when both parts are open, it forms a door. The flooring
+usually consists merely of hard-trodden clay, covered with straw
+matting. The furniture, like the apartments, is rude and inconvenient.
+These remarks of course apply to the habitations of the very poor class
+of people. The richer families live in more comfortable style. Of the
+public buildings, the custom-house and the governor's residence are the
+most considerable, but both make a very indifferent appearance. In front
+of the governor's house, which occupies a tolerably large space of
+ground, in the upper part of the town, a sentinel is constantly
+stationed. This sentinel parades to and fro, without shoes or stockings,
+and not unfrequently without a coat, his arms being covered only by his
+shirt sleeves. As to a cap, that seems to be considered as unnecessary a
+part of a well-conditioned uniform, as shoes and stockings. After sunset
+every person who passes the governor's house is challenged. "Who goes
+there?" is the first question; the second is _Que gente?_ (what
+country?) The sailors amuse themselves by returning jocular answers to
+these challenges; and the sentinel, irritated by their jeers, sometimes
+runs after them through part of the town, and when weary of the chace
+returns to his post.
+
+Poverty and uncleanliness vie with each other in San Carlos. The lower
+class of the inhabitants are exceedingly filthy, particularly the women,
+whose usual dress is a dirty woollen gown, and a greasy looking
+mantilla. In their damp gloomy habitations, they squat down on the
+floor, close to the _brasero_ (chafing pan), which also serves them as a
+stove for cooking. They bruise maize between two stones, and make it
+into a thick kind of soup or porridge. When employed in paring potatoes
+or apples, or in cutting cabbages, they throw the skins and waste leaves
+on the ground, so that they are frequently surrounded by a mass of
+half-decayed vegetable matter. Their favorite beverage is _mate_ (the
+Paraguay tea), of which they partake at all hours of the day. The mode
+of preparing and drinking the _mate_ is as follows: a portion of the
+herb is put into a sort of cup made from a gourd, and boiling water is
+poured over it. The mistress of the house then takes a reed or pipe, to
+one end of which a strainer is affixed,[1] and putting it into the
+decoction, she sucks up a mouthful of the liquid. She then hands the
+apparatus to the person next to her, who partakes of it in the same
+manner, and so it goes round. The mistress of the house and all her
+guests suck the aromatic fluid through the same pipe or _bombilla_.
+
+The poverty of the people is extreme. Specie is seldom current, and is
+exclusively in the hands of a few traders, who supply the Indians with
+European articles, in payment of their labor, or in exchange for the
+produce of the island, which is sent to Chile and Peru. With much
+surprise I learned that there is no saw-mill in Chiloe, where the vast
+abundance of trees would furnish a supply of excellent deals, for which
+ready and good payment would be obtained in Peru.
+
+The inhabitants direct their industry chiefly to agriculture and
+navigation. But rude and imperfect are their implements for field labor,
+as well as their nautical vessels. To a stranger nothing can appear more
+extraordinary than their mode of ploughing. As to a regular plough, I do
+not believe such a thing is known in Chiloe. If a field is to be tilled,
+it is done by two Indians, who are furnished with long poles, pointed at
+one end. The one thrusts his pole, pretty deeply, and in an oblique
+direction, into the earth, so that it forms an angle with the surface of
+the ground. The other Indian sticks his pole in at a little distance,
+and also obliquely, and he forces it beneath that of his fellow-laborer,
+so that the first pole lies as it were above the second. The first
+Indian then presses on his pole, and makes it work on the other, as a
+lever on its fulcrum, and the earth is thrown up by the point of the
+pole. Thus they gradually advance, until the whole field is furrowed by
+this laborious process.
+
+The Chiloe boats are merely hulks. They obey the helm reluctantly, but
+they bear away before the wind. Several individuals usually join
+together, and convey in these boats, the produce of their respective
+localities, in the southern villages, to San Carlos. Women as well as
+men take their turn at rowing the boats, and after being out all day,
+they run into some creek, where they pass the night. When a favorable
+breeze springs up, they hoist a sail, made of _ponchos_. The poncho is
+an important article of male clothing in this country. It consists of a
+piece of woollen cloth, measuring from 5 to 7 feet long, and from 3 to 4
+feet broad. In the middle there is a slit from 12 to 14 inches long;
+through this slit the wearer passes his head. The poncho thus rests on
+the shoulders, and hangs down in front and behind as low as the knees.
+At the sides, it reaches to the elbow, or middle of the forearm, and
+thus covers the whole of the body. The carters and wagoners in Swabia
+wear, in rainy weather, a covering somewhat resembling the poncho, which
+they make out of their woollen horse-coverings. When a Chiloe boat is on
+its passage on the coast, and a sail happens to be wanted, the men give
+up their ponchos and the women their mantillas. The slits in the ponchos
+are stitched up, and both ponchos and mantillas being sewn together are
+fixed to a pole or bar of wood, which is hoisted to a proper position on
+the mast. This patchwork sail can only be serviceable when the wind is
+fresh. At nightfall, when the boat runs into one of the creeks for
+shelter, the sail is lowered, and the sewing being unpicked, the ponchos
+and mantillas are returned to their respective owners, who wrap
+themselves in them, and go to sleep.
+
+There is but little trade in San Carlos, for Chile itself possesses in
+superfluity all the productions of Chiloe, and the inhabitants of the
+island are so poor, and their wants so limited, that they require but
+few foreign articles. The port is therefore seldom visited by any
+trading vessel from Europe. Some of the Chiloe boats keep up a regular
+traffic along the coast. They carry wood, brooms, hams, and potatoes, to
+Valparaiso, Arica, Callao, &c., and they bring back in return, linen,
+woollen and cotton cloths, ironware, tobacco, and spirits.
+
+North American and French whalers have for several years past been
+frequent visitors to San Carlos, as they can there provide themselves,
+at a cheap rate, with provisions for the long fishing season. All the
+captains bring goods, which they smuggle on shore, where they sell or
+exchange them at a high profit. A custom-house officer is, indeed, sent
+on board every vessel to examine what is to be unshipped; but a few
+dollars will silence him, and make him favor the contraband operations,
+which are carried on without much reserve. A French captain brought to
+Chiloe a quantity of water-proof cloaks and hats, made of a sort of
+black waxed cloth, and sold them to a dealer in San Carlos. To evade the
+duty, he sent his men on shore each wearing one of these hats and
+cloaks, which they deposited in the dealer's store, and then returned on
+board the ship, dressed in their sailors' garb. This was repeated so
+often, that at length it was intimated to the captain that, if his men
+had a fancy to come on shore with such hats and cloaks they would be
+permitted to do so, but it must be on condition of their returning on
+board dressed in the same costume.
+
+The people of Ancud (San Carlos), formerly so simple and artless, have
+gradually become corrupt and degenerate, since their frequent
+intercourse with the whale-fishers. Among the female portion of the
+population, depravity of morals and unbecoming boldness of manners have
+in a great degree superseded the natural simplicity which formerly
+prevailed. All the vices of the lowest class of sailors, of which the
+crews of the South Sea Whalers are composed, have quickly taken root in
+San Carlos, and the inseparable consequences of those vices will soon be
+fatal to the moral and physical welfare of the inhabitants.
+
+In the interior of the island of Chiloe there are few quadrupeds. The
+largest, the domestic animals excepted, is a fox (_Canis fulvipes_,
+Wat.), which was first discovered by the naturalists who accompanied
+Capt. King's expedition. This is the only beast of prey. The coast
+abounds in seals of the sea-dog species (_Otaria chilensis_, Muell.,
+_Otaria Ursina_, Per., _Otaria jubata_, Desm.)--in sea-otters (_Otaria
+chilensis_, Ben.)--and in the water mouse (_Myopotamus Coypus_, J.
+Geoff). Among the birds, there are some very fine species of ducks, well
+worthy of notice, which are also found on the continent of South
+America. There is the little Cheucau (_Pteroptochus rubecula_, Kettl.),
+to which the Chilotes attach various superstitious ideas, and pretend to
+foretell good or ill luck from its song. The modulations which this bird
+is capable of uttering are numerous, and the natives assign a particular
+meaning to each. One day, when I wished to have some shooting, I took
+an Indian lad with me. Having levelled my gun at one of these birds,
+which was sitting in a low bush, and uttering its shrill _huit-huit_, my
+young companion firmly grasped my arm, earnestly entreating me not to
+shoot the bird, as it had sung its unlucky note. But my desire to
+possess a specimen was too great to be thus baffled, so I fired my gun
+and brought it down. I was engaged in examining the elegant little bird,
+when a mule, probably alarmed by the shot, came running at full speed
+towards the spot where we were, and we deemed it prudent to get behind a
+hedge as speedily as possible. The infuriated mule made an attack on my
+gun, which was resting against the hedge. It was thrown down, bitten,
+and trampled on by the mule. The Indian boy turned to me, with a serious
+countenance, and said:--"It is well if we escape further danger! I told
+you the bird had piped bad luck!"
+
+The day fixed for our departure from Chiloe now approached. The wind,
+which had heretofore been unfavorable for leaving the port, promised to
+change, and we began to ship provisions. Whilst I was waiting for the
+boat which was to take me on board, I had an opportunity of observing
+the dexterity with which the Indians slaughter their cattle. This
+business is performed on the Mole, where, in the space of a quarter of
+an hour, and by two men only, an ox is killed, and the carcase cut up
+into the proper pieces. When it is necessary to ship live oxen, the
+animals are brought to the shore, where their feet are bound together,
+and then they are rolled over planks into the _lancha_ (boat). On
+nearing the ship, the Indians tie a rope round the animal's horns, and
+then the sailors hoist him up with a strong tackle. It is a curious
+sight to behold a strongly-bound struggling ox, hanging by the tackle,
+and swinging between wind and water. My little Chilotean pony, which I
+intended to take to Peru, was dealt with more gently: he was got on
+board with a girth, purposely made for hoisting horses on board ship.
+
+At length we sailed out of the bay with a fresh easterly wind. Three
+coasting boats, one of which was heavily laden with brooms, left the
+roads at the same time, and their crews said they hoped to reach
+Valparaiso before us. But they had too great confidence in their
+round-bottomed keels, for they did not anchor in their place of
+destination till five or six days after our arrival. The wind soon got
+up, blowing W.N.W., but rather flat. In the course of the night, during
+the second watch, we were roused from our sleep by a heavy shock,
+followed by a peculiarly tremulous motion of the whole ship. We
+concluded we had struck in passing over some hidden rock. The lead was
+thrown, but no ground was found; the pumps were set a-going, but we were
+free of water. The captain attributed the shock to an earthquake, and on
+our arrival at Chile, his conjecture was confirmed. In Valdivia, in the
+latitude of which place we were at the time, a severe shock of an
+earthquake had been experienced.
+
+After a pretty favorable passage of seven days, we anchored on the 30th
+of June in the harbor of Valparaiso.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: _Bombilla_ is the name given to this pipe, and the cup or
+gourd in which the decoction of the _mate_ is prepared, is called the
+_macerina_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+Valparaiso and the adjacent country--The Bay--Aspect of the
+Town--Lighthouses--Forts--Custom House--Exchange--Hotels and
+Taverns--War with the Peru-Bolivian Confederation--First
+Expedition--Preparations for the Second Expedition--Embarkation
+of the Troops--Close of the Port--July Festival in honor of the
+French Revolution--The _Muele_, or Mole--Police--_Serenos_,
+or Watchmen--Moveable Prisons--Clubs--Trade of
+Valparaiso--Santiago--Zoology.
+
+
+The impression produced by the approach to Valparaiso on persons who see
+land for the first time after a sea voyage of several months' duration,
+must be very different from that felt by those who anchor in the port
+after a passage of a few days from the luxuriantly verdant shores of the
+islands lying to the south. Certainly, none of our ship's company would
+have been disposed to give the name of "Vale of Paradise" to the
+sterile, monotonous coast which lay outstretched before us; and yet, to
+the early navigators, its first aspect, after a long and dreary voyage,
+over the desert ocean, might naturally enough have suggested the idea of
+an earthly paradise.
+
+Along the sea coast there extends a range of round-topped hills, 15 or
+16 hundred feet high, covered with a grey-brownish coating, relieved
+only here and there by patches of dead green, and furrowed by clefts,
+within which the bright red of tile-roofed houses is discernible.
+Half-withered cactus trees, the only plants which take root in the
+ungenial soil, impart no life to the dreary landscape. The hills
+continue rising in undulating outlines, and extend into the interior of
+the country, where they unite with the great chain of the Andes.
+
+The bay of Valparaiso is open on the north and west; on the south it is
+protected by a little promontory called the Punta de Coromilla. In this
+direction the shore is steep and rocky, and the waves break against it
+with great fury. From the Punta de Coromilla the bay extends from east
+to north-west in the form of a gently curved crescent, having a sloping,
+sandy beach, which rises very gradually towards the hills. On the north
+side of the bay there are several small inlets, almost inaccessible and
+edged with steep rocks. The bay is sometimes unsafe, for it is
+completely unsheltered on the north, and the heavy gales which blow from
+that point frequently end in storms. At those times the bay is furiously
+agitated, the waves sometimes rising as high as in the open sea, and the
+ships are obliged to cast their sheet-anchors. Many vessels have at
+various times been driven from their anchorage, cast ashore, and dashed
+to pieces on a rock called Little Cape Horn; for, when a violent gale
+blows from the north, it is impossible to get out to sea. Sailors are
+accustomed to say that in a violent storm they would rather be tossed
+about on the wide ocean than be at anchor in the bay of Valparaiso. But
+against the south wind, though sometimes no less boisterous than the
+northern gales, the harbor affords secure refuge, being perfectly
+sheltered by the Punta de Coromilla.
+
+The town of Valparaiso looks as if built on terraces at the foot of the
+range of hills above mentioned. Northward it stretches out on the level
+sea shore, in a long double row of houses called the Almendral: towards
+the south it rises in the direction of the hills. Two clefts or chasms
+(quebradas) divide this part of the town into three separate parts
+consisting of low, shabby houses. These three districts have been named
+by the sailors after the English sea terms Fore-top, Main-top, and
+Mizen-top. The numerous quebradas, which all intersect the ground in a
+parallel direction, are surrounded by poor-looking houses. The wretched,
+narrow streets running along these quebradas are, in winter, and
+especially at night, exceedingly dangerous, Valparaiso being very badly
+lighted. It sometimes happens that people fall over the edges of the
+chasms and are killed, accidents which not unfrequently occur to the
+drunken sailors who infest these quarters of the town.
+
+Viewed from the sea, Valparaiso has rather a pleasing aspect, and some
+neat detached houses built on little levels, artificially made on the
+declivities of the hills, have a very picturesque appearance. The
+scenery in the immediate background is gloomy; but, in the distance, the
+summit of the volcano Aconcagua, which is 23,000 feet above the level of
+the sea, and which, on fine evenings, is gilded by the rays of the
+setting sun, imparts a peculiar charm to the landscape.
+
+The bay is protected by three small forts. The southernmost, situated
+between the lighthouse and the town, has five guns. The second, which is
+somewhat larger, called el Castillo de San Antonio, is in the southern
+inlet of the bay. Though the most strongly fortified of the three, it is
+in reality a mere plaything. In the northern part of the town, on a
+little hillock, stands the third fort, called el Castillo del Rosario,
+which is furnished with six pieces of cannon. The churches of Valparaiso
+are exceedingly plain and simple, undistinguished either for
+architecture or internal decoration.
+
+The custom-house is especially worthy of mention. It is a beautiful and
+spacious building, and from its situation on the Muele (Mole) is an
+object which attracts the attention of all who arrive at Valparaiso. In
+the neighborhood of the custom-house is the exchange. It is a plain
+building, and contains a large and elegant reading-room, in which may
+always be found the principal European newspapers. In this reading-room
+there is also an excellent telescope by Dollond, which is a source of
+amusement, by affording a view of the comical scenes sometimes enacted
+on board the ships in the port.
+
+The taverns and hotels are very indifferent. The best are kept by
+Frenchmen, though even those are incommodious and expensive. The
+apartments, which scarcely contain necessary articles of furniture, are
+dirty, and often infested with rats. In these houses, however, the table
+is tolerably well provided; for there is no want of good meat and
+vegetables in the market. The second-rate taverns are far beneath the
+very worst in the towns of Europe.
+
+On our arrival in Valparaiso, a vast deal of activity and bustle
+prevailed in the harbor. Chile had declared war against the
+Peru-Bolivian confederation, and was fitting out a new expedition for
+the invasion of Peru. At its head were the banished Peruvian president
+Don Augustin Gamarra, and the Chilian general Bulnes. The growing power
+of Santa Cruz, who set himself up as protector of a confederation
+between Bolivia and Peru, had given alarm to the Chilian government. It
+was apprehended, and not without reason, that the independence of Chile
+might be threatened by so dangerous a neighbor. Santa Cruz had given
+umbrage to Chile by several decrees, especially one, by which merchant
+vessels coming direct from Europe into a Bolivian or Peruvian port, and
+there disposing of their cargoes, were subject to very low duties,
+whilst heavy imposts were levied on ships landing any part of their
+cargoes in a Chilian port. This law greatly increased the trade of Peru;
+but it was prejudicial to Chile. This and other grounds of offence,
+joined to the representations of the fugitive Ex-president Gamarra and
+his adherents, determined the Chilian government to declare war. An
+expedition under the command of General Blanco was sent to Peru; but
+Santa Cruz was prepared to receive the invaders, and in the valley of
+Arequipa he surrounded the Chilian forces so completely that they were
+obliged to surrender without striking a blow. Santa Cruz magnanimously
+allowed General Blanco to make a very favorable capitulation. The
+soldiers were sent home to their country; but the horses were detained
+and sold by the conquerors to the conquered.
+
+The generosity of Don Andres Santa Cruz did not meet its due return on
+the part of the Chilian government. The treaty of peace concluded by
+Blanco was not ratified in Santiago, the minister declaring that the
+general was not authorized to negotiate it. Hostilities were kept up
+between the two states, and at length a second and more important
+expedition was fitted out. It sailed whilst we were lying in the harbor.
+
+No sooner had we cast anchor than several officers of the Chilian army
+came on board to inquire whether we had any swords to dispose of,
+assuring us that they, together with the majority of their comrades,
+were yet unprovided with arms, and knew not where to procure them. The
+captain informed them that there were no swords in our cargo; but that
+he had a few sabres, &c., which he was very willing to sell. They were
+immediately produced, and some were purchased; among the number was a
+heavy broad-sword, about five feet in length, which had once belonged
+to a cuirassier in Napoleon's guard. The Chilian officer who bargained
+for it was a delicate-looking stripling, who, with both hands, could
+scarcely raise the heavy weapon. He, nevertheless, flattered himself
+that it would enable him to achieve great deeds in battle and deal death
+among the Peruvians. Ten months afterwards I met this hero on a march
+among the mountains of Peru. He had, girded on, a light little sword,
+like a tooth pick or a bodkin compared with the formidable weapon he had
+discarded, and which a sturdy negro was carrying behind him. I could not
+refrain from asking the officer whether the trusty broad-sword had not
+done good service in the battle of Yungay; but he candidly acknowledged
+that he had not attempted to use it, as he found it much too unwieldy.
+
+The Chilian squadron sent to Peru consisted of twenty-seven transport
+ships, and eight ships of war. Almost all were in a wretched condition,
+having but few guns, and manned by very insufficient crews. The largest
+vessels were the three corvettes, Confederacion, Santa Cruz, and
+Valparaiso. Only one ship, the schooner brig Colocolo, was distinguished
+for solidity and swift sailing. The fleet was commanded by an admiral of
+little judgment and experience.
+
+Among the crew there were but few Chilenos: most of the men were
+Chilotes and French, English and American deserters. The officers
+commanding the ships were almost all Englishmen. The transport ships
+were heavily laden, some carrying troops, and others provisions. These
+provisions consisted of sesino (dried beef), chalonas (whole sheep
+dried), maize, potatoes, dried fruits and barley, together with hay for
+the horses. The embarkation of the horses was most clumsily managed:
+many were strangled in being hoisted up the ships' sides, others slipped
+through their girths and were severely hurt by falling, and a
+considerable number of the poor animals died before the ships left the
+port. Every morning we saw dozens of dead horses thrown over board. The
+continued lurching of the vessels in which the cavalry was embarked,
+bore evidence of the inconvenient situation of the horses between decks.
+
+At the beginning of July the whole squadron sailed for the harbor of
+Coquimbo, where the troops were decimated by the small-pox.
+
+There prevailed in Chile a feeling very adverse to this campaign; so
+much so that most of the troops were embarked by force. I was standing
+on the _muele_ when the Santiago battalion was shipped. The soldiers,
+who were in wretched uniforms, most of them wearing ponchos, and
+unarmed, were bound together two-and-two by ropes, and absolutely driven
+into the boats.
+
+This war proved most unfortunate to Peru, a result which, however,
+cannot certainly be ascribed either to the courage of the enemy's troops
+or the judgment of their commanders. We shall presently see the
+circumstances which combined to secure triumph to the Chilenos.
+
+I and my fellow-voyagers were also sufferers by the war, our captain
+having imprudently announced his intention of selling the Edmond to the
+protector Santa Cruz, as she might easily have been transformed into an
+excellent corvette. She was a quick sailer, tight-built, carrying ten
+guns of moderate calibre, and she might easily have mounted ten more.
+
+The captain's intention having reached the knowledge of the Chilian
+government, the natural consequence was, that the port was closed, a
+measure deemed the more necessary inasmuch as an American captain was
+suspected of entertaining the design of selling his ship to the
+Peruvians. It was not until the fleet had had time to reach Peru, and
+the first blow was supposed to be struck, that the embargo was raised,
+and we obtained leave to depart. We lay in the port of Valparaiso
+five-and-forty days. To me the most annoying circumstance attending this
+delay was, that I could not absent myself from the port longer than
+twenty-four hours at a time, as the ship was constantly in readiness to
+get under weigh, as soon as we should receive permission to sail, which
+was hourly expected. My excursions were, therefore, confined to the
+immediate neighborhood of the town; and even there my walks and rides
+were much impeded by constant stormy and rainy weather.
+
+On the 29th of July, preparations were made on board our ship for
+celebrating the Paris revolution of 1830. At eight o'clock in the
+morning we fired three guns, and the Edmond was soon decorated from her
+deck to her mast-heads with flags and streamers. At the fore-mast gaily
+floated the Swiss flag, probably the first time it had ever been seen in
+the Pacific. When the guns on board the French ship-of-war had ceased
+firing, we began our salute; but, as we had only ten guns, it was
+necessary to load a second time. Our seamen, being unused to this kind
+of duty, did not observe due precaution, and the consequence was that
+one of them had his hand so dreadfully shattered that immediate
+amputation was indispensable. The day's rejoicing was thus suddenly
+brought to a melancholy close.
+
+The mole in front of the custom-house is exceedingly dangerous; so much
+so, that, during the prevalence of stormy north winds, it is impossible
+to pass along it. From the shore a sort of wooden jetty stretches into
+the sea, at the distance of about sixty paces. This jetty has been
+sometimes partially, and at other times completely, destroyed by the
+waves. The harbor-master's boats, and those belonging to the
+ships-of-war, land on the right side; the left side is allotted to the
+boats of the merchant ships. On the shore there are always a number of
+boats ready to convey persons who wish to go on board the different
+ships. Each boat is generally rowed by two Indians. Whenever any person
+approaches the shore he is beset by the boatmen, who throng round him,
+and alternately, in English and Spanish, importune him with the
+questions,--"Want a boat?" "Vamos a bordo?"
+
+Day and night, parties of custom-house officers go round the port for
+the purpose of preventing smuggling. In this, however, they only
+partially succeed; for they detect only petty smugglers, whilst those
+who carry on contraband trade on a large scale elude their vigilance.
+The captains of French vessels are notorious for this kind of traffic,
+and they frequently succeed in landing vast quantities of goods
+surreptitiously.
+
+The police of Valparaiso is probably as good as it is in any part of
+South America. _Serenos_ (watchmen) perambulate the streets on foot and
+on horseback, and continually give signals one to another by blowing
+small whistles. For personal safety there is little risk, probably not
+more than in the most populous cities of Europe. It is true that
+nocturnal murders sometimes take place; but the police speedily succeed
+in capturing the criminals, who, after a summary trial, are shot.
+
+In Valparaiso, as in most of the towns on the western coast of South
+America, the _serenos_ go about all night, calling the hours and
+announcing the state of the weather. At ten o'clock they commence with
+their--"_Viva Chile!_"--"_Ave Maria purissima!_"--"_Las diez han dado y
+sereno!_" (past ten o'clock and a fine night!) or _nublado_
+(cloudy),--or _lloviendo_ (raining). Thus, they continue calling every
+half-hour till four o'clock in the morning. Should an earthquake take
+place it is announced by the _sereno_ when he goes his round in the
+following half hour. However, the phenomenon usually announces itself in
+so positive a way, that the inhabitants may easily dispense with the
+information of the _serenos_.
+
+Among the most remarkable objects in Valparaiso may be numbered the
+moveable prison. It consists of a number of large covered wagons, not
+unlike those used for the conveyance of wild beasts. In the inside of
+each wagon, planks are fixed up like the board bedsteads in a
+guard-house, affording resting-places for eight or ten prisoners. A
+guard is stationed at the door, which is at the back of the wagon; and
+in the front a sort of kitchen is constructed. These wagons are drawn by
+the prisoners themselves, who are for the most part destined to work in
+the streets and roads, and, accordingly, they take their prison with
+them when they are ordered to any considerable distance from the town.
+To a country in which there may be said to be no winter, this sort of
+nomad prison is exceedingly well-suited, and the prisoners may be
+conveyed from place to place at very little expense.
+
+I went into some of these moveable prisons, and I must confess that I
+never beheld such an assemblage of ill-looking faces as were collected
+within them. In the countenances of some of the prisoners unbridled
+passion and degrading sensuality were so plainly and so odiously
+portrayed, that one shuddered to reflect that such features could be
+an index of the human mind. Most of them were Creole Indians; but
+there were a few Europeans among them. To me it was melancholy to
+behold the European, who might be supposed to possess some little
+share of education, mounting the prison steps chained to his
+fellow-criminal, the uncivilized Chileno.
+
+In Valparaiso, as in all seaports, there is a heterogeneous mixture of
+different countries, nations, languages, and manners, amidst which the
+national character of the country is entirely lost. The trade in
+European goods is very extensive, but almost exclusively in the hands
+of a few great North American and English houses, who supply the whole
+country with the articles they import. At times, such is the overstock
+of importations, that goods are sold at lower prices in Valparaiso
+than in Europe. The warehouses are so filled with some sorts of
+merchandise, that without any fresh supplies there would be sufficient
+for some years to come.
+
+Among the clerks in the mercantile houses I met with a great number of
+Germans, who all maintain an intimate association with each other. They
+have formed themselves into a union, and they have a very commodious
+place in which they hold their meetings. Following their example, the
+English have united together and established several clubs. The French
+have not gained any considerable footing in this part of South America,
+in which there are scarcely two French mercantile houses of any
+consequence. On the other hand, there is abundance of French
+hairdressers, tailors, shoemakers, jewellers, confectioners, and
+_Chevaliers d'industrie_. Neither is there any want of _Modistes
+Parisiennes et Bordelaises_.
+
+Valparaiso is yearly increasing in extent and in the numbers of its
+inhabitants; but the town makes little improvement in beauty. That
+quarter which is built along the Quebradas is certainly susceptible of
+no improvement, owing to the unfavorable locality, and it is only the
+newly-built houses on the heights that impart to the town anything like
+a pleasing aspect. In laying out buildings in a place like Valparaiso,
+the aid of art should make amends for the defects of nature. My visits
+to Valparaiso did not produce a very favorable impression on me. The
+exclusively mercantile occupations of the inhabitants, together with the
+poverty of the adjacent country, leave little to interest the attention
+of a mere transient visitor. The case may be different with persons
+who, having longer time than I had to stay in the town, may enjoy
+opportunities of entering into society, and occasionally visiting the
+pleasant valley of Quillota and the interesting capital Santiago.
+
+The latter is thirty leagues distant from the port; but a very active
+communication is kept up between the two places, and better roads would,
+no doubt, increase the intercourse. A few years ago the roads were very
+unsafe; but now the journey may be performed without danger if the
+_Birlocheros_ (coach-drivers) are in the least degree careful.
+
+The zoology of the neighborhood of Valparaiso is not very interesting,
+though more so along the sea-shore than in parts further inland. Among
+the Mammalia are sometimes seen the fox (_Canis Azarae_, Wild.), and
+the pole-cat. In the immediate vicinity of the town a very large mouse
+is seen in the burrows of the ground; it is of the eight-toothed
+species (_Octodon Cummingii_, Benn.), and has a brush-formed tail. As
+the fields round Valparaiso are not cultivated these animals do no
+harm, otherwise they would be the plague of agriculture, and probably
+are so in the interior parts of the country. Now and then a sea-dog
+may be observed in the bay; but the whale is seldom seen, and whenever
+one appears he is immediately killed, as there is always a whaler at
+anchor and not far off.
+
+In the market, live condors are frequently sold. These birds are caught
+in traps. A very fine one may be purchased for a dollar and a half. I
+saw eight of these gigantic birds secured in a yard in a very singular
+manner. A long narrow strap of leather was passed through the nostrils
+of the bird and firmly knotted at one end, whilst the other end was
+fastened to a wooden or iron peg fixed in the ground. By this means the
+motion of the bird was not impeded: it could walk within the range of a
+tolerably wide circle; but on attempting to fly it fell to the ground
+head foremost. It is no trifling matter to provide food for eight
+condors; for they are among the most ravenous of birds of prey. The
+owner of those I saw assured me that, by way of experiment, he had
+given a condor, in the course of one day, eighteen pounds of meat
+(consisting of the entrails of oxen); that the bird devoured the
+whole, and ate his allowance on the following day with as good an
+appetite as usual. I measured a very large male condor, and the width
+from the tip of one wing to the tip of the other was fourteen English
+feet and two inches--an enormous expanse of wing, not equalled by any
+other bird except the white albatross. (_Diomedea exulans_, Linn.).
+The snipes (_Scolopax frenata_, Ill.) found on the little plain
+between the bay and the light-house are in color precisely like those
+of Europe, from which, however, they differ in having two more
+feathers in their tails. Small green parrots, little bigger than
+finches, are tamed and brought to Valparaiso from the interior of the
+country. These parrots are very docile, and are easily taught to
+speak; but they cannot endure cold, and require to be tended with very
+great care. In the bay itself there are numerous cormorants, and
+occasionally penguins and large flights of the cut-water or shear-bill
+(_Rhynchops nigra_, Linn.). The latter is distinguished by a
+sharp-pointed bill closing laterally, the under mandible being about
+double the length of the upper one. But the most beautiful bird in the
+bay of Valparaiso is the majestic swan (_Cygnus nigricollis_, Mol.),
+whose body is of dazzling white, whilst the head and neck are black.
+
+On the 13th of August we at length obtained leave to sail. Early on
+the morning of the 14th we weighed anchor; and, as we sailed out of
+the Bay of Valparaiso, the summit of Aconcagua soon disappeared in
+the blue horizon.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+Juan Fernandez--Robinson Crusoe--Passage to Callao--San
+Lorenzo--Rise and fall of the coast--Mr. Darwin's opinions
+on this subject--Callao--The Fortress--Siege by the
+Spaniards--General Rodil--Siege by the Chilians--The
+Colocolo--Pirates--Zoology--Road to Lima.
+
+
+With a favorable east wind we reached, in thirty-six hours, the island
+of Juan Fernandez, which lies in the latitude of Valparaiso. Ships from
+Europe, bound to Peru, which do not go into Chile, usually touch at Juan
+Fernandez to test their chronometers. It consists in fact of three
+islands, forming a small compact group. Two of them, in accordance with
+the Spanish names, may be called the Inward Island and the Outward
+Island, for the most easterly is called _Mas a Tierra_ (more to the main
+land), that to the west is called _Mas a Fuera_ (more towards the
+offing). That to the south, which is almost a naked rock, is the _Isla
+de Lobos_, which we may call Sea-dog Island. The two first are covered
+with grass and trees. _Mas a Tierra_ is much longer, and better suited
+for cultivation than _Mas a Fuera_. In form the two islands have a
+striking resemblance to Flores and Cordua, islands of the group of the
+Azores. Until within these twenty years, _Mas a Tierra_ was the place of
+exportation for convicts from Chile; but as it was found that the
+facility of escape is great, none are now sent there. In 1812 a number
+of prisoners of war were confined there, but the rats, which had
+increased in an extraordinary degree, consumed all the provisions sent
+from Chile. Several fruitless attempts have been made to populate the
+island, but that object is now given up, and it is only occasionally
+visited by sea-dog hunters. Ulloa speaks of the great number of
+sea-calves or dogs with which the island was frequented, and
+distinguishes kinds which belong to the short-eared species. Their skins
+are excellent, and they sell at a good price in England. Wild goats are
+numerous, and their propagation would be excessive were it not for the
+multitude of dogs, also wild, by which they are destroyed.
+
+There is yet another kind of interest attached to Juan Fernandez. It was
+on Mas a Tierra that, in 1704, the celebrated English navigator,
+Dampier, landed his coxswain, Alexander Selkirk, with whom he had
+quarrelled, and left him there with a small quantity of provisions, and
+a few tools. Selkirk had lived four years and four months on this
+uninhabited island, when he was found there by the bucaneers Woods and
+Rogers, and brought back to Europe. From the notes which he made during
+his solitary residence, the celebrated Daniel Defoe composed his
+incomparable work, ROBINSON CRUSOE.
+
+The weather continued favorable, and in about a week we doubled the west
+point of San Lorenzo Island, where some Chilian cruizers were watching
+the coast. We soon entered the fine bay of Callao, and cast anchor in
+the harbor of the _Ciudad de los Reyes_. While rounding the island, an
+American corvette spoke us. She had left Valparaiso on the same day with
+us, and sailed also through the strait between San Lorenzo and the main
+land; yet, during the whole passage, we never saw each other.
+
+No signals were exchanged between us and the shore, and no port-captain
+came on board. We were exceedingly anxious to know the issue of the
+Chilian expedition. Hostile ships of war lay off the port, but the
+Peruvian flag waved on the fort. At last a French naval cadet came on
+board, and informed us that the Chilians had landed successfully, and
+had taken Lima by storm two days previously. They were, at that moment,
+besieging the fortress. We immediately went on shore.
+
+The town presented a melancholy aspect. The houses and streets were
+deserted. In all Callao we scarcely met a dozen persons, and the most
+of those we saw were negroes. Some of the inhabitants came gradually
+back, but in the course of a month scarcely a hundred had returned,
+and for safety they slept during the night on board merchant ships in
+the bay. At the village of Bella Vista, a quarter of a mile from
+Callao, the Chilians had erected their batteries for bombarding the
+fortress. As it was difficult to obtain provisions, the commanders of
+the foreign ships of war sent every morning a small detachment of
+sailors with a steward to Bella Vista, to purchase meat and
+vegetables. The merchant-ships joined in the practice, so that early
+every morning a long procession of boats with flags flying proceeded
+to the Chilian camp. But a stop was soon put to this, as an English
+butcher in Callao found means to go with the boats for the purpose of
+purchasing large quantities of meat, which he afterwards sold at an
+immense profit, to the fortress. Though the besieged did not suffer
+from want, they were far from having superfluity.
+
+Having sufficient time to make myself acquainted with the country in the
+immediate vicinity of Callao, I took advantage of every opportunity for
+excursions; going from place to place by water, which was more safe than
+journeying by land.
+
+The bay of Callao is one of the largest and calmest on the west coast of
+South America. On the south-west, it is bounded by the sterile island of
+San Lorenzo; on the north it flows into the creeks, which are terminated
+by the Punta Gorda, the Punta Pernal, the Punta de dos Playas, and the
+Punta de Dona Pancha. The beach is flat, for the most part shingly, and
+about the mouth of the Rimac, somewhat marshy. Between the mouth of the
+Rimac and that of the Rio de Chillon, which is a little southward of the
+Punta Gorda, there is a tract of rich marshy soil. A small boot-shaped
+tongue of land stretches from the fortress westward to San Lorenzo. On
+this spot are the ruins of old Callao.
+
+San Lorenzo is a small, long-shaped island, about 15 English miles in
+circumference. It is intersected throughout its whole length by a ridge
+of sharp crested hills, of which the highest point is about 1387 feet
+above the level of the sea. On the north-eastern side, the declivity is
+less steep than on the south-west, where it descends almost
+perpendicularly into the sea. Seals and sea-otters inhabit the steep
+rocks of the southern declivity, and swarms of sea-birds nestle on the
+desolate shore. San Lorenzo is separated on the southern side by a
+narrow strait, from a small rocky island called El Fronton, which is
+also the abode of numerous seals.
+
+The coasts of Callao and San Lorenzo have undergone very remarkable
+changes within a few centuries. Mr. Darwin, the English geologist, is
+of opinion that this part of Peru has risen eighty-five feet since it
+has had human inhabitants. On the north-eastern declivity of San
+Lorenzo, which is divided into three indistinctly marked terraces, there
+are numbers of shells of those same species of conchyliae which are at
+the present time found living on the coast. On an accurate examination
+of these shells, Mr. Darwin found many of them deeply corroded. "They
+have," he says, "a much older and more decayed appearance than those at
+the height of 500 or 600 feet on the coast of Chile. These shells are
+associated with much common salt, a little sulphate of lime (both
+probably left by the evaporation of the spray, as the land slowly rose),
+together with sulphate of soda, and muriate of lime. The rest are
+fragments of the underlying sand-stone, and are covered by a few inches
+thick of detritus. The shells higher up on this terrace could be traced
+scaling off in flakes, and falling into an impalpable powder; and on an
+upper terrace, at the height of 170 feet, and likewise at some
+considerably higher points, I found a layer of saline powder, of exactly
+similar appearance, and lying in the same relative position. I have no
+doubt that the upper layer originally existed on a bed of shells, like
+that on the eighty-five feet ledge, but it does not now contain even a
+trace of organic structure."[2] Mr. Darwin adds, that on the terrace,
+which is eighty-five feet above the sea, he found embedded amidst the
+shells and much sea-drifted rubbish, some bits of cotton thread, plaited
+rush, and the head of a stalk of Indian corn.
+
+San Lorenzo does not appear to have been inhabited in very early ages.
+The fragments of human industry which have been found mixed in the
+shells have probably been brought thither by fishermen who visit the
+island, and often pass the night on it.
+
+Darwin further remarks:--"It has been stated that the land subsided
+during this memorable shock (in 1746): I could not discover any proof
+of this; yet it seems far from improbable, for the form of the coast
+must certainly have undergone some change since the foundation of the
+old town," &c.--"On the island of San Lorenzo there are very
+satisfactory proofs of elevation within a recent period; this, of
+course, is not opposed to the belief of a small sinking of the ground
+having subsequently taken place."
+
+But satisfactory evidence of the sinking of the coast is not to be
+obtained in a visit of a few weeks' duration; nor must that evidence
+rest solely on geological facts, though doubtless they furnish much
+important data. History must aid the inquiry. Tradition and the
+recollections of old persons must be attended to. According to these
+authorities, a change more or less considerable has taken place in the
+level of the coast, after every great earthquake. If we refer to the
+account given by Ulloa, and compare the plan of the harbor of Callao,
+drawn by him in 1742, with the most correct modern charts, we do not
+find much difference in the representations of the distance between
+the main-land and San Lorenzo. Four years afterwards the great
+earthquake occurred, which destroyed the city of Callao, and plunged
+it into the sea. Subsequently there was a rising of the coast, which
+could not be inconsiderable, for according to the statements of old
+inhabitants of Callao, the distance from the coast to San Lorenzo was
+so inconsiderable that boys used to throw stones over to the island.
+At present the distance is nearly two English miles. I have no doubt
+of the general correctness of those statements, for a careful
+investigation of facts leads to the same conclusion; so that within
+the last sixty or seventy years the sinking must have been
+considerable. It must be observed, however, that the ruins on the
+small tongue of land are not, as Darwin supposes, the remains of the
+city of Callao, swallowed up by the sea in 1746, but of the Callao
+which was destroyed by the great earthquake of 1630.
+
+Another proof of the sinking exists in the extensive shallow between
+the coast of the main-land and San Lorenzo, called the Camotal. In
+early times this shallow was dry land, producing vegetables, in
+particular _Camotes_ (sweet potatoes), whence the name of this portion
+of the strait is derived. The inundation took place in the time of the
+Spaniards, but before 1746, either in the great earthquake of 1687, or
+in that of 1630.
+
+Northward of the Bay of Callao, near the plantation of Boca Negra, there
+is a shallow, where, according to records, there existed a sugar
+plantation about fifty years ago. Turning to the south of Callao, in the
+direction of Lurin, we find, at the distance of about two English miles
+from the coast, two islands or rocks, of which one is called Pachacamac,
+and the other Santa Domingo. At the time of the Spanish invasion these
+rocks were connected with the main-land, and formed a promontory. On one
+of them stood a temple or castle. At what period they were detached from
+the coast I have not been able to ascertain authentically; but there
+appears reason to suppose that the separation took place during the
+violent earthquake of 1586. Attentive investigations to the north of
+Callao--at Chancay, Huacho, Baranca, &c., would probably bring to light
+further evidence on this subject.
+
+Between the facts stated by Mr. Darwin and those here adduced, there
+is considerable discrepancy. On the one hand they denote a rising, and
+on the other a sinking. But it may be asked, might not both these
+phenomena have occurred at different times?[3] Mr. Darwin's opinion
+respecting the still-continued rising of the coast does not appear to
+me to rest on satisfactory evidence. The relics of human industry
+which he found embedded among shells, at the height of eighty-five
+feet above the sea, only prove that the elevation has taken place
+after the land was inhabited by the human race, but do not mark the
+period at which that elevation occurred. Pieces of cotton thread and
+plaited rush are no proofs of a very refined degree of civilisation,
+such as the Spaniards brought with them to Peru, and cannot therefore
+be taken as evidence that the elevation took place at any period
+subsequent to the conquest. Garcilaso de la Vega traces the dynasty of
+the Incas down to the year 1021, a period when the inhabitants of the
+coast of Peru were tolerably well advanced in civilisation. Fernando
+Montesinos furnishes facts connected with the history of Peru, of
+several thousand years' earlier date; and, judging from the number of
+dynasties, the nature of the laws, &c., it may be inferred that
+civilisation existed at a period of even more remote antiquity. It
+cannot therefore be determined with any accuracy at what time the
+deposit at San Lorenzo, now eighty-five feet high, was level with the
+sea, or whether the rise suddenly followed one of those frightful
+catastrophes which have so often visited the western coast of South
+America. Then, again, the different degrees of decay presented by the
+beds of shells seem to indicate that the rising has been gradual; and
+it may have been going on for thousands of years. Had the coast risen
+eighty-five feet since the Spanish conquest--that is to say, within
+the space of three hundred and sixty-two years--the Camotal would long
+since have again risen above the surface of the sea; for it is very
+improbable that it sank to a depth exceeding ninety or ninety-five
+feet. It is evident that risings and sinkings have occurred at various
+times, and that causes contingent on earthquakes have produced the
+variations in the rising and falling of the coast.
+
+It is probable that the accurate sounding of the depth of water in the
+Camotal, at stated intervals, would furnish the best means of
+ascertaining the rising and sinking of the coast. A variety of
+circumstances combine to favor the practicability of calculation by this
+method. For example, no river flows into that part of the bay in which
+the Camotal is situated. The Rimac, whose mouth lies further to the
+north, is not sufficiently large to carry any considerable deposit into
+the bed of the bay: moreover, there is but little tide, and the bay is
+always calm, being sheltered on the south by the island of San Lorenzo,
+and north breezes are rare and never violent.
+
+I may here mention a singular phenomenon which has in latter times often
+occurred at Callao, and which, in 1841, I had myself the opportunity of
+observing. About two in the morning the sea flowed from the shore with
+greater force than in the strongest ebb; the ships farthest out were
+left dry, which is never the case in an ebb tide. The alarm of the
+inhabitants was great when the sea rushed instantly back with increased
+force. Nothing could withstand its fury. Meanwhile there was no
+commotion of the earth, nor any marked change of temperature.
+
+In the earthquake of 1746 Callao was completely overwhelmed by the
+sea. Several travellers have related that on calm days with a clear
+sky the old town may be seen beneath the waves. I have also heard the
+same story from inhabitants of Callao. It is doubtless a mere fable.
+Under the most favorable circumstances I have often examined the
+spot--the Mar brava, as it is called--without being able to discover a
+trace of the ruins of old Callao.
+
+The existing town of Callao is small, and by no means pleasant. In
+winter it is damp and dirty, and in summer so dusty that in passing
+through the streets one is almost choked. Most of the houses are very
+slightly built, and they are usually only one story high. The walls are
+constructed of reeds, plastered over with loam or red clay. All the
+roofs are flat, being made of straw mats laid on a frame-work of reeds,
+which is also plastered with loam on the under side. The windows are in
+the roof, and consist of wooden trap-doors, which look very much like
+bird-cages. They have no glass panes, but gratings made of wooden spars.
+On the inside there is a window-shutter, and a string hangs down into
+the apartment, by means of which the shutter can be opened or closed.
+
+The most interesting object seen in Callao is the splendid fortress.
+Though built on a flat surface close to the sea, it has a magnificent
+appearance. It consists of two castles, the largest of which the
+Spaniards named Real Filippe, but since the Revolution it is called
+Castillo de la Independencia. It has two round towers, wide, but not
+very high. The court-yards are spacious. The walls are thick, rather
+low, and surrounded by a ditch, which can be filled with water from the
+sea. To the south of this castle there is a smaller one, called El
+Castillo del Sol. Before the War of Independence they mounted both
+together four hundred pieces of cannon, many of which were of very large
+calibre. At present they have only sixty pieces of cannon and
+seventy-one carronades.
+
+On the fortress of Callao the Spanish flag waved long after independence
+was declared in all the countries of Spanish South America. The Spanish
+general, Rodil, threw himself into the castle, and with wonderful
+resolution held out against a siege of a year and a half. During the
+last three months the Spaniards suffered all the privations and
+miseries which a besieged army must endure within the tropics.
+
+Lord Cochrane blockaded the fortress by sea, and General Bartolome Salom
+drew up his army on the land side. More than 4,000 Spaniards fled to the
+castle with all their valuable property, and took refuge under Rodil's
+protection. The greater part of the fugitives belonged to the principal
+families of the country. When provisions began to fail, the commandant
+found it necessary to expel 400 women, and one morning they issued forth
+in a long line of procession. The besiegers supposed that the enemy was
+making a sortie, and directed the fire of their artillery against the
+helpless beings, who, uttering loud shrieks, attempted to save
+themselves by flight. As soon as the mistake was discovered the firing
+stopped, and the women were conveyed to Lima. Insurrections were several
+times attempted by the garrison of Callao; but the presence of mind and
+cool resolution of Rodil in every instance enabled him to suppress these
+mutinies. The guilty were punished with so much severity that the
+soldiers soon gave up all further attempts. Horses, asses, dogs and
+cats, became at length the food of the besieged. Rodil at this time
+carried on a traffic which does no honor to his character. He had a
+quantity of provisions stored, which he now sold at immense prices. For
+a fowl he got from three to four gold ounces. He demanded proportional
+prices for bread, &c. A contagious fever broke out, and, of more than
+4000 persons who had taken refuge in the fortress, only about 200
+survived the siege. Hunger and disease at last obliged Rodil to yield.
+On the 19th of February, 1826, he obtained an honorable capitulation,
+and embarked with his acquired wealth for Spain, where he was invested
+with the rank of commander-in-chief of the infantry guards.
+
+Since the independence of Peru this fortress has often been the seat of
+partial revolutions. Its death-doom has been pronounced by different
+governments, and it will be a fortunate event for the country when it
+ceases to exist as a place of warlike defence. It has lately been found
+useful for other purposes, and a great portion of its vast space has
+been converted into custom-house warehouses.
+
+The siege of Callao by the Chilians, of which we were eye-witnesses, was
+by no means such a serious affair as that undertaken by the patriots.
+The squadron was weak, and the land army inconsiderable. Callao was only
+cannonaded during the night by some Chilian gun-boats commanded by
+Englishmen. The artillery of the castle was inefficient, but the Chilian
+bombs did considerable damage. One Sunday afternoon the little Chilian
+brig, "Colocolo," sailed in close under the walls of the fortress, and
+threw in some shot. The fire was immediately returned by all the guns
+that could be directed to the sea-side; but in vain did the Peruvians
+expend their shot. Every ball went over the "Colocolo," and fell among
+the neutral ships. The commander of the French squadron then sent a boat
+to the fortress, with a declaration that he would attack it in good
+earnest if the fire was not discontinued. The message had due effect.
+
+A few days after the affair with the "Colocolo," the Peruvians had an
+opportunity of avenging the provocations they had received. The Chilian
+admiral sent an officer, with seven sailors, to our ship to purchase
+shoes. The garrison having observed the Chilian boat, sent out a shallop
+with twenty-five men, which came close alongside of us. In spite of our
+opposition the Chilian officer leaped into his boat and stood off. He
+was, however, too late; for, just as he was leaving the ship's side, the
+hostile shallop passed under our bowsprit, and fired a volley into the
+Chilian boat. Five sailors fell into the sea, either killed or wounded.
+Of three men picked up, one was the officer, who had received two wounds
+from musket balls. We saved one of the wounded sailors by throwing him a
+rope, by which we pulled him up, covering him with the French flag.
+
+The Peruvians had no longer a fleet strong enough to keep at sea; but
+soon after their government purchased the "Edmond," and some other
+merchantmen, and fitted them up as privateers. The command was given to
+M. Blanchet, who had been first pilot of the "Edmond" during our voyage
+from Europe. After he had taken the "Arequipena," an old Chilian ship of
+war, and burnt several transports, he attacked three Chilian corvettes
+in the harbor of Casma. They had already struck their flags, when
+Blanchet was shot while boarding one of them. His loss damped the
+courage of the Corsairs, and the contest was soon given up. The shock of
+Blanchet's death had such an effect on the crew of the "Edmond," that
+they all went down between decks in great grief, except the cook, who
+fired a gun he had charged to the brim, and killed some men who were on
+a bowsprit of one of the hostile vessels. He then sprang to the helm,
+and steered the ship safely into one of the inlets of the bay.
+
+The lover of natural history finds in the bay of Callao numerous
+opportunities for gratifying his curiosity. The mammalia are not very
+numerous. Sea otters and sea dogs are found there, as on all parts of
+the South American coast. Two species (the _Otaria aurita_, Humb., and
+the _O. Ulloae_, Tsch.) inhabit the southern declivity of the Fronton.
+I went to hunt seals on the rock with the officers of a French ship of
+war. When we landed, which was difficult on account of the breakers,
+we fired at the animals and killed a number of them. A sailor waded
+through the breakers and bound the dead seals with a rope, by which he
+drew them on board. As we shot a great number of birds, the Chilian
+admiral, on hearing the firing, thought that one of his ships must be
+engaged with the Peruvian Corsairs; and, therefore, sent out the "San
+Lorenzo" brig of war to see what was going on.
+
+The bay abounds in fine water-fowl. Amongst the most remarkable is
+Humboldt's penguin (_Spheniscus Humboldti_, Mey.). A few are smaller
+than the common grey penguin, and one is somewhat different in color on
+the back and breast. The Peruvians call it _Paxaro nino_ (the child
+bird). It is easily tamed, becomes very social, and follows its master
+like a dog. It is amusing to see it waddling along with its plump body
+and short legs, and keeping itself in equilibrium by moving its floating
+wings. I had one completely tame, which I bought from an Indian. It was
+named _Pepe_, and it answered readily to the name. When I was at my
+meals he regularly placed himself beside my chair, and at night he slept
+under my bed. When he wished to bathe he went into the kitchen and beat
+with his bill on an earthen pan until somebody threw water over him, or
+brought him a vessel full of water for a bath.
+
+I brought away a few of the marine birds which appeared the most
+remarkable. Among them was the banded cormorant (_Carbo Gaimardi_,
+Less.). On the back it is grey, marbled by white spots; the belly is
+fine ash-grey, and on each side of the throat there runs a broad white
+stripe or band. The bill is yellow and the feet are red. The iris is
+peculiar; I never saw its like in any other bird. It changes throughout
+the whole circle in regular square spots, white and sea-green. Thousands
+of the spotted gannet (_Sula variegata_, Tsch.) inhabit the rocks of the
+island of San Lorenzo. This bird is the greatest producer of guano. The
+inca tern (_Sterna luca_, Less.) is without doubt the finest of the
+whole tern family. The color of the head is brown-grey; getting darker
+towards the tail, and brighter on the lower body. From the root of the
+bill on either side there shoot out some white feathers slightly
+curving, so that they give the appearance of white moustachios. Among
+the land birds are some very fine colibri (_Trochilus Amazilia_, and
+_Tr. Cora_, Less.). The horse-protector (_Crotophaga sulcata_, Swains.)
+is a singular animal. It is about the size of a starling, with a short,
+compressed and curved bill, having several deep furrows along its sides.
+The tail is long and fan-shaped. The whole body is of a deep blue color,
+with a slight metallic brightness. The bird is very social with cattle
+of all kinds, and more particularly with horses. It is fond of perching
+on the back of a horse or an ass, and searching for insects which it
+finds there in abundance. These animals are very sensible of the service
+thus rendered to them, and by the manner in which they move about when
+the bird is perched on their heads or necks, show how much they are
+gratified by its presence.
+
+Foreigners, when they visit the coast of Peru for the first time, are
+much surprised at the immense number of birds of the vulture species
+which they meet with about the roads and on the roofs of the houses. In
+Callao and in all other ports the Turkey vulture (_Cathartes aura_,
+Illig.) is frequently seen. It is called by the Spaniards _Gallinazo a
+cabeza colorada_ (red-headed vulture). Further in the interior of the
+country it is frequently seen, though there it is less common than the
+black gallinazo (_Cathartes foetens_, Illig.). The color of the former
+is dark brownish-black; the unplumed head and throat are red; the
+throat is full of wrinkles and warts. The latter is very like it in size
+and color, only the head and neck are greyish black. These birds are the
+size of a turkey-cock; but they are lanker and more angular in form. The
+black-headed gallinazo is inactive, heavy, and seldom flies far. When
+seeking food he hops about on the ground in short, regular springs. When
+he wishes to move faster forwards he helps himself with his wings, but
+without flying. Its cry is seldom heard and never long continued. At
+noon, sometimes from sixty to eighty of these birds perch themselves on
+the tops of the houses or on the adjoining walls, and with the heads
+under the wing they all go to roost. They are extremely voracious, and
+devour every sort of animal substance they can find, however filthy it
+may be. They are not in the least degree shy, for they hop about among
+men and cattle in the most populous places. The Turkey vulture is far
+more lively, and its movements are more light. It flies faster, and
+continues longer on the wing than the black-headed gallinazo. It is,
+however, more timid. It nestles in sandy rocks and uninhabited islands.
+The female lays three or four whitish eggs, which are hatched in
+February and March. The common gallinazo usually builds its nest on the
+tops of houses, churches, ruins, and high walls. The female lays three
+or four eggs, which are whitish brown and speckled, and are hatched in
+the same months as the eggs of the Turkey vulture.
+
+Among the amphibia in Callao, the iguana and land agama are numerous.
+Snakes abound in the low bushes at the mouth of the Rimac, and some
+kinds, which are venomous, live on the arid sand-banks. All the sea
+tortoises have been driven out of the bay, and now inhabit the detached
+creeks of the uninhabited parts of the coast.
+
+The kinds of fish are numerous.--Sharks, rays, ballancers, corvinas,
+bonitos, &c., are caught in abundance. Most of the corvinas and bonitos
+are carried to market. The flesh of the latter is firm, dry, and less
+savory than the corvina. The _Pexe-rey_ (king-fish) is superior in
+flavor to the _Pexe-sapo_ (toad-fish), which is a little larger, and has
+a thick, fleshy head. These fish are taken on rocks and under water,
+where they are struck by a kind of harpoon hooks and drawn out.
+
+When, on board the "Edmond," I first saw the towers of Lima gilded by
+the beams of the setting sun, and the chains of hills behind, rising by
+gradations, until in the farthest background they blended with the
+cloud-capped Cordilleras, I felt an inexpressible desire to advance
+towards those regions, that I might breathe the air of the Andes, and
+there behold nature under her wildest aspect. But these wishes were
+vain, and I was compelled to turn again to the desolate ocean; for it
+was understood that our further voyage must be towards the north, and
+from there that we should proceed to the coast of Asia. I did not then
+foresee that my longing might be fulfilled, and that so much of
+enjoyment, together with so much toil and danger, awaited me in the
+mountainous regions of Peru.
+
+Notwithstanding the insecurity of the road to Lima I resolved to proceed
+thither. Carriages and horses were not to be procured in Callao, for the
+latter were all either seized for the service of the government or
+concealed. I could therefore travel only on foot. Don Manuel de la
+Guarda, the commander of the fortress, observed, whilst giving me a
+passport, that he would advise me to use speed, and to get as soon as
+possible out of the range of the guns, for he expected every moment to
+be obliged to order the firing to commence. I did not neglect to follow
+his advice. However I had not got more than a hundred paces from the
+castle when the artillery began to play, and balls fell around on every
+side. I quickened my pace, and soon got near some fences, where men were
+firing with muskets. There I was seized by some Chilian cuirassiers, who
+sent me forward from post to post, until at last in one of the posts I
+met with an officer with whom I had been acquainted in Chile. When I was
+dining one day on board the corvette Confederacion in the bay of
+Valparaiso, the young officer whom I have just alluded to sat next me.
+The conversation happening to turn on phrenology, he insisted on my
+examining his head, and pronouncing a phrenological diagnosis on it.
+Though I assured him that I attached no value on this alleged science,
+he continued to urge me to make the examination. After feeling his head
+I observed to him, with great gravity: "Here is the organ of
+mathematics pretty well developed, and it is probable that you may
+distinguish yourself in that branch of knowledge." The fact was, I had
+observed from his uniform that he belonged to the artillery, and since I
+was obliged to say something, I thought it would be best to make my
+remarks refer to his profession. Don Antonio had not forgotten it, for
+as soon as he saw me at the outpost, he ran up to me quite overjoyed,
+and told me that I had judged rightly of his talent, for the guns which
+he commanded always sent their balls direct into the fortress, and did
+more execution than any other. By following my advice and cultivating
+his mathematical organ, he assured me, he was enabled to direct a gun
+better than any other officer, and his aim could always be relied on. He
+immediately procured me a pass, by which I was conducted all the
+remainder of my journey.
+
+The distance from Callao to Lima is two Spanish leagues. The road is
+covered with deep sand, and on either side are uncultivated fields and
+low brushwood. After leaving Callao I came to Bella Vista, then to the
+ruins of an old Indian village, and farther on inland reached some
+plantations. Halfway between Callao and Lima is the convent of _la
+Virgen del Carmen_, and also a chapel. The convent is now abandoned,
+but in front of the chapel there constantly stands a monk, who begs
+for alms. Close to the convent there is a Tambo,[4] in which brandy,
+lemonade, and bananas are sold. This place, which is called La Legna,
+is a Spanish league from both towns. The hired horses are so used
+to put up at this place, that it is only with great trouble they
+can be got to pass it.
+
+Though much wearied by my journey on foot, I tried in vain to obtain
+some refreshment here. Unluckily the Tambero, a Zambo, had decamped,
+as his house had often been plundered.
+
+In the most oppressive heat I wandered over the shadeless plain, and
+at last reached the fine road called the _Alameda del Callao_, which
+extends from the Callao Gate of Lima to nearly half a league beyond
+the city. Don Ambrosio O'Higgins, an Irishman by birth, first a small
+shopkeeper in Lima, then a soldier in Chile, and finally viceroy of
+Peru, with the title of _Marques de Osorno_, built the fine Callao
+Gate and laid out the Alameda. On the 6th of January, 1800, it was
+solemnly opened. The whole undertaking cost 340,964 dollars.
+Resting-places are made in the Alameda at regular distances; and there
+are on each side charming gardens, with luxuriant fruit-trees. Happy
+in having reached the end of my wearisome journey, I quickly passed
+through the Callao Gate, and entered the City of the Kings.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 2: Natural History and Geology of the countries visited by the
+Beagle.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Mr. Darwin, in the work just quoted, says in reference to
+this subject, "Since our voyage, Dr. Tschudi has come to the conclusion,
+by the comparison of old and modern maps, that the earth both north and
+south of Lima has certainly subsided."--T.]
+
+[Footnote 4: _Tambo_ is an Indian word, signifying an _Inn_. _Tambero_
+means _Inn-keeper_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+Lima--Situation and extent of the City--Streets, Houses, Churches and
+Convents--San Pedro--The Jesuits--Nunneries--Beatarios--Hospitals--San
+Andres--The Foundling House--The Pantheon--The Palace--The Plaza
+Mayor--Pizarro--The Cabildo--Fountains--Palace of the Inquisition--The
+University--National Library--Museum of Natural History and
+Antiquities--Academy of Design--The Mint--The Theatre--Circus for
+Cock-fighting--The Bridge--The City Wall--Santa Catalina--Barracks.
+
+
+Lima is built on both banks of the river Rimac, which divides the town
+into two unequal parts.[5] The larger part (the town, properly so
+called) is situated on the southern bank of the river; the smaller part,
+consisting of the suburb San Lazaro, or the fifth section, is on the
+northern bank. The greatest extent of Lima is from east to west; from
+the Gate of Maravillas to the Monserrate. Between those two points the
+distance is 4471 varas,[6] or two-thirds of a Legua, or Spanish league;
+and the greatest breadth of the city, that is to say, from the Bridge
+(the suburb of San Lazaro not included) to the Gate of Guadalupe, is
+2515 varas, or two-fifths of a Legua. The utmost circumference of Lima
+is about ten English miles. The plain on which the city is built, takes
+rather a decided slope from east to west.
+
+The streets of Lima intersect each other in right lines, and
+consequently groups of houses form quadrangles: these are called
+_manzanas_. Each side of one of these manzanas measures on the average
+from 140 to 145 varas; and it may therefore be computed that,
+collectively, they occupy a superficies of from 148,000 to 160,000.
+There are in all 211 manzanas, of which those situated on the Periphery
+are the smallest and most irregularly constructed. Lima is divided into
+five sections, which are again subdivided into ten districts and
+forty-six _Barrios_. It contains about 3380 houses, 56 churches and
+convents (the latter occupying at least one-fourth of the superficies of
+the city), 34 squares or open areas in front of the churches, and 419
+streets. On the average the streets are about 34 feet wide and 386 feet
+long. Most of them are very badly paved, but they have lateral
+footpaths. According to the original plan for building Lima, it was
+intended that all the streets should run in one direction, viz., from
+southeast to northwest, so that the walls of the houses might afford
+shade both morning and afternoon. Between the Plaza Mayor and Santa
+Clara this plan has been pretty uniformly carried out; but in other
+parts it has been less rigidly observed. At noon there can be no shade,
+as the city is situated in 12 deg. of south latitude.
+
+The impression produced at first sight of Lima is by no means favorable,
+for the Periphery, the quarter which a stranger first enters, contains
+none but old, dilapidated, and dirty houses; but on approaching the
+vicinity of the principal square, the place improves so greatly that the
+miserable appearance it presents at first sight is easily forgotten.
+
+Most of the houses in Lima are only one story high, and some have only
+the ground-floor. The larger class of houses correspond one with another
+in the style of building. In front they have two doors: one is called
+the _Azaguan_, and is the principal entrance to the house; and next to
+it is the door of the _Cochera_ (coach-house). Either above the cochera
+door, or on one side of the house door, there is frequently a little
+chamber, having a window closed by a wooden railing. At this little
+railed window the ladies are accustomed to sit and watch the
+passers-by--nor are they very much displeased when some of the latter
+occasionally make free to _reguardar la reja_ (to look at the railing).
+The azaguan opens into a spacious court-yard called the _Patio_, on
+either side of which there are little rooms. Directly facing the
+azaguan, is the dwelling-house, round which there usually runs a
+balcony. Two large folding-doors lead into the Hall (_Sala_), in which
+the furniture consists of a sofa, a hammock, and a row of chairs: the
+floor is covered with straw matting. From the sala a glazed door opens
+into a smaller apartment, called the _Cuadro_, which is elegantly, often
+splendidly furnished, and the floor is carpeted. This is the room into
+which visitors are shown. Adjoining the cuadro are the sleeping-rooms,
+the dining-room, the nursery, &c. These apartments communicate with a
+second court-yard, called the _Traspatio_, the walls of which are often
+adorned with fresco paintings. This _Traspatio_, a portion of which is
+usually laid out as a little garden, communicates with the kitchen and
+the stable (_corral_). A small avenue, called the _callejon_, forms a
+communication from the first to the second Patio, and is used as a
+passage for the horses. When there is no _callejon_, as is often the
+case in the poorer class of houses, the horses are led through the sala
+and the cuadro. In the upper story the arrangement of the rooms differs
+from that of the ground-floor. Above the azaguan is the cuadro, opening
+into a balcony, which is attached to most of the houses in Lima. The
+sala in the upper story forms an ante-room to the cuadro; and the rest
+of the apartments are built above the ranges of ground-floor rooms on
+either side of the patio. Above the sala and cuadro of the ground-floor,
+there are no upper rooms. The roofs of those two apartments form a kind
+of large terrace called the _Azotea_, which is paved with freestone, and
+surrounded by a railing. This _azotea_ serves as a play-ground for the
+children of the family; it is ornamented with flower-pots, and covered
+with an awning to shade it from the sun. The upper story has a flat
+roof, composed of bamboos and mats, overspread with mortar or light
+tiles. In the houses of Lima, as in those of Callao, the windows of some
+of the rooms are made in the roofs. The other windows, of which there
+are but few, are on each side of the house door; they are tastefully
+ornamented, and often have richly gilt lattices.
+
+The style of house-building here described must of course be taken
+merely as a general example; that there are numerous deviations from it
+may naturally be supposed. In the large houses the walls are of brick,
+faced with ornamental tiles (_adobes_). In the smaller houses, the walls
+consist of double rows of bamboos, covered with plaster, and afterwards
+painted white or yellow. The fronts of the houses are usually quite
+plain, but here and there may be seen a house with a finely ornamented
+facade. The house of Torre Tagle, near San Pedro, and some others, are
+remarkable for the beauty of their ornaments, which attract the notice
+of all strangers visiting Lima.
+
+Owing to the heat of the climate, the doors and windows are almost
+always kept open, so that the houses have not the privacy and comfort
+of European dwellings.
+
+Of the numerous churches and convents in Lima, some are deserving of
+particular mention. The cathedral occupies the whole eastern side of
+the Plaza Mayor. The foundation stone of this edifice was laid on the
+18th of January, 1534, by Don Francisco Pizarro, who named it the
+Church of _Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion_. Ninety years elapsed
+before the building was completed, and on the 19th of October, 1625,
+it was consecrated by the Archbishop, Don Gonzalo de Ocampo. Such was
+the pomp observed at this ceremony, that, though mass commenced at
+six in the morning, it was five o'clock in the afternoon before the
+host was raised.
+
+The interior of the cathedral is exceedingly beautiful. The grand altar
+is ornamented with seven Ionic columns of silver, twelve feet high, and
+one and a half thick, and is surmounted by a massive silver gilt crown.
+The tabernacle is seven feet and a half high, and composed of
+exquisitely wrought gold, set with a profusion of diamonds and emeralds.
+On each side of the altar there are massive silver candelabra, each
+weighing four and a half arobas (712-1/2 pounds). On high festival days,
+the gorgeous splendor of the cathedral of Lima probably exceeds that of
+the principal churches in Rome. The robes and ornaments worn by the
+priests correspond with the magnificence of the altar; they are
+embroidered in gold, and set with precious stones. The cathedral service
+is performed by the canons (Canonigos).
+
+Among the Churches of Lima, San Lazaro is distinguished for its tasteful
+exterior, and the chaste simplicity of its internal decoration. The
+bodies of persons unknown, found dead in the streets, are conveyed to
+the door of the church of San Lazaro, and there exposed for the space of
+twenty-four hours.
+
+The convent of San Francisco, the largest of the monastic
+establishments in Lima, is an immense building, situated in the
+vicinity of the Plaza Mayor. In this convent mass is read daily every
+half-hour, from five in the morning till noon. A small chapel within
+the convent is called the _Capilla de los Milagros_, and a
+superstitious tradition records that during the great earthquake of
+1630, the image of the Madonna, which surmounts the chapel door,
+turned towards the grand altar, and with folded hands invoked the
+divine grace in favor of the city. By this intercession it is
+believed that Lima was saved from total destruction. The monk who
+conducted me over the convent, and who related to me this miracle,
+observed with much simplicity that it was singular that the Madonna
+did not repeat her gracious intercession in the year 1746.
+
+The carved work which adorns the ceilings in the corridors is admirably
+executed, though not very beautiful in design. The cells of the monks
+are very simple, but perfectly comfortable for habitation. The spacious
+and well-arranged gardens within the area of the convent form a pleasing
+contrast to the gloomy appearance of the external walls.
+
+To the Franciscan monks also belongs the convent of _Los Descalzos_,
+situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. A broad avenue planted with six
+rows of trees leads to Los Descalzos. It is a neat but not large
+edifice, and stands at the foot of a sterile hill. The extensive
+garden which surrounds it, and which is in a very neglected
+condition, contains three palm-trees, the only ones to be seen in the
+near vicinity of Lima. The situation of the convent is not healthy,
+and in consequence the monks frequently suffer from intermittent
+fever. These monks go barefooted, and live entirely on alms. Every
+morning two lay brethren ride on asses to the city, where they visit
+the market-place, and obtain from the different saleswomen charitable
+donations of fish, vegetables, or meat.
+
+Another convent is the _Recoleta de San Diego_. During Lent, and
+especially in Passion Week, many men retire to this place to prepare
+themselves by mortification and prayer for confession and
+participation in the Holy Sacrament.
+
+The convent of Santo Domingo is very rich. It enjoys a yearly revenue of
+from seventy to seventy-five thousand dollars, for the most part
+accruing from the ground-rents of houses in the city. The steeple of
+Santo Domingo is the loftiest in all Lima. It is 188 feet high, and is
+visible at the distance of three leagues. It is built of wood, and
+inclines so considerably in its upper part, that there is little
+probability of its surviving another earthquake like that of 1746. The
+interior of the church is splendid. The grand altar almost vies with
+that of the cathedral.
+
+San Pedro must, doubtless, at a former period, have been the principal
+convent in Lima. It belonged to the Jesuits, and was their _Colegio
+maximo_. This establishment possessed enormous revenues, for all the
+finest plantations and best houses in Lima were the property of the
+order. In 1773, the king of Spain, instigated by the celebrated Bull of
+the 21st of June of that year (Dominus ac redemptor noster), dispatched
+an order to the viceroys of the provinces of South America, directing
+them to arrest the Jesuits all in one night, to ship them off to Spain,
+and to confiscate their wealth. Of course the utmost secresy was
+observed, and it is a well-authenticated fact, that in Peru, with the
+exception of the viceroy, and those of his agents whose assistance was
+indispensable, no one knew anything of the affair. But the same ship
+which conveyed the king's commands to the viceroy, had on board the
+necessary instructions to the vicar-general in Lima, from the superior
+of the Jesuits in Madrid, who was fully acquainted with the king's
+design. The preparatory arrangements were made under the seal of perfect
+secresy, and at ten o'clock at night the viceroy assembled his council,
+and communicated to them the royal commands. It was determined that no
+one should be permitted to leave the council-chamber until the blow was
+struck. At midnight some confidential officers, with the requisite
+assistance, were despatched to arrest the Jesuits, an accurate list of
+whose names lay on the table before the viceroy. The patrols knocked at
+the gate of San Pedro, which was immediately opened. The commanding
+officer desired to see the vicar-general, and the porter ushered him
+into the great hall of the convent, where all the members of the order
+were assembled, evidently expecting his visit. The holy brethren were
+prepared for immediate departure, each being provided with a bag or
+trunk containing such articles as were requisite on a sea voyage.
+Similar preparations had been made in all the other convents belonging
+to the Jesuits. The surprise and disappointment of the viceroy on
+receiving this information may be easier conceived than described.
+Without delay he ordered the whole brotherhood to be conducted under a
+strong escort to Callao, where they embarked. In the course of a few
+days inventories were made of the effects in the convents. At San Pedro
+it was expected that vast treasures in specie would be found; but how
+great was the dismay, when, instead of the millions which it was well
+known the order possessed, only a few thousand dollars could be
+collected. All the keys, even that of the treasury, were politely laid
+out in the chamber of the superior. This was a cruel mockery! The
+Jesuits could not have taken a more ample revenge on the treachery that
+had been practised on them.
+
+It was suspected that the treasures were concealed partly in the convent
+of San Pedro, and partly in the plantations. According to the evidence
+of an old negro, at that time in the service of the convent, he,
+together with some of his comrades, was employed during several nights
+in carrying heavy bags of money into the vaults of the convent. Their
+eyes were bandaged, and they were conducted by two of the brethren, who
+helped them to raise and set down the bags. The negro, moreover,
+declared his conviction that there was a subterraneous spring near the
+spot where the treasure was deposited. The searches hitherto made have
+been very superficial, and it seems not impossible that by dint of more
+active exertions this concealed wealth may yet be brought to light.
+
+At present San Pedro is occupied by about a dozen lay priests. They
+perform the spiritual service of the _Oratorio de San Felipe Neri_. They
+live on the revenues derived from the rents of the few plantations which
+have not been confiscated or sold. The chapel is prettily fitted up in
+the interior, and the midnight mass at Christmas is performed there with
+great solemnity. The external walls of both the chapel and the convent
+are painted a reddish-brown color, which has a very sombre and ugly
+effect.
+
+The convents of _Nuestra Senora de la Marced_ and _San Agustin_ are
+situated at the back of San Pedro. The former is spacious, but not
+largely endowed; the latter is a poor-looking edifice, but it possesses
+rich revenues. To San Agustin is attached the once eminent but now very
+inferior college of San Ildefonso.
+
+Besides the monastic establishments above named, Lima contains
+several smaller convents for friars, and sixteen nunneries. Of the
+latter the largest is the Monasterio de la Concepcion. It is very
+rich, and has an annual revenue of upwards of 100,000 dollars; in
+other respects it is remarkable for nothing except the not very pious
+habits of its inmates. _Santa Clara_ and the _Encarnacion_ are also
+large establishments, and well endowed. The nuns who observe the most
+rigorous conventual rules are the _Capuchinas de Jesus Maria_, the
+_Nazarenas_ and the _Trinitarias descalzas_. For extremely pious
+women, who wish to lead a cloistered life without taking the veil,
+there are three establishments called _Beaterios_, which may be
+entered and quitted at pleasure:[7] these are the _Beaterio de
+Patrocinio_, the _Beaterio de Santa Rosa de Viterbo_, and the
+_Beaterio de Copacabana_. This last was originally established
+exclusively for Indian females. The _Refugio de San Jose_ is a place
+for the reception of married women who wish to withdraw from the ill
+treatment of bad husbands. On the other hand husbands who are of
+opinion that their wives may be improved by a little temporary
+seclusion and quiet meditation, can, with the permission of the
+archbishop, send them for a while to the _Refugio_. The _Recojidas_
+is another institution of the same kind, but destined for females of
+the poorer class.
+
+Lima possesses a great many hospitals, but all are lamentably
+defective in internal arrangement, and above all in judicious medical
+attendance. The largest of the hospitals, San Andres, was founded in
+the year 1552 by the Licentiate Francisco de Molina. Three years
+afterwards, the Viceroy Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, first Marquis
+de Canete, placed it under the direction of the Government. Down to
+the year 1826 this hospital was exclusively destined for the
+reception of sick Spaniards. San Andres contains five large and four
+smaller wards, with 387 beds. One part of the establishment is set
+apart for incurable patients. The annual outlay of the hospital
+amounts to between 45,000 and 50,000 dollars. In the hospital of San
+Andres insane patients are received, and their number is always
+considerable. On the 30th of November (St. Andrew's Day) this
+hospital is opened for the admittance of the public, and one of the
+favorite amusements of the inhabitants of Lima is to go to San Andres
+to see the lunatics. It is melancholy to observe these unfortunate
+beings, thus made the objects of public exhibition, and irritated by
+the idle throng who go to stare at them. The collection of alms from
+the numerous visitors is, doubtless, the motive for keeping up this
+custom, which, nevertheless, is exceedingly reprehensible.
+
+The hospital _Santa Ana_ was founded in the year 1549, by Don Fray
+Geronimo de Loyza, first Archbishop of Lima, and was destined for
+Indians of both sexes. The benevolent founder, with the most earnest
+self-devotion, attended the patients, and with true Christian charity
+performed the humblest duties of a sick-nurse. He died in 1575 in the
+hospital, to which he bequeathed a yearly revenue of 16,000 dollars.
+The building contains five large wards, and 336 beds. Since the
+declaration of independence no Indian has been received into it. This
+hospital, alternately with those of San Andres and San Bartolome, was
+used as a military lazaretto; but since 1841 it has been allotted
+exclusively to female patients of all classes; for it was found
+necessary to abandon the former female hospital of _La Caridad_, on
+account of its damp situation.
+
+_San Bartolome_ was an hospital founded in the year 1661, for negro
+patients; but it has lately been closed. It contains eleven wards
+and 217 beds.
+
+Under the name of Santo Toribio an hospital for incurable patients was
+established in the year 1669, by Don Domingo Cueto.
+
+In 1702 it was consigned to the superintendence of an order of monks,
+called the padres Belemitas, and in 1822 it was incorporated with the
+hospital of San Lazaro. The latter establishment was founded by Anton
+Sanchez, in the year 1563, and was exclusively destined for leprous
+patients. Persons afflicted with cutaneous diseases, and especially
+maladies of a contagious nature, are sent thither.
+
+In the convent of San Pedro there is a small hospital for poor priests.
+Attached to it is a dispensary, from whence the poor were supplied
+gratuitously with medicines, at the time when the convent was in the
+possession of the Jesuits.
+
+Lima also possesses a Foundling Hospital. Luis Ojeda, who humbly took to
+himself the title of _Luis el Pecador_ (Luis the Sinner), bequeathed all
+his fortune to the foundation of this establishment, which received the
+name of "Collegio de Santa Cruz de los ninos expositos."[8]
+
+The refuge for female penitents was founded in the year 1670 by the
+viceroy, Count de Lemos. The funds were derived from a legacy
+bequeathed for that object by Don Francisco Arcain in 1572. The
+establishment has but few inmates.
+
+In former times it was the custom in Lima to bury the dead in graves
+dug within the churches; but the heat of the climate, and the
+difficulty of making the graves sufficiently deep, rendering this
+practice exceedingly objectionable, the viceroy, Don Jose Fernando
+Abascal, determined on making a burial place beyond the boundaries of
+the city. A piece of ground was allotted for the purpose, and it was
+consecrated on the 1st of January, 1808. It is called the _Cementerio
+general_ or _Panteon_, and is situated eastward of the city on the
+high road leading to the Sierra de Tarma. It consists of two gardens,
+very prettily planted, and inclosed by high walls. Along the walls,
+on the inner side, there are niches, about a thousand in number,
+ranged in sixteen different classes, and they may be purchased by
+those who wish to possess them. Many of them belong to families and
+convents. The graves are watched and kept in order by criminals who
+are condemned to this duty as a punishment. It is calculated that it
+will be five years before this cemetery is filled. When room is
+wanting, the niches which have been first occupied will be cleared,
+and the bones deposited in a bone-house, of simple but appropriate
+construction. At the entrance of the Panteon there is a neat little
+chapel, where the funeral obsequies are performed. Burials are
+permitted to take place only in the morning; and when a funeral
+retinue arrives too late, the body remains uninterred until the
+following morning. The rich are buried in coffins, the poor merely in
+winding sheets, which are made after the pattern of the habits worn
+by the barefooted friars of the order of San Francisco.
+
+The grand square of Lima, the _Plaza Mayor_, though not in the centre
+of the city, is nevertheless the central point of its life and
+business. It is 426 feet distant from the Rimac, and presents a
+regular quadrangle, each side of which is 510 feet long. From each of
+the four corners two handsome straight streets run at right angles.
+There is no pavement, but the ground is covered with fine sand. The
+cathedral and the archbishop's palace occupy the eastern side of the
+square. The latter adjoins the sanctuary, and has rather a fine
+facade. The windows of the principal apartments open into a balcony,
+commanding a view of the Plaza.
+
+On the north side of the square stands the government palace,
+formerly the residence of the all-powerful viceroys. Its exterior
+aspect is mean. It is a square building, and the front next the Plaza
+is disfigured by a long range of shabby little shops (called _La
+rivera_), in which drugs are sold.[9] These shops are surmounted by a
+balcony. A large double door opens from the Plaza into the great
+court-yard of the palace. Along the western side of the building there
+are also a number of little shops occupied by saddlers and dealers in
+old iron. The street, running in this direction, is called the Old
+Iron Street (Calle del Fierro Viego). The principal entrance to the
+palace is on this side. On the south the building has no entrance, and
+it presents the gloomy aspect of a jail. On the east a door opens into
+a small yard or court, within which are the office and prison of the
+police. A few long flag-staffs, fixed on the roof of the palace, do
+not add to the beauty of the edifice. The interior of the building
+corresponds with its outward appearance, being at once tasteless and
+mean. The largest apartment formerly bore the name of the _Sala de los
+Vireyes_. It is now used as a ball room when entertainments are given
+by the government. Under the Spanish domination this room was hung
+round with portraits of the viceroys, the size of life.[10] The series
+of vice-regal portraits from Pizarro to Pezuela, forty-four in number,
+completely filled the apartment at the time when the patriot army in
+Lima revolted, and consequently the last viceroy, Don Jose de la
+Serna, who owed his elevation to the military revolution, could not
+have a place assigned for his portrait among those of his
+predecessors.[11] The other apartments of the palace are small and
+inelegant. Some of the rooms are used as government offices.
+
+The present palace was, as far as I have been able to ascertain, built
+about the beginning of the seventeenth century. In the great
+earthquake of 1687 it was almost totally destroyed, but it was
+subsequently restored. The palace which Don Francisco Pizarro built
+for his own residence, stood, not on the site of the existing edifice,
+but on the southern side of the Plaza, on the spot where now a narrow
+dirty alley, called the _Callejon de petateros_, forms a communication
+between the Plaza and the Silversmith's street (_Calle de Plateros_).
+It was in that old palace that Juan de Herada, the friend and partisan
+of Don Diego de Almagra, carried into effect his plot against
+Pizarro. On the 26th of June, 1546, the viceroy was seated at table
+with a party of his friends, when the insurgents surrounded the
+palace, shouting "Death to the tyrants!" Pizarro, though warned of his
+danger, had scarcely time to seize his sword. One of his principal
+officers, Don Francisco de Chavez, was killed at the door of the
+apartment, and several of the viceroy's friends and servants escaped
+by the windows. Among others who attempted to save themselves in this
+way was Pizarro's counsellor, Juan de Velasquez. Only on the previous
+evening this man had been heard to declare that no one would be found
+bold enough to join in an insurrection as long as he held in his hand
+his staff of authority. This declaration was in a certain measure
+verified, for Velasquez, whilst descending from the window, held his
+staff between his teeth, that he might be the better able to support
+himself with his hands. Martin Pizarro, together with two noblemen and
+two pages, were the only persons who remained faithful to the viceroy.
+The latter, with the bravery of a lion, made a long stand against his
+assailants. "Courage, brother! Down with the traitors!" exclaimed
+Martin Pizarro, who, the next moment, lay dead at the viceroy's feet.
+At length Pizarro, exhausted by his efforts to defend himself, could
+no longer wield his hitherto victorious sword: he was overpowered, and
+one of his assailants having stabbed him in the throat, he fell,
+mortally wounded. With his last faltering accents he implored the aid
+of a confessor; and after losing the power of utterance he traced with
+his finger, on the ground, the sign of the cross, kissed it
+repeatedly, and breathed his last. Such was the sad end of one of the
+greatest heroes of his age;[12] a man guilty of many crimes, but also
+unjustly accused of many of which he was innocent. His acts were
+consistent with the spirit of his age, and were influenced by the
+frightful circumstances in which he was placed. In short, there can be
+little doubt that Pizarro was "better than his fame."
+
+The west side of the Plaza Mayor is occupied by the _Cabildo_, or
+senate-house (formerly called the _Casa Consistorial_), together with
+the city jail, and a row of houses of no very handsome appearance.
+The south side is filled by a range of private dwelling-houses, with
+balconies looking to the Plaza. The houses, both on the west and
+south sides of the square, are built above a colonnade, in which
+there are numerous shops.
+
+In the middle of the Plaza is a magnificent bronze fountain with three
+basins. From the middle basin rises a pillar, surmounted by a figure
+of Fame spouting the water from her trumpet. In the other two basins
+the water is ejected from the mouths of four lions. The pillar and
+figures for this triple fountain were cast in the year 1650, by the
+able artist Antonio Rivas, by order of the then reigning viceroy,
+Count de Salvatierra. Besides this principal fountain, there are
+several smaller ones, from which the public are permitted to supply
+themselves with water.
+
+The second large public square in Lima is the _Plaza de la
+Inquisicion_, which, since the war of independence, has received the
+name of the Square of Independence (_Plazuela de la Independencia_).
+It is of trapezi-form, widening in the eastern part, and is certainly
+no ornament to the town, for it is always in a very dirty condition.
+Being the public market-place, it presents a very busy aspect during
+the fore part of the day. Two buildings on this Plazuela attract
+attention, viz.--the Palace of the Inquisition and the University.
+There are now but few remaining traces of the internal arrangements of
+the fearful tribunal; for, on the suppression of the Inquisition by
+the Cortes, the enraged populace forced their way into the building,
+where they gutted the rooms, and destroyed the furniture. Lima was the
+seat of spiritual jurisdiction for the whole western coast of South
+America; and the rigor of its despotism was not far short of that of
+the Inquisition of Madrid. Every year vast numbers of persons
+convicted or suspected of crimes were brought from all the intervening
+points between Chiloe and Columbia to the Tribunal of the Inquisition,
+and most of them were doomed to the most dreadful punishments. _Autos
+da fe_ were frequently held in Lima, and cases of other kinds of
+martyrdom were exceedingly numerous. The lists, which have been only
+partially preserved, present melancholy results. One part of the
+Palace of the Inquisition is now converted into a store-house for
+provisions, and the other part is used as a prison.
+
+The University of Lima was once the most important seat of education
+in South America. It owes its origin to a decree of the emperor
+Charles V., issued at the solicitation of the dominican monk Maestro
+Fray Tomas de San Martin. The decree was dated the 12th of May, 1551,
+but it did not reach Lima until two years after that time. A papal
+bull of Pius V. confirmed the imperial decree, and conferred on the
+institution the same privileges as those enjoyed by the Spanish
+university of Salamanca. The Lima university was originally
+established in the convent of Santo Domingo, but after the lapse of
+three years it was removed to the building now occupied by San Marcel,
+and in 1576 it was installed in the site it now occupies. It received
+the name of _Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Marcos_. In the year
+1572 the first lay rector was elected in the person of Gaspar
+Menendez, a doctor of medicine.
+
+The building is situated on the east side of the _Plaza de la
+Independencia_, next to the hospital of _la Caridad_. The facade is not
+handsome, but is remarkable for a style not belonging to the age in
+which it was erected. The building is entered by a lofty door, opening
+into a spacious quadrangular court, along the four sides of which there
+are pillared corridors. On the walls of these corridors the different
+branches of science are allegorically represented in fresco paintings,
+and beneath these paintings are inscribed quotations from ancient
+classic authors. The lecture rooms open into the corridors which run
+round the court. Facing the entrance door, in the left angle of the
+court, are great double doors opening into the Aula, which is spacious,
+and has rather an imposing aspect. In the middle of the wall, on the
+right-hand side, stands the rector's chair in a sort of niche,
+surmounted by a canopy. On either side of this chair are ranged the
+seats of the professors, and the members of faculties. Opposite to the
+rector's seat, on the left-hand side of the Aula, is an elevated chair
+occupied by the president, when academic prizes are distributed. Below
+it is an arm-chair for the candidate. On each side of the president's
+seat are several rows of benches, for the members of the university and
+visitors. Over the entrance door there is a gallery to which the public
+are admitted, and which, on the occasions when prizes are distributed,
+is usually occupied by ladies. On the walls of the Aula are hung
+portraits of celebrated learned men.
+
+The National Library, situated near the convent of San Pedro, was
+founded by a decree, dated the 28th of August, 1821. The books belonging
+to the university of San Marcos formed the nucleus of the National
+Library. To them were added the libraries of several of the monasteries,
+some sequestrated works, and the collections of a few private
+individuals. Of these latter, the most considerable was the collection
+of General San Martin, and a library of 7772 volumes bequeathed,
+together with a legacy of a thousand dollars, by Don Miguel de la Fuente
+y Pacheco. In November, 1841, the National Library of Peru contained
+26,344 printed volumes, 432 manuscripts, and a small collection of maps
+and copperplate engravings. It is particularly rich in old works on
+religious and historical subjects. The books relating to the Conquest,
+and to the early period of the Spanish dominion, form in themselves a
+complete historical series. Of modern works there are but few. The
+pecuniary support of the establishment is very inconsiderable. The
+government exacts from it the import duty, three per cent., on European
+books, making an average annual sum of 400 dollars. In addition to this
+the salaries of the librarians amount annually to 2794 dollars. The
+library is open to the public every day (Friday and Sunday excepted)
+from eight in the morning till one in the afternoon, and from four in
+the afternoon till six in the evening.
+
+In the left wing of the same building is the museum, containing a
+collection of objects of natural history, antiquities, and other
+curiosities. This collection was first formed in the year 1826, in some
+of the spare rooms of the palace of the Inquisition, and was afterwards
+removed from one place to another, until at length the government
+allotted to the purpose the two fine apartments in the building above
+mentioned. As yet the establishment is quite in its infancy. It contains
+nothing of scientific value, and but for the series of historical
+portraits already described, it would differ but little from the
+collections of curiosities frequently formed by amateurs, in which all
+sorts of heterogeneous objects are jumbled together. The museum of Lima
+bids fair to remain for some time to come on the footing on which it was
+when I saw it, for the establishment has no funds, save a monthly
+allowance of thirty-two dollars, and out of that scanty pittance the
+expense of fitting up the rooms, the glass cases, &c., has yet to be
+defrayed. The museum is open to the public four days in the week.
+
+Two other apartments in the same building are set aside for the Academy
+of Design (_Academia de Debujo_). On three evenings every week pupils
+are admitted to this academy to receive gratuitous instruction in
+drawing. The number of the pupils amounts to between 80 and 100; but
+there is convenient room for 200. The collection of models and drawing
+copies for the use of the students is but indifferent.
+
+The mint is situated in the vicinity of the Plazuela de la
+Independencia. It was founded in Lima in the year 1565; in 1572
+transferred to Potosi, and in 1683 removed back to Lima. For the space
+of seventy years this establishment was in the hands of private
+individuals; but in the year 1753 the Spanish government took the
+management of it, and erected the building in which it is still
+located. It is a large and handsome structure, but very defective in
+its internal arrangement. Until the year 1817 the machinery for
+casting was worked by mules, ninety-two of those animals being
+employed daily. Subsequently, under the direction of an Englishman,
+water-power was introduced, by which expense was diminished and time
+saved. A few years ago a French merchant made an arrangement with the
+government for the use of a complex machine, which he proposed to
+bring from Europe. The machine arrived, but by an unlucky fatality it
+proved perfectly useless. For the space of four years repeated
+attempts were made to work it, but in vain; it fulfilled none of the
+required conditions. Its faults are manifold, and it reflects but
+little credit on the person by whom it was contrived. It has cost no
+less than 250,000 dollars, and has never been of the least use.
+
+In the mint of Lima there are annually cast from two to two and a half
+millions of dollars, which yield a profit of from 140,000 to 180,000
+dollars, out of which are paid the salaries of the persons employed.
+Under the Spanish government these salaries amounted annually to
+48,906 dollars; now they make, together with other customary outlays,
+the sum of 85,105 dollars.
+
+The value of a mark of silver in the mint is 8 dollars 4 reales; that of
+a mark of gold is 144 dollars 4 reales. The standard worth of the gold
+is 21 carats; that of the silver 20 grains.
+
+Next to the arena for bull-fights, situated in the Plaza firme del Acho,
+the theatre is the principal place of public amusement in Lima. The
+first theatre, erected in the year 1602, was situated near the convent
+of San Augustin, in the street which still bears the name of "Comedia
+vieja." It was destroyed in the earthquake of 1630, and rebuilt on the
+same site. In 1662 it was pulled down to make room for a new street, and
+afterwards the present building was erected. Its external appearance is
+very ugly and the interior is not much better. Before the orchestra
+there are some commodious inclosed seats or stalls. The boxes, which are
+completely separated one from another by partitions, are narrow but
+deep: the smaller ones are capable of containing eight persons, and the
+larger ones twelve. In the centre of the first tier of boxes, and
+fronting the stage, is the government box, which occupies the space of
+two of the others. It contains seats for the prefect, the sub-prefect,
+and the members of the Cabildo. The president's box is likewise on the
+first tier, and on the left of the stage. Adjoining it there is a small
+cabinet, closed on the side next the pit by a wooden railing. Into this
+cabinet the president retires between the acts of the performance. The
+stage is small, and the scenery very indifferent.
+
+The performances are for the most part wretched, both as regards the
+merit of the pieces and the talent of the actors. Nothing can be in
+worse taste than the little farces called saynetes, which, according to
+Spanish custom, always close the performances, whether the principal
+piece be a tragedy or a comedy. Common-place intrigues form the subjects
+of these _saynetes_, and their dialogue consists of vulgar jokes. They
+are altogether calculated to banish any gratifying impression which
+might by possibility be produced by the principal piece.
+
+For some years past a company of Italians, settled in Lima, have given
+operatic performances on a small scale. One of them, Signora
+Pantanelli, is an excellent singer, and would be heard with pleasure
+even in Europe. Some other members of the company have middling talents,
+but the rest are decidedly bad. The operas performed are Giulietta y
+Romeo, Parisina, Lucia di Lammermuir, Marino Faliero, La Sonnambula, and
+Il Barbiere di Seviglia: these, together with a mutilated Norma, and a
+much curtailed Semiramide, form almost the whole repertory. Want of
+stage room is an obstacle to the representation of operas demanding
+grand scenery and machinery. The costumes are for the most part
+exceedingly elegant, though seldom historically correct. The orchestra
+is defective, and ought to be much improved, to give satisfaction to a
+public passionately fond of music.
+
+But if the inhabitants of Lima are great lovers of music, dancing has no
+less powerful attractions for them. Though the time is gone, when the
+dress of any opera-dancer may be expected to reach below the knee, yet
+the drapery of a Limanese Terpsichore appears to have attained even an
+ultra degree of curtailment. The representation of ballets, properly so
+called, is not attempted; but the Bolero, the Fandango, the Cachucha,
+and Don Mateo, are favorite and often repeated performances.
+
+During the long intervals between the acts, smoking is permitted in the
+pit and in the outer court of the theatre. There is also a plentiful
+supply of very bad and very dear refreshments.
+
+An intolerable annoyance experienced in visiting the theatre at Lima is
+caused by the swarms of fleas which infest every part of the house, but
+most especially the boxes. Unfortunately, this nuisance is irremediable,
+and the visitor must be blessed with a large amount of endurance who can
+patiently sit out a whole evening's entertainments.
+
+Not far from the theatre is situated the circus for cock-fighting
+(_Coliseo de gallos_), where fights (_peleas_) take place daily. The
+Coliseo is a large amphitheatre, with an arena in the middle. The
+game-cocks trained for this sport have the spur removed from the right
+foot and in its stead is substituted a small sharp steel blade, curved
+and shaped like a scythe. One or other of the animals is frequently
+killed at the first spring; and when that is not the case they continue
+fighting until they die of wounds and exhaustion. It is a cruel sport,
+and a worthy pendant to bull-fighting. The first Coliseo was erected in
+1762, by Don Juan Garrial. The present building, in the Plazuela de
+Santa Catalina, is a very handsome structure, and Lima may fairly boast
+of possessing the finest circus for cock-fighting in all the world.
+
+In the same square with the _Coliseo de gallos_ is the tennis-court,
+a spacious area, surrounded by high walls. It is not now so much
+resorted to as formerly, for the Creoles are not so fond of tennis
+as the Spaniards.
+
+A beautiful stone bridge unites the town with the suburb of San
+Lazaro. This bridge was built in the years 1638-1640, when the Marquis
+de Montes Claros was viceroy of Peru. The plan was designed by Fray
+Geronimo Villegas, an Augustine monk. It is 530 feet long, and has six
+arches rising thirty-seven feet above the surface of the water. The
+foundation of the piers is composed of square blocks of stone, the
+piers themselves are of brick, and the parapet of cemented stone work.
+The erection of this bridge cost 400,000 dollars. A sufficient proof
+of its strength and solidity is the fact that it survived the
+earthquakes of 1687 and 1746, which shattered all other parts of Lima.
+In the earthquake of 1746 the first arch, on which stood an equestrian
+statue of Philip V., was destroyed, but it is now restored. It has on
+one side two towers, with a dial in the middle.
+
+The city of Lima, with the exception of a portion of the north side,
+and the suburb of San Lazaro, is surrounded by a wall built of brick.
+This wall was constructed in the year 1585, when the Duque de la Plata
+was viceroy. It is the work of a Fleming, named Pedro Ramon. This wall
+is between eighteen and twenty feet high. Its breadth at the base is
+from ten to twelve feet, and at the top nine feet. It does not
+therefore afford sufficient space for mounting large guns. Along the
+whole extent of the wall there are thirty-four bastions. In the year
+1807, this wall, which had fallen into a very ruinous condition, was
+repaired by order of the viceroy Abascal, and put into a condition to
+be mounted with artillery. On each side commodious pathways were made,
+and along the inner side powder magazines were constructed. At present
+these fortifications are in a state of complete dilapidation. The
+paths, which are obstructed by rubbish, are almost impassable, and
+the powder magazines are destroyed. The city wall of Lima has nine
+gates (_Portadas_). Of these, six only are now open, viz., the
+Portadas of Maravillas, Barbones, Cocharcas, Guadelupe, Juan Simon,
+and Callao; the three others, the Portadas of Martinete, Monserrat,
+and Santa Catalina, are walled up. At every one of the open gates
+there are stationed custom-house guards, whose chief duty consists in
+preventing the smuggled introduction of unstamped silver (_plata de
+pina_). In the direction of the suburb of San Lazaro, the city cannot
+be closed, as the wall does not extend to that part. Between San
+Lazaro, and the high road to Cero de Pasco, is the _Portada de Guias_;
+this, however, is not properly a gate, but a small custom-house. In
+this direction it is easy to gain entrance to the city from the river,
+and consequently it is here that most of the contraband silver,
+brought from the mountains, is smuggled.
+
+Among the fortifications of Lima may be included the pretty little
+castle of Santa Catalina, situated at the eastern end of the city,
+between the Portada de Cocharcas and the Portada de Guadelupe, at the
+distance of about two hundred yards from the city wall. It is
+surrounded by rather high walls, and is flanked by two bastions. The
+interior of this citadel is very well arranged, and is kept much
+cleaner than such places usually are in Peru. It contains stores of
+arms and barracks for the artillery. The largest barracks in Lima are
+those of the infantry, _Quartel de Infanteria_, in the Colegio. They
+are remarkable for want of cleanliness, and like most of the public
+buildings in this interesting city, going fast to decay.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 5: The city of Lima was founded by Don Francisco Pizarro on
+the 6th of January, 1534. As it was the day of the Epiphany, Lima
+received the title of _Ciudad de los Reyes_ (City of the Kings).
+Historical records vary respecting the day and the year of the
+foundation of Lima; but I have reason to believe that the date I have
+mentioned above is perfectly correct.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The _Vara Castellana_ is equal to 33 inches English
+measure.]
+
+[Footnote 7: The females who retire to these establishments are called
+_Beatas_ (Bigots). The term _Beaterio_ signifies a house for
+Bigots.--T.]
+
+[Footnote 8: According to some accounts this establishment was
+instituted in 1654, by Mateo Pastor de Velasco, a native of
+Portollano in Spain.]
+
+[Footnote 9: In these shops any one may purchase for a trifle one of
+the most deadly poisons (Strichnos Ignatia, L.). It is made up into
+what are called _Pepitas de Cabalonga_. It is used in Lima for
+poisoning dogs.]
+
+[Footnote 10: This highly valuable and interesting collection of
+portraits is now removed from the palace to the museum. It is curious
+to mark the progressive changes of costume, and to observe the various
+physiognomies, especially if we reflect on the history of the men whose
+traits denote such striking differences of character. Almost all these
+portraits are distinguished by an air of tranquil gravity which in some
+is combined with true kingly dignity, and in others with an expression
+of fierceness. The handsomest head of the whole series is decidedly
+that of Francisco Pizarro. His features bear the stamp of manly energy,
+and his whole countenance is characterized by courage and candor. The
+nose has the prominent Arabic form, and the forehead is high and
+expanded. The thick beard, covering the mouth and chin, gives a gloomy
+and resolute character to the face. In this series of portraits there
+is one representing a priest with the vice-regal insignia.]
+
+[Footnote 11: By a singular coincidence, the title of Conde de los Andes
+(Count of the Andes) was conferred on La Serna by King Ferdinand at
+Madrid on the 9th of December, 1824, being the very day on which he
+gained the battle of Ayacucho, the results of which gave the Spanish
+dominion in South America its death-blow.]
+
+[Footnote 12: The above particulars are collected from the _Historia
+del descubrimiento y conquista de la Provincia del Peru_, by Augustin
+de Zarate.]
+
+[Illustration: CHILIAN INDIAN MOTHER.]
+
+[Illustration: LADY OF LIMA.]
+
+[Illustration: PERUVIAN MONK.]
+
+[Illustration: PERUVIAN FARMER.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+Population of Lima--Its diminution--Different races of the
+Inhabitants--Their characteristics--Amusements--Education--The
+women of Lima--Their Costume--The _Saya y Manto_--Female domestic
+life--Love of dress--Beatas--Indians--Slaves--Bosales--Free
+Creoles--Negroes--Negresses--Black Creoles--Their
+varieties--Mestizos--Mulattoes--Palanganas--Zambos--Chinos--Foreigners
+in Lima--Corruption of the Spanish language.
+
+
+Proceeding from the shell to the kernel, we will now take a glance at
+the inhabitants of the capital of Peru: first, surveying the native in
+his fatherland, and next, the foreign settler in his adopted country.
+
+The population of Lima has at various periods undergone remarkable
+fluctuations. In the year 1764 the number of the inhabitants was stated
+to be 54,000; in 1810, 87,000; in 1826, 70,000; in 1836, 54,600; and in
+1842, 53,000. Of most of these estimates I entertain some degree of
+distrust, as they are merely founded on general calculations, and are
+not the results of careful numbering. Certain it is, however, that the
+population of Lima has very considerably decreased since the declaration
+of independence. This is sufficiently proved by the fact that several
+parts of the city are now totally uninhabited: the houses falling to
+decay, and the gardens lying waste.
+
+The cause of this diminished population is easily explained by the
+physical and political condition of the country. Earthquakes have, at
+various times, buried thousands of people beneath the ruins of their own
+dwellings; the war of independence was attended by vast sacrifices of
+life; banishment and voluntary emigration have removed from Lima the
+families of some of the principal citizens; and epidemic disease, the
+natural consequence of defective police regulations, has swept away
+countless multitudes of the inhabitants. The number of new settlers is
+very inconsiderable; and for several past years the number of deaths
+has nearly doubled that of the births. There appears no reason to doubt
+that this decrease of population will continue; because, as will
+presently be seen, the causes to which it is assignable cannot be
+checked, inasmuch as they are intimately blended with the character of
+the nation. Most of these causes operate not only in the capital, but
+over the whole country; indeed, in the latter their influence is in some
+instances much greater; for example, in the interior of Peru the loss of
+life attendant on the war was relatively much greater than in Lima. This
+favored country, which extends from the 3d to the 22d degree of south
+latitude, and which contained at the time of its conquest by the
+Spaniards an immense population, though its amount is not known with
+numerical exactitude, now counts only 1,400,000 inhabitants.
+
+In the tax registers, drawn up during the protectorate of Santa Cruz,
+in 1836, the number of the inhabitants of Lima is represented as
+follows:--
+
+
+                                             Male.    Female.   Total.
+
+  1. White Creoles (being the
+       descendants of foreigners,
+       but chiefly of Spaniards)             9,423    10,170    19,593
+
+  2. Indians                                 2,561     2,731     5,292
+
+  3. People of Color (mixed races)          11,771    12,355    24,126
+
+  4. Slaves                                  2,186     3,606     4,792
+
+  5. Ecclesiastics (Lay and Monastic)          475       350       825
+                                            ------    ------    ------
+       In all                               26,416    29,212    54,628
+
+
+From the above it appears that in every class (No. 5 excepted) there is
+a preponderance of females; and that on the whole population of 54,628
+individuals there is a surplus of 2796 women. About one in every
+sixty-six individuals belongs to the priesthood.
+
+Possibly in no other place in the world is there so much variety of
+complexion and physiognomy as in Lima. From the delicately fair creole
+daughter of European parents, to the jet black Congo negro, people of
+every gradation of color are seen living in intimate relation one with
+another. The two extreme classes--the whites and blacks--are as
+distinct in character as in color, and of either of those it is no
+difficult task to give an accurate portraiture. But it is different
+with the mixed races. To define their characteristics correctly would
+be impossible, for their minds partake of the mixture of their blood.
+As a general rule, it may fairly be said that they unite in themselves
+all the faults, without any of the virtues, of their progenitors. As
+men they are greatly inferior to the pure races, and as members of
+society they are the worst class of citizens. Here, as well as in the
+following delineations of the different races, I wish my observations
+to be understood only in a general sense. I have met with some
+honorable exceptions; though, unfortunately, they were mere solitary
+luminaries, whose transient light has been speedily obscured by
+the surrounding darkness.
+
+The white Creoles, who, with very few exceptions, are the descendants of
+Spaniards, constitute somewhat less than a third part of the population
+of Lima. They are slender in figure and of middling height. Their
+features are strongly marked, their complexions fair and pale, and their
+hair is of the darkest black. The men are feeble and look prematurely
+old. Their countenances, though not devoid of dignity, have a sort of
+sensual expression. They are effeminate, and disinclined to any kind of
+active exertion. If they ride the distance of ten miles, they think they
+have performed a feat of heroism worthy to be recorded in the state
+archives. If the white Creoles are inferior to the Spaniards in physical
+organization, they are no less beneath them in qualities of mind. They
+shrink from anything that demands intellectual exertion. In short, they
+are sworn enemies to business of every kind, and those who are obliged
+to work for their own support, make choice of some occupation which,
+like that of a shopman, affords them ample time to smoke cigars and to
+gossip with their neighbors. The richer classes give themselves up
+wholly to idleness. They walk about and visit their acquaintances, or
+they lounge in shops or at the corners of streets, and in that manner
+they often amuse themselves for half a day. Those who are owners of
+plantations occasionally ride through them to receive reports from their
+mayordomos. Their afternoons are usually spent in the _Coliseo de
+gallos_, in the coffee-houses, or at the gaming-table. The white Creoles
+are as passionately fond of gaming as the Spaniards, and sums equal to
+those staked at the gaming-tables of Mexico and the Havannah are daily
+lost and won in Lima. Though games of hazard are prohibited, yet they
+are very publicly played, and it is only now and then that the police
+enforce the regulations of the law by the seizure of a bank.
+
+Gaming in Lima is carried on very quietly, and the most determined
+gamblers do not show themselves very much excited either by losses or
+winnings. The discovery of false dice, however, creates bitter feelings
+of animosity, which not unfrequently lead to assassination. Of this I
+knew several instances when I was in the interior of the country.
+
+The intellectual culture of the white Creole of Lima is exceedingly
+defective. He is not wanting in talent; but an imperfect system of
+education affords him no opportunity for the development of his
+faculties, and innate indolence is a bar to his self-improvement by
+study. He seldom rises above the level of every-day life, and is
+ignorant of everything beyond the boundary of the city, or, at all
+events, of the province in which he was born. I have often been amazed
+at the monstrous ignorance of so-called educated Peruvians, respecting
+the situation, the extent, the physical formation, and the productions
+of their native country.
+
+On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that Lima has been the
+birthplace of several white Creoles, whose talents and learning have
+honorably distinguished them from the rest of their countrymen. For
+example, Don Tomas de Salazar, author of the "Interpretaciones de los
+Leyes de Indias."[13] Don Miguel Nunez de Rojas, the learned Judge of
+Confiscations in the Spanish war of succession, and Don Alonzo Conde de
+San Donas, who in the reign of Philip IV. was Spanish Ambassador at the
+Court of France. Among those eminent in literature may be named Don
+Pedro de la Reyna Maldonado, and the poet Don Diego Martinez de Rivera,
+of whom Cervantes in his "Galatea" says--
+
+    Su divina ingenio ha producido
+    En Arequipa eterna Primavera.[14]
+
+Several monks distinguished for learning have been white Creoles,
+and an eminent individual of that race was Don Hipolito Unanue, the
+author of the "Guide to Peru," and "Observations on the Climate of
+Lima, and its Influence on organized Beings, especially Man;"[15] a
+Treatise on the Cocoa-tree, &c. In more recent times, Don Mariano
+Eduardo de Rivero has zealously devoted himself to the study of
+natural history and antiquities.
+
+But in spite of his faults, the Lima Creole has his good qualities.
+He is an enemy to strong drinks. When he takes wine it is usually of
+some sweet kind, and of that he partakes very sparingly. A white
+Creole in a state of intoxication would, indeed, be a rare sight. Not
+so in the interior of the country, where the whites are remarkable
+for intemperate drinking.
+
+Far superior to the men, both physically and intellectually, are the
+women of Lima. Nature has lavishly endowed them with many of her
+choicest gifts. In figure they are usually slender and rather tall, and
+they are especially remarkable for small, elegantly formed feet. Their
+fair faces, from which the glowing breath of the tropics banishes every
+trace of bloom, are animated by large, bright, dark eyes. Their features
+are pleasing--the nose being well formed, though in general not
+small--the mouth invariably adorned with two rows of brilliant white
+teeth,[16] and their long black hair, arranged in plaits, falls
+gracefully over the bosom and shoulders. Add to all this a captivating
+grace of manner and deportment, joined to an exceeding degree of
+gentleness and amiability, and it will be readily admitted that the
+Limena is a noble specimen of female loveliness.
+
+At home, especially in the summer season, the ladies of Lima dress
+lightly and even negligently. For visiting, or going to the theatres,
+they adopt the French fashion. When walking in the streets, attending
+church, joining religious processions, &c., they appear in a very
+singular costume, peculiar to Lima, and consisting of two garments
+called the _Saya_ and the _Manto_. Of the saya there are two kinds.
+The one called the _Saya ajustada_, was formerly in general use, but
+is now seldom seen. It consists of a petticoat, or skirt of thick
+stiff silk, plaited at top and bottom, in small fluted folds, drawn
+very close together at the waist and widening towards the ankles,
+beneath which the saya does not descend. It is tight to the form, the
+outline of which it perfectly displays, and its closeness to the
+limbs naturally impedes rapid movement. When wearing the _Saya
+ajustada_, the ladies find it no very easy task to kneel down at
+church, and at the termination of every genuflexion, they are obliged
+to twist and twirl about for a considerable time before they can
+again stand on their feet.[17]
+
+The other description of saya is called the Saya _culeca_, or the
+_Saya desplegada_. It is plaited close at the waist, and from thence
+downwards it stands out like a hooped petticoat. This sort of saya is
+made by first being plaited both at top and bottom like the _Saya
+ajustada_; but, afterwards, the lower plaits are undone to form the
+_Saya desplegada_. The saya is always made of some dark-colored silk,
+black, green, blue, or cinnamon color.
+
+The _Manto_ is a veil of thick black silk fastened by a band at the back
+of the waist, where it joins the _saya_. From thence it is brought over
+the shoulders and head, and drawn over the face so closely that only a
+small triangular space, sufficient for one eye to peep through, is left
+uncovered. A rich shawl thrown over the shoulders conceals the whole of
+the under garment, except the sleeves. One of the small, neatly-gloved
+hands, confines the folds of the _manto_, whilst the other holds a
+richly embroidered pocket-handkerchief.
+
+At first sight this costume has a very singular effect, and it is
+long before the eye of a foreigner becomes reconciled to it. The
+narrow saya is by no means graceful; the wide saya, on the other hand,
+is very becoming, and sets off to great advantage a good figure and
+elegant deportment. When I first arrived in Lima and saw the ladies
+closely muffled up in their _mantos_, and carrying embroidered cambric
+handkerchiefs and nosegays in their hands, it struck me that the nuns
+enjoyed greater freedom in that country than in any other part of the
+world. After vespers, that is to say half-past seven in the evening,
+the police regulations prohibit any woman from appearing in the
+streets dressed in the saya.
+
+As this garment may be worn over a dress of the ordinary kind, it is
+found to be very convenient, inasmuch as it saves the trouble of a
+careful toilette. During short visits the ladies do not take off the
+saya; but when making long visits they usually lay it aside.
+
+The Saya y Manto are found to be very useful auxiliaries in the numerous
+intrigues in which the Limenas frequently engage.
+
+A _Tapada_[18] indulges in a vast deal of freedom when in the streets,
+and scruples not to make satirical observations on anybody or anything
+that strikes her as strange or ludicrous. The veil, or manto, is sacred,
+and should a man attempt to remove it by force, he would run the risk of
+being severely handled by the populace.
+
+In intrigues of gallantry the Saya y Manto play a conspicuous part. A
+lady has been known to arrange an assignation with a gentleman in the
+street, whilst her husband, standing at the distance of a few yards
+and conversing with a friend on some matter of business, has little
+suspected that the _Tapada_ whose graceful figure he admired, was his
+own faithful better-half. It frequently happens that Dona Mariquita
+obliges Dona Merceditas, or Dona Panchita, with the loan of her saya,
+for the purpose of hood-winking the Argus-eyes of a jealous
+husband;--the lady being well convinced that her kind friends will
+render her the like service in similar circumstances. Sometimes a
+lady may be seen in an old tattered saya, such as scarcely the poorest
+female might be expected to wear; but the costly shawl, the worked
+pocket-handkerchief, the silk stockings, and satin shoes, betray the
+rank of the _Tapada_, and plainly denote that she has sallied forth on
+an adventure. It is difficult, nay almost impossible, to recognize a
+lady thus muffled up. The one eye alone visible, is, as may be
+supposed, a very uncertain token of identity, and the figure and walk
+may be easily disguised.
+
+It will readily be supposed that these concealments sometimes occasion
+mortifying mistakes. On beholding a tall slender figure whose
+symmetrical contour is discernible even through the unwieldy saya, and a
+bright dark eye beaming beneath the folds of the manto, one may be
+induced to imagine that the charms of a Hebe are concealed beneath the
+disfiguring garb. But how great is the disappointment when an accidental
+movement of the manto discloses the wide mouth of an ugly mulatta
+grinning from ear to ear.
+
+Most foreigners who marry Limenas stipulate that from the time of
+betrothal, their wives shall no longer wear the saya y manto. The
+condition is agreed to; but how far it is faithfully observed the
+husbands best know. Many, no doubt, lull themselves in the confidence
+of their wishes being implicitly obeyed; but female ingenuity readily
+devises opportunities for deception. The women of Lima never willingly
+renounce the saya y manto, for it is inseparably associated with
+customs to which they are, heart and soul, devoted.
+
+If we follow the Limena (the white Creole, be it understood) into the
+retirement of domestic life, we find that she is an affectionate mother,
+but not a very clever housekeeper. Every lady has at her command a great
+many more domestics than are necessary: some are servants, but most of
+them slaves. The establishment usually consists of a cook, a nurse-maid,
+one or two house-maids, a needle-woman, several men-servants, and a
+little negro or Indian, whose chief business is to carry a carpet behind
+his mistress when she goes to church. These servants all do as they
+please, and the lady of the house concerns herself very little about the
+indolence which her want of vigilance encourages. She rises at a late
+hour, and having dressed herself and decorated her hair with sprigs of
+jasmine and orange blossom, she takes her breakfast. That meal being
+ended, she goes out to make visits. During the sultry hours of mid-day
+she reposes, either by swinging in a hammock or reclining on a sofa, and
+meanwhile smokes a cigar. After dinner she again makes visits, and the
+evening is spent in the theatre, on the plaza, or on the bridge. Some
+few ladies employ themselves in needle-work, in which they are often
+most accomplished adepts; they especially excel in embroidery and fancy
+work; but they never pursue these employments before company.
+
+The ladies of Lima are passionately fond of music. Most of them play the
+piano-forte or the guitar, and also sing; but for want of good
+instruction neither their playing nor their singing is above mediocrity.
+Smoking is pretty general among females, at least those of mature age;
+but they indulge in this practice only in their own apartments. Of late
+years the custom of smoking has been on the decline in Lima, in
+proportion as it has been increased on the continent of the old world.
+Though snuff-taking is prohibited in the convents, yet the nuns practise
+it to a great extent. They use an exceedingly fine kind of red snuff,
+which has the effect of closing the breathing passage through the
+nostrils, and of producing a peculiar nasal tone of voice.
+
+With the ladies of Lima, vanity and the love of dress appear to have
+reached their climax. To this passion for personal adornment they
+sacrifice everything. Formerly, when none but _real_ pearls and diamonds
+were worn, many a lady was known to have ruined her husband by the
+purchase of those costly articles; now, however, thanks to French mock
+jewelry, they are enabled to bedeck themselves in glittering ornaments
+at trivial expense. Another of their passions is a fondness for
+perfumes. They are continually besprinkling themselves with _eau de
+Cologne_, _esprit de Lavande_, _agua rica_, or _mistura_. The latter is
+a fragrant yellow-colored water, prepared from gillyflower, jasmine, and
+flor de mistela (_Talinum umbellatum_). They perfume their apartments
+daily with _Sahumerios_ (pastiles). When the lady of the house wishes to
+show particular attention to her visitors, she offers them perfumed
+water, dropping it into the bosoms of the ladies, and on the
+pocket-handkerchiefs of the gentlemen. Considering their free use of
+perfumes, it is not surprising that the fair Limenas should be
+constantly complaining of headache, vertigo, and other nervous ailments,
+or, to use their own phrase (_los nervios_).
+
+Above all things the Limenas pride themselves in the excessive smallness
+of their feet. Whether walking, standing, sitting, swinging in the
+hammock, or reclining on the sofa, the grand object invariably is to
+display to advantage the tiny foot. To praise her virtue, her
+intelligence, her wit, or even her beauty, would be less complimentary
+to a Limena than to admire the elegance of her feet. All possible care
+is taken to preserve the small form of the foot, and the Lima ladies
+avoid everything that may tend to spread or enlarge it. Their shoes are
+usually made of embroidered velvet or satin, or of very fine kid, and
+are so exceedingly small, that they cannot be drawn on and off without
+difficulty. It is usual to have two new pairs every week, and the
+expense of a lady's shoes not unfrequently amounts to two hundred
+dollars per annum. A large foot is a thing held in horror by the
+Limenas: they call it _una pataza inglesa_ (an English paw). I once
+heard some Lima ladies extolling in high terms the beauty of a fair
+European; but all their praises ended with the words:--"Pero que pie,
+valgame Dios! parece una lancha." (But what a foot, good Heaven! It is
+like a great boat.) Yet the feet of the lady alluded to would not, in
+Europe, have been thought by any means large.
+
+_Gourmanderie_ is one of the evil habits of the female inhabitants of
+Lima. Between meals they are continually eating sweetmeats and a variety
+of things. At one moment they order _tamal_,[19] next _omitas_,[20] then
+_pan de chancay_ (a sweet sort of bread), and biscuits, then _masamorita
+morada_,[21] or _frijoles coladas_,[22] &c.; and yet dinner is partaken
+with as hearty an appetite as though none of these interludes had been
+introduced. Can it be matter of surprise that the good ladies are
+constantly complaining of indigestion and _mal de estomago_?
+
+In the interior of the houses cleanliness does not extend beyond those
+apartments which are open to visitors, namely, the _sala_ and the
+_cuadro_. The other rooms of the house frequently bear more
+resemblance to a stable than a human habitation, and their condition
+reflects little credit on the domestic habits of the female inmates.
+But even this is typical of the national character,--a great outward
+show and little inward worth.
+
+At first a stranger is struck with the singularity of the names of many
+of the women of Lima. A child receives the name of the saint or of the
+festival whose celebration falls on the day of its birth. Those who
+happen to come into the world on the days on which the Romish Church
+celebrates the several manifestations of the Virgin receive the most
+extraordinary names. For example, a child born on the anniversary day of
+the manifestation to St. Francis on the Snow Mountain, is named _Nieves_
+(snow). _Pilar_ (fountain-basin) is another strange name, conferred in
+honor of the manifestation of the Virgin at the Fountains in Saragossa.
+Then there are _Conceptions_, _Natividads_, and _Asuncions_, without
+number. A girl born on Candlemas-day is named _Candelaria_, and one born
+on the first day of the year receives the name of Jesus. The singular
+effect of these names is heightened by the Spanish custom of using
+diminutives, formed by adding to the name the particle _ito_ or _ita_,
+the former being the masculine, the latter the feminine. It may be
+readily imagined that a foreigner is not a little startled on hearing a
+young lady called Dona Jesusita. In some names the diminutive takes a
+form totally different from the full name; as, for example, Panchita for
+Francisca, Pepita for Josefa, Conchita for Concepcion. A married woman
+does not take the family name of her husband, but retains her own,
+adding to it her husband's name preceded by the particle _de_, as, for
+example, Dona Maria Juana Rodriguez de Salazar.
+
+On attaining a certain age, the Limenas totally alter their habits of
+life. When their beauty fades, and they cease to be the objects of
+compliment and flattery; or when weary of an idle, luxurious, and, in
+too many instances, a no very virtuous life, they betake themselves to
+piety, and become _Beatas_.[23] The Limena who thus renounces the
+vanities of the world attends church two or three times every day,
+confesses at least once every week, retires during Lent to a house of
+penitence; fasts, prays, and receives the visits of her confessor, to
+whom she sends presents of sweetmeats;--and should the holy man, as is
+usually the case, prefer riding to walking, she shows her piety by
+giving him the use of her _Calesa_ to convey him from place to place.
+
+The women of Lima are gifted by nature with extraordinary natural
+talent, though unfortunately it is rarely cultivated. They possess
+shrewd and penetrating intelligence, clear judgment, and in general
+very just views on the ordinary affairs of life. Like the women of the
+southern provinces of Spain, they are remarkable for quickness and
+smartness of repartee, and in a wordy contest a Limena is sure to come
+off triumphant. They have a great deal of decision of character, and a
+degree of courage which does not usually fall to the lot of the female
+sex. In these respects they are infinitely superior to the timid,
+spiritless men. In the various political revolutions of the country,
+the women have often taken an active, and, in some instances, a more
+decided part than the men.
+
+The Indians in Lima form but a small portion of the population, being
+about 5000 in number. Among them are as many emigrants as natives. Most
+of the former are from the mountainous districts, and but few are from
+places on the coast. Their character is, of course, much modified by
+continual intercourse with the whites; but I will endeavor to describe
+them as they show themselves in their original purity, marking the
+distinctions observable between the _Indio Costeno_ (the Coast
+Indian), and the _Indio Serrano_ (the mountain Indian). The Indians in
+Lima are active and industrious. Many of them are shopkeepers, and by
+the integrity of their dealings they stand on a footing of good credit
+with the great commercial houses. Those who are employed as servants
+are less remarkable for industry and honesty. They are reserved and
+suspicious; qualities especially observable when they have but
+recently emigrated into Lima. They combine personal vanity with an
+inconceivable degree of dirtiness. Their intellectual faculties are
+far beneath those of the white Creoles, of whom they stand in a
+degree of fear, which is not easily eradicated.
+
+At a former period there existed in Lima a college exclusively for
+noble-born Indians; and the eldest sons of the families descended
+from the Incas, when they wished to study, were received at the
+expense of the State into the College of San Carlos; but since the
+declaration of independence, all the privileges enjoyed by the
+Indians have been annulled.
+
+The negroes in Lima form one-fifth part of the population. Their
+number amounts to upwards of 10,000, of which 4800 are slaves. Though
+an article in the Charter of Independence declares that "in Peru no
+person is born a slave," yet the National Congress has on various
+occasions thought fit to deviate from this principle. In Huaura it was
+decreed that children born in slavery shall be free on attaining the
+age of twenty-five, and the Congress of Huancayo prolonged the period
+to fifty years. There are no new importations of negroes from Africa,
+for an article in the Charter just mentioned sets forth that "every
+person who may be brought, as a slave, from another country to Peru,
+is free from the moment when he sets foot on the soil of that
+republic." Accordingly, if a Peruvian take his slave with him on a
+journey to Chile, and brings him back again, the slave may, on his
+return, claim his freedom. The only exception to this rule refers to
+runaway negroes, who, even after years of absence, may be reclaimed on
+their return. The value of slaves is not so high in Peru as in the
+southern states of North America. In Lima, the average price of a
+young, strong, and healthy negro is 400 dollars; the price of a
+negress, especially a _Negra de Chavra_ (capable of field work), is
+100 dollars higher. The value of those destined for domestic service
+depends on character and qualifications. A negress who is a good cook
+or needlewoman, is of course worth more than a negro who is to be
+employed as a water-carrier or a footman. In the plantations their
+value depends wholly on health and strength.
+
+The treatment of slaves in Lima, especially by the Creoles, is
+exceedingly mild, and generally much on the same footing as the
+treatment of servants in Europe. It is seldom that a master inflicts
+severe corporal chastisement on a slave. If the latter requires
+punishment, he is sent into the _Panaderia_ (the bakehouse) to knead the
+dough and bake the bread, which work they perform under the supervision
+of a Mayordomo, who is usually a hard task-master. Owing to the heat of
+the climate, working in the _Panaderia_ is more feared by the slaves
+than any other kind of punishment.
+
+In Lima the special laws for the protection of slaves are more
+favorable to them than the similar laws of any other slave country.
+The slaves bring their complaints before a particular judge, whose
+business it is to protect them against ill-treatment. A slave is free
+whenever he can pay the sum which his master demands for him,--which
+sum, in disputed cases, is fixed by legal decision. The slave also
+possesses the right of selling himself to another master, and the
+latter may pay the purchase-money to the former owner, who, however
+unwillingly, is obliged to conclude the bargain. The negroes have
+ample opportunities for saving money. They are permitted, during five
+or six hours of the day, to work for themselves; so that in the course
+of a few years they may with ease save the sum requisite for
+purchasing their independence. But in general they spend their
+earnings in mere idle enjoyments, and care but little about obtaining
+their freedom. As slaves they are provided with lodging, food, and
+clothing, and they are nursed in sickness; but as soon as they become
+free, they must supply all these wants for themselves; an undertaking
+which their natural indolence renders them little inclined to. On the
+whole, domestic negroes may be said to be willing slaves; it is
+possibly different with those employed in the plantations, who are
+liable to harder work and harsher treatment. I knew an old negro, who
+had hoarded up 6000 dollars, and yet did not purchase his own
+freedom, though he had paid for the liberation of his children and
+his two sisters. He often observed to me, that he should not be half
+so well off if he were free.
+
+The negroes brought from Africa, who are called _Bosales_, are far
+better than the Creole negroes. In physical strength they are inferior
+to the latter, and are less lively; yet they are patient, and much more
+faithful and attached to their masters than the Creole negroes born in
+Peru. The Bosales all have a certain degree of pride, but especially
+those who are of princely blood. A gentleman of old Spain bought a
+young negro princess, who not without the greatest difficulty could be
+brought to perform the duties of servitude. When she was directed to go
+to market, she set her basket down on the ground, and signified that she
+had been accustomed to be served, and not to serve. Some chastisement
+was resorted to, with the view of compelling her to do the duty allotted
+to her; but in vain. Her pride and obstinacy remained unconquerable.
+Sometimes she would sit for hours gloomily, with her eyes fixed on the
+ground, and muttering between her teeth, in her broken Spanish, the
+words, "_Yo clavita! yo clavita!_"[24] Then suddenly springing up, she
+would strike her head against the wall until she became almost
+senseless. As she showed a fondness for the children of the family, she
+was relieved from household work, and became the nursery-maid. In that
+way she discharged the duties which devolved on her with the most
+touching affection and fidelity; but she never would do anything,
+however trivial, which she considered to be menial service, and her
+master and mistress were reasonable enough not to require it.
+
+When the number of the African negroes in Lima was more considerable
+than it now is, the various races kept together, and formed
+themselves into unions, called _Cofradias_. They used to meet
+together at regular periods. At these meetings the negroes of
+princely descent were treated with marks of respect which they could
+scarcely have received in their native home. Speeches were delivered,
+and religious ceremonies performed; whilst music, singing, and
+dancing, revived recollections of past happiness, and of the
+far-distant native land. These Cofradias were also conducive to
+philanthropic ends; for when a slave had a hard master, the sum
+requisite for purchasing his freedom was raised by a general
+subscription in the union to which he belonged. Since the
+independence of Peru, and the consequent prohibition of the
+importation of negroes, the Cofradias have declined, and have lost
+much of their original character. Creoles and free negroes have now
+become members of them. The places in which these meetings are held
+are situated in the suburb of San Lazaro. The walls of the rooms
+are painted with grotesque figures of negro kings, elephants,
+camels, palm trees, &c.
+
+In Lima, and indeed throughout the whole of Peru, the free negroes are a
+plague to society. Too indolent to support themselves by laborious
+industry, they readily fall into any dishonest means of getting money.
+Almost all the robbers who infest the roads on the coast of Peru are
+free negroes. Dishonesty seems to be a part of their very nature; and
+moreover, all their tastes and inclinations are coarse and sensual. Many
+warm defenders of the negroes excuse these qualities by ascribing them
+to the want of education, the recollection of slavery, the spirit of
+revenge, &c. But I here speak of free-born negroes, who are admitted
+into the houses of wealthy families, who from their early childhood have
+received as good an education as falls to the share of many of the white
+Creoles--who are treated with kindness and liberally remunerated, and
+yet they do not differ from their half-savage brethren who are shut out
+from these advantages. If the negro has learned to read and write, and
+thereby made some little advance in education, he is transformed into a
+conceited coxcomb, who, instead of plundering travellers on the highway,
+finds in city life a sphere for the indulgence of his evil propensities.
+What is the cause of this incorrigible turpitude of the negroes? To
+answer this important question is not easy, if we admit the principle
+that the negro is as capable of cultivation as the Caucasian; and in
+support of it the names of some highly-educated Ethiopians may be cited.
+Those who are disposed to maintain this principle, and who are at the
+same time intimately acquainted with the social relations of the
+countries in which free negroes are numerous, may solve the problem. My
+opinion is, that the negroes, in respect to capability for mental
+improvement, are far behind the Europeans, and that, considered in the
+aggregate, they will not, even with the advantages of careful education,
+attain a very high degree of cultivation; because the structure of the
+negro skull, on which depends the development of the brain, approximates
+closely to the animal form. The imitative faculty of the monkey is
+highly developed in the negro, who readily seizes anything merely
+mechanical, whilst things demanding intelligence are beyond his reach.
+Sensuality is the impulse which controls the thoughts, the acts, the
+whole existence of the negroes. To them freedom can be only nominal; for
+if they conduct themselves well it is because they are compelled, not
+because they are inclined to do so. Herein lie at once the cause of, and
+the apology for, their bad character.
+
+The negro women differ but little from the men, in their general
+characteristics. They are, however, more active and industrious, and
+better tempered. As domestic servants they are superior to the mixed
+races. They are much employed as nurses, and in those situations they
+discharge their duties well. Their personal vanity is boundless, and
+every real they can save is spent in dress and ornaments. It is amusing
+to see them, on festival days, parading about the streets, dressed in
+white muslin gowns trimmed with lace, and short sleeves displaying their
+black arms. Very short petticoats, seldom extending below the ankle,
+serve to exhibit the tawdry finery of red silk stockings and light blue
+satin shoes. From their ears are suspended long gold drops, and their
+uncovered necks are not unfrequently adorned with costly necklaces. A
+negress, who was a slave belonging to a family of my acquaintance,
+possessed a necklace composed of fine Panama pearls, worth several
+thousand dollars. The pure white of the pearls was wonderfully
+heightened by the contrast of the jet-black skin of the wearer; and for
+this reason they were more ornamental to the negress than they would
+have been to the fairest lady in Europe.
+
+Having noticed the principal races, we will now consider the variegated
+mass of people of mixed blood, who in Lima form a considerable portion
+of the population. Stevenson[25] gives a long list of these mixed races,
+and specifies the proportionate degree, that is to say, how many eighths
+or sixteenths of black, brown, or white color belong to each. But these
+data respecting tint are fallacious, for, being founded solely on
+external appearance, they are liable to endless modifications. Stevenson
+falls into the mistake of giving to the children of a negro father and
+a white mother, the name of Zambos; whilst to the offspring of a white
+father and a black mother, he gives the name of Mulattos. By a similar
+error, he terms the children of a white man and a Cuarterona, Quinteros;
+and to those of a Cuarteron and a white woman, he gives the designation
+Cuarterones. It is, however, an established rule, that the children bear
+the designation, denoting the same degree of mixed blood, whatever may
+respectively be the colors of the parents. Accordingly, the child of a
+negro and a white woman is, properly speaking, a Mulatto; just the same
+as though the relations of race on the part of the parents were
+transposed. When a man of mixed blood marries a woman darker than
+himself, and his children thereby become further removed from the white
+tint, it is said to be _un paso atras_ (a step backwards).
+
+In Europe it is very common to attach to the term _Creole_, the idea of
+a particular complexion. This is a mistake. The designation Creole
+properly belongs to all the natives of America born of parents who have
+emigrated from the Old World, be those parents Europeans or Africans.
+There are, therefore, white as well as black Creoles.[26]
+
+The subjoined list shows the parentage of the different varieties of
+half-casts, and also the proper designations of the latter:--
+
+
+           PARENTS.                       CHILDREN.
+
+  White Father and Negro Mother       Mulatto.
+  White Father and Indian Mother      Mestizo.
+  Indian Father and Negro Mother      Chino.
+  White Father and Mulatta Mother     Cuarteron.
+  White Father and Mestiza Mother     Creole (only distinguished from
+                                        the White, by a pale-brownish
+                                        complexion).
+  White Father and China Mother       Chino-Blanco.
+  White Father and Cuarterona Mother  Quintero.
+  White Father and Quintera Mother    White.
+  Negro Father and Mulatta Mother     Zambo-Negro.
+  Negro Father and Mestiza Mother     Mulatto-Oscuro.
+  Negro Father and China Mother       Zambo-Chino.
+  Negro Father and Zamba Mother       Zambo-Negro (perfectly bl'k).
+  Negro Father and Cuarterona or
+    Quintera Mother                   Mulatto (rather dark).
+  Indian Father and Mulatta Mother   Chino-Oscuro.
+  Indian Father and Mestiza Mother    Mestizo-Claro (frequently very
+                                        beautiful).
+  Indian Father and China Mother      Chino-Cholo.
+  Indian Father and Zamba Mother      Zambo-Claro.
+  Indian Father and China-Chola
+    Mother                            Indian (with rather short
+                                        frizzy hair).
+  Indian Father and Cuarterona or
+    Quintera Mother                   Mestizo (rather brown).
+  Mulatto Father and Zamba Mother     Zambo (a miserable race).
+  Mulatto Father and Mestiza Mother   Chino (of rather clear
+                                        complexion).
+  Mulatto Father and China Mother     Chino (rather dark).
+
+
+Besides the half-casts here enumerated, there are many others, not
+distinguished by particular names, as they do not in color materially
+differ from those above specified. The best criterion for determining
+the varieties is the hair of the women: this is far less deceiving
+than the complexion, for the color of the skin is sometimes
+decidedly at variance with that characteristic of the race. Some of
+the Mulatta females have complexions brilliantly fair, and features
+which, for regularity, may vie with those of the most beautiful
+women of Europe; but they bear the unmistakeable stamp of descent in
+the short woolly hair.
+
+The white Creole women of Lima have a peculiar quickness in detecting
+a person of half-cast at the very first glance; and to the less
+practised observer they communicate their discoveries in this way,
+with an air of triumph; for they have the very pardonable weakness of
+priding themselves in the purity of their European descent. Despite the
+republican constitution, there prevails throughout Peru a strong pride
+of cast, which shows itself at every opportunity. In quarrels, for
+example, the fairer antagonist always taunts the darker one about his
+descent. By all the varieties, the white skin is envied, and no one
+thinks of disputing its superiority of rank. The Indian looks with
+abhorrence on the Negro; the latter with scorn on the Indio. The
+Mulatto fancies himself next to the European, and thinks that the
+little tinge of black in his skin does not justify his being ranked
+lower than the Mestizo, who after all is only an _Indio bruto_.[27]
+The Zambo laughs at them all, and says "if he himself is not worth
+much, yet he is better than his parents." In short, each race finds a
+reason for thinking itself better than another.
+
+In the commencement of the present chapter I made the observation that
+the people of mixed blood unite in themselves all the faults without
+any of the virtues of their progenitors. To this general remark,
+however, the Mestizos form an honorable exception. They inherit many
+of the good qualities both of the Whites and the Indians. They are
+mild and affectionate. Their feelings are very excitable, and they
+readily perform an act of kindness or generosity on the impulse of
+the moment--but they are irresolute and timid. They attach themselves
+affectionately to the Whites; but they are not partial to the
+Indians, whom they regard with some degree of contempt. In Lima their
+number is less considerable than in the interior of the country,
+where whole villages are inhabited solely by Mestizos. In those
+places they style themselves Whites, and hold themselves very much
+aloof from the Indians. One cannot pay them a better compliment than
+to inquire whether they are Spaniards, a question which they always
+answer in the affirmative, though their features are plainly
+impressed with the Indian stamp. The complexion of the Mestizos is
+usually a clear brown; but in some individuals it has a very dark
+tinge. Their hair is sleek, long, and very strong. The women
+frequently wear their hair in two long plaits descending nearly to
+the knees. The men are strongly made, have marked features and but
+very little beard. In Lima they are chiefly handicraftsmen and
+traders. Most of the hawkers (Mercachifles) in Lima are Mestizos.
+
+The Mulattos differ very widely from the Mestizos. In person they are
+less strongly made; but in intellect they are superior to any of the
+half-casts. They possess a very great aptitude for mechanical
+employments, great dexterity and a remarkable degree of imitative
+talent, which, if well directed, might be brilliantly developed. They
+are exceedingly impressionable, and all their feelings are readily
+exalted into passions. Indifferent to all out sensual enjoyments, they
+indulge in the fleeting pleasure of the present moment, and are
+regardless of the future. There is a certain class of Mulattos, who,
+in a psychological point of view, are very remarkable. They are
+distinguished by the nick-name of _Palanganas_.[28] They are gifted
+with wonderful memory, and after the lapse of years they will repeat,
+word for word, speeches or sermons which they have heard only once.
+With this extraordinary power of memory, they combine a fertile fancy,
+and a boundless share of self-confidence. Wherever there is anything
+to be seen or heard, the Palanganas never fail to attend, and they
+repeat with the most ludicrous attitudes and gestures all that they
+hear, be it a sermon in church, a speech in Congress, or an address
+delivered at any public solemnity.
+
+The Mulattos now study theology; for, since the establishment of
+independence, the Indian law, which prohibited any person of mixed
+blood from entering the ecclesiastical state, is no longer observed.
+Many have devoted themselves to medicine; and most of the physicians
+in Lima are Mulattos; but they are remarkable only for their
+ignorance, as they receive neither theoretical nor clinical
+instruction. Nevertheless, they enjoy the full confidence of the
+public, who rank the ignorant native far above the educated foreigner.
+The business of a barber is one that is much followed by the Mulattos
+of Lima. In that occupation they are quite in their element, for they
+possess all the qualifications for which the members of that
+fraternity are distinguished in all parts of the world.
+
+Among the Mulatto females many are remarkably beautiful--though they
+are always wanting in that oval form of the face which is the first
+condition of classic beauty. Their countenances are generally round
+and broad, their features strongly marked, and their expression
+impassioned. Their beauty soon fades; and as they advance in life the
+negro character of their features becomes distinctly defined. Their
+hair, which does not grow beyond a finger's length, is jet black and
+frizzy. They plait it very ingeniously in small tresses, frequently
+making more than a hundred. Their complexions vary from white to
+dark-brown; but most of them are dark brunettes, with large black
+eyes and pearl-white teeth.
+
+Their vanity is quite equal to that of the Negresses, but it is
+combined with a certain degree of taste, in which the latter are
+wanting. The Mulatto women are passionately fond of music, singing
+and dancing. They play the guitar and have pleasing voices, but
+their singing is quite uninstructed.
+
+The Zambos are the most miserable class of half-casts. With them
+every vice seems to have attained its utmost degree of development;
+and it may confidently be said that not one in a thousand is a useful
+member of society, or a good subject of the state. Four-fifths of the
+criminals in the city jail of Lima are Zambos. They commit the most
+hideous crimes with the utmost indifference, and their lawless
+propensities are continually bringing them into collision with the
+constituted authorities. In moral nature they are below the Negroes;
+for they are totally wanting in any good qualities possessed by the
+latter. Their figures are athletic, and their color black, sometimes
+slightly tinged with olive-brown. Their noses are much less flat
+than those of the Negroes, but their lips are quite as prominent.
+Their eyes are sunk and penetrating, and their hair very little
+longer than that of the Negroes, but curling in larger locks. The
+men have very little beard.
+
+The Chinos are but little superior to the Zambos. Indeed, in physical
+formation they are inferior to them, for they are small and
+attenuated. Their countenances are hideously ugly. They have the Negro
+nose and mouth, and the Indian forehead, cheeks and eyes. Their hair
+is black, rough, but less frizzy than that of the Mulattos. They are
+deceitful, ill-tempered, and cruel. They never forget an offence, but
+brood over it till an opportunity, however distant, presents itself
+for wreaking their vengeance. They are very dangerous enemies.
+
+Respecting the half-casts of fairer complexion, especially the
+Cuarterones and the Quinteros, there is but little to be said. Both
+physically and morally they approximate closely to the whites, among
+whom they almost rank themselves.
+
+The majority of the foreigners in Lima, and indeed throughout the whole
+of Peru, are the families of the Spaniards from Europe, who emigrated to
+South America before the war of independence. Since the close of that
+struggle there has been but little emigration, as the circumstances of
+the country are not now very favorable to new settlers. The old Spanish
+families are for the most part landed proprietors or merchants. They are
+people of very temperate habits, but they are passionately fond of
+gaming, and in this respect they have bequeathed a dangerous inheritance
+to the Creoles. The pride and mercenary spirit which distinguished the
+Spaniards before the independence are now broken, if not entirely
+subdued. The intercourse between them and the natives, though still
+somewhat constrained, is every year becoming more and more friendly, as
+the privileges enjoyed by the Spaniards, which were a continued cause of
+hostile feeling, are now removed.
+
+Next to the Spaniards, the most numerous class of foreigners are the
+Italians. These are chiefly Genoese, and the majority are run-away
+sailors and adventurers. They usually begin by setting up a Pulperia (a
+brandy shop), or a spice shop, and gradually extend their traffic until,
+in the course of a few years, they amass money enough to return to their
+native country. Some of them make good fortunes and possess extensive
+warehouses.
+
+The French in Lima occupy the same positions as their countrymen in
+Valparaiso, viz., they are tailors and hair-dressers, dealers in
+jewellery and millinery.
+
+The English and North Americans, who are much better liked by the
+natives than the French, are chiefly merchants. They are the heads of
+the principal commercial houses, as Gibbs, Grawley & Co., Alsop & Co.,
+Templeman and Bergmann, Huth, Cruening & Co., &c. The enterprising
+spirit of the English and North Americans has led many of them into
+extensive mining speculations, which in some instances have proved
+very unfortunate.
+
+The Germans in Lima are proportionally few. They are distinguished by
+their aptitude for business, and many of them fill high stations in the
+great English commercial houses. They are held in high esteem by the
+natives. The general gravity of their manners has given rise, among the
+Limenos, to the saying, "_Serio como un Aleman_"--Serious as a German.
+
+Settlers from the other American republics have of late years
+considerably increased in Lima. After the Chilian expedition, many
+Chilenos established themselves in Peru, and numbers of Argentinos,
+escaping from the terrorism of Rosas in Buenos Ayres, have taken refuge
+in Lima.
+
+Foreigners being in general more industrious and more steady than the
+Creoles, the Limenos readily form connexions with them. The ladies
+generally prefer marrying a _Gringo_[29] to a _Paisanito_.[30]
+
+I may close this chapter on the inhabitants of Lima, with some remarks
+on the Spanish language as spoken in the capital of Peru. The old
+Spaniards, who brought their various dialects into the New World, retain
+them there unchanged. The Galician transposes the letters _g_ and _j_;
+the Catalonian adds an _s_ to the final syllables of words, and gives a
+peculiarly harsh sound to the letter _j_; the Andalusian rolls the _r_
+over his tongue, and imparts a melodious expression even to
+harsh-sounding words; the Biscayan mingles a variety of provincialisms
+with his own peculiar dialect. The Madrileno (native of Madrid) prides
+himself here, as well as in Europe, in being far superior to the rest of
+his countrymen in elegance of pronunciation. The Creoles, however, have
+gradually dropped the characteristic dialects of their progenitors, and
+have adopted new ones, varying one from another in the different South
+American provinces. The Spanish language, as spoken by the natives of
+Peru, differs widely from the correct and pure model of pronunciation.
+The inhabitants of the coast have too soft an accent, and they
+frequently confound, one with another, letters which have a mutual
+resemblance in sound. On the other hand, the people who dwell in the
+mountainous districts speak with a harsh accent, and very
+ungrammatically. As the Swiss force out their guttural tones from the
+lowest depth of their throats, and with the strongest possible
+aspiration, so do the Peruvians of the Cordillera. The inhabitants of
+the sand flats of North Germany, on the contrary, impart a ludicrously
+soft sound to the harsher consonants; and the same peculiarity is
+observable in the people who inhabit the coast of Peru.
+
+Of all the inhabitants of Lima, the white Creoles speak the best
+Spanish; but still their language is far from pure. The ladies in
+particular have the habit of substituting one letter for another in
+certain words; for example, instead of _pulso_ (pulse) they say
+_purso_, and instead of _salsa_ (sauce) they say _sarsa_. In other
+words they substitute _d_ for _r_, saying _amod_ for _amor_,
+_cavalledo_ for _cavallero_. The _ll_ is frequently sounded by the
+Peruvians like _y_, a blunder which foreigners are also very apt to
+commit; for example, in the word _pollo_ (chicken), which they
+pronounce as if it were spelled _poyo_, and _gallina_ (hen) they
+pronounce as if spelled _gayina_. Not only do they confound single
+letters, but they frequently change whole syllables; as for instance,
+in the word _pared_ (wall), which they transform into _pader_. The
+name of the well-known ex-President Orbegoso was, by two-thirds of the
+natives of Lima, pronounced as if written _Obregoso_. There is no word
+in the Spanish language beginning with an _s_ followed by a consonant,
+and the Limenos, when they attempt to pronounce foreign words or
+proper names commencing in the manner just described, never fail to
+prefix to them the letter _e_. I know not whether in the schools and
+colleges of old Spain this method of prefixing the letter _e_ is
+adopted in teaching Latin; but the practice is universal among the
+students of all the colleges in Lima. For studium they say _estudium_;
+for spurius, _espurius_; for sceleratus, _esceleratus_, &c.
+
+To the Limenos the correct pronunciation of these words is extremely
+difficult, and many have assured me that they find it impossible to
+omit the _e_ before the _s_. Still more arbitrary is their conversion
+of _h_ into _k_ in the words mihi, nihil, &c., which they pronounce
+_miki_, _nikil_.
+
+The colored Creoles, who are generally uneducated, speak the Spanish
+language much more corruptly than the whites. The Negroes have a very
+bad accent. Their tongues seem quite unfitted for the pronunciation of
+the Spanish language, which many of them render unintelligible by
+transposing letters and lopping off syllables.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 13: Interpretations of the Indian Laws.]
+
+[Footnote 14: His divine genius has produced eternal spring in
+Arequipa.]
+
+[Footnote 15: "Guia del Peru." "Observaciones sobre el clima de Lima y
+sus influencias en los seres organizados en especial el hombre."]
+
+[Footnote 16: The women of Lima clean their teeth several times a day
+with the root called _Raiz de dientes_ (literally _root for the teeth_),
+of which they keep a piece constantly in their pocket.]
+
+[Footnote 17: It is related that, during the war of independence, when
+Lima was alternately in possession of the Patriots and the Spaniards, a
+party of the latter, in order to ascertain the spirit of the Limenos,
+disguised themselves as Patriots and marched to the vicinity of the
+town. On their approach becoming known, a great number of persons
+proceeded from Callao to the Alameda to meet them. Among those who went
+forth to welcome the supposed patriots were a number of women dressed in
+the narrow _sayas_ above described. When the disguised Spaniards had
+advanced within a little distance of the deceived multitude they began
+to attack them. The men saved themselves by flight; but the women, whose
+sayas impeded their motion, were unable to escape, and were almost all
+killed.]
+
+[Footnote 18: A _Tapada_ is a lady closely concealed beneath the folds of
+her veil or manto. The term is derived from the verb _tapar_, to cover
+or conceal. _Taparse a media ojo_, is said of a lady when she draws her
+manto over her face so as to leave only one eye or rather the half of an
+eye uncovered.--T.]
+
+[Footnote 19: A preparation of finely-bruised maize mixed with morsels of
+pork. It is rolled in maize leaves, and in that manner served up.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Sweet cakes made of maize and raisins.]
+
+[Footnote 21: A syrup made from the pulp of fruit.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Preserved peas with syrup.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Literally Bigots.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Meaning _Yo esclavita!_ (I, a slave!) _Esclavita_ being the
+diminutive of _Esclava_.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Narrative of twenty years' residence in South America, by
+W. B. Stevenson.]
+
+[Footnote 26: The term Creole is a corruption of the Spanish word
+_criollo_, which is derived from _criar_ to create or to foster. The
+Spaniards apply the term _criollo_ not merely to the human race, but
+also to animals propagated in the colonies, but of pure European blood:
+thus they have _creole_ horses, bullocks, poultry, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 27: A brutish Indian; a favorite expression of the Limenos when
+speaking of the Indians, who certainly do not merit the compliment.]
+
+[Footnote 28: The word _Palangana_ signifies a wash-hand-basin; but more
+especially the kind of basin used by barbers. Figuratively the term is
+used to designate an empty babbler.]
+
+[Footnote 29: _Gringo_ is a nickname applied to Europeans. It is probably
+derived from _Griego_ (Greek). The Germans say of anything
+incomprehensible, "That sounds like Spanish,"--and in like manner the
+Spaniards say of anything they do not understand, "That is Greek."]
+
+[Footnote 30: _Paisanito_ is the diminutive of _Paisano_
+(Compatriot.)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+Primary Schools--Colleges--The University--Monks--Saints--Santo
+Toribio and Santa Rosa--Religious Processions--Raising the
+Host--The Noche Buena--The Carnival--Paseos, or Public
+Promenades--Ice--Riding and Driving--Horses--Their Equipments and
+Training--Mules--Lottery in Lima--Cookery--Breakfasts, Dinners,
+&c.--Coffee-houses and Restaurants--Markets--The _Plazo Firme del
+Acho_--Bull Fights.
+
+
+Schools for primary instruction are numerous in Lima, and upon the
+whole they are tolerably well conducted. There are thirty-six of these
+primary schools, public and private; twenty for boys, and sixteen for
+girls; and altogether about 2000 pupils[31] receive in these
+establishments the first elements of juvenile instruction. The
+principal public institutions of this class are the Normal School of
+Santo Tomas (in which the Lancasterian system is adopted), and the
+Central School of San Lazaro. Each contains from 320 to 350 pupils. Of
+the private schools, some are very well conducted by Europeans. The
+College of Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe was founded a few years ago by
+two Spanish merchants. In this establishment the sons of the wealthier
+class of people may receive a better education than they can obtain in
+the public schools. There are three Latin schools, and the number of
+pupils attending them amounts to about two hundred.
+
+The College of Santo Toribio is exclusively appropriated to students of
+theology, who are likewise received into the College of San Carlos,
+though the latter is chiefly destined for the study of jurisprudence.
+San Carlos was founded in the year 1770 by the Viceroy Amat, who
+incorporated with it the previously existing Colleges of San Martin and
+San Felipe. In the year 1822 the Colegio de Esquilache was likewise
+united to San Carlos, which now contains about a hundred students. The
+building is large and commodious, containing spacious halls, a fine
+refectory, and a well-stored library. There are five professors of law
+and two of theology. French, English, geography, natural philosophy,
+mathematics, drawing, and music are likewise taught in this college. The
+annual revenue of the establishment, exclusively of the fees paid by the
+students, amounts to 19,000 dollars. During the war of emancipation,
+this establishment for a time bore the name of Colegio de San Martin, in
+honor of General San Martin, the liberator of Chile; but its original
+title was soon restored.
+
+The Colegio de San Fernando was founded in 1810 by the Marques de la
+Concordia, for students of medicine. In the year 1826 this Institution
+received the name of _Colegio de la Medecina de la Independencia_, a
+title which it justly merits, for certainly medicine is taught there
+with a singular independence of all rules and systems. The Professors,
+who themselves have never received any regular instruction, communicate
+their scanty share of knowledge in a very imperfect manner to the
+students. The number of the students is between twelve and fifteen, and
+there are two Professors. The clinical lectures are delivered in the
+Hospital of San Andres, to which an anatomical amphitheatre was
+attached in 1792. The heat of the climate renders it necessary that
+burials should take place within twenty-four hours after death, a
+circumstance which naturally operates as an impediment to the
+fundamental study of anatomy. It cannot therefore be matter of surprise
+that the native surgeons should have but a superficial knowledge of
+that important branch of science.
+
+In the University of San Marcos no lectures are delivered, and the
+twenty-five Professors' chairs are merely nominal. Honors and degrees
+are however conferred in San Marcos, and the same rules and ceremonies
+are observed as in the Spanish Universities. In the departments of
+medicine and jurisprudence there are three degrees; those of Bachelor,
+Licentiate, and Doctor. In former times the dignity of Doctor was
+conferred with great pomp and solemnity, and the public were admitted in
+large numbers to witness the ceremony. The acquisition of the degree of
+Doctor was then attended by an expense of about two thousand dollars,
+chiefly expended in presents. The new Doctor was required to send to
+every member of the University, from the Bachelors to the Rector, a new
+dollar, a goblet full of ice, and a dish of pastry.
+
+Lima is overrun with monks, lay and conventual. The monastic regulations
+are not very strict, for the monks are permitted to leave the convents
+at all hours, according to their own pleasure. They avail themselves of
+this liberty to the utmost extent. Friars of various orders are seen in
+the streets in numbers. Most of them are fat Dominicans, who sit in the
+Portales playing at draughts, or lounge in shops staring at the
+_Tapadas_ as they pass by. Many of these ecclesiastics are remarkable
+for their disregard of personal cleanliness; indeed it would be
+difficult to meet with a more slovenly, ignorant, and common-place class
+of men. They frequent all places of public entertainment, the
+coffee-houses, the chichereas, the bull-fights, and the theatres: these
+two last-mentioned places of amusement they visit in disguise. The
+Franciscans and the Mercenarias are little better than the Dominicans;
+but the Descalzados (barefooted friars) lead a somewhat more strict and
+regular life. To the monks of the _Buena Muerte_ belongs the duty of
+administering the last consolation to the dying. Whenever they hear of
+any person who is dangerously ill, they hasten to the house without
+waiting till they are sent for, and they never leave the invalid until
+he either recovers or dies. Day and night they sit by the sick-bed, and
+scarcely allow themselves time for necessary rest and refreshment. I
+have known many of these monks who, from long experience and
+observation, but without any medical knowledge, had acquired wonderful
+shrewdness in determining the degree of danger in cases of illness, and
+who could foretel with almost unfailing certainty the moment of
+dissolution. As soon as the patient has breathed his last, the monk
+utters a short prayer, then giving the corpse a knock on the nose, he
+silently takes his departure. I have frequently witnessed this singular
+custom, but I never could discover its origin or motive. The habit worn
+by the monks of _Buena Muerte_ is black, with a large red cross on the
+breast, and hats with high conical crowns.
+
+Many pious natives, or inhabitants of Lima, have been admitted among the
+number of the saints. Of these the most distinguished was the Spaniard
+Toribio, who, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, filled the
+archiepiscopal chair in Lima. His kindness and charity have become
+proverbial, and his many acts of benevolence are still alive in the
+recollection of the people. Of many anecdotes that are related of him, I
+may here quote one. Late one night, the patrol who was on duty in the
+vicinity of the archbishop's palace, met a man in the street carrying a
+heavy load on his back. The challenge, "Who goes there?" was answered by
+the name "Toribio." The watch, uttering an oath, impatiently called out
+"Que Toribio?" (What Toribio?) "El de la esquina!" (He who dwells at the
+corner!) was the simple reply. The soldier angrily stepped up to his
+interlocutor, and, to his astonishment, recognized the archbishop, who
+was carrying a sick person to the hospital.
+
+The saint to whom the Limenos render the highest honor, is Santa Rosa,
+the saint of the city. She was a native of Lima, and is the only
+Peruvian female who has attained the honor of being ranked among the
+saints. On the 30th of August, the festival of Santa Rosa is
+celebrated with great pomp in the cathedral, and her image, richly
+bedecked with gold and jewels, is carried in solemn procession from
+Santo Domingo to the Sagrario.
+
+Religious processions are among the most favorite amusements of the
+inhabitants of Lima. They are always very numerously attended; and it
+may fairly be said that no merry-making would afford the Limenos so much
+diversion as they derive from these pious solemnities. Vast numbers of
+ladies join the processions as Tapadas, indulging in all sorts of
+coquettish airs, and with thoughts evidently bent on any subject but
+religion. The gentlemen station themselves in groups at the corners of
+the streets, to admire the graceful figures of the Tapadas, whose faces
+are concealed; and when the procession has passed one corner they rush
+to another, to see it defile a second time; and in this manner continue
+moving from place to place, as if they could never see enough of the
+interesting spectacle. The most brilliant processions are those which
+take place on the festivals of Corpus Christi, San Francisco, and Santo
+Domingo. A very solemn procession takes place on the 28th of October,
+the anniversary of the great earthquake of 1746.
+
+Every morning, at a quarter to nine, the great bell of the cathedral
+announces the raising of the host, during the performance of high mass.
+Immediately every sound is hushed in the streets and squares. Coachmen
+stop the carriages, riders check their horses, and foot-passengers stand
+motionless. Every one suspends his occupation or his conversation, and
+kneeling down, with head uncovered, mutters a prayer. But scarcely has
+the third solemn stroke of the bell ceased to vibrate, when the noise
+and movement are resumed; the brief but solemn stillness of the few
+preceding moments being thus rendered the more impressive by contrast.
+The same incident is renewed in the evening, between six and seven
+o'clock, when the bell sounds for the Angelus (Oraciones). The cathedral
+bell gives the signal, by three slow, measured sounds, which are
+immediately repeated from the belfries of all the churches in Lima. Life
+and action are then, as if by an invisible hand, suddenly suspended;
+nothing moves but the lips of the pious, whispering their prayers. The
+_Oracion_ being ended, every one makes the sign of the cross, and says
+to the person nearest him, _Buenas noches_ (Good night). It is regarded
+as an act of courtesy to allow another to take precedence in saying
+"Good night," and if several persons are together, it is expected that
+the eldest or the most distinguished of the group should be the first to
+utter the greeting. It is considered polite to request the person next
+one to say _Buenas noches_; he with equal civility declines; and the
+alternate repetition of "_diga Vm._" (you say it), "_No, Senor, diga
+Vm._" (No, Sir, you say it), threatens sometimes to be endless.
+
+The effect produced by the three strokes of the cathedral bell is truly
+astonishing. The half-uttered oath dies on the lips of the uncouth
+negro; the arm of the cruel Zambo, unmercifully beating his ass, drops
+as if paralyzed; the chattering mulatto seems as if suddenly struck
+dumb; the smart repartee of the lively Tapada is cut short in its
+delivery; the shopkeeper lays down his measure; the artizan drops his
+tool; and the monk suspends his move on the draught-board: all, with one
+accord, join in the inaudible prayer. Here and there the sight of a
+foreigner walking along indifferently, and without raising his hat,
+makes a painful impression on the minds of the people.
+
+Christmas-night (_Noche buena_) is a great festival in Lima. The streets
+and squares, especially the _Plaza Mayor_, are crowded with people,
+amusing themselves in all sorts of ways. Hundreds of persons take their
+seats on the benches of the Plaza; there they regale themselves with
+sherbet, ices, and pastry, and look at the dancing of the negroes, &c.
+On this occasion the midnight mass is performed with extraordinary
+solemnity. On Christmas-day some of the families of Lima get up what are
+called _Nacimientos_, consisting of symbolical representations of the
+birth of the Saviour. On some of these shows considerable expense and
+ingenuity are bestowed.
+
+In Carnival time Lima is so unpleasant a place of residence that many
+families retire to the country during that season of misrule. One of the
+favorite sports consists in sprinkling people with water; and from all
+the balconies various kinds of liquids are thrown on the passers-by.
+Groups of Negroes post themselves at the corners of the streets, where
+they seize people, and detain them prisoners, until they ransom
+themselves by the payment of a certain sum of money. Those who do not
+pay the money are rolled in the street gutters, and treated in the most
+merciless way; whilst those who purchase grace escape with having a few
+handfulls of dirty water thrown in their faces. Even in private houses,
+relations and intimate acquaintances are guilty of the most
+unwarrantable annoyances. Parties of young men enter the houses of
+families with whom they are acquainted, and begin sprinkling the ladies
+with scented water. That being exhausted, spring water, or even dirty
+water, is resorted to, so that what began in sport ends in reckless
+rudeness. The ladies, with their clothes dripping wet, are chased from
+room to room, and thereby become heated. The consequence is, in many
+instances, severe and dangerous illness. Inflammation of the lungs,
+ague, rheumatism, &c., are the usual results of these carnival sports,
+to which many fall victims. A year never passes in which several murders
+are not committed, in revenge for offences perpetrated during the
+saturnalia of the carnival.
+
+A very favorite trick adopted in carnival time, for frightening people
+as they pass along the streets, is the following:--a sack, filled with
+fragments of broken glass and porcelain, is fastened to the balcony by a
+strong rope, of such a length that, when suspended from the window, the
+sack is about seven feet above the street. The apparatus being all
+ready, a mischievous negress and her _amita_ (young mistress) watch the
+passers-by until they select one for their victim. The sack is then
+thrown over the front of the balcony, and a deafening crash ensues,
+though the rope prevents its contents from hurting any one. It is well
+known that in almost every street in Lima there is at least one balcony
+ready prepared for the performance of this trick; yet the suddenness of
+the crash always proves a shock, even to the strongest nerves. People
+start and run to one side of the street, and are sometimes so terrified
+that they drop down; then loud laughter and jeering remarks are heard in
+the balcony. Every year this trick is prohibited by the police, but the
+prohibition is treated with contempt.
+
+One of the most popular recreations of the Limenos, especially of the
+people of color, is the _Paseo de Amancaes_, which takes place on St.
+John's Day. The Amancaes is a gently sloping plain, about half a mile
+north-west of Lima, and it is bounded by a semicircular range of hills,
+which rise from twelve to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the
+sea. During the hot months of the year this plain is a parched and
+barren waste; but when the misty and rainy season sets in, the Amancaes
+is covered with numerous flowers, among which a beautiful yellow lily is
+conspicuous. About the end of June this lily is in full bloom. On St.
+John's Day booths and stalls are fitted up for the sale of various kinds
+of refreshments, and throngs of people of all classes and colors are
+seen riding or walking in the direction of the Amancaes. There they
+amuse themselves with dancing, playing, eating, drinking, and gathering
+flowers; and in the evening they return to Lima. It is amusing to see
+the Mulattas and Zambas with bouquets of yellow lilies stuck in their
+heads and bosoms. These women crowd into heavily-laden vehicles, beside
+which their black cavaliers ride on horseback--all laughing, jesting,
+and giving vent to unrestrained mirth. From the 24th of June to the end
+of October, pleasure parties repair on Sundays and festival days, either
+to the Amancaes or to the Lomas. The latter is a range of hills a little
+further from Lima.
+
+There is no want of promenades in the vicinity of the city. Leading from
+the Callao gate is the fine long avenue of trees I have already
+mentioned. In the suburb of San Lazaro there is a fine broad promenade
+planted with trees, called the _alameda vieja_, at the end of which is
+situated the Convent of the Descalzos. Along the bank of the Rimac there
+is a new promenade planted with four rows of trees, called the _alameda
+nueva_. Behind it the _Paseo militar_, with two rows of trees, extending
+as far as _Piedra lisa_, on the road to the pleasant village of
+Lurigancho. On the right of these promenades is the river, on the left
+the pyramidal hill, of the Cerro de San Cristoval. At the extremity of
+the Alameda nueva are the Puquio.[32] These baths are within a long
+low-roofed building, covered on the top with straw mats.
+
+On summer evenings the bridge and the Plaza Mayor are visited by
+throngs of promenaders who there enjoy the refreshing breeze, which,
+after sunset, is wafted from the Cordilleras, along the surface of the
+Rimac. After the hour of the _Oraciones_ (evening prayers), the bridge
+is crowded with gentlemen, who walk up and down whilst the ladies sit
+in the rotundas built above each of the piers. Long rows of
+promenaders are seen moving to and fro, either going to the Alamedas,
+or returning from thence to the Plaza, to obtain refreshments. Before
+the Portal de los Escribanos, on the Plaza Mayor, tables are laid out
+with lemonade, almond milk and ices. The promenaders sit down on
+benches, which are placed round these tables, and partake of
+refreshments, none of which, however, are so delicious as the cool
+breeze after the sultry heat of the day.
+
+To the inhabitants of Lima, ice is one of the necessaries of life: it is
+considered so indispensable, that a scarcity of it, during several days,
+would be sufficient to excite popular ferment. In all revolutions,
+therefore, the leaders carefully avoid calling into requisition the
+service of the mules employed in the transport of ice. It is obtained in
+the Cordilleras, at the distance of about twenty-eight leagues from
+Lima. The Indians who ascend the glaciers break the ice into blocks of
+about six arobas in weight, which are lowered by ropes down the
+declivity of the mountain. The women and children then cover the blocks
+of ice with Ichu grass (_Joara ichu_, R. P.), after which they are drawn
+by another party of Indians to a depot, about two leagues distant, where
+they are packed on the backs of mules. Each mule carries two blocks.
+Thirty mules form what is called a _Recua_, which daily proceeds from
+the ice depot to Lima. At intervals of two or three miles there are
+stations where relays of mules are in readiness. The operations of
+unloading and reloading are performed with the utmost possible speed,
+and the mules are driven at a brisk trot, wherever the roads will admit
+of it. In the space of eighteen or twenty hours, the ice reaches Lima,
+and as may be expected, considerably reduced in weight by melting. The
+average loss on two blocks of ice is about one hundred pounds.[33] The
+daily consumption of ice in Lima is between fifty and fifty-five cwt.
+About two-thirds of that quantity is used for preparing ices, most of
+which are made of milk or pine-apple juice. Ice is hawked about the
+streets of Lima for sale, and all day long Indians, carrying pails on
+their heads, perambulate the streets, crying _helado_.
+
+The ladies of Lima, when they make visits, seldom go on foot. They
+generally ride in the _caleza_, a very ugly kind of vehicle, being
+nothing more than a square box raised on two high wheels, and drawn
+by a mule, on whose back a negro in livery is mounted. Many of the
+older calezas, instead of being painted on the outside, are covered
+with variegated paper. The calezin is a prettier kind of carriage,
+and is drawn by two horses or mules. Taste in the article of carriages
+is, however, improving in Lima, and several very elegant ones have
+been recently introduced.
+
+Within the last few years a regular line of omnibuses has been
+established between Callao and Lima. From each of those cities an
+omnibus starts daily, at eight in the morning and at four in the
+afternoon, and the journey occupies an hour and a half. To Miraflores,
+Chorillos, Lurin, and other places on the coast, the conveyance is by
+a _balanzin_, a sort of caleza, drawn by three horses harnessed
+abreast. This balanzin is one of the most awkward vehicles ever
+invented, and the slightest shock it sustains is felt with double
+force by the persons riding in it. At greater distances from the
+capital, the want of proper roads renders the employment of vehicles a
+matter of difficulty. Even along the coast to the south of Lima, a
+journey of about forty leagues cannot be accomplished without vast
+difficulty and expense. On such a journey it is usual for a train of
+sixty or eighty horses to accompany the carriage; and it is found
+necessary to change the horses every half-hour, owing to the
+difficulty of drawing the carriage through the fine quicksand, which
+is often more than a foot deep. A Peruvian planter, who was accustomed
+to take his wife every year on a visit to his plantation, situated
+about thirty-two leagues from Lima, assured me that the journey to and
+fro always cost him 1400 dollars.
+
+During the brilliant period of the Spanish domination, incredible sums
+were frequently expended on carriages and mules. Not unfrequently the
+tires of the caleza wheels and the shoes of the mules were of silver
+instead of iron.
+
+In Peru, riding is a universal custom, and almost every person keeps
+one or more horses. The ladies of Lima are distinguished as graceful
+horsewomen. Their equestrian costume consists of a white riding-habit,
+trowsers richly trimmed with lace, a fine white poncho, and a
+broad-brimmed straw hat. Some of the females of the colored races make
+use of men's saddles, and display great skill in the management of the
+most unruly horses.
+
+The horse-trappings used in Peru are often very costly. On the coast and
+in the interior, I have sometimes seen head-gear, bridle, and crupper,
+composed of finely-wrought silver rings, linked one into another. The
+saddle is frequently ornamented with rich gold embroidery, and the
+holster inlaid with gold. The stirrups are usually the richest portion
+of the trappings. They are made of carved wood, and are of pyramidal
+shape; about a foot high and a foot broad at the base. In front and at
+the sides they are close, and are open only at the back in the part
+where the foot rests. The edges are rimmed with silver, and the top of
+the stirrup is surmounted by a bell of the same metal, with a ring
+through which the straps are passed. A priest with whom I was acquainted
+in the Sierra, got a saddle and a pair of stirrups made for me. The
+silver ornaments on the stirrups alone weighed forty pounds. The
+decorations of the saddle were of corresponding richness. The value of
+the silver on both saddle and stirrups was about 1500 dollars. The spurs
+used in Peru are of colossal magnitude. Old custom ordains that they
+must contain three marks (a pound and a half) of silver. The stirrup-bow
+is broad and richly wrought; the ornaments being either of the pattern
+called _hueso de tollo_,[34] or of that styled _hoja de laurel con
+semilla_.[35] The rowel is one and a half or two inches in diameter, and
+the points are about twenty-five or thirty inches long.
+
+In the bridle, the bit and the snaffle are in one piece, and the reins
+are brought together by being passed through a ring, to which the long
+riding-whip is also fastened. The head-band and reins are commonly
+composed of narrow slips of untanned calf or sheep-skin, plaited
+together, and ornamented with silver buckles. The saddle is short and
+narrow, and exceedingly awkward to riders unaccustomed to it. The front
+bolster is four or five inches high, and inclines backward; the hind one
+is lower, and is curved forward in the form of a half-moon; the
+intervening space just affording sufficient room for the thighs of the
+rider, who, in a saddle of this construction, is so firmly fixed that he
+cannot possibly fall. These saddles have, however, one great
+disadvantage, viz., that if the horse starts off at a gallop, and the
+rider has not time to throw himself back in his seat, he is forced
+against the front saddle-bolster with such violence that some fatal
+injury is usually the consequence. Under the saddle is laid a
+horse-cloth, called the _pellon_, about a yard long, and a yard and a
+half wide. The common sort of pellones are composed of two rough
+sheep-skins, sewed together. In the finer kind, the raw wool is combed
+out, and divided into numberless little twists, of about the length of
+one's finger; so that the pellon resembles the skin of some
+long-haired animal. The finest Peruvian pellones are made of a mixture
+of sheep's wool and goat's hair. Between the saddle and the pellon are
+fastened the saddle-bags (_alforjas_), which, on long journeys, are
+filled with provisions and other necessaries. These bags are made
+either of leather or strong woollen cloth; finally, the trappings of a
+Peruvian horse are not complete without the halter (_haquima_), which
+is ornamented in the same manner as the bridle. The halter-strap
+(_cabresto_) is wound round the front bolster of the saddle, and by it
+the horse may be fastened whenever the rider alights, without the use
+of the reins for that purpose. At first a foreigner is apt to regard
+the equipments of a Peruvian horse as superfluous and burthensome; but
+he is soon convinced of their utility, and, when the eye becomes
+familiar to them, they have a pleasing effect.
+
+The pure-bred Peruvian horse is more elegantly formed than his
+Andalusian progenitor. He is of middling size, seldom exceeding
+fourteen hands high. He has a strong expanded chest, slender legs,
+thin pasterns, a short muscular neck, a rather large head, small
+pointed ears, and a fiery eye. He is spirited, docile, and enduring.
+It is only in a few plantations that the purity of the race is
+preserved, and the animals fostered with due care. The common horse is
+higher, leaner, less broad on the chest, and with the crupper thinner
+and more depressed. He is, however, not less fiery and capable of
+endurance than the horse of pure breed. The most inferior horses are
+ill-looking, small, and rough-skinned.
+
+On the coast of Peru the horses are for the most part natural amblers,
+and, if they do not amble naturally, they are taught to do so. There are
+several varieties of amble peculiar to the Peruvian horse; the most
+approved is that called the _paso llano_. It is very rapid, but not
+attended by any jolting motion to the rider. A well-trained horse may
+safely be ridden by a young child at the _paso llano_; the motion being
+so gentle and regular, that the rider may carry a cup of water in his
+hand without spilling a drop, at the same time going at the rate of two
+leagues an hour. Another variety of ambling is called the _paso
+portante_. It consists in the fore and hind foot of one side being
+raised simultaneously, and thrust forward. In this movement, the greater
+or less speed depends on the degree in which the hind foot is advanced
+in comparison with the fore one. It is a rapid, rocking sort of motion,
+and for long continuance is much more wearying to the rider than the
+common trot, as the body cannot be held upright, but must be kept in a
+constant stooping position. The speed of a good ambler in the _paso
+portante_ is so great, that he will outstrip another horse at full
+gallop. The giraffe, as well as the Peruvian horse, has this peculiar
+movement naturally. The _paso companero_ is merely a nominal
+modification of the _paso portante_. Many horses have no _paso llano_,
+but in its stead a short trot. These have naturally the _paso portante_,
+but they are little esteemed for travelling, though they are good
+working animals. They are called _cavallos aguelillos_. Trotting horses
+cannot be taught the _paso llano_, though they easily acquire the _paso
+portante_. These are called _cavallos trabados_.
+
+In Peru a horse is valued less for beauty of form than for the
+perfection of his amble. The finest trotters are sold at very low
+prices, and are used exclusively as carriage horses. If a horse when
+spurred has the habit of flapping his tail, it is considered a serious
+fault, and greatly depreciates the value of the animal. This vice is
+called _mosquear_ (literally brushing off the mosquitoes), and the
+Peruvians cure it by an incision in the muscle of the tail, by which
+means the horse is disabled from making the movement.
+
+The Peruvians take very little care of their horses. The remark, that
+the more the horse is tended, the worse he is, would seem to be a
+generally admitted truth in Peru. The stable (_coral_) is either totally
+roofless, or very indifferently sheltered. In the mountainous parts of
+the country, and during the rainy season, horses are frequently, for the
+space of six months, up to their knees in mud, and yet they never seem
+to be the worse for it. The fodder consists of lucern (_alfalfa_), or
+maisillo, which is usually thrown down on the ground, though sometimes
+placed in a stone trough, and the drink of the animals consists of
+impure water collected from the ditches at the road sides. Occasionally
+the horses are fed with maize, which they are very fond of. As no oats
+are grown in Peru, barley is given together with maize, especially in
+the interior of the country. Mares and geldings have sometimes the hair
+between the ears cut off quite closely, and the mane arranged in short
+curls, which gives them a resemblance to the horses in ancient
+sculpture. Mares are but little valued, so little indeed, that no
+respectable person will ride one.
+
+The horse-breakers (_chalanes_) are generally free men of color. They
+possess great bodily vigor, and understand their business thoroughly;
+but they use the horses very cruelly, and thereby render them shy. For
+the first three years foals are suffered to roam about with perfect
+freedom; after that time they are saddled, an operation not performed
+without great difficulty, and sometimes found to be impracticable,
+until the animal is thrown on the ground and his limbs tied. The young
+horse under the management of the _chalan_ is trained in all sorts of
+equestrian feats, especially the art of pirouetting (_voltear_). This
+consists in turning either wholly or half round on the hind legs with
+great rapidity and when at full gallop. Another important object of
+the _chalan_ is to teach the horse to stop short suddenly, and to
+stand perfectly motionless (_sentarse_) at the signal of his rider;
+and to go backward (_cejar_) for a considerable space in a straight
+line. When all this is accomplished, the horse is regarded as
+completely broken (_quebrantado_).
+
+As an instance of the certainty with which a Peruvian horse will make a
+pirouette (_voltata_) at the signal of his rider, I may mention the
+following fact, which occurred under my own observation. A friend of
+mine, in Lima, rode at full gallop up to the city wall (which is
+scarcely nine feet broad), leaped upon it, and then made his horse
+perform a complete _voltata_, so that the fore-feet of the animal
+described the segment of a circle beyond the edge of the wall. The feat
+he performed several times in succession, and he assured me he could do
+the same with all his horses.
+
+Peruvian taste requires that the neck of the horse should present a
+finely-curved outline, and that the mouth should be drawn inward, so as
+to approach the breast. The horses called _Cavallos_ de Brazo are much
+esteemed. At every step they describe a large circle with their
+fore-feet, in such a manner that the horse-shoe strikes the lower part
+of the stirrup. This motion is exceedingly beautiful when combined with
+what is termed the "Spanish pace," in which the noble form of the animal
+and his proud bearing are advantageously displayed.
+
+The mule is a very important animal in Peru. The badness of the roads
+would render commercial communication impracticable, were it not for
+mules. The Peruvian mules are fine, strong animals. The best are reared
+in Piura, and sent to Lima for sale. The amblers are selected for the
+saddle, the trotters for harness, and the rest are used as beasts of
+burthen. The price of a mule of middling quality is one hundred dollars;
+a better one double or treble that price; and the very best may even
+cost ten times as much. The endurance of these animals under fatigue and
+indifferent nurture is extraordinary, and without them the vast sand
+plains of Peru would present insuperable obstacles to intercourse
+between one place and another. In the power of continuous ambling they
+exceed the horses, and are often equal to them in speed.
+
+In Lima there is a public lottery, which the Government farms to a
+private individual, for a considerable sum. The tickets are drawn
+weekly. The price of a ticket is one real. The largest prize is 1000
+dollars; the smaller prizes 500, 250, or 100 dollars. A lottery on a
+larger scale is drawn every three months. The highest prize in this
+lottery is 4000 dollars, and the price of the ticket is four reals. To
+every ticket is affixed a motto, usually consisting of an invocation to
+a saint, and a prayer for good luck, and at the drawing of the lottery
+this motto is read aloud when the number of the ticket is announced. Few
+of the inhabitants of Lima fail to buy at least one ticket in the weekly
+lottery. The negroes are particularly fond of trying their luck in this
+way, and in many instances fortune has been singularly kind to them.
+
+"Eating and drinking keep soul and body together." So says the German
+proverb; and it may not be uninteresting to take a glance at the Limenos
+during their performance of these two important operations. The hour of
+breakfast is generally nine in the morning. The meal consists of boiled
+mutton (_Sancochado_), soup (_Caldo_), with yuccas, a very
+pleasant-tasted root, and _Chupe_. This last-mentioned dish consists, in
+its simplest form, merely of potatoes boiled in very salt water, with
+cheese and Spanish pepper. When the chupe is made in better style, eggs,
+crabs, and fried fish are added to the ingredients already named; and it
+is then a very savory dish. Chocolate and milk are afterwards served. A
+negress brings the _Chocolatera_ into the breakfast-room, and pours out
+a cup full for each person. The natives prefer the froth to the actual
+beverage; and many of the negresses are such adepts in the art of
+pouring out, that they will make the cup so overflow with foam, that it
+contains scarcely a spoonful of liquid. Chocolate is the favorite
+beverage of the Peruvians. In the southern parts of the country it is
+customary to offer it to visitors at all hours of the day. The visitor
+is no sooner seated than he is presented with a cup of coffee, which is
+often so thick that the spoon will stand upright in it. It would be a
+breach of politeness to decline this refreshment, and whether agreeable
+or not it must be swallowed!
+
+The best cocoa is obtained from the Montanas of Urubamba, and from the
+Bolivian Yungas. The long land transport, however, renders it very
+dear, and therefore the nuts brought from Guayaquil are those commonly
+used in Lima.
+
+Dinner, which takes place about two or three in the afternoon, commences
+with a very insipid kind of soup. This is followed by the _Puchero_,
+which is the principal dish. Puchero, made in its best style, contains
+beef, pork, bacon, ham, sausage, poultry, cabbage, yuccas, camotes (a
+sort of sweet potato), potatoes, rice, peas, _choclitas_ (grains of
+maize), quince and banana. When served up, the different kinds of meat
+are placed in one dish, and the vegetable ingredients in another. I was
+at first astonished at the poorness of the soups in Lima, considering
+the quantity of meat used in preparing them; but I soon discovered that
+the soup served up to table was little more than water, and that the
+strong gravy of the meat was either thrown away or given to the negroes.
+There prevails an almost universal belief that the liquor in which the
+meat is first stewed is injurious to health. Only a very few families
+are sufficiently free from this prejudice to allow the strong gravy to
+be used in the preparation of _caldo_, &c. The Puchero is an excellent
+and nutritious dish, and would in itself suffice for a dinner, to which,
+however, in Lima, it is merely the introduction. Roast meat, fish,
+vegetables, preserves and salad are afterwards served. Another dish not
+less indispensable to a Lima dinner than _puchero_, is _picante_. Under
+this denomination are included a variety of preparations, in which a
+vast quantity of cayenne pepper is introduced. The most favorite
+_picantes_ are the _calapulcra_, the _lagua_, the _zango_, the
+_charquican_, the _adobas_, the _picante de ullucos_, &c. The
+_calapulcra_ is composed of meat and potatoes dried and finely pounded;
+the _lagua_ is made of maize flour and pork; the _zango_, of the same
+ingredients, but differently prepared; the _adobas_ consists of pork
+alone; and the _picante de ullucos_ is made of a root resembling the
+potato, cut into small square bits. These dishes, though much too highly
+seasoned for European palates, are considered great dainties by the
+Limenos. All the _picantes_ have a very red color, owing to the quantity
+of cayenne used in preparing them; the _achote_ grains, which are also
+used, produce a beautiful vermilion tint. Another dish, common on the
+dinner-table in Lima, is called _ensalada de frutas_. It is a most
+heterogeneous compound, consisting of all sorts of fruits stewed in
+water. To none but a Limanian stomach could such a mixture be agreeable.
+The dessert consists of fruits and sweets (_dulces_). The Limeno must
+always drink a glass of water after dinner, otherwise he imagines the
+repast can do him no good; but to warrant the drinking of the water, or,
+as the phrase is, _para tomar agua_, it is necessary first to partake of
+_dulces_. The one without the other would be quite contrary to rule. The
+dulces consist of little cakes made of honey or of the pulp of the
+sugar-cane; or they are preserved fruits, viz., pine-apple, quince,
+citron, and sometimes preserved beans or cocoa-nut. There is also a
+favorite kind of dulce made from maize, called _masamora_.
+
+The Peruvians have some very singular prejudices on the subject of
+eating and drinking. Every article of food is, according to their
+notions, either heating (_caliente_), or cooling (_frio_); and they
+believe that certain things are in opposition one to another, or, as the
+Limenos phrase it, _se oponen_. The presence in the stomach of two of
+these opposing articles of food, for example, chocolate and rice, is
+believed to be highly dangerous, and sometimes fatal. It is amusing to
+observe the Limenos when at dinner, seriously reflecting, before they
+taste a particular dish, whether it is in opposition to something they
+have already eaten. If they eat rice at dinner, they refrain from
+drinking water, because the two things _se oponen_. To such an extreme
+is this notion carried, that they will not taste rice on days when they
+have to wash, and laundresses never eat it. Frequently have I been asked
+by invalids whether it would be safe for them to take a foot-bath on
+going to bed, as they had eaten rice at dinner!
+
+The white Creoles, as well as all the superior class of people in Lima,
+are exceedingly temperate in drinking. Water and a kind of sweet wine
+are their favorite beverage; but the lower classes and the people of
+color are by no means so abstemious. They make free use of fermented
+drinks, especially brandy, chicha, and guarapo. The brandy of Peru is
+very pure, and is prepared exclusively from the grape. On the warm sea
+coast, the use of this liquor is not very injurious; there, its evil
+effects are counteracted by profuse perspiration. But one half the
+quantity that may be drunk with impunity on the coast, will be very
+pernicious in the cool mountainous regions. An old and very just maxim
+of the Jesuits is, "_En pais caliente, aguardiente; en pais frio, agua
+fria_" (in the warm country, brandy; in the cold country, water).
+
+Guarapo is a fermented liquor, made of sugar-cane pulp and water. It
+is a very favorite beverage of the negroes. There are several kinds of
+guarapo. The best sorts are tolerably agreeable. _Chicha_ is a sort of
+beer prepared from maize. The seeds of the maize are watered and left
+until they begin to sprout, after which they are dried in the sun.
+When sufficiently dry they are crushed, boiled in water, and then
+allowed to stand till fermentation takes place. The liquid is of a
+dark yellow color, and has a slightly bitter and sharp taste. Chicha
+is likewise made from rice, peas, barley, yuccas, pine-apples, and
+even bread. The kind most generally used is that made from maize. Even
+before the Spanish conquest of Peru, this maize beer was the common
+beverage of the Indians. In Lima there are some very dirty and
+ill-arranged _restaurations_, styled _picanterias_. These places are
+divided by partitions into several small compartments, each of which
+contains a table and two benches. The _restaurateur_, usually a zambo
+or a mulatto, prides himself in the superiority of his _picantes_ and
+his _clicha_. The most motley assemblages frequent these places in the
+evening. The Congo negro, the grave Spaniard, the white Creole, the
+Chino, together with monks and soldiers, may be seen, all grouped
+together, and devouring with evident relish refreshments, served out
+in a way not remarkable for cleanliness. Brandy and guarapo are
+likewise sold in shops which are to be met with at the corner of
+almost every street. The coffee-houses are very inferior; most of
+them are very dirty, and the attendance is wretched.
+
+Every street in Lima contains one or more cigar shops, in which
+mestizos and mulattos are busily employed in making cigars. Smoking is
+a universal custom, and is practised everywhere except in the
+churches. The cigars used in Lima are short, and the tobacco is rolled
+in paper, or in dried maize leaves. The tobacco is brought from the
+northern province, Jaen de Bracamoras, in very hard rolls called
+_masos_, about a yard long and two inches thick. Another kind of
+cigars is made of Peruvian or Columbian tobacco. They are scarcely
+inferior to the Havannah cigars, and would be quite equal to them, if
+they were kept long enough and well dried: but in Lima they are smoked
+within a few hours after being made. When any one wants to light his
+cigar in the street, he accosts the first smoker he happens to meet,
+whatever be his color, rank, or condition; and asks him for a light.
+The slave smokes in the presence of his master, and when his cigar
+dies out, he unceremoniously asks leave to relight it at his master's.
+It has been calculated that the daily cost of the cigars smoked in
+Lima and the immediate vicinity amounts to 2,300 dollars.
+
+Formerly the market was held on the Plaza Mayor, and was always
+abundantly supplied with vegetables, fruit, and flowers. Now it is
+held in the Plazuela de la Inquisicion, and it is very inferior to
+what it used to be. Along the sides of the Plaza are stalls kept by
+women, who sell sausages and fish. The central part of the market is
+appropriated to the sale of vegetables, of which there is always an
+excellent supply. Facing the Palace of the Inquisition are the
+butchers' shops. The meat is good, though not very plentifully
+displayed. The most abundant kinds of meat are mutton and beef. The
+slaughtering of young animals being strictly prohibited by law, veal,
+lamb, and sucking pigs are never seen in the market. The daily
+consumption of butcher's meat in Lima is about twenty-eight or thirty
+heads of horned cattle, and between one hundred and sixty and two
+hundred sheep. Pork, neither fresh nor cured, is seen in the market;
+though great numbers of swine are slaughtered. The fleshy parts of the
+animal are cut into small square pieces, and boiled; the fat or lard
+is used in cookery, and the pieces of pork, which are spread over with
+lard, are called _chicharones_, and are held in high esteem by
+Limanian epicures. There is an abundant show of poultry in the market,
+especially fowls and turkeys, which are brought from Huacho. Game is
+never sold, and but very little is obtained in the neighborhood of
+Lima. The flower market, which is held on the Plaza Mayor, is but
+sparingly supplied with the gifts of Flora. The ladies of Lima recal
+pleasing recollections of the former glory of their flower market, and
+speak with regret of its present degenerate condition. The
+much-vaunted _pucheros de flores_ are still occasionally displayed for
+sale. They are composed of a union of fragrant fruits and flowers.
+Several small fruits are laid on a banana leaf, and above them are
+placed odoriferous flowers, tastefully arranged according to their
+colors: the whole is surmounted with a strawberry, and is profusely
+sprinkled with _agua rica_, or lavender water. These _pucheros_ are
+very pleasing to the eye, on account of the tasteful arrangement of
+the flowers; but their powerful fragrance affects the nerves. They
+vary in price, according to the rarity of the fruits and flowers of
+which they are composed. Some cost as much as six or eight dollars.
+A _puchero de flores_ is one of the most acceptable presents that
+can be offered to a Lima lady.
+
+A mingled feeling of disgust and surprise takes possession of the
+European who witnesses the joy which pervades all classes of the
+inhabitants of Lima on the announcement of a bull-fight. For several
+days the event is the exclusive topic of conversation, and, strange to
+say, the female portion of the population takes greater interest in it
+than the men. Bills notifying the approaching entertainment are stuck up
+at the corners of the streets; and every one is anxious to obtain a
+_lista de los toros_. When the season of the toros[36] commences, a
+bull-fight takes place every Monday, and then the whole city of Lima is
+thrown into a state of indescribable excitement. The ladies prepare
+their finest dresses for the occasion, and they consider it the greatest
+possible misfortune if anything occurs to prevent them going to the
+bull-fight: indeed, a Monday passed at home in the season of the toros
+would be regarded as a lost day in the life of a Limena. Those who
+cannot go to the _corrida_, resort to the bridge, or to the Alameda,
+where they sit and amuse themselves by looking at the throngs of people
+passing and repassing.
+
+In the time of the Viceroys, bull-fights frequently took place on the
+Plaza Mayor. Now there is a place expressly built for these
+entertainments, called the _Plaza firme del Acho_. It is a spacious
+amphitheatre without a roof, and is erected at the end of the new avenue
+of the Alameda. The preparations for the sport commence at an early hour
+in the morning. Along the Alameda are placed rows of tables covered with
+refreshments, consisting of lemonade, brandy, chicha, picantes, fish,
+dulces, &c. About twelve o'clock, those who have engaged places in the
+amphitheatre begin to move towards the Plaza del Acho.
+
+Most European ladies would turn with horror, even from a description
+of these cruel sports, which the ladies of Lima gaze on with delight.
+They are barbarous diversions, and though they form a part of national
+customs, they are nevertheless a national disgrace. At the same time
+it would be unjust to make this love of bull-fighting a ground for
+unqualified censure on the Limenos, or a reason for accusing them of
+an utter want of humanity. Being accustomed to these diversions from
+early childhood, they regard them with perfect indifference; and
+custom, no doubt, blinds them to the cruelties they witness in the
+bull-ring. The same extenuation may be urged in behalf of the women:
+and though to most of the Limenas a bull-fight affords the highest
+possible gratification, yet there are some who form honorable
+exceptions to this remark, and who, with true feminine feeling, shrink
+with horror from such scenes.
+
+Peru is the only one of the South American states in which bull-fights
+are included in the category of public amusements. As Peru was the last
+to answer the cry of independence, and to shake off the yoke of Spanish
+domination, so she adheres with most tenacity to the customs of the
+mother country; for she has not the energy requisite for developing a
+nationality of her own. Even here is apparent that want of independence
+of character for which the Peruvians are remarkable. The faults of the
+Spaniards in them become vices, because, in imitating without
+reflecting, they push everything to an extreme. Thus, if bull-fights are
+cruel in Spain, they are barbarous in Lima. The government, too, finds
+it expedient to court popularity by favoring public entertainments,
+among which bull-fights take the lead. By allowing the people to indulge
+unrestrainedly in all their favorite amusements, the government gains a
+two-fold object, viz., that of securing the support, if not the love of
+the people, and of averting public attention from political affairs.
+These, it must be confessed, are important objects in a country which,
+like Peru, is continually disturbed by revolutions caused by the
+outbreaks of a turbulent populace, or an undisciplined army.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 31: A very small number in a population of 55,000.]
+
+[Footnote 32: _Puquio_ in the Quichua language signifies springs.]
+
+[Footnote 33: These fine blocks of ice clearly refute the assertion
+made by some travellers, that the first real glaciers are found in
+19 deg. S. lat. The extensive fields of ice from which the blocks in
+question are brought are situated in 11 deg. 14' S. lat.]
+
+[Footnote 34: A sort of arabesque resembling the backbone of a fish
+called the _Tollo_.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Laurel leaves and seed.]
+
+[Footnote 36: _Toros_ (Bulls) is used by way of contraction for
+_Corrida de Toros_ (Bull Course).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+Geographical Situation of Lima--Height above Sea
+level--Temperature--Diseases--Statistical Tables of Births and
+Deaths--Earthquakes--The Valley of Lima--The River Rimac--Aqueducts,
+Trenches, &c.--Irrigation--Plantations--Cotton--Sugar--Various
+kinds of Grain--Maize--Potatoes, and other tuberous
+roots--Pulse--Cabbage--Plants used for Seasoning--Clover--The Olive
+and other Oil Trees--Fruits--Figs and Grapes--The Chirimoya--The
+Palta--The Banana and other Fruits.
+
+
+Lima, according to the careful observations made by Herr Scholtz, is
+situated in 12 deg. 3' 24'' south latitude, and 77 deg. 8' 30'' west longitude
+from Greenwich. It may, however, be mentioned that the longitude from
+Greenwich is very differently stated. In sea charts and Manuals of
+Geography it is often marked 76 deg. 50'. Humboldt makes it 77 deg. 5' 5''; and
+Malaspina 77 deg. 6' 45''. According to Ulloa it is 70 deg. 37' west of Cadiz.
+The latitude is very generally fixed at 12 deg. 2' 3'' south. The height
+above the level of the sea is also differently estimated. Rivero, in the
+_Memorial de Ciencias Naturales_, I., 2, page 112, states it to be 154
+metres, or 462 French feet. On another occasion he makes it 184-4/5
+Castilian varas (each vara being equal to 33 inches English). He gives
+the following account of heights, according to the barometer, between
+Callao and Lima, in varas, viz., Callao, 00; Baquijano, 24-3/5; _La
+Legua_, 50-2/5; Mirones, 94-3/20; Portada del Callao, 150; _Plaza de
+Lima_, 184-4/5.
+
+The first estimate given by Rivero is the most correct. Gay makes the
+height of Lima, at the corner of the church of _Espiritu Santo_, 172.2
+Castilian varas; but most of his heights are incorrectly stated.
+
+The conical hill in the north-east of Lima, called Cerro de San
+Cristoval, is, according to trigonometrical measurements, made in 1737,
+by Don Jorge Juon, and De la Condamines, 312 varas higher than the Plaza
+Mayor, or 134 toises above the sea; but one of the most exact
+measurements is Pentland's, who found the height to be 1275 English
+feet.
+
+The average temperature during the hottest period of the year, from
+December to March, is 25 deg. C. The medium temperature during the cold
+season, from April to November, 17.5 deg. C. Highest rise of the hygrometer,
+21.5 deg..
+
+The low temperature of Lima at the distance of only twelve degrees from
+the Equator is to be ascribed to the situation of the town, and the
+prevailing atmospheric currents. The Cordilleras, rising at the distance
+of only twenty-eight Spanish leagues east of the city, are crowned with
+eternal snow; and on the west the sea is distant only two leagues. The
+prevailing wind blows from the south-south-west. West winds are not very
+common, though they sometimes blow with extraordinary violence for those
+regions, and breaking on the surrounding mountains, they form
+atmospheric whirlwinds, which diffuse alarm through the whole
+population. In June, 1841, I had the opportunity of observing one of
+these dreadful whirlwinds, which swept away huts, and tore up trees by
+the roots. The atmospheric currents from the north, which pass over the
+hot sand-flats, are not of constant occurrence, but they are
+oppressively sultry. There must be other causes for the low temperature
+of Lima, for in the villages, only a few miles from the city, and
+exposed to the same atmospheric influences, it is much higher.
+
+Miraflores is a small place, about one Spanish league and a half from
+Lima, but it is much hotter. Among the records of the thermometer are
+the following:--
+
+  December 20 to 27, maximum 31.8 deg. C.; minimum, 25.9 deg. C.
+
+  December 28, at 6 in the morning, 26.0 deg. C.; at 2 P.M., 32.7 deg. C.;
+    at 10 at night, 27.3 deg. C.
+
+  January 1, at 2 P.M., 33.1 deg. C., maximum of the day.
+
+  January 18, at 2 P.M., maximum 34.2 deg. C.
+
+A comparison with the temperature of Lima, on the same days, gives an
+average of 5.7 deg. C. of heat in favor of Miraflores.
+
+The River Rimac, which rises among the glaciers of the Cordilleras, and
+after a course of no great length, intersects the city, doubtless
+contributes to cool the atmosphere.
+
+The climate of Lima is agreeable, but not very healthy. During six
+months, from April to October, a heavy, damp, but not cold mist,
+overhangs the city. The summer is always hot, but not oppressive. The
+transition from one season to another is gradual, and almost
+imperceptible. In October and November the misty canopy begins to rise;
+it becomes thinner, and yields to the penetrating rays of the sun. In
+April the horizon begins to resume the misty veil. The mornings are cool
+and overcast, but the middle of the day is clear. In a few weeks after,
+the brightness of noon also disappears. The great humidity gives rise to
+many diseases, particularly fevers, and the alternations from heat to
+damp cause dysentery. On an average, the victims to this disease are
+very numerous. It is endemic, and becomes, at apparently regular but
+distant periods, epidemic. The intermittent fevers or agues, called
+_tercianos_, are throughout the whole of Peru very dangerous, both
+during their course and in their consequences. It may be regarded as
+certain that two-thirds of the people of Lima are suffering at all times
+from _tercianos_, or from the consequences of the disease. It usually
+attacks foreigners, not immediately on their arrival in Lima, but some
+years afterwards. In general the tribute of acclimation is not so soon
+paid by emigrants in Lima as in other tropical regions.
+
+In consequence of the ignorance of the medical attendants, and the
+neglect of the police, the statistical tables of deaths are very
+imperfectly drawn up, and therefore cannot be entirely depended upon.
+I may, however, here subjoin one of them, which will afford the reader
+some idea of the mortality of Lima.
+
+The annual number of deaths in Lima varies from 2,500 to 2,800.
+
+In the ten months, from the 1st of January to the 30th of October, 1841,
+the number of marriages was 134, of which 46 were contracted by whites,
+and 88 by people of color.
+
+
+        DEATHS IN LIMA FROM JANUARY 1, TO OCTOBER 30, 1841:-
+
+  Diseases.                             Men.  Women.  Children.  Total.
+
+  Dysentery                             171     105      59        335
+  Fevers, chiefly intermittent           57      88      71        216
+  Typhus                                 14       7      24         45
+  Pulmonary Consumption                  87     110      11        208
+  Inflammation of the Lungs              78      75      26        179
+  Dropsy, for the most part a
+    consequence of intermittent fevers   33      32       7         72
+  Hooping-cough                                          36         36
+  Small Pox                               3               1          4
+  Sudden death                           23      13       1         37
+  Shot                                    3                          3
+  Various Diseases                      271     228     610      1,109
+                                        ---     ---     ---      -----
+                                        740     658     846      2,244
+
+
+The number of births were:--
+
+
+                      Boys.   Girls.   Total.
+
+  In marriage          410     412      822
+  Not in marriage      432     428      860
+                       ---     ---    -----
+                       842     840    1,682
+
+
+The number of births not in marriage (860) is remarkable, and no less so
+is the number of dead children exposed, which, during the above
+interval, was 495. These are most decided proofs of the immorality and
+degraded state of manners prevailing in Lima, particularly among the
+colored part of the population. Though there is no certain evidence of
+the fact, yet there is reason to conjecture that a considerable number
+of those infants are destroyed by the mothers. Of the children born out
+of marriage, nearly two-thirds, and of those exposed dead, full
+four-fifths are Mulattos.
+
+The important annual surplus of deaths over births is a matter of
+serious consideration for Lima. The above tables show, in the course of
+ten months, a surplus of 562 deaths. By a comparison of the lists of
+births and deaths from 1826 to 1842, I find that on an average there are
+annually 550 more deaths than births. It would lead me too far to
+endeavor to investigate all the grounds of this disparity, but I may
+observe that one of the causes, unquestionably, is the common, though
+punishable crime of producing abortion.
+
+Along the whole coast of Peru the atmosphere is almost uniformly in a
+state of repose. It is not illuminated by the lightning's flash, or
+disturbed by the roar of the thunder: no deluges of rain, no fierce
+hurricanes destroy the fruits of the fields, and with them the hopes of
+the husbandman. Even fire appears here to have lost its annihilating
+power, and the work of human hands seems to be sacred from its
+attack.[37] But the mildness of the elements above ground is frightfully
+counterbalanced by their subterranean fury.
+
+Lima is frequently visited by earthquakes, and several times the city
+has been reduced to a mass of ruins. At an average forty-five shocks may
+be counted on in a year. Most of them occur in the latter part of
+October, in November, December, January, May, and June. Experience gives
+reason to expect the visitation of two desolating earthquakes in a
+century. The period between the two is from forty to sixty years. The
+most considerable catastrophes experienced in Lima since Europeans have
+visited the west coast of South America, happened in the years 1586,
+1630, 1687, 1713, 1746, 1806. There is reason to fear that in the course
+of a few years this city may be the prey of another such visitation.
+
+The slighter shocks are sometimes accompanied by a noise; at other
+times, they are merely perceptible by the motion of the earth. The
+subterraneous noises are manifold. For the most part they resemble the
+rattling of a heavy loaded wagon, driven rapidly over arches. They
+usually accompany the shock, seldom precede it, and only in a few
+cases do they follow it; sounding like distant thunder. On one
+occasion the noise appeared to me like a groan from the depth of the
+earth, accompanied by sounds like the crepitation of wood in
+partitions when an old house is consumed by fire.
+
+Of the movements, the horizontal vibrations are the most frequent, and
+they cause the least damage to the slightly-built habitations. Vertical
+shocks are most severe; they rend the walls, and raise the houses out of
+their foundations. The greatest vertical shock I ever felt was on the
+4th of July, 1839, at half-past seven in the evening, when I was in the
+old forests of the Chanchamoyo territory. Before my hut there was an
+immense stem of a felled tree, which lay with its lower end on the stump
+of the root. I was leaning against it and reading, when suddenly, by a
+violent movement, the stem rose about a foot and a half, and I was
+thrown backwards over it. By the same shock the neighboring river,
+Aynamayo, was dislodged from its bed, and its course thereby changed for
+a considerable length of way.
+
+I have had no experience of the rotatory movements of earthquakes.
+According to the statements of all who have observed them, they are very
+destructive, though uncommon. In Lima I have often felt a kind of
+concussion, which accords with that term in the strictest sense of the
+word. This movement had nothing in common with what may be called an
+oscillation, a shock, or a twirl: it was a passing sensation, similar to
+that which is felt when a man seizes another unexpectedly by the
+shoulder, and shakes him; or like the vibration felt on board a ship
+when the anchor is cast, at the moment it strikes the ground. I believe
+it is caused by short, rapid, irregular horizontal oscillations. The
+irregularity of the vibrations is attended by much danger, for very
+slight earthquakes of that kind tear away joists from their joinings,
+and throw down roofs, leaving the walls standing, which, in all other
+kinds of commotion, usually suffer first, and most severely.
+
+Humboldt says that the regularity of the hourly variations of the
+magnetic needle and the atmospheric pressure is undisturbed on
+earthquake days within the tropics. In seventeen observations, which I
+made during earthquakes in Lima with a good Lefevre barometer, I found,
+in fifteen instances, the position of the mercury quite unaltered. On
+one occasion, shortly before a commotion, I observed it 2.4 lines lower
+than it had been two hours before. Another time, I observed, also on
+the approach of the shock and during the twelve following hours, a
+remarkable rising and sinking in the column. During these observations
+the atmosphere was entirely tranquil.
+
+Atmospheric phenomena are frequent, but not infallible prognostics of
+an earthquake. I have known individuals in Lima, natives of the coast,
+who were seldom wrong in predicting an earthquake, from their
+observation of the atmosphere. In many places great meteors have been
+seen before the commotion. Before the dreadful earthquake of 1746,
+there were seen fiery vapors (_exhalaciones encendidas_) rising out of
+the earth. On the island of San Lorenzo these phenomena were
+particularly remarked.
+
+Many persons have an obscure perception--a foreboding, which is to
+them always indicative of an approaching earthquake. They experience a
+feeling of anxiety and restlessness, a pressure of the breast, as if
+an immense weight were laid on it. A momentary shudder pervades the
+whole frame, or there is a sudden trembling of the limbs. I, myself,
+have several times experienced this foreboding, and there can scarcely
+be a more painful sensation. It is felt with particular severity by
+those who have already had the misfortune to have been exposed to the
+dangers of an earthquake.
+
+I will here only briefly mention the celebrated earthquake of 1746, as
+all its details are fully described in many publications. The reader
+need scarcely be reminded that it happened on the 28th of October, the
+day of St. Simon and St. Jude. During the night, between ten and eleven
+o'clock, the earth having begun to tremble, a loud howling was heard,
+and, in a few minutes, Lima became a heap of ruins. The first shock was
+so great, that the town was almost completely destroyed by it. Of more
+than 3000 houses, only twenty-one remained. Still more horrible was the
+destruction in the harbor of Callao. The movement of the earth had
+scarcely been felt there, when the sea, with frightful roaring, rushed
+over the shore, and submerged the whole town with its inhabitants. Five
+thousand persons were instantly buried beneath the waves. The Spanish
+corvette San Fermin, which lay at anchor in the port, was thrown over
+the walls of the fortress. A cross still marks the place where the stern
+of the vessel fell. Three merchant vessels, heavily laden, suffered the
+same fate. The other ships which were at anchor, nineteen in number,
+were sunk. The number of lives sacrificed by this earthquake has not
+been, with perfect accuracy, recorded.[38] Humboldt, in his Cosmos,
+mentions that during this earthquake a noise like subterraneous thunder
+was heard at Truxillo, eighty-five leagues north of Callao. It was first
+observed a quarter of an hour after the commotion occurred at Lima, but
+there was no trembling of the earth. According to the old chronicle
+writers, the earthquake of 1630 was more disastrous.
+
+The serious commotions which take place on the Peruvian coast appear to
+acquire progressively greater extension, but only in the southern and
+northern directions. A shock, of which Lima is the centre, though felt
+fifty leagues towards the north, and as far towards the south, may,
+nevertheless, be imperceptible in the easterly direction (towards the
+mountains) at the distance of ten or twelve leagues. This peculiarity is
+made manifest, not only by the terraqueous oscillations, but also by the
+undulations of the sound, which usually proceeds still further in a
+direction towards the south or the north.
+
+Slight shocks are usually only local, and are not felt beyond the limits
+of a few square miles.
+
+The atmospheric phenomena during and after earthquakes are very
+different. In general, the atmosphere is tranquil, but occasionally a
+stormy agitation is the harbinger of a change. I was unexpectedly
+overtaken by a violent commotion on the sand-flat between Chancay and
+Lima. The whole surface of the plain presented a kind of curling
+movement, and on every side small columns of sand rose, and whirled
+round and round. The mules stopped of their own accord, and spread out
+their legs as for support and to secure themselves against
+apprehended danger. The _arieros_ (mule-drivers) leaped from their
+saddles, threw themselves on their knees beside the animals, and
+prayed to heaven for mercy.
+
+The effect of earthquakes on the fertility of the soil is sometimes
+remarkable. Numerous observations tend to show that after violent
+commotions luxuriant lands often become barren wastes, and for several
+years produce no thriving vegetation. Several Quebradas in the province
+of Truxillo, formerly remarkable for their fertility in grain, were left
+fallow for twenty years after the earthquake of 1630, as the soil would
+produce nothing. Similar cases occurred at Supe, Huaura, Lima, and Yca.
+All kinds of grain appear to be very susceptible to the changes produced
+by earthquakes. Cases are recorded in which, after slight shocks, fields
+of maize in full bloom have withered; and in the course of a day or two
+the crops have perished.
+
+The causes of the frequent earthquakes on the coast of Lima are
+involved in an obscurity too deep to be unveiled. That they are
+connected with volcanic phenomena seems probable. Lima is more than
+ninety leagues distant from the nearest active volcano, that of
+Arequipa. But the earthquakes of the Peruvian capital are uniformly
+independent of any state of activity in that volcano, and it is
+certain that the town of Arequipa, which lies at the foot of the
+mountain, experiences fewer earthquakes than Lima. Of the six serious
+earthquakes, the dates of which I have mentioned, only that of 1687
+stands in connection with a decided shock in Arequipa, and an eruption
+of the volcano. Earthquakes are of rarer occurrence in the mountainous
+districts than on the coast, yet Huancavellica, Tarma, Pasco,
+Caramarca, have been visited by heavy shocks; and within a recent
+period the village Quiquijana, in the Province of Quipichanchi,
+Department of Cusco, suffered from a serious commotion. In a letter
+from an eye-witness I received the following account of it.
+
+"In November, 1840, the earth began to move faintly back and forward,
+and a dull, distant, subterraneous noise continued without interruption.
+The first powerful shock occurred on the 23d of December. During the
+whole month of January, 1841, heavy thunder prevailed, but without any
+motion of the earth. On February 11th, we again had a smart shock, and
+from that day the vibrations recommenced, which, strange enough, were
+always most violent on Mondays and Thursdays. The subterraneous noise
+resounded incessantly; but it was heard only in the village; for at the
+distance of half a league from it all was tranquil. The heaviest shocks
+were felt in a circuit within the radius of three leagues. From May 21st
+to June 2d, all was tranquil; after the last-mentioned date the
+vibrations recommenced, and frequently became heavy commotions. They
+continued until the middle of July, 1841. From that time we have not
+been disturbed, and we have now returned to the ruins of our village."
+
+The volcano of Arequipa, which is forty-five leagues distant from
+Quiquijana, manifested, during the whole of this time, no unusual
+phenomena, a circumstance which speaks forcibly against the idea of any
+local connection between the earthquake and the volcano.
+
+On most men earthquakes make a powerful and extraordinary impression.
+The sudden surprise, often in sleep, the imminent danger, the
+impossibility of escape, the dull subterraneous noise, the yielding of
+the earth under the feet,--altogether make a formidable demand on the
+weakness of human nature.
+
+Humboldt in the Cosmos truly observes--"What is most wonderful for us to
+comprehend is the undeception which takes place with respect to the kind
+of innate belief which men entertain of the repose and immovability of
+the terrestrial strata." And further on he says--"The earthquake appears
+to men as something omnipresent and unlimited. From the eruption of a
+crater, from a stream of lava running towards our dwellings, it appears
+possible to escape, but in an earthquake, whichever way flight is
+directed the fugitive believes himself on the brink of destruction!" No
+familiarity with the phenomenon can blunt this feeling. The inhabitant
+of Lima who, from childhood, has frequently witnessed these convulsions
+of nature, is roused from his sleep by the shock, and rushes from his
+apartment with the cry of "_Misericordia!_" The foreigner from the north
+of Europe, who knows nothing of earthquakes but by description, waits
+with impatience to feel the movement of the earth, and longs to hear
+with his own ears the subterraneous sounds which he has hitherto
+considered fabulous. With levity he treats the apprehension of a coming
+convulsion, and laughs at the fears of the natives. But as soon as his
+wish is gratified he is terror-stricken, and is involuntarily prompted
+to seek safety in flight.
+
+In Lima, the painful impression produced by an earthquake is heightened
+by the universality of the exercise of the devotions (_plegarias_) on
+such a calamity. Immediately on the shock being felt, a signal is given
+from the cathedral, and the long-measured ten-minute tollings of all the
+church bells summon the inhabitants to prayers.
+
+Taking a comprehensive view of the whole coast of Peru, we perceive
+that Lima lies in one of those oases which break the continuity of the
+extensive sand-flats. These valleys present themselves wherever a
+river, after a short course from the Cordilleras, falls into the sea;
+they are always fan-shaped widenings of the mountain ravines. The
+valley of Lima lies in the widest extension of the Quebrada of
+Mutucamas. This narrow gorge, which has its main direction from E.N.E.
+to W.S.W., widens at Cocachacra, and extends into San Pedro Mama,
+where the Quebrada of San Geronimo unites with it. It then runs down
+to the coast, extending more and more in width, and is intersected by
+the Rimac.[39] This river rises in two branches, the largest of which
+has its source in some small lagunes, in the upper part of Antarangra,
+on a height 15,600 feet above the level of the sea. The second and
+shorter branch takes its source from a small lake in the heights of
+Carampoma, flows through the valley of San Geronimo, and near San
+Pedro unites with the Rimac. The most considerable streams of the
+south-eastern confluence are those which rise in the heights of
+Carhuapampa, and near Tambo de Viso, flow into the main stream. During
+winter the Rimac is very inconsiderable, but when the rainy season
+sets in it swells greatly, and in the upper regions, particularly
+between Surco and Cocachacra, causes great devastations. In the lower
+part where the bed becomes broad and the banks are not much built on,
+no considerable damage occurs.
+
+Several small conduits are brought from the Rimac, some for giving
+moisture to fields, and others for filling the street trenches of Lima.
+The water for supplying the fountains of the Capital does not, however,
+come from the river, but from two springs situated 1-1/4 league from
+Lima in a thicket near an old Indian settlement, called Santa Rosa, in
+the valley of Surco. They are inclosed within a building called the
+Puello, or Atarrea, whence the waters are conveyed by a subterraneous
+trench to the Reservoir (Caja de Santa Tomas), from which it is
+distributed by pipes to 112 public and private fountains. During the
+insurrection of the Indians in 1781, which was instigated by the
+unfortunate Cacique Don Jose Gabriel Tupac Amaru, one of the sworn
+determinations of the participators in that very extensive conspiracy
+was to drive the Spaniards out of Lima by artifice or force. Among the
+numerous plans for accomplishing that object, I will mention two which
+have reference to the water of Lima. One scheme was to poison the whole
+of the inhabitants. For this purpose a rich Cacique of the vale of
+Huarochirin went to an apothecary near the bridge, and asked for two
+hundred weight of corrosive sublimate, saying that he would pay well for
+it. The apothecary had not entire confidence in the Indian, but he did
+not think it right to forego the opportunity of making a very profitable
+sale; so, instead of the sublimate, he made up the same quantity of alum
+for the Cacique and received the price he demanded. Next morning all the
+water in Lima was unfit for use. On examination it was found that the
+enclosure of the Atarrea was broken down, and the source saturated with
+alum. The offender remained undiscovered.
+
+The second plan was formed with more circumspection. The conspirators
+resolved on a certain day to send into the city a number of Indians, who
+were to conceal themselves on the roofs of the shops (_Pulperias_), in
+which quantities of firewood were kept for sale. The moment the
+cathedral struck the hour of midnight, the concealed Indians were to set
+fire to the wood. Another division of Indians was immediately to dam up
+the river at the convent of Santa Clara, and thereby lay the streets
+under water. During the unavoidable confusion, which must have taken
+place, the main body of the Indians was to enter the town and massacre
+all the whites. This well-combined plan was by mere accident discovered,
+when it was of course frustrated.
+
+The fertility of the soil round Lima is very great when irrigation is
+practicable. Where this cannot be accomplished, the earth withholds
+even the most scanty vegetation. The _riego_, or irrigation, is thus
+effected. On certain days the water conduits are closed, and the
+fields are laid under water. When there is a deficient supply of
+water, the trenches, or conduits, are not opened till the following
+day. When, however, the supply of water is abundant, the _riego_ takes
+place early every morning.
+
+As the same identical plants are cultivated along almost the whole
+coast, I will here notice them, to save the necessity of returning to
+them hereafter.
+
+COTTON is cultivated only in a few plantations in the immediate
+vicinity of Lima; but it abounds more in the northern districts,
+particularly in the department de la Libertad, in the coast province
+Piura, in Lambayeque, and in Truxillo. In the southern province, Yca,
+a considerable quantity is also reared for exportation. The brown
+cotton was chiefly cultivated in the time of the Incas. Most of the
+bodies found in the ancient graves on the coast are enveloped in
+this kind of cotton.
+
+The SUGAR CANE is cultivated with success in all plantations where
+there is sufficient moisture of soil; and of all the agricultural
+produce of the country, yields the greatest profit. The sugar estates
+lie on the sea-coast, or along the banks of rivers. The vertical limit
+of the sugar cane growth is on the western declivity of the
+Cordilleras, about 4500 feet above the level of the sea, at which
+height I saw fields covered with it. The largest plantations, however,
+do not rise above 1200 feet above the level of the sea; while those of
+the same extent on the eastern declivity are at the height of 6000
+feet. Within the last forty years the introduction of the Otaheitan
+cane has greatly improved the Peruvian plantations in quality, and has
+more especially increased the quantity of their produce; for the
+Otaheitan canes are found to yield proportionally one third more than
+the West India canes, which were previously cultivated.
+
+The preparation of the sugar is, as yet, conducted in a very rude and
+laborious manner. In most of the plantations the cane is passed through
+wooden presses with brass rollers. These machines are called _trapiches_
+or _ingenios_. They are kept in motion by oxen or mules. In some large
+estates water power is employed, and in San Pedro de Lurin a
+steam-engine has been put up, which certainly does the work quickly; but
+it often has to stand for a long time idle. A part of the sugar cane
+juice is used for making the liquor called guarapo, or distilled for
+making rum; for since the independence, the law which strictly
+prohibited the distillation of spirituous liquors in plantations has
+been repealed. The remainder is boiled down into a syrup, or further
+simmered until it thickens into cakes, called chancacas, or brown sugar.
+After a careful purification it is made into the white cakes called
+alfajores, or prepared as white sugar. In fineness of grain and purity
+of color it is inferior to the Havannah sugar, which, however, it
+exceeds in sweetness. The regular weight of the sugarloaf is two arobas;
+only for convenience of transport into the mountainous districts their
+weight is sometimes diminished. The consumption of sugar in the country
+is great and its export is considerable, but it goes only to Chile.
+
+Of the different kinds of grain, maize is most generally and most
+successfully cultivated in Peru. It grows on the sandy shore, in the
+fertile mountain valleys, and on the margin of the forest, where the
+warmth is great. There are several varieties of maize, which are
+distinguished one from another by the size of the head and by the form
+and appearance of the grain. The most common kinds on the coast
+are--1st, the _Mais Morocho_, which has small bright yellow or reddish
+brown grains; 2d, the _Mais Amarillo_, of which the grain is large,
+heart-shaped, solid and opaque; 3d, _Mais Amarillo de Chancay_, similar
+to the _Mais Amarillo_, but with a semi-transparent square-shaped grain,
+and an elongated head. The Morocho and Amarillo maize are chiefly
+planted in the eastern declivity of the Andes. They run up in stalks
+eight or nine feet high, and have enormously large heads. In one of them
+I counted seventy-five grains in a single row.
+
+Maize forms the bread of the Peruvians. It is almost the only sustenance
+of the Indians of the mountains, and is the principal food of the slaves
+on the coast. Like the potatoe in Europe, it is cooked in a variety of
+ways. Two of the most simple preparations of maize are those called
+_choclas_ and _mote_. _Choclas_ are the unripe maize heads merely soaked
+in warm water; they form a very agreeable and wholesome article of food.
+_Mote_ consists of ripe maize first boiled and then laid in hot ashes,
+after which the husks are easily stripped off.
+
+As to whether maize is indigenous to Peru, or when it was introduced
+there, much has already been written, and I shall refrain from entering
+into the investigation of the question here. I may, however, mention
+that I have found very well preserved ears of maize in tombs, which,
+judging from their construction, belong to a period anterior to the
+dynasty of the Incas; and these were fragments of two kinds of maize
+which do not now grow in Peru. If I believed in the transmigration and
+settlement of Asiatic races on the west coast of America, I should
+consider it highly probable that maize, cotton, and the banana, had been
+brought from Asia to the great west coast. But the supposed epoch of
+this alleged immigration must carry us back to the earliest ages; for,
+that the Incas were (as the greater number of inquirers into Peruvian
+history pretend) of Asiatic origin, is a mere vague hypothesis,
+unsupported by anything approximating to historical proof.
+
+Since the earthquake of 1687 the crops of maize on the Peruvian coast
+have been very inconsiderable. In the mountainous parts it is somewhat
+more abundant, but still far from sufficient to supply the wants of the
+country. Chile supplies, in return for sugar, the maize required in
+Peru. Of the other kinds of grain barley only is raised; but it does not
+thrive on the coast, and is cultivated successfully at the height of
+from 7000 to 13,200 feet above the level of the sea. The assertion of
+some travellers, that barley was known to the Peruvians before the
+arrival of the Spaniards, is groundless. It is true that barley is
+sometimes found in pots in Indian graves. Those graves, however, as I
+have had repeated opportunities of being convinced, belong, without
+exception, to modern times, chiefly to the seventeenth century.
+
+Potatoes are not planted on the coast, where, it appears, the climate
+and soil are unfavorable to them. In those parts they are small and
+watery. On the higher ridges which intersect the coast at short
+distances from the sea, the potatoe grows wild. I am inclined to believe
+that the root is indigenous in these parts, as well as in Chiloe and
+Chile, and that the ancient Peruvians did not obtain this root from the
+south, but that they removed it from their own high lands in order to
+cultivate it on a more favorable soil.[40] The best potatoe grows about
+twenty-two leagues from Lima, in Huamantanga, which is about 7000 feet
+above the level of the sea, to the north-west of the Quebrada of Canta.
+This potatoe is small and round, with a thin white skin, and when
+bisected the color is a clear bright yellow. It is called the _Papa
+amarilla_, and there is much demand for it in the markets, where it
+fetches a good price. The other potatoes come chiefly from the Quebrada
+of Huarochirin, and they are very well flavored.
+
+The Camotes (_Convolvulus batatas_, L.), not improperly called sweet
+potatoes, grow to a considerable size. There are two kinds of camotes,
+the yellow and the violet; the latter are called _Camotes moradas_.
+These two kinds are much liked for their excellent flavor. Beyond the
+height of 3500 feet above the level of the sea they cease to grow.
+
+The Aracacha (_Conium moschatum_, H. B. Kth.) grows on the coast, but it
+is more abundant on the projecting ridges of the Cordilleras, and on the
+eastern declivity of the Andes. It is a very agreeable and nutritive
+kind of tuberous vegetable, in flavor not unlike celery. It is cooked by
+being either simply boiled in water, or made into a kind of soup. In
+many districts the aracacha yields two crops in the year.
+
+The Yucca (_Jatropha manihot_) is one of the finest vegetables of
+Peru. The stalk of the plant is between five and six feet high, and
+about the thickness of a finger. The roots are from one to two feet
+long, somewhat of the turnip form. Internally they are pure white; but
+the external skin is tough, somewhat elastic, and of a reddish-brown
+color. The roots are the edible parts of the plant. They are very
+agreeable in taste, and easy of digestion. When raw they are hard and
+tough, and their taste somewhat resembles chestnuts. When boiled in
+water the root separates into fibres, and is rather waxy, but when
+laid in hot ashes it becomes mealy.
+
+In some parts of Peru the Indians prepare a very fine flour from the
+yucca, and it is used for making fine kinds of bread, and especially a
+kind of biscuits called _biscochuelos_. The yucca roots are not good
+after they have been more than three days out of the earth, and even
+during that time they must be placed in water, otherwise green or black
+stripes appear on them, which in the cooking assume a pale red color.
+Their taste is then disagreeable, and they quickly become rotten.
+
+To propagate the yucca the stalk is cut, particularly under the thick
+part, into span-long pieces, which are stuck obliquely into the earth.
+In five or six months the roots are fit for use, but they are usually
+allowed to remain some time longer in the earth. The stalks are
+sometimes cut off, and the roots left in the earth. They then put forth
+new leaves and flowers, and after sixteen or eighteen months they become
+slightly woody. The Indians in the Montana de Vitoc sent as a present to
+their officiating priest a yucca, which weighed thirty pounds, but yet
+was very tender. On the western declivity of the Cordillera, the
+boundary elevation for the growth of the yucca is about 3000 feet above
+the level of the sea.
+
+Among the pulse there are different kinds of peas (_garbanzos_) on the
+coast; beans (_frijoles_), on the contrary, occupy the hilly grounds.
+All vegetables of the cabbage and salad kinds cultivated in Europe will
+grow in Peru. The climate, both of the coast and the hills, suits them
+perfectly; but the hot, damp temperature of the eastern declivity of the
+Andes is adverse to them. Numerous varieties of the genus _Cucurbita_
+are cultivated in the _chacras_, or Indian villages, on the coast. They
+are chiefly consumed by the colored population. I did not find them very
+agreeable to the taste. They are all sweetish and fibrous.
+
+Among the edible plants which serve for seasoning or spicery, I must
+mention the love-apple (_Tomate_), which thrives well in all the warm
+districts of Peru; and the Spanish pepper (_Aji_), which is found only
+on the coast and in the mild woody regions. There are many species of
+the pepper (_Capsicum annuum, baccatum, frutescens, &c._), which are
+sometimes eaten green, and sometimes dried and pounded. In Peru the
+consumption of aji is greater than that of salt; for with two-thirds of
+the dishes brought to table, more of the former than of the latter is
+used. It is worthy of remark that salt diminishes, in a very striking
+degree, the pungency of the aji; and it is still more remarkable that
+the use of the latter, which in a manner may be called a superfluity,
+has no injurious effect on the digestive organs. If two pods of aji,
+steeped in warm vinegar, are laid as a sinapism on the skin, in the
+space of a quarter of an hour the part becomes red, and the pain
+intolerable; within an hour the scarf-skin will be removed. Yet I have
+frequently eaten twelve or fifteen of these pods without experiencing
+the least injurious effect. However, before I accustomed myself to this
+luxury, it used to affect me with slight symptoms of gastritis. On the
+eastern declivity of the Cordilleras I found no capsicum at a greater
+height than 4800 feet above the level of the sea.
+
+Lucern (_Medicago sativa_), called by the natives _alfa_ or _alfalfa_,
+is reared in great abundance throughout the whole of Peru, as fodder for
+cattle. It does not bear great humidity, nor severe heat or cold; yet
+its elevation boundary is about 11,100 feet above the level of the sea.
+On the coast it flourishes very luxuriantly during the misty season; but
+during the months of February and March it is almost entirely dried up.
+The maisillo (_Paspalum purpureum_, R.) then supplies its place as
+fodder for cattle. In the mountainous districts it is also most abundant
+during the humid season; but, as soon as the first frost sets in, it
+decays, takes a rusty-brown color, and remains in a bad state until the
+beginning of the rainy season. On an average, the _alfalfa_ may be cut
+four times in the year; but in highlying districts only three times;
+and in humid soils on the coast, particularly in the neighborhood of
+rivers, five times. Once in every four or five years the clover-fields
+are broken up by the plough, and then sown with maize or barley. In the
+sixth year clover is again raised.
+
+The olive-tree is cultivated chiefly in the southern provinces of the
+coast. In flavor, its fruit approximates to the Spanish olive. That
+the oil is not so fine is probably owing to the bad presses which are
+used, and the rude manner in which the operation is performed. The
+olives (_Aceytunas_) are preserved in a peculiar manner. They are
+allowed to ripen on the tree, when they are gathered, slightly
+pressed, dried, and put up in small earthen vessels. By this process
+they become shrivelled and quite black. When served up at table pieces
+of tomato and aji are laid on them: the latter is an excellent
+accompaniment to the oily fruit. Some preserve them in salt water, by
+which means they remain plump and green.
+
+The castor-oil plant (_Ricinus communis_) grows wild, but it is also
+cultivated in many plantations. The considerable quantity of oil which
+is pressed out of the seeds is used unpurified in Lima for the street
+lamps, and also in the sugar plantations, for greasing the machines
+employed in the works. The purified Ricinus oil required for medicine is
+imported from England or Italy.
+
+The Pinoncillo tree (_Castiglionia lobata_, R.) is cultivated only about
+Surco, Huacho, and Lambayeque, in some of the Indian chacras; but it
+grows wild in considerable abundance. Its bean-like fruit, when roasted,
+has an agreeable flavor. When eaten raw, the etherial oil generated
+between the kernel and the epidermis is a strong aperient, and its
+effect can only be counteracted by drinking cold water. When an incision
+is made in the stem, a clear bright liquid flows out; but after some
+time it becomes black and horny like. It is a very powerful caustic, and
+retains its extraordinary property for years.
+
+The fruits of the temperate climates of Europe thrive but indifferently
+in the warm regions of the coast of Peru. Apples and pears are for the
+most part uneatable. Of stone fruits only the peach succeeds well. Vast
+quantities of apricots (called duraznos) grow in the mountain valleys.
+Of fifteen kinds which came under my observation, those called
+_blanquillos_ and _abridores_ are distinguished for fine flavor.
+Cherries, plums, and chestnuts I did not see in Peru, yet I believe the
+climate of the Sierra is very favorable to their growth. Generally
+speaking, the interior of the country is well suited to all the fruits
+and grain of central Europe; and doubtless many of our forest trees
+would flourish on those Peruvian hills which now present no traces of
+vegetation. But as yet no system of transplantation has been seriously
+set on foot. The praiseworthy attempts made by many Europeans, who have
+sent seeds and young plants to Peru, have failed of success, owing to
+the indifference of the natives to the advancement of those objects.
+
+All the fruits of southern Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm regions
+of Peru. Oranges, pomegranates, lemons, limes, &c., grow in incredible
+abundance. Though the trees bloom and bear fruit the whole year round,
+yet there are particular times in which their produce is in the greatest
+perfection and abundance. On the coast, for example, at the commencement
+of winter, and in the woody districts in the months of February and
+March, melons and Sandyas (_water melons_) are particularly fine.
+
+The figs are of two kinds: the one called _Higos_, and the other
+_Brevas_. In the former the pulp is red, in the latter it is white.
+They are usually large, very soft, and may be ranked among the most
+delicious fruits of the country. Fig-trees grow frequently wild in the
+neighborhood of the plantations and the Chacras: and the traveller may
+pluck the fruit, and carry away a supply for his journey; for, beyond
+a certain distance from Lima figs are not gathered, being a fruit not
+easy of transport in its fresh state; and when dried, it is not liked.
+Pomegranates and quinces seldom grow on the coast: they are chiefly
+brought to the Lima market from the neighboring Quebradas. The
+mulberry-tree flourishes luxuriantly and without cultivation; but its
+fruit is not thought worth gathering, and it is left as food for the
+birds. In the southern province of Yca, the cultivation of the vine
+has been attended by most successful results. In the neighborhood of
+Lima grapes are seen only in a few Huertas (_orchards_); but for
+size, sweetness, and aromatic flavor, there are no such grapes in any
+other part of the world.
+
+Of tropical fruits, the number is not so great in Peru as in the more
+northerly district of Guayaquil. But there are some Peruvian fruits, the
+delicious flavor of which cannot be excelled. One of these is the
+Chirimoya (_Anona tripetala_). Hanke, in one of his letters, calls it "a
+master-work of Nature." It would certainly be difficult to name any
+fruit possessing a more exquisite flavor.
+
+In Lima the Chirimoya is comparatively small, often only the size of an
+orange. Those who have tasted it only in Lima, can form but a very
+imperfect idea of its excellence. In Huanuco, its indigenous soil, it
+grows in the greatest perfection, and often attains the weight of
+sixteen pounds, or upwards. The fruit is of roundish form, sometimes
+pyramidal, or heart-shaped, the broad base uniting with the stem.
+Externally it is green, covered with small knobs and scales, and often
+has black markings like net-work spread over it. When the fruit is very
+ripe, it has black spots. The skin is rather thick and tough.
+Internally, the fruit is snow-white and juicy, and provided with a
+number of small seeds well covered with a delicate substance. The
+Chirimoyas of Huanuco are also distinguished from those of the coast by
+having only from four to six seeds; whereas on the coast they are found
+with from twenty-five to thirty. The question as to what the taste of
+this fruit may be compared with, I can only answer by saying, that it is
+incomparable. Both the fruit and flowers of the Chirimoya emit a fine
+fragrance, which, when the tree is covered with blossom, is so strong as
+to be almost overpowering. The tree which bears this finest of all
+fruits is from fifteen to twenty feet high. It has a broad flat top, and
+is of a pale-green color.
+
+The Palta (_Persea gatissima_, Gaert.) is a fruit of the pear form, and
+dark-brown in color. The rind is tough and elastic, but not very thick.
+The edible substance, which is soft and green, encloses a kernel
+resembling a chestnut in form and color. This fruit is very astringent
+and bitter, and on being cut, a juice flows from it which is at first
+yellow, but soon turns black. The taste is peculiar, and at first not
+agreeable to a foreigner; but it is generally much liked when the palate
+becomes accustomed to it. The fruit of the Palta dissolves like butter
+on the tongue, and hence it is called in some of the French colonies
+_beurre vegetale_. It is sometimes eaten without any accompaniment, and
+sometimes with a little salt, or with oil and vinegar. The kernels make
+very good brandy. The Palta-tree is slender and very high, with a small
+dome-like top. On the eastern declivity of the Andes, I have seen some
+of these trees more than sixty feet high.
+
+The Platanos (_Bananas_) thrive well in most of the Peruvian
+plantations. They require great heat and humidity. They grow in the
+greatest perfection on the banks of small rivulets. On the coast the
+tree does not yield such abundance of fruit as in the woody regions,
+where it is not unusual to see a tree with three hundred heads of fruit
+lying one over another, like tiles on a roof. In the country adjacent to
+Lima, and also on other parts of the coast, three favorite species are
+cultivated. The _Platano de la Isla_, or of Otaheite, was introduced
+from that archipelago in 1769. The fruits are from three to four inches
+long, generally prismatic, as they grow thickly on the stem, and lie one
+over another. The skin is yellow, the fruit of a palish red, and rather
+mealy. The Limenos prefer this to any other species of the platano, and
+they consider it the most wholesome. The fruits of the _Platano Guineo_
+are not longer, but much thicker than those of the _Platano de la Isla_,
+but they are so full that they burst when quite ripe. They are straight
+and cylindrical in form, as they grow on the stem at some distance one
+from the other. They are of a bright yellow color, but near the stem
+spotted with black. The edible part is whiter and softer than that of
+the _Platano de la Isla_, to which it is greatly superior in flavor and
+aroma. The natives believe this fruit to be very unwholesome, and they
+maintain that drinking brandy after eating Platanos Guineos causes
+immediate death. This is, as my own often-repeated experiments have
+shown, one of the deep-rooted, groundless prejudices to which the
+Peruvians obstinately cling. On one of my excursions I had a controversy
+on this subject with some persons who accompanied me. To prove how
+unfounded their notions were, I ate some platanos, and then washing down
+one poison by the other, I immediately swallowed a mouthful of brandy.
+My Peruvian friends were filled with dismay. Addressing me alternately
+in terms of compassion and reproach, they assured me I should never
+return to Lima alive. After spending a very agreeable day, we all
+arrived quite well in the evening at Lima. At parting, one of my
+companions seriously observed that we should never see each other again.
+Early next morning they anxiously called to inquire how I was, and
+finding me in excellent health and spirits, they said:--"Ah! you see, an
+_herege de gringo_ (a heretic of a foreigner) is quite of a different
+nature from us." A piece of the Platano Guineo soaked in brandy retains
+its color unchanged; but the rib-like fibres which connect the rind with
+the pulp then become black, and imbibe a bitter taste.
+
+The fruit of the third kind of platano, the _Platano Largo_, is from six
+to eight inches long, rather narrow, and curved crescent-wise. The rind
+is of a light straw color, and when the fruit is very ripe it has large
+black spots. The edible part is of a whitish hue, harder and drier than
+that of the two species already described; and its flavor its quite as
+agreeable. Its fruit is less abundant than that of the Platano Guineo,
+and it requires longer time to become fully ripe. A fourth kind, which
+grows in the forest regions, I have never seen on the coast. It is the
+_Platano Altahuillaca_. It bears at most from twenty to twenty-five
+heads of fruit. The stem is more than two inches thick, and above an ell
+long. The color of the husk is light yellow, the enclosed substance is
+white, tough, and hard. In the raw state it is flavorless, but when
+roasted in hot ashes, or cooked with meat, it makes a fine dish.
+
+When the platanos of the uppermost row, that is, those which form the
+base of the conical-formed reflex cluster, begin to turn yellow, or, as
+the natives say, _pintar_, the whole is cut off, and hung up in an airy,
+shady situation, usually in an apartment of the Rancho, or hut, where it
+may quickly ripen. The largest fruits are cut off as soon as they are
+yellow and soft, and so the cutting goes on gradually up to the top, for
+they ripen so unequally that those at the base show symptoms of decay
+while those at the top are still hard and green. As soon as the
+_cabeza_, or cluster of fruit, is cut, the whole branch is immediately
+lopped off, in order to facilitate the shooting of the fresh sprouts.
+Each branch bears only one _cabeza_, and eight or ten months are the
+period usually required for its complete development.
+
+The platanos belongs indisputably to the most useful class of fruit
+trees, especially in regions where they can be cultivated extensively,
+for then they may very adequately supply the place of bread. In
+northern Peru and Guayaquil, the platano fruit is prepared for food in
+a variety of ways.
+
+Pine-apples (_Ananas_) are not much cultivated on the coast of Peru. The
+market of Lima was formerly entirely supplied with this fruit from the
+Montana de Vitoc. When brought from thence they used to be cut before
+they were ripe, and packed on the backs of asses. The journey is of
+sixteen or twenty days' duration, and the road lies across two of the
+Cordilleras. After being several days in the cold snowy region of the
+Puna, the fruit came to Lima in a very indifferent state; but since the
+communication by steam navigation with Guayaquil, pine-apples are
+brought from the latter place in large quantities. They are large,
+succulent, and very sweet.
+
+The Granadilla (_Passiflora quadrangularis_) is about the size of an
+apple, but rather oblong. The skin is reddish-yellow, hard, and rather
+thick. The edible part is grey and gelatinous, and it contains numerous
+dark-colored seeds. The fruit is very agreeable, and in taste resembles
+the gooseberry, and is very cooling. The Granadilla is a shrub or bush,
+and it twines round the trunks of trees, or climbs up the walls of the
+Ranchos. It is less abundant on the coast than in the adjacent valleys.
+
+The Tunas are fruits of different species of Cactus. The husk, which is
+covered with sharp prickles, is green, yellow, or red in color, and is
+easily separated from the pulp of the fruit. When being plucked, the
+tunas are rubbed with straw to remove the prickles, which, however, is
+not always completely accomplished. It is therefore necessary to be
+cautious in handling the husks, for the small prickles cause
+inflammation when they get into the fingers.
+
+The Pacay is the fruit of a tree of rather large size (_Prosopis
+dulcis_, Humb.), with a rather low and broad top. It consists of a pod
+from twenty to twenty-four inches long, enclosing black seeds, which are
+embedded in a white, soft, flaky substance. This flaky part is as white
+as snow, and is the only eatable part of the fruit. It tastes sweet,
+and, to my palate at least, it is very unpleasant; however, the Limenos
+on the coast and the monkeys in the woods are very fond of the pacay.
+
+The Lucuma is produced only in the southern provinces of the coast of
+Peru, and is chiefly imported from the north of Chile. The fruit is
+round. The grey-brown husk encloses a fibrous, dry, yellow-colored
+fruit with its kernel.
+
+The Guayava (_Psidium pomiferum_) grows on a low shrub, chiefly in the
+valleys of the coast, and on the eastern declivity of the Andes. It is
+of the form and size of a small apple. The rind is bright, yellow, and
+thin. The pulp is either white or red, and is full of little egg-shaped
+granulations. Its flavor is pleasant, but not remarkably fine. In Lima
+it is not a favorite, for numerous insects lay their eggs in it, and,
+when the fruit is ripe, larvae are found in it.
+
+The Pepino (a _cucurbitacea_) is grown in great abundance in the fields.
+The plant is only a foot and a half high, and it creeps on the ground.
+The fruit is from four to five inches long, cylindrical, and at both
+ends somewhat pointed. The husk is of a yellowish green color, with long
+rose-colored stripes. The pulp or edible part is solid, juicy, and
+well-flavored. The kernel lies in the middle, in a long-shaped furrow.
+By the natives the pepino is, and not altogether unreasonably, believed
+to be injurious. They maintain that this fruit is too cold in the
+stomach, and that a glass of brandy is necessary to counteract its
+injurious properties. This much is certain, that the pepinos are very
+indigestible, and that eating them frequently, or at improper times,
+brings on fits of illness.
+
+The Mani, or Earth Almond (_Arachis hypogaea_), is produced in the
+northern provinces. The plant is from a foot and a half to two feet
+long, and very leafy. The kernels have a grey, shrivelled husk: they
+are white, and contain much oil. When roasted and crushed, they are
+eaten with sugar.
+
+The Capulies (_Prunus capulin_, Ser.) grows in the open fields. In towns
+it is planted in gardens or in pots. The fruit is a little bigger than a
+cherry. It is of a deep yellow color, and has an acid taste. The
+capulies are not frequently eaten. On account of their very pleasant
+odor, they are used in making _Pucheros de_ flores, or with other
+odoriferous flowers, they are besprinkled with agua rica, and laid in
+drawers to perfume linen. The ladies of Lima wear them in their bosoms.
+The same uses are made of the Palillos (_Campomanesia lineatifolia_,
+R.), which grow on trees from twenty to thirty feet high. The bright
+yellow fruit is as large as a moderately-sized apple. The palillo emits
+an exceedingly agreeable scent, and is one of the ingredients used in
+making the perfumed water called _mistura_. When rubbed between the
+fingers, the leaves smell like those of the myrtle; but they have an
+acid and a stringent taste.
+
+The coast of Peru is poorly supplied with Palm-trees, either wild or
+cultivated. The Cocoa Palm is grown only in a few of the northern
+provinces, and the Date Palm chiefly about Yca. With a very little
+care, these trees would thrive excellently in all the oases of the
+coast of Peru.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 37: A great fire is a thing almost unknown in Lima. The houses
+are of brick, and seldom have any wooden beams, so there is little food
+for a fire. The only fire which I heard of in Lima was that of the 13th
+January, 1835, when the interior of the _Capilla del Milagro_ of San
+Francisco was destroyed. The repairs cost 50,000 dollars. On the 27th
+November, 1838, it was again solemnly consecrated.]
+
+[Footnote 38: The date of this catastrophe recalls the following passage
+in Schiller's William Tell:--
+
+          "'s ist heut Simons und Judae
+    Da ras't der See und will sein Opfer haben."
+
+          "'Tis the festival of Simon and Jude,
+    And the lake rages for its sacrifice."
+]
+
+[Footnote 39: RIMAC is the present participle of _rimay_, to speak, to
+prattle. The river and the valley were known by this name among all the
+ancient Indians. The oracle of a temple with an idol, which stood in the
+neighborhood of the present city of Lima, conferred the name. It is said
+that before the time of the Incas persons suspected of magic were
+banished to the valley of the Rimac, on which account it obtained the
+name of _Rimac-malca_, that is, the WITCHES-VALLEY. This account, which
+is given by some early travellers, requires farther historical and
+philological inquiry, before its correctness can be admitted.]
+
+[Footnote 40: The Quichua language has no word for potatoe, but in the
+Chinchayauyo language, which is spoken along the whole coast of Peru,
+the potatoe is called _Acsu_.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+Robbers on the coast of Peru--The Bandit Leaders Leon and Rayo--The
+Corps of Montoneros--Watering Places near Lima--Surco, Atte and
+Lurin--Pacchacamac--Ruins of the Temple of the Sun--Difficulties of
+Travelling on the Coast of Peru--Sea Passage to Huacho--Indian
+Canoes--Ichthyological Collections--An old Spaniard's recollections
+of Alexander Von Humboldt--The Padre Requena--Huacho--Plundering of
+Burial Places--Huaura--Malaria--The Sugar Plantation at
+Luhmayo--Quipico--Ancient Peruvian Ruins--The Salinas, or Salt
+Pits--Gritalobos--Chancay--The Piques--Mode of extracting
+them--Valley of the Pasamayo--Extraordinary Atmospheric
+Mirrors--Piedras Gordas--Palo Seco.
+
+
+All the inhabited parts of the coast of Peru, especially the districts
+adjacent to Lima and Truxillo, are infested by robbers, and travelling
+is thereby rendered extremely unsafe. These banditti are chiefly runaway
+slaves (simarrones, as they are called), free negroes, zambos, or
+mulattos. Occasionally they are joined by Indians, and these latter are
+always conspicuous for the cruelties they perpetrate. Now and then a
+white man enters upon this lawless course; and, in the year 1839, a
+native of North America, who had been a purser in a ship of war, was
+shot in Lima for highway robbery. These robbers are always well mounted,
+and their fleet-footed steeds usually enable them to elude pursuit. It
+is no unfrequent occurrence for slaves belonging to the plantations to
+mount their masters' finest horses, and after sunset, when their work is
+over, or on Sundays, when they have nothing to do, to sally forth on
+marauding expeditions.
+
+Most of the highway robbers who infest the coast of Peru belong to an
+extensive and systematically-organized band, headed by formidable
+leaders, who maintain spies in the towns and villages, from whom they
+receive regular reports. They sometimes prowl about in parties of thirty
+or forty, in the vicinity of the capital, and plunder every traveller
+they encounter; but they are most frequently in smaller detachments. If
+they meet with resistance they give no quarter; therefore, it is most
+prudent to submit to be plundered quietly, even when the parties
+attacked are stronger than the assailants, for the latter usually have
+confederates at no great distance, and can summon reinforcements in case
+of need. Any person who kills a robber in self-defence must ever
+afterwards be in fear for his own life: even in Lima the dagger of the
+assassin will reach him, and possibly at the moment when he thinks
+himself most safe.
+
+Foreigners are more frequently waylaid than natives. Indeed, the rich
+and influential class of Peruvians are seldom subjected to these
+attacks,--a circumstance which may serve to explain why more stringent
+police regulations are not adopted.
+
+The most unsafe roads are those leading to Callao, Chorillos, and
+Cavalleros. This last place is on the way to Cerro de Pasco, whither
+transports of money are frequently sent. A few weeks before my departure
+from Lima a band of thirty robbers, after a short skirmish with a feeble
+escort, made themselves masters of a remittance of 100,000 dollars,
+destined for the mine-workers of Pasco. The silver bars from Pasco are
+sent to Lima without any military guard, for they are suffered to pass
+unmolested, as the robbers find them heavy and cumbrous, and they cannot
+easily dispose of them. These depredations are committed close to the
+gates of Lima, and after having plundered a number of travellers, the
+robbers will very coolly ride into the city.
+
+The country people from the Sierra, who travel with their asses to Lima,
+and who carry with them money to make purchases in the capital, are the
+constant prey of robbers, who, if they do not get money, maltreat or
+murder their victims in the most merciless way.[41] In July, 1842, I was
+proceeding from the mountains back to Lima, and, passing near the Puente
+de Surco, a bridge about a league and a half from Lima, my horse
+suddenly shied at something lying across the road. On alighting I
+found that it was the dead body of an Indian, who had been murdered,
+doubtless, by robbers. The skull was fractured in a shocking manner
+by stones. The body was still warm.
+
+The zambo robbers are notorious for committing the most heartless
+cruelties. In June, 1842, one of them attacked the Indian who was
+conveying the mail to Huacho. "Shall I," said the robber, "kill you or
+put out your eyes?" "If I must choose," replied the Indian, "pray kill
+me at once." The barbarian immediately drew forth his dagger and stuck
+it into the eyes of the unfortunate victim, and then left him lying on
+the sand. In this state the poor Indian was found by a traveller, who
+conveyed him to a neighboring village. The following anecdote was
+related to me by an Indian, in whose dwelling I passed a night, at
+Chancay:--About half a league from the village he met a negro, who
+advanced towards him, with musket cocked, and commanded him to halt. My
+host drew out a large riding pistol, and said, "You may be thankful that
+this is not loaded or you would be a dead man." The negro laughing
+scornfully, rode up and seized the Indian, when the latter suddenly
+fired the pistol, and shot him dead.
+
+When these Peruvian banditti are attacked by the military or the police,
+they defend themselves with desperate courage. If they can effect their
+escape they fly for concealment into the woods and thickets, which, if
+not too extensive, are surrounded and set on fire, so that the fugitives
+have no alternative but to surrender, or to perish in the flames.
+
+Within the last few years, two negroes, named Escobar and Leon, were
+daring leaders of banditti. Leon, who was originally a slave, commenced
+his career of crime by the murder of his master. He eluded the pursuit
+of justice, became a highway robber, and for many years was the terror
+of the whole province of Lima. The police vainly endeavored to secure
+him. Leon knew the country so well, that he constantly evaded his
+pursuers. When the price of 2000 dollars was set upon his head, he
+boldly entered Lima every evening and slept in the city. At length
+placards were posted about, calling on Leon's comrades to kill him, and
+offering to any one who might deliver him up dead into the hands of the
+police the reward of 1000 dollars and a pardon. This measure had the
+desired result, and Leon was strangled, whilst asleep, by a zambo, who
+was his godfather. The body was, during three days, exposed to public
+view in front of the cathedral.
+
+Another celebrated bandit was the zambo, Jose Rayo. He took an active
+part in several of the political revolutions; and having, during those
+commotions, been serviceable to the president, he was raised to the rank
+of a lieutenant-colonel, and made chief of the country police, called
+the _Partida montada del campo_. This post he still fills, and he is
+admirably well adapted to it, as experience has rendered him thoroughly
+acquainted with banditti life, and he knows every hiding-place in the
+country round Lima. Nevertheless he could not catch the negro Leon, or
+possibly he would not seize him, for Leon was his godfather, a
+relationship which is held sacred throughout all classes in Peru. When
+Rayo speaks of the president and ministers he always styles them _sus
+mejores amigos_ (his best friends). I fell in with him once, when
+travelling on the road to Chaclacayo, and rode in company with him as
+far as the Hacienda de Santa Clara. I found him exceedingly complaisant
+and courteous in his manners; but his true zambo nature was not wholly
+concealed beneath the smooth surface.
+
+Robbers, when captured and brought to Lima, undergo a very summary
+trial, and are then sentenced to be shot. The culprits have the
+privilege of choosing their place of execution, and they generally fix
+on the market-place. They are allowed the assistance of a priest for
+twelve hours prior to their death, and they are conducted from the
+chapel to the place of execution, carrying a bench, on which they sit to
+undergo the punishment. Four soldiers fire at the distance of three
+paces from the culprit; two aiming at his head, and two at his breast.
+On one of these occasions a singular instance of presence of mind and
+dexterity occurred a few years ago in Lima. A very daring zambo,
+convicted of highway robbery, was sentenced to death. He made choice of
+the Plaza de la Inquisicion as the scene of his execution. It was market
+time, and the square was crowded with people. The culprit darted around
+him a rapid and penetrating glance, and then composedly seated himself
+on the bench. The soldiers according to custom levelled their muskets
+and fired; but how great was the surprise, when the cloud of smoke
+dispersed, and it was discovered that the zambo had vanished. He had
+closely watched the movements of the soldiers, and when they pulled the
+triggers of their muskets, he stooped down, and the balls passed over
+his head. Then suddenly knocking down one of the guards who stood beside
+him, he rushed into the midst of the crowd, where some of his friends
+helped him to effect his escape.
+
+In time of war a corps is raised, consisting chiefly of highway robbers
+and persons who, by various offences against the laws, have forfeited
+their freedom or their lives. This corps is called the Montoneros, and
+they are very important auxiliaries when the coast is the theatre of the
+war. The Montoneros, not being trained in military manoeuvres, are not
+employed as regular cavalry, but only as outposts, scouts,
+despatch-bearers, &c. They are good skirmishers, and they harass the
+enemy by their unexpected movements; sometimes attacking in front and
+sometimes in the rear. They have no regular uniform, and their usual
+clothing consists of dirty white trousers and jacket, a poncho, and a
+broad-brimmed straw hat. Many of them are not even provided with shoes,
+and their spurs are fastened on their bare heels. Their arms consist
+of a short carbine and a sword. When the corps is strong, and is
+required for active service, it is placed under the command of a
+General of the Army. In 1838, General Miller, now British Consul at
+the Sandwich Islands, commanded a corps of 1000 Montoneros, who were
+in the service of Santa Cruz. They are held in the strictest
+discipline by their commanders, who punish theft with death. There is,
+however, one sort of robbery which they are suffered to commit with
+impunity, viz, horse-stealing. The horses obtained in this way are
+used for mounting the cavalry; and detachments of Montoneros are sent
+to the plantations to collect horses. They are likewise taken from
+travellers, and from the stables in the capital; but sometimes, after
+the close of the campaign, the animals are returned to their owners.
+When the war is ended the Montoneros are disbanded, and most of them
+return to their occupation as highway robbers.
+
+In all campaigns the Montoneros are sent forward, by one or two days'
+march in advance of the main army, either in small or large
+detachments. When they enter a village they experience no difficulty in
+obtaining quarters and provisions, for the inhabitants are not disposed
+to refuse anything that such visitors may demand. A troop of Montoneros
+is a picturesque, but, at the same time, a very fearful sight. Their
+black, yellow, and olive-colored faces, seared by scars, and expressive
+of every evil passion and savage feeling; their motley and tattered
+garments; their weary and ill-saddled horses; their short firelocks and
+long swords;--present altogether a most wild and disorderly aspect. The
+traveller, who suddenly encounters such a band, may consider himself
+exceedingly lucky if he escapes with only the loss of his horse.
+
+A universal panic pervades the city of Lima whenever a detachment of
+Montoneros enters within the gates. On every side are heard cries of
+"_Cierra puertas!_" (close the doors!) "_Los Montoneros!_" Every person
+passing along the streets runs into the first house he comes to, and
+closes the door after him. In a few moments the streets are cleared, and
+no sound is heard but the galloping of the Montoneros' horses.
+
+Within the distance of a few leagues from Lima there are several pretty
+villages, to which the wealthier class of the inhabitants of the capital
+resort in the summer seasons, for sea-bathing. The nearest, situated
+about three-quarters of a league from Lima, is Magdalena, where the
+Viceroy of Peru formerly had a beautiful summer residence. Miraflores,
+about midway between Lima and Chorillos, is a small village containing a
+plaza and some neatly-built houses. Though the heat is greater here than
+in the capital, yet the air is purer, and Miraflores may be regarded as
+the healthiest spot in the neighborhood of Lima. The sultry atmosphere
+is refreshed by the sea breezes. Surrounded by verdant though not
+luxuriant vegetation, and sufficiently distant from the marshes,
+Miraflores appears to combine within itself all that can be wished for
+in a summer residence. For asthmatic patients the air is particularly
+favorable. An old Spaniard of my acquaintance, who was engaged during
+the day in business in Lima, used to go every night to sleep at
+Miraflores: he assured me that if he slept a night in the capital he
+suffered a severe attack of asthma.
+
+Chorillos is a poor, ill-looking village. The streets are dirty and
+crooked, and the houses are mere ranchos. It is built close to the sea,
+on a steep sandy beach; but, though anything but a pleasant place,
+Chorillos is the favorite resort of the wealthy Limayan families. Not a
+tree is visible in the neighborhood of the village, and the unshaded
+rays of the sun are reflected with twofold power from the hot sand. A
+broad, steep road leads down to the bathing-place on the sea-beach,
+which is rough and shingly. A row of small huts, covered with matting,
+serve as dressing-rooms. Both ladies and gentlemen use bathing dresses,
+which are very neatly made of a kind of blue cloth. The ladies are
+accompanied by guides (_banaderos_). These are Indians, who dwell in the
+village. In winter they employ themselves in fishing, and in summer they
+live by what they get from the visitors who resort to Chorillos. They
+are a good-looking, hardy race of people.
+
+The time for bathing is early in the morning. The interval between
+breakfast and dinner is devoted to swinging in the hammock, either in
+the sala or in the corridor. The afternoon and evening are spent on the
+promenade, and the later hours of the night at the gaming-table. The
+routine of the day's occupations and amusements is much the same as in
+most of the watering-places of Europe, excepting that, in the latter,
+the hammock is suspended by the chair in the reading-room and
+coffee-house, or the bench on the promenade. The sultry nights in
+Chorillos are rendered doubly unpleasant by the swarms of vermin which
+infest the houses. Fleas, bugs, mosquitoes and sancudos, combine to
+banish rest from the couch of even the soundest sleeper.
+
+Surco is situated about half a league from Chorillos, and further into
+the interior of the country. It is a poor but pleasant village,
+surrounded by tropical trees and luxuriant vegetation. The climate is
+not so hot as that of Lima or Chorillos. Surco is a very pretty spot,
+though seldom resorted to by the inhabitants of the capital; because it
+boasts neither baths nor gaming-tables.
+
+Two leagues eastward of Lima, in the direction of the mountains, is
+the village El Ate. It lies in a fertile valley, and enjoys a pure
+and equal temperature. It is much resorted to by invalids suffering
+from pulmonary disorders, which, if not cured, are at least relieved
+by the pure air.
+
+Lurin is situated five leagues south from the capital, and a quarter of
+a league from the Rio de Lurin, which intersects the Quebrada of
+Huarochirin. Fine gardens, and well-cultivated lands, impart beauty to
+the surrounding scenery. At Michaelmas Lurin is visited by many of the
+inhabitants of the capital, St. Michael being the patron saint of the
+place. The village stands about a thousand paces from the margin of the
+sea-shore, which is two miles distant from the rocky islands of
+Tarallones, Santo Domingo, and Pacchacamac. Prior to the Spanish
+conquest, the valley of Lurin was one of the most populous parts of the
+coast of Peru. The whole of the broad valley was then called
+Pacchacamac, because near the sea-shore and northward of the river,
+there was a temple sacred to the "Creator of the Earth."[42] Pacchacamac
+was the greatest deity of the Yuncas, who did not worship the sun until
+after their subjugation by the Incas. The temple of Pacchacamac was then
+dedicated to the sun by the Incas, who destroyed the idols which the
+Yuncas had worshipped, and appointed to the service of the temple a
+certain number of virgins of royal descent. In the year 1534, Pizarro
+invaded the village of Lurin: his troops destroyed the temple, and the
+Virgins of the Sun were dishonored and murdered.
+
+The ruins of the temple of Pacchacamac are among the most interesting
+objects on the coast of Peru. They are situated on a hill about 558
+feet high. The summit of the hill is overlaid with a solid mass of
+brick-work about thirty feet in height. On this artificial ridge stood
+the temple, enclosed by high walls, rising in the form of an
+amphitheatre. It is now a mass of ruins; all that remains of it being
+some niches, the walls of which present faint traces of red and yellow
+painting. At the foot, and on the sides of the hill, are scattered
+ruins which were formerly the walls of habitations. The whole was
+encircled by a wall eight feet in breadth, and it was probably of
+considerable height, for some of the parts now standing are twelve
+feet high, though the average height does not exceed three or four
+feet. The mania of digging for treasures every year makes
+encroachments on these vestiges of a bygone age, whose monuments
+are well deserving of more careful preservation.
+
+Travelling on the coast of Peru is difficult and tedious. The roads
+lead through plains of sand, where often not a trace of vegetation is
+to be seen, nor a drop of water to be found for twenty or thirty
+miles. It is found desirable to take all possible advantage of the
+night, in order to escape the scorching rays of a tropical sun; but
+when there is no moonlight, and above all, when clouds of mist obscure
+the directing stars, the traveller runs the risk of getting out of his
+course, and at daybreak, discovering his error, he may have to retrace
+his weary way. This extra fatigue may possibly disable his horse, so
+that the animal cannot proceed further. In such an emergency a
+traveller finds his life in jeopardy; for should he attempt to go
+forward on foot he may, in all probability, fall a sacrifice to
+fatigue and thirst. Numbers of beasts of burden sink every year under
+the difficulties of such a journey; and their bones serve to mark the
+direction of the road. Long journeys over these sand plains should be
+undertaken only with good and well-tried horses. For the most part the
+horses cannot stand hunger and thirst forty-eight hours without
+becoming so exhausted that the rider has the greatest difficulty in
+making them drag on; and if he is inconsiderate enough to force the
+animal to take a quicker pace, the horse lies down and dies. The mule,
+which more easily supports the difficulties of a severe journey on the
+sparest food, is, in Peru, the camel of the desert. Without mules, a
+long journey on most parts of the coast would be impracticable. The
+horse obeys the spur until he falls dead under the rider. Not so the
+mule: when too weary to journey onward he stands stock still, and
+neither whip nor spur will move him until he has rested. After that he
+will willingly proceed on his way. By this means the traveller has a
+criterion by which he can judge of the powers of his animal.
+
+Excursions along the coast have been greatly facilitated by the
+introduction of steam navigation, and travellers now eagerly avail
+themselves of that rapid and secure mode of conveyance. Even in sailing
+vessels voyages from south to north can be conveniently performed in
+consequence of the regularity of the tradewind.
+
+During my residence in Lima, in the commencement of the year 1841, I
+visited the port of Huacho, situated to the north. A packet bound to
+Panama had permission to touch at Huacho, without casting anchor, as she
+had to convey political prisoners under sentence of transportation to
+Panama. I was one of five passengers who landed at Huacho, and among the
+number was the pastor of the town, that very original individual, "the
+Cura Requena." The passage, which is usually made in fourteen hours,
+lasted two days and a half. Off the port we fell in with a Peruvian
+sloop of war, which, on our sailing from Callao, had been sent to watch
+us, and to stop the prisoners in case they attempted to escape. Our
+captain lay to, and we stepped into a boat. Our movements were
+observed from the shore, where, for some days, a report had prevailed
+that Santa Cruz was coming with Corsairs, to make a descent. The
+inhabitants believed that our ship must belong to that expedition.
+They were the more confirmed in their notion, inasmuch as the
+appearance of a sloop of war, which had sailed about for some hours in
+the bay, could not otherwise be explained. Accordingly the alarm bell
+was rung. The custom-house officers and the coast guards, headed by
+the port captain, and followed by a crowd of people, came down to the
+shore, some armed with muskets and pistols, others with swords and
+cudgels, to repel the intended attack.
+
+At the entrance to the port of Huacho the breakers are so dangerous that
+an ordinary-sized boat cannot put in. Landing is therefore effected in
+the small canoes of the Indians. When we approached the shore we made
+signals, and called loudly for canoes, but in vain. The dismayed
+Huachanos showed no inclination to assist their supposed enemies. Our
+captain, who was with us in the boat, said, that as a fresh wind from
+the shore was springing up he could wait no longer, and that he must
+take us with him to Panama. This very unpleasant piece of information
+prompted us to put into execution a plan which was suggested by despair.
+The tall, lank pastor, wrapped in the black ecclesiastical robe, called
+the _talar_, was placed at the prow, where he stood up, making signs of
+peace and friendship to the natives. This had the desired effect. The
+port captain had a good glass, with which he quickly recognized the
+marked features of the Cura, and several Indian boats were instantly
+despatched to convey us on shore. These Indian canoes consist of long
+narrow stumps of trees, hollowed longitudinally. On either side is
+nailed a _palo de balzas_, viz., a beam of a very porous kind of wood.
+One Indian sits forward, another more backward, each having a short
+wooden shovel-shaped oar, with which they strike the water right and
+left, and thus scull the boat onward. The passengers must crouch or
+kneel down in the middle, and dare not stir, for the least irregularity
+in the motion would upset the boat. We landed safely, and amused
+ourselves by referring to the mistake of the brave guardians of the
+coast. Horses were provided for us, and we rode to the town, which is
+situated at about half a league up the gently-rising coast.
+
+My principal occupation, during a six weeks' residence on this part of
+the coast, which is very rich in fishes, was to augment my
+ichthyological collection, and to make myself well acquainted with the
+environs of Huacho. Every morning, at five o'clock, I rode down to the
+shore, and waited on the strand to see the boats returning with what had
+been caught, during the night, by the fishers, who readily descried me
+at a distance, and held up, in their boat, such strange inhabitants of
+the deep as had come into their possession. I succeeded in making out,
+from several hundred individual specimens, one hundred and twenty
+distinct species of sea and river fish. But an unlucky fate hovered over
+this fine collection. The fishes were all put into a cask with brandy,
+which, by neglect of the commissary of the port, was left on the Mole at
+Callao, for several months, in the burning heat of the sun: in
+consequence its contents were utterly destroyed. A second collection was
+prepared, and immediately shipped for Europe, and in the packing the
+greatest care was observed. Nevertheless it arrived, after a voyage of
+fifteen months, in a state quite useless. Thus the fruits of much labor
+and a considerable expense were entirely lost.
+
+Huacho is a little village, which, since the war of Independence, has
+received the title of "city." It has more than 5000 inhabitants, of
+whom four-fifths are Indians and the rest mestizes. Very few whites
+have settled here. Among them I met an old lame Spaniard, "Don Simon,"
+who, at the beginning of the present century, accompanied the
+celebrated Alexander von Humboldt to the beds of salt situated a few
+miles to the south. In relating, with enthusiastic pleasure, his
+recollections of the youthful and indefatigable traveller, he told me
+that, some years ago, he had read through the book which Humboldt
+wrote on America, and he added, with great simplicity, "_pero, Senor,
+ahi he perdido los estribos_."[43]
+
+The natives employ themselves in fishing, agriculture, and the
+breeding of poultry. Most of the poultry brought to market in Lima
+comes from Huacho. Every Friday large caravan-like processions of
+Indian women repair to the capital with fowls, ducks, and turkeys.
+Fifteen or twenty are tied together by the feet, and make a sort of
+bunch; and two of such bunches are hung at the pommel of the saddle,
+so that one hangs down on either side of the horse. The chola[44] sits
+in the middle. Under this burthen the poor animal has to travel two
+days and a half. Only when the caravan halts does he enjoy the relief
+of being unsaddled and fed. Some of the Indians of Huacho work in the
+salt-pits. The women plait coarse straw hats, and a kind of mats
+called _petates_, which they carry to Lima for sale.
+
+The Huachanos cannot be ranked among the best classes of the Indians.
+They are malicious, revengeful, and knavish. Their character has
+evidently deteriorated amidst the numerous revolutions which preceded
+the establishment of the Republic, and the frequent passage of troops
+through the town. The Padre Requena sketched to me a terrible picture
+of his _Indios brutos_; but truly, under the guidance of such a
+shepherd, it were unreasonable to expect the flock to be very good.
+This venerable Cura was a fair type of the Peruvian priesthood. He was
+passionately fond of hunting, and for the enjoyment of that recreation
+he kept a number of excellent horses, and several packs of hounds,
+particularly _galgos_ (greyhounds), for some of which he paid 150 or
+200 dollars. In the most shameless way he violated the ecclesiastical
+vow of celibacy, and he was usually surrounded by several of his own
+children, who called him _uncle_, addressing him by the appellation of
+_tio_, the term usually employed in Peru to express that sort of
+relationship. The Padre used to boast of his alleged friendship with
+Lord Cochrane, in which he affected to pride himself very greatly. He
+died in a few weeks after his return to Huacho. He refused so long to
+make his confession, that the Indians, uttering furious menaces,
+assembled in crowds about his house. Some even compelled a priest to go
+in to him, to represent the awful consequences of his obstinacy. On the
+approach of death, he declared that the thought which most occupied him
+was his separation from his hounds, and when his hands were becoming
+cold he called to his negro to fetch a pair of buckskin hunting gloves,
+and desired to have them drawn on.
+
+In Peru the clergy have no fixed stipend. Their emoluments are derived
+from the fees and perquisites which their ecclesiastical functions bring
+in. For baptisms, marriages, and masses, fixed sums are established; but
+it is not so with burials, for which the priest receives a present
+proportional to the circumstances of the deceased. The interment of a
+poor person (_entierro baxo_) costs at least from eight to ten dollars,
+which sum is extorted from the survivors with the most unrelenting
+rigor. For the burial of a rich person (_entierro alto_) the sum of two
+hundred dollars is frequently paid. If a wealthy man should express in
+his will his desire for an _entierro baxo_, the priest sets this clause
+aside, and proceeds with the costly ceremonies, the payment for which is
+insured by the pious feelings of the family. Hence some of the richer
+_comunerias_, of which Huacho is one, yield to the priest annually from
+12,000 to 14,000 dollars. When a priest dies, the clergy of the
+neighboring villages meet and bury him with great pomp, free of any
+payment except a good banquet.
+
+A rich Indian of Huacho made a bargain with his countrymen that, on
+their paying him weekly a medio (the sixteenth part of a dollar), he
+would defray the expenses of their funerals. By this agreement he
+realized a considerable sum of money. The Cholos made it a condition
+that they should be buried in coffins, which is not common with the
+lower classes in Peru. The Indian complied with this condition. When a
+Cholo died, a coffin was sent to his residence. If too short, the corpse
+was bent and forced into it. The interment then took place according to
+the ritual of the Church. On the following night the Indian who had
+contracted for the burials repaired with a confidential servant to the
+churchyard, dug up the coffin, threw the body back into the grave, and
+carried off the coffin, with the _mortaja_ (the funeral garment), which
+served for the next customer. The contractor made each coffin last as
+long as the boards would hold together. This system, at all events,
+secured the Cholos against the danger of being buried alive.
+
+The churchyard of Huacho presents a revolting spectacle. A low wall
+surrounds a space of sandy ground, which is strewed with skulls, bones,
+fragments of burial clothes, and mutilated human bodies. The coffin
+plunderer, on replacing the corpse in the grave, merely throws some
+loose sand over it, and the consequence is that the remains of the dead
+frequently become the prey of dogs, foxes, and other carrion feeders.
+When the family of a deceased person can contribute nothing to defray
+the funeral expenses, the body is conveyed privately during the night to
+the churchyard. In the morning it is found half consumed.
+
+The environs of Huacho abound in fine fruit gardens, and productive
+Indian farms. The climate is healthful, though very hot. The vicinity of
+the sea and the convenience of good bathing would render it an agreeable
+place of residence, were it not infested with vermin. Fleas propagate in
+the sand in almost incredible multitudes, especially in the neighborhood
+of the Indian huts, and any person entering them is in a moment covered
+with hundreds of those tormentors. Bugs, too, swarm in the lime walls;
+though that description of vermin is less numerous in Huacho than in
+some of the more northern towns.
+
+In a fine valley, about two short leagues from Huacho, the little town
+of Huaura is situated on the bank of a river of the same name. This Rio
+de Huaura is formed by the union of two rivers. The larger of the two
+rises in the Cordillera de Paria, and flows through the wild ravine of
+Chuichin: the smaller river, called the Rio Chico de Sayan, rises from a
+lake of considerable size in the Altos de Huaquimarci. Both unite below
+the village of Sayan. In the vicinity of Huaura the river forms several
+marshes, in which malaria is generated. In very few places have I seen
+the stratum of malaria so distinctly separated from the atmosphere as
+here. It lies at an average about two, or two and a half feet above the
+marsh, and is carried over it by strong atmospheric currents. It is
+distinguished by a peculiar kind of opalization, and on certain
+changes of light it exhibits a yellowish tint. This is particularly
+perceptible in the morning, on coming down from the high grounds. The
+marshy plain then appears overhung with a thick color-changing sheet
+of malaria. Malignant intermittent fever and diseases of the skin are
+frequent in Huaura. The town is thinly peopled; the number of
+inhabitants being not more than 2000.
+
+A great sugar plantation, called El Ingenio, is situated at about a
+quarter of a league from Huaura. It formerly belonged to the Jesuits,
+but is now the property of a rich Lima family. The _trapiche_, or
+sugar-mill, is worked by a water-wheel, the first ever established in
+Peru, a circumstance of which the owner proudly boasts.
+
+The valley which opens here is magnificent, and to ride through it
+easterly eleven leagues towards Sayan is one of the finest excursions
+which can be made in Peru. Over this beautiful district are scattered
+many rich plantations. The one next in importance to El Ingenio is
+Acaray, which, though not very large, is most carefully cultivated:
+another, called Huillcahuaura, has a splendid building erected on it. In
+the middle of the valley is the extensive sugar plantation of Luhmayo.
+Near this place I saw, in a negro's hut, an ounce of immense size, which
+had been killed a few weeks previously. More than fifty Negroes and
+Indians had been engaged in subduing this ferocious animal, which was
+not killed until after a conflict of two days, in the course of which
+several negroes were dangerously wounded. This gigantic specimen
+measured, from the snout to the tip of the tail, eight feet three
+inches; the tail itself measuring two feet eight inches.
+
+At the sugar works of Luhmayo, notwithstanding the number of pipes, and
+other methods of supplying water, the cylinders are always worked by
+oxen, and are kept in motion day and night. I took a view of the works
+during the night, and the extraordinary picture I beheld will never be
+effaced from my memory. In the middle of the spacious building
+appropriated to the operations blazed a large fire, fed by the refuse
+of sugar canes. Around lay negroes, some asleep, and others muttering
+to each other in an under-tone. Here and there sat one perfectly
+silent, wrapped in his own reflections, and apparently brooding over
+some gloomy plan. The oxen paced slowly round the pole, which directed
+the movement of the cylinders; the animals alternately disappearing in
+the obscure background, and returning to the point where the glare of
+the fire, falling full upon them, lighted them up as if by the sudden
+effect of magic. Behind them stalked a tall black figure, driving them
+on with a rod made of brambles. Groups of children were busily
+employed in thrusting the full sugar canes between the cylinders; and
+after they were pressed, collecting together the sapless reeds, and
+piling them up in regular heaps.
+
+Next morning the person who officiated as medical superintendant of the
+plantation, showed me all the arrangements of the establishment. He gave
+me an account of his cures and operations, and told me that he often
+found it necessary to amputate, because the slaves purposely injure
+their fingers and arms in the _Phalangeles_ (machines) in order to
+disable themselves. The worthy AEsculapius had never in his life read a
+regular medical work. He had originally been an overseer of slaves,
+and had afterwards turned doctor. He informed me that some time before
+I saw him, ninety negroes, his patients, had died of small-pox in the
+space of nine months, whereby the owner of the plantation had lost
+45,000 dollars. The hospital was clean and well fitted up, but
+over-crowded with sick. Most of them died from intermitting fever, and
+from dropsy and rheumatism which followed it. Not a few of the male
+negroes suffer from a peculiar kind of cutaneous disease, which shows
+itself by large pustules on the arms and breast. After suppuration
+they dry and fall off, but leave indelible spots, which, on a black
+skin, are of a whitish color; on a brown skin, olive-green, and on a
+white skin, black. I never saw the disease in any other part of the
+country except in this valley. Negroes and persons of mixed blood are
+more subject to it than the whites.
+
+The two plantations on the east side of the valley are Chambara and
+Quipico. The latter is celebrated for the fine sugar it produces, and is
+also well known on account of the original character of its late
+proprietor, Castilla. When I rode into the court, I was in a moment
+surrounded by about fifty fine greyhounds, and from every side others
+came springing forward. This was but a remnant of Castilla's collection.
+He was passionately devoted to hunting, and generally kept from 200 to
+300 greyhounds, with which he rode out daily. A bell was rung at certain
+hours to collect the light-footed tribe to their meals. A gallows was
+erected in the court, where the intractable underwent capital punishment
+as a warning to the rest. One day when Castilla went out to hunt, he was
+joined in the chase by an Indian, who brought with him a common mongrel.
+This animal outstripped some of the greyhounds in speed, and quickly
+overtook the deer. Castilla immediately bought the dog, for which he
+gave the immense price of 350 dollars. A few days after he rode out to
+hunt with his best greyhounds, together with the newly-purchased dog.
+The pack being let loose, all the dogs set off in full chase, but the
+mongrel remained quietly beside the horses. On returning to the
+plantation, he was hung up on the gallows as a warning example.
+
+To the north of Huacho, the _Pampa del medio mundo_, a sand plain, seven
+leagues long, stretches out to the village of Supe. At short successive
+distances farther to the north are the villages of _Baranca_,
+_Pativilca_ (or rather Pati Huillca), and _la Fortaleza_. Then there
+intervenes a vast waste, which extends nearly to Huarmay. Between that
+village and the Port of Casma there is a similar long plain of sand.
+Thus do wastes, and fruitful valleys, alternate along the whole coast
+until near Tumbez, on the frontiers of the Republic of the Ecuador.
+
+The whole district is rich in memorable monuments of the time of the
+Incas. The most important are the remains of the palace of King Chimu
+Cancha, not far from the harbor of Huanchaco, and the ruins of
+Paramanca, near la Fortaleza. Doctor Unanue[45] is of opinion that the
+latter edifice was built to commemorate the peace between King Chimu
+Cancha and his conqueror, Capac Yupanqui; and that of two other
+buildings, one (the larger), situated towards the east, marks the
+dominions of the powerful Inca Pachacutec, and the other (the smaller),
+towards the west, indicates the territory of the conquered Chimu. This
+supposition is, in my opinion, quite erroneous. Independently of the
+plainly-recognizable character of those ruins, the construction of which
+shows them to have been fortifications, their situation bears evidence
+against the inference of Unanue. Supposing the larger building to have
+indicated the position of the Inca Empire, it ought to have been
+situated to the south, and the smaller building would have been to the
+north. The only passable road along the coast led between these two
+fortified hills; and by them the road on that side to the Kingdom of
+Chimu could be cut off. The Incas well knew, from experience, that the
+subdued populations, usually after a longer or a shorter time, again
+revolted, and endeavored to shake off their yoke, and therefore they
+were on their guard against such an occurrence. Capac Yupanqui must
+have greatly mistrusted an enemy so formidable as Chimu Cancha, who
+had only yielded after the most obstinate resistance, and it is no
+slight proof of this that Paramanca[46] was built as a fortress to
+hold the subjugated nations in check. It was not, however, built as a
+monument of victory, for such monuments were always erected in Cozco,
+the capital, and never on the field of battle. Etymology affords no
+solution of this question. Some write Paramonga, others Paramanca. I
+regard the latter as the most correct. Garcilaso de la Vega calls the
+valley Parmunca. In the Quichua dialect _Paramanca_[47] signifies a
+pot for rain. It is therefore possible that the name may indicate an
+allusion to heavy torrents of rain, which, though now unusual on this
+particular part of the coast, may have occurred in this basin-like
+valley after a great earthquake.
+
+Five leagues to the south of Huacho are the extensive _Salinas_, or salt
+pits, which supply Peru and Chile with excellent salt. They spread from
+the sea coast to the distance of half a league eastward, and present a
+most extraordinary aspect. On approaching them the traveller might fancy
+he beholds a field of glaciers, on which the sun's rays produce
+wonderful effects of variegated color.
+
+This salt is the produce of a natural evaporation of the sea water,
+which trickles through the porous stones of the coast, and fills every
+intervening hollow. The whole space is parcelled into divisions, called
+fields, from which, according to a definite regulation, square masses,
+weighing each one hundred pounds, are cut. In a few days the holes are
+again filled up with sea water, which, in the space of twelve to
+sixteen, or sometimes twenty to twenty-four months, being evaporated by
+the sun, leaves a precipitate completely filling up the square holes.
+The government has farmed the salinas to a private individual in Huacho,
+who keeps on the spot an overseer with the necessary number of
+laborers. This establishment is an inexhaustible source of wealth, and
+it can only be destroyed by a violent earthquake. In the bay on which
+the salinas border there is very convenient and secure anchoring
+ground, where coasters are constantly lying, ready to receive the
+salt, and convey it to any Peruvian or Chilean port. Most of the
+laborers employed in the salinas suffer from diseases of the skin and
+rheumatism. Water and provisions have to be brought from Huacho. The
+Indians, when they come from the mountains to convey salt, never take
+their llamas to the salinas. They go straight to Huacho, where the
+animals are loaded at the great depots. Each llama carries the weight
+of one hundred pounds, which, however, is not, like ordinary burthens,
+laid on the bare back of the animal--beneath it is placed a layer of
+thick woollen cloth, called a _jerga_.
+
+The road southward from the Salinas runs, for the distance of nine
+leagues, through deep sand, chiefly along the sea-coast, and is bounded
+on the east by the _Lomas de Lachay_. Here flocks of strand snipes and
+flamingoes fly constantly before the traveller, as if to direct his
+course. In the _pescadores_ (fishermen's huts), five leagues from the
+Salinas, brackish water and broiled fish may be obtained, and sometimes
+even clover, which is brought hither, from the distance of several
+miles, to feed the hungry horses. From the pescadores the road crosses
+steep sand-hills, which rise from three to four hundred feet high, and
+fall with a declivity of more than sixty degrees towards the sea. The
+road leads along the side of these hills, and, where the ground is not
+firm, it is exceedingly dangerous. On a false step of the horse the
+ground yields beneath his hoof, and rolls down the declivity; but by due
+care the rider can easily recover a solid footing. There is on one of
+these hills a very large stone, which at a certain distance presents in
+color and form a deceptious similarity to an enormous-sized seal. Almost
+perpendicularly under it is a small bay, inhabited by a multitude of
+seals. The dull crashing sound made by the breakers on the shore,
+mingling with the howling of these animals, makes a gloomy impression on
+the traveller who is passing along the height above them, and creates a
+sort of shuddering sensation. The natives call this place and its sounds
+the _Grita Lobos_ (the Sea-dog's Howl). From this hilly ground the road
+descends into the fruitful valley of the _Pasamayo_, which contains two
+villages and eighteen plantations.
+
+Chancay, the principal town in this valley, is the residence of a
+sub-prefect. It is a league and a half from the river, and a short
+league from the sea, where there is an inconsiderable and not very safe
+port, which can only be entered by small vessels. The number of
+inhabitants is about 1200, chiefly Indians and Mulattos. Excellent
+fruits and vegetables, good beef, mutton, and poultry, and well-flavored
+fish, are found here in abundance. The houses are all of the poorest
+structure, and are sparingly and rudely furnished. In the neighboring
+farms, some of which are large, as Torreblanco, Pasamayo, &c., maize is
+extensively cultivated for exportation and for food to the swine, which
+are very numerous. In no other valley of Peru are there so many
+earth-fleas, or _piques_, as they are called, particularly about the
+plantations. The _pique_ is a small, white insect, which lives in sand,
+but fastens as a parasite on man and beast, more particularly on swine.
+It attacks man by penetrating the skin, for the most part under the
+toe-nails, where an egg is laid, from which a painful tumor is
+afterwards formed. Should this be neglected, the brood is developed, and
+penetrates further into the flesh. Then follow violent inflammations and
+imposthumes, which sometimes assume so serious a character that the
+amputation of the foot becomes necessary. While the _pique_ is
+penetrating there is no sensation of its presence; it is first felt on
+the development of the egg, and then it is still easy to remove the
+bag which contains it, and the mother with it. The Negresses
+accomplish this with great dexterity. They make an aperture in the
+skin by scratching it with a needle, and then they draw the bag out.
+Should it burst, they take out the egg with the needle; but this is a
+very delicate operation. I have always been able to do it more
+speedily and more securely with the lancet. The hole is commonly of
+the size of a bean, and hot cigar ashes are put into it to destroy any
+eggs or larvae which may remain. These insects do not always confine
+themselves to the feet; they sometimes attack the body and the face,
+and it is in general extremely difficult for the patient to discover
+how or where he became acquainted with such troublesome companions. I
+once had six tumors, caused by broods of _piques_, on my right foot,
+and I could not trace the annoyance to any other cause than having
+stopped for a few minutes, while my horse was being saddled, in the
+_corral_, or yard, of a plantation.
+
+The road from Chancay to the Haciendas of Bisquira, Andahuasi, and the
+village of Sayan, extends in a northeasterly direction, through a dreary
+valley of sand, between rows of sterile hillocks of the most singular
+forms. I had once to travel along twelve leagues of this wearisome road,
+under the most oppressive heat of the sun. The mules were quite
+overcome, and when we reached the _Cuesta de los ahorcados_ (the hill of
+the hanged) they would not move another step. We had to descend and give
+them a long rest. We stretched ourselves under the bellies of the
+animals, the only shade we could get in this treeless waste. At last,
+after a very difficult journey, during which we lost ourselves in a
+marsh in the neighborhood of Bisquira, we arrived about midnight at
+Andahuasi. On this road, only two leagues from Chancay, near the
+Hacienda of Chancayllo, are situated the Colcas, most remarkable
+subterraneous structures, of the time of the Incas. According to
+tradition, they were built by the Yuncas, during the campaign of Capac
+Yupanqui against Chimu Cancha, as provision magazines for the numerous
+army, more than 120,000 strong.
+
+At the mouth of the Pasamayo, on the north bank, there are some salinas,
+which, however, are far more inconsiderable than those of Huacho.
+
+The first time I went from Huacho to Lima, I wished to pass over the
+whole road, twenty-eight leagues, in one uninterrupted ride; accordingly
+I left Huacho at two o'clock, P. M., in order that I might cross the
+great sand-flats during the night. A negro who knew the road accompanied
+me. We passed through Chancay at midnight. Some muleteers, lying before
+a hut, called to us, and warned us to stop, as the river had swelled
+very much. Nevertheless we proceeded onward, and by one o'clock we
+reached the Pasamayo, which, in consequence of the heavy rains from the
+mountains, had overflowed its banks. Several travellers had stretched
+themselves on the ground to wait for the morning light, and in the hope
+that the flood would by that time subside. No Chimbadores[48] were to be
+had. My negro guide looked at the water with dismay, and declared that
+he had never before witnessed so furious a swell. However, we had no
+time to lose, and I resolved to attempt the passage of the river.
+Trusting to my well tried horse, which had already carried me safely
+through many difficult coasting journeys, I cautiously rode into the
+river, which became deeper at every step. The overwhelming force of the
+stream was felt by my horse; and he presently lost his footing, though
+he still continued to struggle vigorously against the force of the
+current. At this juncture, some passing clouds obscured the moon, and I
+lost sight of a group of trees which, before leaving the opposite bank,
+I fixed my eye upon as a guiding beacon. Quite powerless, my horse
+and I were carried away by the stream, and driven against a rock in
+the middle of the river. I now heard the anxious outcries of my negro
+and the travellers on the bank, whilst the waves rose over my head.
+With a convulsive effort I pulled the bridle, and the horse then
+turning completely round, once more gained his solid footing. I then
+gave him the spur, and the courageous animal dashing again into the
+midst of the current, swam with me to the bank. I rode forward with my
+negro in search of a better fording-place, and after several fruitless
+attempts, we at length found one, and we crossed the river safely. The
+other travellers did not venture to follow our example, but called out
+begging us not to leave them behind. I sent the negro back on my horse
+to bring them over; and the noble animal went backward and forward no
+less than seven times without making one false step. After all this
+exertion, he bore me with unflagging spirit into Lima, where we
+arrived at noon on the following day.
+
+From the Pasamayo, the road runs for the space of two leagues
+tolerably level, and for the most part amidst plantations. Then
+succeed steep sandy hills, for the distance of about four leagues.
+The roads are very wearisome both to horse and rider, especially in
+the declivities towards the plains, where the horse is frequently
+over his knees in sand. In those parts there are also some
+extraordinary atmospheric mirrors, in which we beheld ourselves in
+reflection, riding over our own heads, and our figures magnified to
+gigantic proportions. Six leagues from Chancay, there are two wretched
+huts, forming the tambo, or inn, in which travellers obtain
+refreshment. From thence the road runs through a stony tract,
+partially strewn with large masses of rock, called the _Piedras
+gordas_, and leading to the marshes which surround the Copacahuana
+plantations. Two leagues further on is the river Chillon, which, like
+the Pasamayo, may generally be easily forded, but which swells
+furiously during heavy falls of rain. At a short distance behind the
+river, the road, called the Camino de Valles, joins that leading to
+Cerro de Pasco. About a league from Lima there is a place called _Palo
+seco_, which, like _Piedras gordas_, is a celebrated haunt of robbers.
+The traveller has reason to congratulate himself if he passes these
+two places without an attack.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 41: The Indians resort to very artful methods of hiding their
+money. They sometimes conceal it between the boards of the boxes in
+which their eggs are packed, or stitch it into the stuffing of their
+asses' saddles. They often submit to be killed rather than avow where
+their money is concealed.]
+
+[Footnote 42: The word Pacchacamac signifies _He who created the world
+out of nothing_. It is compounded of _Paccha_, the earth, and _camac_,
+the participle present of _caman_, to produce something from nothing.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Literally--"But there, sir, I lost the stirrups." Meaning
+that he did not understand it. The Spanish phrase, _Perder los
+estribos_, signifies to get confused or embarrassed.]
+
+[Footnote 44: _Chola_ is the common designation for an Indian female.
+The masculine is _Cholo_.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Nuevo dia del Peru. 1824.]
+
+[Footnote 46: According to some ancient authors Paramanca was built by
+King Chimu as a frontier fortress against the neighboring nations. There
+is some foundation for this view of the subject, as Chimu Cancha had,
+long before he was attacked by Capac Yupanqui, carried on war most
+fiercely with Cuyz Mancu, King of Pacchacama, and Chuquiz Mancu, King of
+Runahuanac (the present Lunahuana).]
+
+[Footnote 47: _Para_ (rain) _Manca_ (pot).]
+
+[Footnote 48: Guides, who conduct travellers across rivers, being well
+acquainted with the fords. They are also called Vadeadores.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+The Coast southward of Lima--Chilca--Curious Cigar cases made
+there--Yauyos--Pisco--Journey to Yca--A night on the Sand
+Plains--Fatal Catastrophe in the year 1823--Vine Plantations at
+Yca--Brandy and Wine--Don Domingo Elias--Vessels for transporting
+Brandy (Botijas and odres)--Cruel mode of skinning Goats--Negro
+Carnival--Peculiar species of Guinea Pig--The Salamanqueja--Cotton
+Plantations--Quebrada of Huaitara--Sangallan--Guano--Retrospect of the
+Peruvian Coast--Rivers--Medanos--Winds--Change of Seasons--the
+Garuas--The Lomas--Mammalia--Birds--Amphibia.
+
+
+The coast, southward of Lima, is similar in aspect, climate, and
+character, to those parts north of the city which have just been
+described. Fruitful valleys, villages, and plantations, commodious
+sea-ports, and vast sandy wastes, alternate one with the other. Heat,
+sometimes almost insupportable, is succeeded by chilly and unhealthy
+mists; whilst here and there the scattered monuments of the wealth and
+greatness of bygone ages present a remarkable and painful contrast to
+present poverty and misery.
+
+Proceeding southward of Lima by way of Lurin, we arrive at Chilca, a
+wretched village situated on a soil which affords nothing to supply the
+wants of human existence. It appears an incomprehensible mystery that
+man should have fixed his abode on a spot where Nature has granted
+nothing for his nourishment, not even a drop of pure water; whilst at
+the distance of a few miles, luxuriant valleys offer, spontaneously,
+those products which the most laborious toil must fail to extort from
+the ungrateful soil of Chilca. The hope of wealth from commercial
+speculation or mining industry has peopled many inhospitable shores, and
+has raised populous towns on barren deserts; but at Chilca there are no
+such stimuli of interests. Nevertheless, they may possibly have existed
+in former ages, for the numerous ruins scattered around the village
+tend to confirm the opinion that the population was very extensive under
+the government of the Incas. The force of custom and of local attachment
+which frequently chains man to the spot where his progenitors have lived
+happily, is all that can bind the natives of Chilca to their miserable
+dwelling-place. In few villages, as in Chilca, have the Indians for more
+than 300 years so carefully avoided mixing with people of other races.
+They employ themselves in plaiting straw for hats and cigar-cases. The
+latter they make in a singularly beautiful style with white and colored
+straw, which they plait into various figures and patterns--sometimes
+into names, and even lines of poetry. Some of these cigar-cases sell for
+upwards of a hundred dollars. Fishing is a less profitable occupation to
+the people of Chilca, or, as they are called in the country, the
+Chilquenos; for, owing to the great distance, only certain kinds of fish
+can be sent to the Lima market. Near the village there is a bed of very
+strong red-colored salt, which is exported to the mountains, but which
+sells at a lower price than the salt of Huacho.
+
+Five leagues south of Chilca, on the river of the same name, lies the
+village called Canete, which is the residence of a Sub-prefect. The very
+interesting province of Yauyos extends from this village in an easterly
+direction towards the Cordilleras. The inhabitants of this province are
+distinguishable by their faces and figures, and also by their manners
+and language, from the Indians of the coast and the mountains. In
+stature they are small. They have expanded foreheads, animated eyes,
+prominent cheek-bones, and wide mouths. Their limbs are slender, and
+their skin is of a swarthy brown. Their dialect, the Cauqui, contains
+many radical words of the Quichua language. After this nation was
+subjugated by the Incas their language was so intermixed with others,
+that it is now very difficult to trace out its origin. It appears to be
+totally different from the Chinchaysuyo language.
+
+Some very considerable sugar plantations, and several villages, lie
+between Canete and Pisco. Among the villages, Lunahuana and Chincha
+(upper and lower) are celebrated for their great fertility. Two rivers,
+at the distance of five leagues from each other, flow in a parallel
+direction between Chincha and Pisco, and to their waters the valleys are
+indebted for their rich vegetation. On account of their width these
+rivers can only be passed with the assistance of Chimbadores, and many
+travellers annually perish in their incautious attempts to ford them.
+The little town of Pisco is on the left bank of the south river, and
+half a league from it there is a secure harbor with good anchoring
+ground. This town has acquired some importance by the exportation of
+brandy; and it has recently become more active and populous owing to the
+near vicinity of the Guano islands. The custom-house and the port
+captain's office are on the shore, where there is also a large building
+erected by Don Domingo Elias, for a brandy depot. The little town of
+Pisco has suffered much from the plundering attacks of European pirates,
+from earthquakes, and more recently from the War of Independence.
+Several parts of it have been rebuilt. Within the few last years much
+has been done in the way of improving and ornamenting it. A broad trench
+has been dug round the town, serving the purpose of drainage, and
+thereby greatly contributing to preserve the health of the place. Pisco
+is merely the key to the large interior town of Yca, which is fourteen
+leagues distant. I visited it in the year 1842. The steamer conveyed me
+in eighteen hours from Callao to Pisco, where I hired horses and a
+guide. He was a Catalonian, who had frequently travelled to Yca.
+
+At three o'clock, P. M., we left Pisco. At first the road passed over
+very hard ground, then through deep sand, which continued till we got
+to Yca. Notwithstanding the heat, which in the month of February is
+insupportable, I was wrapped up in my woollen poncho. Experience had
+taught me that in the hotter districts the change of temperature which
+takes place at night, and causes fever, is least injurious when the
+traveller is protected in warm clothing. My Catalonian guide, who,
+with his arms covered merely by his shirt sleeves, nevertheless
+suffered greatly from the heat, could not comprehend why I had chosen
+such a dress. When I informed him that eleven days before I had, in
+the same clothing, passed a night on the Cordilleras, in the midst of
+snow, he shook his head in token of incredulity. Whilst the bell rang
+for evening prayers we rode into the Huilla Curin Plantation, which
+is surrounded by a charming grove of palm trees. We stopped for a few
+moments to gather some excellent figs. About midnight a heavy fog
+spread over the plain, and veiled from our sight a cross on the south,
+which had hitherto served to keep us in the right direction. We,
+however, advanced about a league farther. The Catalonian then often
+alighted to smell the sand, in order to ascertain whether we were
+taking the proper course. This is a very good practical method; for in
+deserts through which caravans frequently pass, the dung of the beasts
+of burthen mixed with the sand affords a sure indication of the track.
+When we had got about three quarters of a league farther on, we came
+close against a rock, which my guide--in whose acquaintance with the
+locality I had the most unbounded confidence--declared was quite
+unknown to him. There was therefore no doubt that we had got out of
+the right course. I lighted a cigar, and on examining, by its feeble
+light, my pocket compass, I discovered that instead of keeping to the
+south-east we had diverged to the west. As there was now no hope that
+the fog would clear away before day-break, we rolled ourselves in the
+warm sand, to await the coming morning.
+
+I afterwards learned that in this very spot numerous travellers had lost
+their way, and had perished of thirst. In the year 1823, a ship stranded
+on this coast, with three hundred and twenty dragoons on board, under
+the command of Colonel Lavalle. The soldiers succeeded in getting
+ashore, but thirty-six hours afterwards they were lost in this sandy
+desert. When intelligence of the shipwreck reached Pisco, a cavalry
+regiment was despatched to search for the sufferers, and to supply them
+with provisions and water; but when they were found it was discovered
+that one hundred and sixteen men had died from fatigue and thirst, and a
+few days after fifty more perished from exhaustion. It is generally
+supposed that a healthy man can live four or five days unsupplied with
+food and drink. In the temperate climate of Europe, and with bodily
+rest, this, perhaps, may be the case; but in the burning wastes of Peru
+to be deprived of nourishment for only forty-eight hours, and at the
+same time to wander about in deep sand, would be followed by certain
+death. Severe thirst is the most horrible of torments, especially when
+the body is surrounded by a medium altogether of an arid nature. At sea
+it can be much longer endured than on a surface of sand.
+
+When the grey dawn of morning appeared we again mounted our horses, and
+rode by my compass in the direction of E.S.E. After riding a few
+leagues, we turned an acute angle, which brought us into the main road,
+and we arrived that forenoon in Yca.
+
+On my return I so arranged my journey as to pass the night in Huilla
+Curin, where the horses were supplied with forage, consisting of the
+shoots and leaves of the Mastick-tree (_schinus molle_).
+
+Yca is a moderately large and very agreeably situated town. Like most of
+the larger towns on the coast it is peopled with inhabitants of all
+colors, particularly Mestizos. It is the residence of a sub-prefect and
+many rich planters. Scarcely anything but the vine is cultivated in the
+Haciendas of the environs; and this branch of husbandry contributes
+greatly to enrich the province. It is astonishing to see with what
+facility the vine thrives in a soil apparently so unfruitful. The young
+shoots are stuck into the sand almost half a foot deep, then tied up and
+left to themselves. They quickly take root and shoot forth leaves.
+Whilst the surrounding country bears the appearance of a desert, the
+vineyards of Yca are clothed in delightful verdure. The grapes are of
+superior quality, very succulent and sweet. The greater part are used
+for making brandy, which is extremely good and very well flavored. All
+Peru and a great part of Chile are supplied with this liquor from the
+Vale of Yca. The common brandy is called _Aguardiente de Pisco_, because
+it is shipped at that port. A kind of brandy of superior quality, and
+much dearer, made from Muscatel grapes, is called _Aguardiente de
+Italia_. It is distinguished by a very exquisite flavor. Very little
+wine is made at Yca. In some plantations they make a thick dark-brown
+kind, which is very sweet, and much liked by the Peruvians, though not
+very agreeable to a European palate. Only one planter, Don Domingo
+Elias,[49] the richest and most speculative cultivator on the whole
+coast, makes wine in the European manner. It is very like the wine of
+Madeira and Teneriffe, only it is more fiery, and contains a more
+considerable quantity of alcohol. Specimens which have been sent to
+Europe have obtained the unqualified approbation of connoisseurs. The
+flavor is considerably improved by a long sea voyage.
+
+The brandy, which is exported by sea, is put into large vessels made of
+clay, called _botijas_. In form they are like a pear, the broad ends
+being downwards. At the top there is a small aperture, which is
+hermetically closed with gypsum. The large _botija_ when filled weighs
+six or seven arobas. Two are a load for a mule. To the pack-saddle, or
+_aparejo_, two baskets are fastened, in which the _botijas_ are placed
+with the small ends downwards. These _botijas_ were formerly also used
+for conveying the brandy across the mountains; but, in consequence of
+the dangerous, slippery roads, over which the mules often fell, many
+were broken. Still greater damage was sustained at the springs and
+wells on the coast, for the poor animals, after their long journeys
+through the sandy wastes, rushed, on perceiving water, in full flight
+to the springs. As it happens that there is often room for only five
+or six mules, and from seventy to eighty were often pressing forward,
+a great number of the _botijas_ were unavoidably dashed to pieces in
+spite of all the caution the arrieros could exercise. The annual loss
+of brandy was immense, and to counteract this evil, bags of goatskin
+were introduced. These skins are now generally used for the
+conveyance of brandy across the mountains. The method of skinning the
+goats is the most horribly cruel that can be conceived. A negro hangs
+the living animal up by the horns, and makes a circular incision
+round his neck, which, however, goes no further than to the flesh. He
+then draws the skin from the body of the writhing animal, which
+utters the most frightful cries. When the skin is completely removed,
+and not till then, is the suffering animal killed. The negroes assert
+that the skin is most easily removed in this manner, and that the
+_odres_[50] become thereby more durable. It is to be hoped that
+humanely disposed planters will soon put an end to this barbarous
+and unreasonable practice.
+
+I happened to be in Yca at the time of the celebration of the negro
+carnival, which I will here briefly describe. In some of the principal
+streets of the town large arches are erected, and gaily decorated with
+ribbons. Round these arches negresses and mestizas dance, and endeavor
+to stop the negroes whilst riding at full gallop under the arches. The
+negroes start from the distance of about one hundred paces, and gallop
+straight to the boundary, where the women endeavor to seize the bridle,
+and to throw the rider from his saddle. The task of the men is to ride
+past the women without being stopped; and when they fail in so doing,
+they have to pay a fine, and are hooted into the bargain. It is hard to
+say which is most surprising;--the speed of the horses, the dexterity of
+the riders, or the courage of the negresses, who fearlessly throw
+themselves in the way of the galloping horses. During the race the
+negroes are pelted with unripe oranges and lemons, which, when thrown by
+the vigorous arm of a zamba, inflict a sufficiently heavy blow. I saw a
+negro gallop to and fro for the space of an hour, at full speed, and
+every time he passed under the arch he dexterously evaded the
+outstretched hands of the women; thus giving proof of uncommon bodily
+strength. While dashing at full speed through the arch of the bridge,
+and leaning forward on the horse's neck, he seized two negresses, one
+with each of his arms, and pulled them into the saddle beside him.
+
+The climate of Yca is hot, and not altogether healthy, for the torrents
+of rain which fall from the hills swell the river so as to make it
+overflow its lower bank, where marshes are formed, in which malaria is
+developed. Most of the plantations in the environs are more healthy.
+
+All the bushes in the vicinity of the town are inhabited by a kind of
+Guinea pig (_Cavia Cuttleri_, King). These animals are exceedingly
+numerous. After sunrise and towards evening, they leave their lurking
+places and play about in the grass. Upon the whole they are not shy,
+and they allow people to approach them pretty closely. The natives
+call this little animal the _Cui del Montes_, and they believe it to
+be the progenitor of the tame Guinea pig. This notion is, however,
+quite erroneous.
+
+Along the whole of the Peruvian coast there is found a small animal of
+the lizard kind, of which the natives are very much afraid. They call it
+the _Salamanqueja_. It lives in the fissures of walls, and is sometimes
+seen creeping along the lime plaster of houses. Its bite is believed to
+be mortal. From the descriptions given of this animal, I was curious to
+see it, and I commissioned some persons to procure me one. At last, an
+Indian brought me a specimen very much crushed, and I found that I had
+already got several of them in my collections. I now obtained more of
+them, and the natives beheld me with astonishment carrying them alive in
+my hand. Of the Salamanqueja there are two species, the _Diplodactylus
+lepidopygus_, Tsch., and the _Discodactylus phacophorus_, Tsch. They are
+nearly related to each other, being only distinguished by one species
+having an orifice in the thighs, serving as a passage for an issue from
+a gland which secretes a very acrid fluid. This little animal never
+bites; but it is possible that the fluid by touching a fresh wound, or
+scratch, may cause very serious consequences.
+
+To the south of Yca there are some large cotton plantations; the most
+considerable of which belong to Don Domingo Elias. The cotton for
+exportation is shipped at the port of San Nicolas. Many experienced
+captains of ships declare the bay of San Nicolas to be the safest and
+best along the whole of the western coast of South America.
+
+The Quebrada of Huaitara, which stretches to the east of Yca, is the
+principal channel of communication between this part of the coast and
+the rich mountain provinces of Jauja and Huancavelica, and from the
+latter places to Ayacucho and Cosco.
+
+Opposite to Pisco and Chinca there is a group of small islands, of which
+the largest, Sangallan, is six English miles distant from Pisco. These
+islands have of late years become celebrated on account of the great
+quantity of guano that has been exported from them.
+
+Guano (or according to the more correct orthography, Huanu)[51] is
+found on these islands in enormous layers of from 35 to 40 feet thick.
+The upper strata are of a greyish-brown color, which lower down becomes
+darker. In the lower strata the color is a rusty red, as if tinged by
+oxide of iron. The Guano becomes progressively more and more solid from
+the surface downward, a circumstance naturally accounted for by the
+gradual deposite of the strata, and the evaporation of the fluid
+particles. Guano is found on all the islands, and on most of the
+uninhabited promontories of the west coast of South America, especially
+in those parts within the tropics. I have often been assured that beds
+of Guano several feet high, covered with earth, are found inland at some
+distance from the sea; but I never met with any, and I have some doubt
+of the correctness of the statement. If, however, these inland strata
+really exist, I am inclined to believe that they can only be found on
+hilly ground; and in that case they afford strong evidence of a
+considerable elevation of the coast.
+
+Guano is formed of the excrements of different kinds of marine birds,
+as mews, divers, sheerbeaks, &c.; but the species which I can name
+with more precision are the following:--_Larus modestus_, Tsch.;
+_Rhinchops nigra_, Lin.; _Plotus Anhinga_, Lin.; _Pelecanus thayus_,
+Mol.; _Phalacrocorax Gaimardii_, and _albigula_, Tsch. (_Pelecanus
+Gaimardii_, Less., _Carbo albigula_, Brandt), and chiefly the _Sula
+variegata_, Tsch.
+
+The immense flocks of these birds as they fly along the coast appear
+like clouds. When their vast numbers, their extraordinary voracity, and
+the facility with which they procure their food, are considered, one
+cannot be surprised at the magnitude of the beds of Guano, which have
+resulted from uninterrupted accumulations during many thousands of
+years. I kept for some days a living _Sula variegata_, which I fed
+abundantly with fish. The average weight of the excrement daily was
+from 3-1/2 to five ounces. I have no doubt that when the bird is in a
+state of freedom the weight must be much greater, for these birds are
+constantly plunging into the sea, in order to devour the fishes which
+they find in extraordinary masses around all the islands. When an
+island is inhabited by millions of sea-birds, though two-thirds of
+the guano should be lost while flying, still a very considerable
+stratum would be accumulated in the course of a year.
+
+The marine birds nestle on the uninhabited islands, or on rocks near the
+shore; but they never settle on the flat beach, or any place distant
+from it inland. On this fact, I ground my conjecture that those beds of
+guano in the interior, which may have been removed from the shore by
+important elevations of the coast, are to be found only on hills.
+
+During the first year of the deposit the strata are white, and the guano
+is then called _Guano Blanco_. In the opinion of the Peruvian
+cultivators, this is the most efficacious kind. It is found in the Punta
+de Hormillos, on the islands of Islay, Jesus, Margarita, &c.
+
+As soon as the dealers in guano begin to work one of the beds, the
+island on which it is formed, is abandoned by the birds. It has also
+been remarked, that since the increase of trade and navigation, they
+have withdrawn from the islands in the neighborhood of the ports.
+
+Much has recently been written on the employment and utility of guano;
+but the manner in which it is applied as manure in Peru, seems to be but
+little known. The Peruvians use it chiefly in the cultivation of maize
+and potatoes. A few weeks after the seeds begin to shoot, a little
+hollow is dug round each root, and is filled up with guano, which is
+afterwards covered with a layer of earth. After the lapse of twelve or
+fifteen hours, the whole field is laid under water, and is left in that
+state for some hours. Of the _Guano Blanco_ a less quantity suffices,
+and the field must be more speedily and abundantly watered, otherwise
+the roots would be destroyed. The effect of this manure is incredibly
+rapid. In a few days the growth of a plant is doubled. If the manure be
+repeated a second time, but in smaller quantity, a rich harvest is
+certain. At least, the produce will be threefold that which would have
+been obtained from the unmanured soil.
+
+The haciendas of the valley of Chancay have, during the last fifty
+years, consumed annually from 33,000 to 36,000 bushels of guano brought
+from the islands of Chancha and Pisco. The price of the bushel of
+colored guano is one dollar and a quarter, and the price of the white
+from two to three dollars. The price has recently undergone many
+fluctuations, in consequence of the great exports to Europe.
+
+The employment of this kind of manure is very ancient in Peru; and there
+is authentic evidence of its having been used in the time of the Incas.
+The white guano was then chiefly found on the islands opposite to
+Chincha; so that for upwards of 600 years the deposit has been
+progressively removed from those islands without any apparent decrease
+of the accumulation. The uniformity of climate on a coast where there is
+not much rain, must contribute to render the Peruvian guano a more arid
+manure than the African, as fewer of the saline particles of the former
+being in solution, they are consequently less subject to evaporation.
+
+From 3 deg. 35' to 21 deg. 48' south latitude, a plain of sand, 540 leagues
+long, and varying from 3 to 20 leagues in breadth, stretches along the
+coast of the Pacific Ocean. It is intersected by chains of small
+hillocks, which, extending westward from the Cordilleras, gradually
+diminish in height, and either become blended with the plain, or form
+abrupt promontories, which project into the sea. Between the river Loa,
+which marks the southern frontier of the Peruvian coast, and the Tumbez,
+on the northern boundary, fifty-nine rivers, great and small, pass
+through the line of coast. Proceeding from the avalanches of the Andes
+or the small alpine lakes, they force their way through narrow
+mountain-valleys, irrigate the waste grounds, and then, after brief
+courses, flow into the great ocean.
+
+A fine light yellow drift sand covers hill and dale. It is only where
+rivers intersect the plain that oases of luxuriant vegetation are
+formed. The peril of traversing these plains is greatly increased by
+the movability of the sand and the _Medanos_. The strong winds raise
+immense clouds of dust and sand. The sand rises in columns of from
+eighty to a hundred feet high, which whirl about in all directions, as
+if moved by magic. Sometimes they suddenly overshadow the traveller, who
+only escapes from them by rapid riding.
+
+The medanos are hillock-like elevations of sand, some having a firm,
+others a loose base. The former, which are always crescent-shaped, are
+from ten to twenty feet high, and have an acute crest. The inner side is
+perpendicular, and the outer or bow side forms an angle with a steep
+inclination downward. When driven by violent winds, the medanos pass
+rapidly over the plains. The smaller and lighter ones move quickly
+forwards before the larger ones; but the latter soon overtake and crush
+them, whilst they are themselves shivered by the collision. These
+medanos assume all sorts of extraordinary figures, and sometimes move
+along the plain in rows forming most intricate labyrinths, whereby what
+might otherwise be visible in the distance is withdrawn from the view of
+the traveller. A plain often appears to be covered with a row of
+medanos, and some days afterwards it is again restored to its level and
+uniform aspect. Persons who have the greatest experience of the coast
+are apt to mistake their way, when they encounter these sand-hills.
+
+The medanos with immovable bases are formed on the blocks of rock which
+are scattered about the plain. The sand is driven against them by the
+wind, and as soon as it reaches the top point it descends on the other
+side until that is likewise covered; thus gradually arises a
+conical-formed hill. Entire hillock-chain with acute crests are formed
+in a similar manner. The small hillock-chain, by which the coast is
+intersected obliquely from east to west, is a boundary which arrests the
+progress of the wandering medanos; otherwise fruitful oases would soon
+be converted into barren sand-flats. A correct observation of these
+hillock-chains affords a most certain scale for ascertaining the
+direction of the prevailing wind. On their southern declivities are
+found vast masses of sand drifted thither by the mid-day gales. The
+northern declivity, though not steeper than the southern, is only
+sparingly covered with sand. If a hillock-chain somewhat distant from
+the sea extends in a line parallel with the Andes, namely from S.S.E. to
+N.N.W., the western declivity is almost entirely free of sand, as it is
+driven to the plain below by the southeast wind, which constantly
+alternates with the wind from the south.
+
+The movements and new formations in the deserts (like restorations
+from death to life) are only in full activity during the hot season;
+for then the parched sand yields to the slightest pressure of the
+atmosphere. In the cold season its weight increases by the absorption
+of humidity. The particles unite in masses, and more easily resist
+the wind. In the meantime the hillocks also acquire more firmness or
+compression by the increased weight which presses on them from above.
+
+In November, summer commences. The rays of the sun are refracted on the
+light grey sandy carpet, and are reflected back with scorching power.
+Every living thing which does not quickly escape from their influence is
+devoted to certain destruction. No plant takes root in the burning soil,
+and no animal finds food on the arid lifeless surface. No bird, no
+insect moves in the burning atmosphere. Only in the very loftiest
+regions, the king of the air, the majestic condor, may be seen floating,
+with daring wing, on his way to the sea coast. Only where the ocean and
+the desert blend with each other is there life and movement. Flocks of
+carrion crows swarm over the dead remains of marine animals scattered
+along the shore. Otters and seals impart life to the inaccessible rocks;
+hosts of coast birds eagerly pounce on the fish and mollusca cast on
+shore; variegated lizards sport on the sand hillocks; and busy crabs and
+sea spiders work their way by furrows through the humid coast.
+
+The scene changes in May. A thin veil of mist then overspreads the sea
+and the shore. In the following months the thickness of the mist
+increases, and it is only in October that it begins to disperse. In the
+beginning and at the end of the period called winter this mist commonly
+rises between nine and ten o'clock in the morning, and disappears about
+three, P.M. It is heaviest in August and September; and it then lies for
+weeks immoveable on the earth. It does not resolve into what may be
+properly called rain, but it becomes a fine minute precipitate which the
+natives call GARUA (thick fog or drizzling rain). Many travellers have
+alleged that there are places on the Peruvian coast which have been
+without rain for centuries. The assertion is to a certain degree
+correct, for there are many districts in which there never is rain
+except after an earthquake, and not always even then.
+
+Though the _garua_ sometimes falls in large drops, still there is
+this distinction between it and rain, that it descends not from
+clouds at a great height, but is formed in the lower atmospheric
+regions, by the union of small bubbles of mist. The average
+perpendicular height over which this fog passes does not exceed one
+thousand two hundred feet; its medium boundary is from seven to eight
+hundred feet. That it is known only within a few miles of the sea is
+a highly curious phenomenon; beyond those few miles it is superseded
+by heavy rains; and the boundary line between the rain and the mist
+may be defined with mathematical precision. I know two plantations,
+the one six leagues from Lima, the other in the neighborhood of
+Huacho: one half of these lands is watered by the garuas, the other
+half by rain, and the boundary line is marked by a wall.
+
+When the mists set in, the chain of hillocks (_Lomas_) bordering the
+sand-flats on the coasts undergoes a complete change. As if by a stroke
+of magic, blooming vegetation overspreads the soil, which, a few days
+previously, was a mere barren wilderness. Horses and cattle are driven
+into these parts for grazing, and during several months the animals find
+abundance of rich pasture. There is, however, no water; but they do not
+appear to suffer from the want of it, for they are always in good
+healthy condition on leaving the Lomas.
+
+In some parts of northern Peru, where the garuas are scanty, the
+fertility of the soil depends wholly on the mountain rains, for in
+summer most of the rivers are dried up. When there is a deficiency of
+rain, the cattle on the coast suffer greatly. A few years ago a
+haciendado, or cultivator, in the vale of Piura, lost 42,000 sheep;
+the usual flood, without which the necessary fodder could not be
+raised, did not come on at the proper time. At Piura there is such a
+total absence of dew, that a sheet of paper left for a whole night
+in the open air does not, in the morning, exhibit the smallest trace
+of humidity. In central and south Peru the moisture scarcely
+penetrates half an inch into the earth.
+
+In the oases the garuas are much heavier than in the adjacent wastes.
+Along the whole of the coast there is no rain, and no vegetation
+throughout a large circuit. The rain commences first in the north at
+Tumbez, and there extensive woods are seen. Towards the east it begins
+first in the valleys of the Cordilleras, which abound in vegetation.
+These very extraordinary phenomena remain as yet unexplained; they,
+however, merit the closest investigation of meteorologists.
+
+I may conclude this chapter by a brief view of the Fauna of the higher
+vertebral animals. In the region of the coast I have found twenty-six
+species of mammalia, only eight of which belong exclusively to the
+coast. Sixteen of the other species are to be found in the mountains or
+in the forests. The relation of this number to the whole of the mammalia
+of Peru is 1:4, 3. Distributed by single orders, they are in the
+following proportions:--Bats, four species, of which only one
+(_Vespertilio innoxius_, Gerv.) belongs to this region alone. Beasts of
+prey, ten kinds; among them one of the mephitic class, known to the
+natives by the name of _zorillo_, or _anash_; an otter (_Lutra
+chilensis_, Ben.); a fox (_Canis azarae_, Pr. Max.), which abounds in the
+cotton plantations in the neighborhood of Lima and throughout all the
+Lomas, where he preys on the lambs; several of the feline race, among
+which are the two great American species--the puma and the ounce, which
+are seldom seen on the coast, but are considerably larger than those in
+the mountains. The American lion is timid, and shuns man. When caught
+young he is easily tamed. The Indians of the northern provinces
+sometimes bring these lions to Lima, and get money for showing them.
+They lead them by a string, or put them in large sacks, and carry them
+about on their backs, until a show-loving crowd assembles around them.
+The ounces are very bold and fierce. They penetrate into plantations,
+and attack children and horses. They very cunningly avoid the numerous
+snares laid for them by the Indians. An encounter with this animal is
+serious and dangerous. A hunt seldom ends without some of the pursuers
+being killed or wounded by the animal.
+
+I have already spoken of the seals. There are three kinds of didelphic
+or marsupial animals on the coast. The natives call them _mucamuca_.
+They live in bushes and shrubberies, and they often find their way into
+the store-rooms of the plantations.
+
+Of the great section of the _Rodentia_, I know of only seven species in
+Peru; but I have no doubt that this number might be doubled by a careful
+search in the valleys on the coast. The common house-mouse is very
+numerous in Lima. The brown rat appears seldom. It came to Peru only a
+few years ago; but there is reason to apprehend that it will soon be
+very numerous. Probably it has been imported by Hamburgh ships. In
+Callao I saw specimens of some that had been killed. I did not see the
+common black rat in Peru.
+
+The Armadillo (_Dasypus tatuay, Desm._, L.) is seldom seen. It is found
+in some of the Yucca and Camote plantations. The negroes eat it, and its
+flesh is said to be good.
+
+Of wild ruminating animals there is only one on the coast: it is a kind
+of Roe (_Cervus nemorivagus_, F. Cuv., the _venado_ of the natives). The
+venados chiefly inhabit the brushwood along the coast; but after sunset
+they visit the plantations, where they commit considerable damage. They
+are smaller than our European roe, and somewhat more brown. Englishmen
+at Lima go out to hunt them. The natives do not take much interest in
+the chase. This animal is also met with in the coldest regions of the
+Cordilleras; but it does not come down to the old forests, where the Red
+Deer (_Cervus rufus_, F. Cuv.) supplies its absence.
+
+In the woods which surround some of the plantations in the valleys of
+Lima, wild boars (_Chanchos Simarones_) are occasionally found. They are
+of immense size. At the plantation called the _Hacienda de Caraponga_,
+one was killed, of which the head alone was an ordinary burthen for a
+mule.
+
+The number of birds in this very extensive quarter of Peru (the marine
+and river fowl being excepted) is very inconsiderable. The scarcity of
+woods and high trees may probably account for this. Besides the carrion
+vulture, condors collect in great numbers on the shore to prey on the
+stranded whales. Falcons seldom appear, except the small Sparrow Hawk
+(_Falco sparverius_, L.), which is very numerous in Peru. One of the
+most common birds is the little Earth Owl (_Noctua urucurea_, Less.),
+which is met with in nearly all the old ruins scattered along the coast.
+The Pearl Owl (_Strix perlata_, L.) is bred in several plantations, as
+it is found useful in catching mice. Swallows are not very common; they
+do not nestle on the housetops, but on walls at some distance from
+towns. The Peruvians give them the euphonious name, _Palomitas de Santa
+Rosa_ (Santa Rosa's little pigeons). Among the singing-birds the Crowned
+Fly King (_Myoarchus coronatus_, Cab.) is the most distinguished. The
+head, breast, and belly of this bird are deep red, the wings and back
+very dark brown. He always plants himself on the highest point of a
+tree, flies perpendicularly upward, whirls about in the air singing, and
+drops down again straight to his former perch. The Limenos have given
+this elegant bird a very unbecoming name, which I need not repeat here.
+On some parts of the coast it is called _Saca-tu-real_ (draw out your
+real), because his song sounds like these words. Some fine Tanagers
+(_Tanagra frugilega_, Tsch.; _Tanagra analis_, Tsch.) visit the fruit
+gardens round Lima. I saw two birds, of the starling species, the
+red-bellied Picho (_Sturnella militaris_, Viell.), and the
+glossy-black Chivillo (_Cassicus palliatus_, Tsch.), which are kept
+in cages on account of their very melodious song. Three kinds of
+parrots, which abound in the valleys on the coast, commit great
+depredations in the maize fields. The largest (_Conurus tumultuosus_,
+Tsch.) is green, with a red forehead, and some red feathers scattered
+over the body. A second sort builds its nest chiefly on the sides of
+rocks (_Conurus rupicola_, Tsch.), and only occasionally visits the
+plantations. The third is the smallest, but at the same time the most
+beautiful of the whole (_Conurus sitophaga_, Tsch.). A fine green
+overspreads all the upper part of the body, a blue fringe borders the
+feathers of the wings; and a bright citron-yellow is diffused over
+the forehead, neck, breast, and belly. It is only seven inches long.
+Pigeons, large and small, swarm in such multitudes over the
+corn-fields, and in the environs, that they may almost be called the
+great plague of the country. One of the finest is the little
+_Turtuli_ (_Chaemepelia gracilis_, Tsch.), on the wing of which
+there is a row of very beautiful shining violet spots. The _Cuculi_,
+one of the largest pigeons, is a great favorite. It is kept much in
+cages. Its song, which is monotonous, yet very melodious, is kept up
+from the earliest hours of the morning until midday, and it begins
+again nearly at sunset. The song consists merely of a threefold
+repetition of _cu-cu-li_. After a pause, it resumes the song again.
+There are, however, some of those birds which repeat the _cuculi_
+oftener than thrice, and their price increases according to the
+number of their uninterrupted repetitions, which seldom exceed five
+or six. In Cocachacra, however, I heard one of these birds which
+repeated its _cuculi_ fourteen times. The owner would not sell it
+under fourteen gold ounces.
+
+The amphibia on the Peruvian coast are proportionally much better
+represented than the two foregoing classes. The gigantic tortoises
+(_Chelonia imbricata_ and _Ch. midas_, Schweig.) visit in great
+numbers the few little frequented inlets. The elephant tortoise
+(_Testudo Schweigeri_) is often found on some islands, and in the
+marshy mouths of several rivers.
+
+Two kinds of Crocodiles (_Champsa sclerops_ and _Ch. fissipes_, Wagl.)
+inhabit the Rio de la Chira. They grow to the length of fourteen
+or fifteen feet.
+
+Among the lizard class of reptiles, very large bright green Iguanas are
+found on the south coast; for instance, in the Caletas near Merillones,
+&c.; but there are great numbers of the land Agama, of which I found
+several new species, viz., _Steirolepis tigris_, _thoracica_,
+_quadrivittata_, _xanthostigma_, Tsch.; _Liolaemus elegans_, Tsch.;
+_Ctenoblepharys adspersa_, Tsch., &c., &c. I have already mentioned the
+Gecko, called the _Salamanqueja_.
+
+Serpents upon the whole are rather seldom seen. They belong to
+different kinds, some poisonous, some innoxious (for example,
+_Zacholus_, _Psammophis_, _Oxyrrhopus_, _Siphlophis_, _Ophis_, _Elaps_,
+&c., &c.). A very poisonous viper (_Echidna ocellata_, Tsch.) inhabits
+the sugar-cane fields. Its bite is almost instantaneously mortal.
+
+The genuine frog is not to be found on the coast, and of the bladder
+frog only two kinds are known (_Cystignathus roseus_ and _nodosus_,
+Dum. Bibr.). I have found three amphibia of the toad class. The Thorn
+toad (_Bufo spinulosus_, Wiegam.), which has its body thickly covered
+with a thorny kind of warts. The beautiful red spotted toad (_Bufo
+thaul_), and a very curious and ugly kind with a round, swelled out
+body, a loose skin, and a large bladder under the chin (_Anaxyrus
+melancholicus_, Tsch.). At night the cry of this animal is a discordant
+melancholy howl.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 49: Elias is eminent not only as an extensive landowner and
+cultivator, but as a statesman. During the revolution of 1843 and 1844,
+he was called upon to place himself at the head of the government. He
+discharged the duties of that high office with singular judgment and
+moderation. He and his lady are distinguished for their courteous and
+liberal hospitality; and many foreign visitors, like myself, look back
+with pleasure on the happiness they derived from the friendship of Don
+Domingo Elias.]
+
+[Footnote 50: An odre is a goat-skin prepared for carrying wine.]
+
+[Footnote 51: The original word is Huanu, which is a term in the
+Quichua dialect meaning "animal dung;" for example, _Huanacuhuanu_
+(excrement of the Huanacu). As the word is now generally used it is an
+abbreviation of _Pishu Huanu--Bird-dung_. The Spaniards have converted
+the final syllable _nu_ into _no_, as they do in all the words adopted
+from the Quichua which have the like termination. The European
+orthography _Guano_, which is also followed in Spanish America, is
+quite erroneous, for the Quichua language is deficient in the letter
+_G_, as it is in several other consonants. The _H_, in the commencement
+of the word, is strongly aspirated, whence the error in the orthography
+of the Spaniards, who have sadly corrupted the language of the
+Autochthones of Peru.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+Roads leading to the Sierra--Chaclacayo and Santa Ines--Barometrical
+observations--San Pedro Mama--The Rio Seco--Extraordinary Geological
+Phenomenon--Similar one described by Mr. Darwin--Surco--Diseases
+peculiar to the Villages of Peru--The Verugas--Indian mode of treating
+the disorder--The Bird-catching Spider--Horse-Shoeing--Indian
+Tambos--San Juan de Matucanas--The Thorn-apple and the Tonga--The Tambo
+de Viso--Bridges--San Mateo--Passports--Acchahuari--Malady called the
+Veta--Its effects on horses--Singular tact and caution of
+Mules--Antarangra and Mountain Passes--Curious partition of
+Water--Piedra Parada--Yauli--Indian Smelting Furnaces--Mineral
+Springs--Portuguese Mine owners--Saco--Oroya--Hanging
+Bridges--Huaros--Roads leading from Oroya.
+
+
+From Lima two main roads lead to the Sierra or the mountains. One runs
+northward through the valley of Canta, in the direction of the rich
+silver mines of Cerro de Pasco; the other, taking a more southerly
+direction, passes through the Quebrada of Matucanas, to the villages of
+Tarma, Jauja, and Huancayo; and still further south, leads to
+Huancavelica, Ayacucho, and Cuzco. All the roads running from the coast
+to the Sierra, present a similarity of character. Taking an oblique
+direction from the margin of the coast, they run into one or other of
+the fan-shaped Cordillera valleys, all of which are intersected by
+rivers. Following the course of these rivers, the roads become steeper
+and steeper, and the valleys soon contract into mere ravines,
+terminating at the foot of the Cordillera. The traveller then threads
+his way up the acclivity, amidst stupendous masses of rock, until he
+reaches the lofty ridge. Then a gradual descent leads to the level
+heights, and thence into the deep mountain valleys.
+
+Former travellers having already described the route by way of Canta, I
+will here trace the course through the Quebrada of Matucanas. In so
+doing, I am enabled to present to the reader the results of some
+barometrical observations which are the more interesting, inasmuch as
+the Cordillera here advances more nearly to the coast than at any other
+point.
+
+The most easterly gate of the city of Lima (the Portada de Maravillas)
+opens upon a broad road, which runs directly eastward. At the distance
+of about a league and a half from the city, the road passes over a stone
+bridge called the _Puente de Surco_, a place famed for robbers. At this
+point the surrounding country presents a wild and dreary aspect. Ranges
+of grey and barren hills encompass the valley; the ground is for the
+most part covered with sand and gravel. Desolate remains of plantations
+and the ruins of habitations bear evidence of the life and activity that
+once animated this desert region, now abandoned by all save the fierce
+bandit and his victim, the solitary traveller.
+
+Along the margins of the river, patches of moor-ground here and there
+serve as pasture. Clover and maize are produced only in those parts
+where the soil is manured and artificially watered. Low brushwood and
+reeds, growing on the banks of the Rimac, supply firewood to the city of
+Lima, and are a source of profit to some of the plantation-owners in
+the valley. At Periachi, four leagues from the capital, the road takes
+a turn to north-east, and continues in that direction, with but little
+deviation, as far as the base of the Cordillera. Two leagues beyond
+Pariachi we reach Chaclacayo, a village containing about thirty
+miserable reed huts. The plantation of Santa Ines, a little further
+on, is situated at 2386 feet above the level of the sea.[52] Mr.
+Maclean, an English merchant in Lima, who has sent many interesting
+Peruvian plants to the hothouses of England, and who has made some
+very attentive barometrical observations during a journey in the
+interior of the country, calculates the altitude of Chaclacayo at 2265
+feet above the sea.[53] Rivero makes it 2010 feet above that level.[54]
+The difference between these calculations is remarkable; and in more
+considerable altitudes the discrepancy is still more considerable, being
+sometimes as much as from eight to nine hundred feet. I am inclined to
+believe that it is attributable less to inaccuracy of observation than
+to the very imperfect instrument made use of by Rivero. Maclean's
+observations, with some trifling exceptions, correspond with mine. He
+used one of Fortin's barometers, and I one of Lefevre's, which, prior to
+my departure from Europe, had, during several weeks, been regulated at
+the observatory in Paris. Unluckily, this excellent instrument was
+injured by a fall from my horse, and I found it impossible to get it
+repaired. Some barometrical observations made by M. C. Gay, during a
+journey in Peru, in the years 1839-40, with one of Bunten's barometers,
+deviate very considerably from all those above mentioned. Between the
+calculations of Gay and Rivero there is an average difference of from
+six hundred to one thousand feet.
+
+On the road to Pasco, the Hacienda of Cavallero corresponds, in its
+distance from the capital, with the village of Chaclacayo, on the road I
+am here describing. At Chaclacayo wheat and sugar are cultivated. The
+sugar cane thrives well, and might be grown in greater quantity. In some
+of the coast districts I have seen the sugar cane cultivated at the
+height of 4500 feet above the sea; and I have seen it grow
+spontaneously, and attain perfect maturity, as high as 6800 feet.
+
+From Santa Ines the road continues gradually ascending to the little
+village of San Pedro Mama, where the two rivers, San Mateo and Santa
+Olaya, unite and form the Rimac. The walls of mountain which enclose the
+valley here rise almost perpendicularly, and afford nestling-places for
+small, richly-plumed parrots (_Conurus rupicola_, Tsch.). I was much
+surprised to see these birds inhabiting the barren rocks, as the parrot
+always dwells in woody regions, and is found in other places only when
+on its passage. I know no other species of this family, save the one I
+have just mentioned, which permanently nestles on mountains.
+
+Three leagues beyond San Pedro lies the village of Cocachacra. It is a
+small and poor place, but is picturesquely situated, and enjoys a fine
+climate. Its name, signifying _coca-field_, or _plantation_, denotes
+that coca must formerly have been cultivated here. At present that
+plant is not grown in any part near the coast, as it requires a damp and
+very warm climate. Cocachacra is 5386 feet above the level of the sea.
+Maclean fixes the altitude of San Pedro Mama, Santa Olaya, and
+Cocachacra, at 5331 feet. Supposing this calculation to be correct with
+respect to the latter village, it cannot also apply to San Pedro Mama
+and Santa Olaya, which lie much lower. At the two last-mentioned places
+I made no barometrical observations.
+
+On the Pasco road the hamlet of Llanga is situated, at twelve leagues
+from Lima. On the other road Cocachacra is the same distance from the
+capital; but Cocachacra is about 2400 feet higher than Llanga. Between
+Cavallero and Llanga there is an interesting geological phenomenon,
+which I will here describe.
+
+At the distance of two leagues from Lima the road takes a turn. At first
+it runs direct north, or north-north-west; suddenly it turns to
+north-north-east, and advances along the bank of the river Chillon as
+far as Cavallero. From thence, with slight deviations, it continues in
+the same course to Llanga, but at a considerable distance from the
+river, as the latter takes a wide sweep northward. From Cavallero the
+road runs for the space of three leagues, still ascending, through a
+barren district, along the dry bed of a river, called the Rio Seco. The
+last half-league of the way is very steep, and leads to the ridge of a
+chain of hillocks running diagonally across the valley. The ground is
+strewed with fragments of porphyry and other kinds of rock, like the bed
+of the Rimac. On reaching the ridge of the line of hillocks, the
+traveller beholds on the other side a hollow basin, like the dry bed of
+a lake: a furrow, extending lengthwise through this hollow, is the
+continuation of the bed of the river which is intersected by the chain
+of hills. Descending into the valley, and again following the course of
+the Rio Seco to the distance of about three leagues, we reach the
+village of Alcocoto, and once more arrive on the bank of the Rio de
+Chillon.
+
+Here, therefore, we have evidence of the following remarkable facts,
+viz.:--that at some former period the river of Chillon flowed
+north-westward from Alcocoto to Cavallero, in the bed that is now
+dry; and that a chain of hills has been upheaved diagonally across the
+valley and the river. By this chain of hills the water, being dammed
+up, formed a lake; then it was again driven back; until the stream
+broke into a new course at Alcocoto, by which means the lake emptied
+itself, and, having no new supply of water, it dried up. Now the Rio
+de Chillon flows from Alcocoto to Cavallero, taking a wide turn, first
+westward, next south-westward, and lastly, direct south, until, at a
+sharp angle, it unites with the old bed of the river. The point of
+junction is a quarter of a mile from the Hacienda Cavallero. This is,
+however, not a solitary example of the course of a river being
+interrupted by the uplifting of a ridge of hills. A similar instance
+is mentioned by Mr. Darwin, who, however, did not see it himself, but
+who describes it as follows, from the observation of his countryman,
+Mr. Gill, the engineer:--
+
+"Travelling from Casma to Huaraz, not far distant from Lima, he (Mr.
+Gill) found a plain covered with ruins and marks of ancient cultivation,
+but now quite barren. Near it was the dry course of a considerable
+river, whence the water for irrigation had formerly been conducted.
+There was nothing in the appearance of the water-course to indicate that
+the river had not flowed there a few years previously; in some parts,
+beds of sand and gravel were spread out; in others, the solid rock had
+been worn into a broad channel, which in one spot was about forty yards
+in breadth, and eight feet deep. It is self-evident that a person
+following up the course of a stream will always ascend at a greater or
+less inclination. Mr. Gill, therefore, was much astonished, when walking
+up the bed of this ancient river, to find himself suddenly going down
+hill. He imagined that the downward slope had a fall of about forty or
+fifty feet perpendicular. We here have unequivocal evidence that a ridge
+had been uplifted right across the old bed of the stream. From the
+moment the river-course was thus arched the water must necessarily have
+been thrown back, and a new channel formed. From that period, also, the
+neighboring plain must have lost its fertilizing stream, and become a
+desert."[55]
+
+The inference here deduced is, that the rising took place at a period
+when the district was inhabited and cultivated by men. Of the period
+of the uplifting between Cavallero and Alcocoto I could discern no
+proofs. But the impression produced by the dry river bed involuntarily
+suggests the idea that, at no very distant period, it must have been
+the lodgment of a stream; for it is in all respects similar to the
+temporary dry river beds so frequently met with on the coast of Peru.
+
+I made repeated visits to the Rio Seco, and I always contemplated with
+wonder the curious deviation of the river's course. But I must candidly
+confess that during my abode in Peru, I did not venture to attribute
+that deviation to so partial an uplifting; for I was ignorant of the
+existence of any similar phenomenon which would have supported such an
+opinion. Now, however, the example referred to by the eminent English
+geologist, and which has its existence on the same coast of Peru, sets
+all my doubts at rest, and I am quite convinced of the correctness of
+Mr. Darwin's view of the subject.
+
+Having made this digression, I must now carry the reader back to
+Cocachacra. Pursuing the road to the distance of three leagues further,
+we arrive at San Geronimo de Surco. The valley in this part becomes more
+contracted; but on the whole its character is unchanged, with the
+exception that the mountains gradually become higher and steeper, and
+the soil less fertile. The road frequently runs along lofty walls of
+rock, or winds round sharp projections, which overhang deep chasms, in
+passing which the greatest precaution is requisite.
+
+In several of the valleys on the road from the coast to the Sierra, and
+above all in the valley of Surco, there are certain springs, the water
+of which the Indians never drink. When a stranger unguardedly approaches
+one of these springs for the purpose of quenching his thirst, he is
+saluted by warning cries of _Es agua de Veruga!_ (It is veruga water!)
+Even horses and mules are not suffered to refresh themselves at these
+springs, where the water is supposed to have the effect of producing a
+disorder called the _Verugas_. As the existence of this disease is not
+known in any other country, there appears ground for believing that it
+has its origin in certain local circumstances. The verugas first
+manifests itself by sore throat, pains in the bones, and other feverish
+symptoms. In the course of a few days an eruption of red-colored
+pimples, or boils, appears. These pimples sometimes increase in
+magnitude, till, in some parts of the body, they become nearly as large
+as an egg, and blood flows from them to such an excess, that the
+strength of the patient is exhausted, and consumption frequently
+follows. From the small verugas the flow of blood is greatest. I knew an
+instance of a half-caste Indian who from a small veruga below the ankle
+lost two pounds of blood.
+
+I was not able to trace this disease to any other cause than that which
+the Indians assign to it. At all events, it is certain that travellers
+who abstain from drinking the water of the condemned springs, escape the
+verugas; whilst those who only once taste such water, are attacked by
+the disorder. It is the same with mules and horses. One of my mules
+which drank veruga water was attacked by a large tumor on the leg. The
+disease is notoriously prevalent in the village of Santa Olaya.
+
+The medical treatment of the Verugas by the Indians is quite empirical.
+They administer to the patient the infusion of a plant which they call
+_Huajra-Huajra_; that is, Horn-Horn.[56] I never witnessed any
+convincing proof of its efficacy. Its operation appears to be merely
+sudorific. A preparation of white maize is also frequently given, and
+it has the effect of assisting the action of the skin. When the
+eruption of the verugas is tardy, a few spoonfuls of wine are found to
+be of great service. Sudorific and purifying medicines, together with
+cutting out the large verugas, and keeping the wounds for a time in a
+state of suppuration, have heretofore been found the best mode of
+treatment. An accurate chemical analysis of the water which the Indians
+declare to be _agua de veruga_, would be very desirable.[57]
+
+In the Quebrada of Canta, where the verugas are less common than in
+that of Matucanas, another disease, called the Uta, is of very frequent
+occurrence. The uta is a sort of cancer, and it is more fearful in its
+consequences than the verugas. Probably in no country in the world do
+so many local diseases prevail as in Peru. Every valley has its own
+peculiar disease, which frequently does not extend beyond the boundary
+of a few square miles, and is quite unknown in neighboring districts.
+The origin of these disorders is, doubtless, to be traced to certain
+mineral or vegetable influences as yet unknown. It is remarkable how
+unequally these baneful visitations affect the different races of the
+inhabitants. The Indians and the lighter classes of half-castes are
+most frequently attacked by the verugas; the whites are less liable to
+the disease, whilst the negroes and people of the darker shades of
+mixed blood seldom suffer from it. The Indians and the Chinos are
+particularly liable to the uta. The caracha, of which I have already
+spoken,[58] visits the Negroes, the Zamboes, and the Mulattoes; the
+lighter-complexioned races being much less liable to it.
+
+At Quibe I saw a bird-catching spider (_mygale_), of extraordinary large
+size. The back part of the body alone measured two inches. Being at some
+distance I supposed it to be one of the rodent animals, and I fired at
+it. To my mortification I discovered my mistake when too late, for the
+specimen was completely destroyed by the shot, and was useless for my
+collection. The Indians assured me that on the margin of the stream
+which flowed near the plantation many larger individuals were to be
+found; but I never saw another of such remarkable size as the one I
+inadvertently destroyed.
+
+San Geronimo de Surco is 6945 feet above the level of the sea. It is a
+long village, and is situated in one of the most fertile parts of the
+valley. The houses are detached one from another, and each is
+surrounded by a little chacra. This place may be regarded as the
+boundary-line between the coast and the Sierra. The climate is
+agreeable--rather hot than cold. Most of the coast plants thrive here
+with little culture. Bananas, chirimoyas, superb granadillas,
+pomegranates, camotes, &c., grow here in luxuriant abundance. Yuccas I
+did not see: their elevation boundary is lower. San Geronimo de Surco
+is infested with swarms of annoying insects, especially sancudos
+(_Culex molestus_, Kell.), and stinging flies (species of _Simoleum_),
+which banish sleep from the resting-place of the weary traveller.
+
+In this village there is an old Spaniard who keeps a tambo, and at the
+same time exercises the calling of a farrier. One of my horse's shoes
+being loose, I got him to fasten it on. For hammering in eight nails he
+made me pay half a gold ounce, and at first he demanded twelve dollars.
+He doubtless bore in mind the old Spanish proverb: "_Por un clavo se
+pierde una herradura, por una herradura un cavallo, por un cavallo un
+cavallero_,"[59] and he felt assured that I must have the damage repaired
+at any price. Shortly after my arrival in the Sierra I got myself
+initiated in the art of horse-shoeing, and constantly carried about with
+me a supply of horse-shoes and nails, a plan which I found was generally
+adopted by travellers in those parts. It is only in the larger Indian
+villages that farriers are to be met with, that is to say in places
+fifty or sixty leagues distant from each other.
+
+From Surco the road runs to the distance of two leagues tolerably
+level, and very close to the river, which, from Cocachacra, bears the
+name of Rio de San Mateo. The next village is San Juan de Matucanas, at
+a little distance from which there is a tambo, situated at the height
+of 8105 feet above the sea.[60] These tambos of the Sierra are wretched
+places, but the traveller may find in them shelter, and possibly some
+miserable kind of food. Even in Lima the tambos are not much better. In
+the capital a tambo affords the traveller the accommodation of a room,
+containing a table, a chair, and a bedstead; for it is always
+understood that he brings his mattress and bedding along with him. In
+the interior of the country the accommodation is limited to an empty
+space on the floor, just large enough to spread a mattress upon.
+Whenever the state of the weather permitted I always preferred sleeping
+in the open air. Even on a rainy night a lodging on the outside of the
+door is preferable to the interior of the hut, where Indians, negroes,
+dogs and pigs are all huddled together. In these tambos there is
+seldom any scarcity of brandy or chicha; but the hungry traveller
+sometimes cannot get even a potatoe or a bit of maize. Frequently, when
+the Indians really have provisions they will not produce them, because
+they are fearful of not being paid. This suspicion is pardonable
+enough; for when troops march through the villages the inhabitants are
+often cheated by the officers, and ill-treated into the bargain.
+Generally, in this part of the country, the people are civil, and will
+readily sell provisions if they are paid. Not so the Indians of the
+higher mountains eastward of the Cordillera. To the traveller's demand
+for something to eat, their uniform reply is "_Manam canchu_" (we have
+nothing); and it is often found necessary to resort to force in order
+to convert this monotonous answer into the more agreeable "_Ari
+conchu_" (here is something).
+
+Matucanas, which is rather a large village, lies on the left bank of the
+Rimac. The houses are of brick, and roofed with straw. The soil round
+this village is fertile, though not favorable to the growth of those
+plants which demand a very warm temperature. The agricultural produce is
+therefore limited to maize, wheat, lucerne (which is very abundant), and
+potatoes; the latter are sent in great quantities to the capital. The
+cactus grows on the hills, and its excellent fruit (_tunas_) forms also
+an article of trade.
+
+Beyond Matucanas the valley contracts into a narrow ravine no broader
+than the bed of the river, and it gradually assumes a wilder character.
+The way is difficult along the ridge of hills which borders the left
+bank of the river. The vegetation is less monotonous and scanty than in
+the valleys of the coast, and all the fissures of the hills are filled
+with verdure. The stunted willow (_Salix Humboldtii_, Wild.) grows along
+the banks of the river, and on the less steep declivities is seen the
+red thorn-apple (_Datura sanguinea_, R. Pav.). To the latter the natives
+give the names _Huacacachu_, _Yerba de Huaca_, or _Bovachevo_; and they
+prepare from its fruit a very powerful narcotic drink, called _tonga_.
+The Indians believe that by drinking the tonga they are brought into
+communication with the spirits of their forefathers. I once had an
+opportunity of observing an Indian under the influence of this drink.
+Shortly after having swallowed the beverage he fell into a heavy stupor:
+he sat with his eyes vacantly fixed on the ground, his mouth
+convulsively closed, and his nostrils dilated. In the course of about a
+quarter of an hour his eyes began to roll, foam issued from his
+half-opened lips, and his whole body was agitated by frightful
+convulsions. These violent symptoms having subsided, a profound sleep of
+several hours succeeded. In the evening I again saw this Indian. He was
+relating to a circle of attentive listeners the particulars of his
+vision, during which he alleged he had held communication with the
+spirits of his forefathers. He appeared very weak and exhausted.
+
+In former times the Indian sorcerers, when they pretended to transport
+themselves into the presence of their deities, drank the juice of the
+thorn-apple, in order to work themselves into a state of ecstasy. Though
+the establishment of Christianity has weaned the Indians from their
+idolatry, yet it has not banished their old superstitions. They still
+believe that they can hold communications with the spirits of their
+ancestors, and that they can obtain from them a clue to the treasures
+concealed in the _huacas_, or graves; hence the Indian name of the
+thorn-apple--_huacacachu_, or grave plant.
+
+A few miles beyond Matucanas there is a lateral valley, larger and more
+pleasant than the principal valley. It is called the Quebrada de Viso,
+and is watered by a little stream. At the point where this Quebrada
+forms a junction with the principal valley is situated the Tambo de
+Viso. It is 9100 feet above the level of the sea.[61] At this tambo the
+traveller may find a tolerable night's lodging for himself, and fodder
+for his horse. Here the river is crossed by a bridge, and the road then
+proceeds along the left bank of the river, after having been on the
+right bank all the way from Lima. The bridges across these mountain
+streams are always constructed at points where the river is most
+contracted by the narrow confines of the ravine. They consist merely of
+a few poles made of the trunk of the Maguay-tree (_Agave Americana_),
+and connected together by transverse ropes; the ropes being overlaid
+with twisted branches and pieces of hoops. These bridges are not more
+than three feet broad, and have no balustrades. When the space between
+the banks of the river is too long for the Maguay stems, strong ropes
+made of twisted ox-hides are substituted. In crossing these bridges
+accidents frequently happen, owing to the hoofs of the horses and mules
+getting entangled in the plaited branches along the pathway. A little
+way beyond San Mateo I narrowly escaped being precipitated, with my
+mule, into the rocky chasm forming the bed of the river.
+
+The road between Viso and San Mateo, a distance of about three
+leagues, is exceedingly difficult and dangerous. The ravine becomes
+narrowed to a mere cleft, between walls of mountain rising on either
+side to the height of more than a thousand feet; sometimes
+perpendicularly, and at other times inclining inwards, so as to form
+gigantic arches. The path runs along the base of these mountains,
+washed by the foaming waves of the stream; or it winds up the side of
+the precipice, over huge fragments of rock, which, being loosened by
+the rain, afford no secure footing for the heavily laden mules.
+Frequently these loosened blocks give way, and roll down into the
+valley. The journey from Viso to San Mateo is associated in my mind
+with the recollection of a most mortifying accident. A mass of rock,
+such as I have just described, gave way, and rolling down the
+precipice, hurled one of my mules into the foaming abyss. My most
+valuable instruments, a portion of my collections, my papers, and--to
+me an irreparable loss--a diary carefully and conscientiously kept for
+the space of fourteen months, were in a moment buried in the river.
+Two days afterward the current washed the dead mule ashore at
+Matucanas, but its load was irrecoverably lost.
+
+Every year many beasts of burthen, and even travellers, perish on this
+road. In the Tambo de Viso I met an officer who, with two of his sons,
+was coming from the Sierra. He had placed the youngest before him, and
+the other, a boy of ten years of age, was seated on the mule's
+crupper. When they were within about half a league from Viso, a huge
+mass of rock, rolling down from the mountain, struck the elder boy,
+and hurled him into the river. The afflicted father was anxiously
+seeking to recover the body of his lost child.
+
+San Mateo is on the right bank of the river, and is the largest
+village in this valley. It corresponds in situation with Culluay in
+the Quebrada of Canta; as Matucanas corresponds with the village of
+Obrajillo. San Mateo is 10,947 feet above the level of the sea.[62]
+The soil produces abundance of potatoes, Ocas (_Oxalis tuberosa_) and
+Ullucas (_Tropaeolum tuberosum_). Maize ripens here perfectly, but the
+heads are small. The lucerne is also small, but very abundant; it is
+very much exposed to injury from the frost, and is only good for use
+during the five rainy months of the year. Five hundred feet higher,
+that is to say, about 11,500 feet above the sea, is the boundary
+elevation for the growth of lucerne.
+
+The spirit of hospitality, so generally prevalent among the Sierra
+Indians, does not seem to animate the Cholos of San Mateo. Their manners
+are rude and reserved, and they are very distrustful of strangers. As
+soon as a traveller enters the village, the Alcade and the Rejidores
+make their appearance, and demand his passport. If he cannot produce it,
+he may possibly be put upon a donkey, and conducted to the nearest
+Prefect, or may moreover run the risk of being ill-treated. But,
+fortunately, it is easy to escape such annoyances. Any scrap of printed
+or written paper will answer for a passport, as it rarely happens that
+either the Alcade or the Rejidores can read. On one occasion when my
+passport was demanded, I discovered I had lost it. Fortunately, I had in
+my pocket a bit of waste paper, which I had used instead of wadding in
+loading my gun. I ventured at all hazards to hand it to the Indian
+Rejidor, who having unfolded it stared very gravely at the words _Lucia
+di Lammermoor_, which he saw printed in large characters. It was the
+bill of the opera I had attended a few evenings before my departure from
+Lima. After examining the bill very attentively, and then scanning me
+very narrowly, the Rejidor returned the paper, with the observation that
+the passport was quite correct.
+
+From San Mateo the road runs for half a league through a gloomy
+ravine; and then suddenly takes a steep ascent up the side of the
+mountain, over fragments of stones, lying one above another like
+flights of steps. The stream dashes from rock to rock, covering the
+narrow path with foam, and washing away the blocks of stone which, in
+some of the most dangerous parts, serve as barriers along the edge of
+the precipice. On this road long trains of mules are frequently met
+coming from the Sierra. The traveller, at their approach, seeks some
+little recess into which he may creep, and there stand closely jammed
+against the mountain until the train passes by. This is attended by
+great loss of time, owing to the slow and cautious pace at which the
+mules proceed. On such a rencounter in a narrow mountain path, I was
+once obliged to wait for several hours, whilst two hundred mules
+passed by; and at the spot where I and my horse stood, the laden
+animals had scarcely space sufficient to set down their feet at the
+very edge of the pathway. In some places it is perfectly impossible
+either to go on one side or to turn back; and when horses or mules
+meet at these difficult points, one of the animals is obliged to
+plunge into the stream, before the other can have room to pass. The
+numerous curvatures of the road, and the projecting masses of
+mountain, render it impossible to see advancing objects in sufficient
+time to avoid collision.
+
+After having passed this difficult tract, which is called by the natives
+Cacray, we reach the summit of the acclivity down which the mountain
+stream descends. Here the valley presents quite the Sierra character. It
+is no longer confined within steep and rugged mountain walls, but runs
+in undulating contours along the bases of the hills, and gently ascends
+eastward towards the principal chain of the Cordillera. The road is
+sometimes on the right and sometimes on the left bank of the river. Two
+leagues beyond San Mateo lies Chicla, a miserable Indian village, which,
+according to Maclean's calculation, is 12,712 feet above sea level. In
+some of the more sheltered parts barley is planted; but it does not
+ripen, and is merely used as fodder (_Alcazer_). Chicla is the last
+place in this valley where the soil is in any degree capable of
+cultivation. Half a league further on, there are a few scattered Indian
+huts, called the village of Acchahuari. One of these huts is a tambo,
+which can never be forgotten by any unfortunate traveller who may have
+taken up his abode in it. Necessity several times compelled me to seek a
+night's lodging in this horrible tambo; but I never could remain in it
+till morning; and even amidst snow or rain I have been glad to get out,
+and take up my resting-place on the outside of the door. The hostess is
+a dirty old Indian woman, assisted by her daughter; and the hut is
+filthy beyond description. For supper, the old woman cooks a vile mess
+called _Chupe_, consisting of potatoes and water, mixed with Spanish
+pepper; but it is so dirtily prepared, that nothing but the most deadly
+hunger would induce any one to taste it. The beds consist of sheep-skins
+spread on the damp floor; and one bedchamber serves for the hostess, her
+daughter, her grandchildren, and the travellers; an immense woollen
+counterpane or blanket being spread over the whole party. But woe to the
+unwary traveller who trusts himself in this dormitory! He soon finds
+himself surrounded by enemies from whose attacks it is impossible to
+escape; for the hut is infested with vermin. Even should he withdraw
+into a corner, and make a pillow of his saddle, the annoyance pursues
+him. Add to all this a stifling smoke, and all sorts of mephitic
+exhalations, and troops of guinea-pigs who run about during the whole
+night, and gambol over the faces and bodies of the sleepers,--and it may
+readily be conceived how anxiously the traveller looks for the dawn of
+morning, when he may escape from the horrors of this miserable tambo.
+Acchahuari is 13,056 feet above the sea level. The climate is very
+ungenial. During the winter months, rain and snow fall without
+intermission; and even during the summer, heavy drifts of snow are not
+unfrequent. From April to July, the medium temperature during the night
+is 4 deg. R.
+
+After passing Cacray the diminished atmospheric pressure begins to
+produce an effect on coast horses which have not been accustomed to
+travel in the Sierra. They are attacked with a malady called the _veta_,
+which shows itself by difficulty of breathing and trembling. The animals
+are frequently so overpowered that they are unable either to move or
+stand, and if they are not immediately unsaddled and allowed to rest
+they perish. The arrieros consider bleeding a cure for this malady. They
+sometimes slit the horse's nostrils, a remedy which is probably
+efficacious, as it enables the animal to inhale the air freely. Chopped
+garlic put into the nostrils is supposed to be a preventive of the veta.
+Mules are less liable to the malady probably because they ascend the
+acclivities more slowly than horses. The disease does not attack the
+native horses of the Sierra, for which reason they are better than the
+coast horses for mountain travelling. Mules, however, are preferable to
+either. It is wonderful with what tact and penetration the mule chooses
+his footing. When he doubts the firmness of the ground he passes his
+muzzle over it, or turns up the loose parts with his hoof before he
+ventures to step forward. When he finds himself getting into soft and
+marshy ground he stands stock still, and refuses to obey either stirrup
+or whip. If by accident he sinks into a morass, he makes a halt, and
+waits very contentedly until he receives assistance. But in spite of all
+this sagacity the traveller will not do well to resign himself wholly to
+the guidance of his mule. In ordinary cases these animals allow
+themselves to be guided, and sometimes they appear to think it more safe
+to trust to the bridle than to themselves. One of my mules frequently
+gave me curious proofs of this sort of calculation. When, in very
+difficult parts of the road, I dismounted, in order to walk and lead him
+by the bridle, I found it impossible to get the animal to move either by
+force or persuasion. He spread out his legs, fixed his hoofs firmly into
+the ground, and obstinately resisted all my endeavors to make him move.
+But as soon as I remounted he willingly obeyed every movement of the
+bridle. With this mule I could ride through marshes, which I could never
+do with any other. He appeared to reflect that, as I only dismounted
+when the road was unsafe, his life was in no less danger than mine.
+
+About a league beyond Acchahuari the valley is bounded by the
+principal chain of the Cordillera. The ascent may be gained by two
+different roads. One, the steeper of the two, runs southward, across
+the Piedra Parada; the other, on which the ascent is somewhat easier,
+takes an easterly direction, over Antarangra. We will first trace the
+latter course, which is the most frequented. At the extremity of the
+valley, and twenty-eight leagues from the capital, is situated the
+last village, Cashapalca, 13,236 feet above the sea. Its inhabitants
+are chiefly employed in mining. Formerly, vast quantities of silver
+were obtained here. But most of the mines are now either under water
+or exhausted, and the village, with its mine works, has dwindled into
+insignificance. Beyond Cashapalca there is a tract of marshy ground,
+which being passed, a narrow winding road of about two leagues leads
+up the acclivity. The soil is clayey, and thinly bestrewed with alpine
+grass, intermingled with syngenesious and cruciferous plants. Two
+plants which are called by the natives _mala yerba_ and _garban
+zillos_, and are a deadly poison to mules and horses, grow in great
+abundance here. The numerous skeletons of beasts of burthen seen along
+the road bear evidence of the fatal effects of those plants. Higher up
+the ascent the vegetation becomes more and more scanty, until at
+length it entirely disappears, and nothing is visible but the barren
+rock of the Sierra highlands.
+
+The last division of acclivity is called by the natives the Antarangra
+(copper rock). On it there is a small heap of stones, which I shall
+describe by and by, and a cross made of the stems of the _Baccharis_.
+From this point the traveller catches a distant glimpse of the
+heaven-towering summit of the Cordillera.
+
+I speedily mounted the ascent, and reached the goal of my journey.
+Here I found myself disappointed in the expectation I had formed of
+commanding an uninterrupted view over boundless space and distance.
+The prospect is greatly circumscribed by numerous rocky elevations,
+which spring up in every direction. The mountain passes running across
+the ridge of the Cordillera are bounded on all sides by rocks,
+sometimes not very high, but at other times rising to the elevation of
+1000 feet. The pass of Antarangra (also called Portachuelo del Tingo,
+or Pachachaca) is 15,600 above the sea.[63] Nevertheless it is, during
+a great part of the year, free from snow. Scarcely a quarter of a
+league further northward are the eternal glaciers, and they are
+several hundred feet lower than the Pass. That the Pass itself is not
+permanently covered with snow is a circumstance which may probably be
+accounted for by the direction of the atmospheric currents. The east
+winds penetrate into the deep recesses of the valleys, which are
+sheltered against the cold south wind by the adjacent mountain ridge.
+The passes have a gloomy character, and the rugged grandeur of the
+surrounding country presents an aspect of chaotic wildness and
+disorder. The ground is covered with huge masses of rock; and the
+ungenial fruitless soil is shunned alike by plants and animals. The
+thin tendrils of a lichen, here and there twining on a damp mass of
+stone, are the only traces of life. Yet the remains of human industry
+and activity are everywhere observable. On all sides are seen the deep
+cavities which formed the entrances to the now exhausted mines. These
+cavities are sometimes situated at elevated points of the almost
+inaccessible walls of rock, and are occasionally found in the level
+part of the valley, and close on the roadway. Instances have occurred
+of travellers being killed by falling into these holes, when they have
+been covered by thick falls of snow.
+
+It is curious to observe, on the Pass of Antarangra, the partition of
+the waters flowing into the two great oceans, the Atlantic and the
+Pacific. Scarcely thirty paces distant from each other there are two
+small lagunas. That situated most to the west is one of the sources of
+the Rio de San Mateo, which, under the name of the Rimac, falls into the
+Pacific. The other laguna, that to the eastward, sends its waters
+through a succession of small mountain lakes into the Rio de Pachachaca,
+a small tributary to the mighty Amazon river. It is amusing to take a
+cup of water from the one laguna and pour it into the other. I could not
+resist indulging this whim; and in so doing I thought I might possibly
+have sent into the Pacific some drops of the water destined for the
+Atlantic. But the whim, puerile as it may be, nevertheless suggests
+serious reflections on the mighty power of nature, which has thrown up
+these stupendous mountains from the bosom of the earth; and also on the
+testaceous animals found on these heights, memorials of the time when
+the ocean flowed over their lofty summits.
+
+From the ridge the road runs eastward along a branch of the principal
+mountain chain. This branch forms the southern boundary of a
+gently-sloping valley. The declivity is terrace-formed, and on each
+terrace there is a small clear lake. This series of lakes is called
+_Huascacocha_ (the chain of lakes). In their waters, as in most of the
+mountain rivers, there is found in great numbers a small species of
+shad-fish (_Pygidium dispar_, Tsch.). They are caught during the night
+in nets, or by lines, to which the bait is fastened by small
+cactus-thorns.
+
+The third in the series of the lagunas is called _Morococha_ (the
+colored lake). On its banks some buildings have been constructed, for
+the smelting of copper ore. The mines which yield this metal are on the
+southern declivity, close to the road leading down from the Cordillera.
+Formerly these mines were worked for silver, but were not found very
+productive of that metal. Now they are again actively worked, and copper
+is obtained from them. The working of the Peruvian copper mines has
+hitherto been much neglected, though copper ore is exceedingly abundant.
+
+The road from Morococha to Pachachaca is very uniform. The latter
+village, which is situated 12,240 feet above the level of the sea, was
+formerly a place of much greater importance than it now is. In its
+neighborhood there are a number of spacious buildings constructed at
+the time of the unfortunate English mining speculation. Most of them
+are only half finished. At the entrance of the village there is a
+large hacienda. In some of the apartments the flooring is of wood; a
+thing seldom seen in these parts, where the wood for such purposes
+must be brought from the eastern declivity of the Andes: the
+difficulty and expense attending this transport are so considerable,
+that a wooden floor is a great rarity in the habitations of the
+Cordillera. A mine belonging to the hacienda is situated five leagues
+north-west of Pachachaca, and yields rich silver ore; but a great
+part of it is at present under water, and its drainage would be a very
+difficult undertaking.
+
+Returning to the point where the two roads across the Cordillera
+separate at Cashapalca, we will now trace the route by way of Piedra
+Parada. This way is shorter than that by Antarangra, but the ascents
+are much steeper. The first objects met with by the traveller on this
+road are some Indian huts, called _yauliyacu_, and the ruined hacienda
+of San Rafael. These being passed, the ascent continues over broken
+masses of rock. About 15,200 feet above the sea there is a huge block
+of mountain, called the Piedra Parada, close against which a chapel
+was formerly erected; the mountain forming the back wall of the
+structure. Now there is merely an iron cross, fixed on the upper part
+of the block of mountain. On this spot the Archbishop used formerly to
+celebrate mass, when he was on his rounds through the diocese. The
+chapel was destroyed by lightning, and has not been rebuilt. The pass
+of the Piedra Parada is 16,008 feet above the sea, and is always
+covered with snow. Travellers frequently lose their way in this pass,
+an accident which befel me in March, 1842, when I was proceeding alone
+by that route. Being overtaken by a violent fall of snow, I could
+scarcely see a few paces before me. After wandering about for several
+hours, my horse became weary, and I began to despair of extricating
+myself from the dreary plains of snow. Late in the evening I reached a
+little valley, where, sheltered by some rocks, I passed the night. On
+the following morning I renewed my journey, and after considerable
+exertion I arrived at an Indian hut, where I obtained such directions
+as enabled me to recover the right course.
+
+The eastern declivity of the Pass of Piedra Parada is steeper than that
+of Huascacocha. After a difficult ride of about two leagues, we reach
+first the valley, and then the village of Yauli. The village lies at the
+height of 13,100 feet above the sea, and consists of about one hundred
+and fifty miserable huts, affording habitations for between twelve and
+fourteen thousand Indians, most of whom are employed in mining.
+
+The Cordillera, in the neighborhood of Yauli, is exceedingly rich in
+lead ore, containing silver. Within the circuit of a few miles, above
+eight hundred shafts have been made, but they have not been found
+sufficiently productive to encourage extensive mining works. The
+difficulties which impede mine-working in these parts are caused
+chiefly by the dearness of labor and the scarcity of fuel. There being
+a total want of wood, the only fuel that can be obtained consists of
+the dried dung of sheep, llamas, and huanacus. This fuel is called
+_taquia_. It produces a very brisk and intense flame, and most of the
+mine-owners prefer it to coal. The process of smelting, as practised
+by the Indians, though extremely rude and imperfect, is nevertheless
+adapted to local circumstances. All European attempts to improve the
+system of smelting in these districts have either totally failed, or
+in their results have proved less effective than the simple Indian
+method. Complicated furnaces made after European models are
+exceedingly expensive, whilst the natives can construct theirs at the
+cost of fifty or sixty dollars each. These Indian furnaces can,
+moreover, be easily erected in the vicinity of the mines, and when the
+metal is not very abundant the furnaces may be abandoned without any
+great sacrifice. For the price of one European furnace the Indians may
+build more than a dozen, in each of which, notwithstanding the paucity
+of fuel, a considerably greater quantity of metal may be smelted than
+in one of European construction.
+
+About half a league beyond Yauli there are upwards of twenty mineral
+springs, all situated within a circuit of a quarter of a mile. Several
+of them contain saline properties. One is called the _Hervidero_ (the
+whirlpool). It is in the form of a funnel, and at its upper part is
+between ten and twelve feet diameter. Its surface is covered with
+foam. The temperature of the water is only 7 deg. C. higher than the
+atmosphere. Some of these springs are tepid and sulphuric; and the
+temperature of one of them is as high as 89 deg. C. Near some of the
+springs quadrangular basins have been constructed for baths, which are
+said to be very efficacious in cutaneous and rheumatic complaints. The
+climate of Yauli is exceedingly rigorous. In summer the medium
+temperature of the night is 8 deg. C., but the days are mild. In winter,
+on the other hand, the night is +1 deg. C., and the day scarcely +3 deg. C.,
+as the sky is continually overhung with thick clouds, which disperse
+themselves in continual falls of snow. I passed several weeks in Yauli
+and in the wild country around it, and during that time I made many
+valuable additions to my natural history collection.
+
+The distance between Yauli and Pachachaca is two leagues. The road
+descends gently along the right bank of the Rio de Yauli, which forms
+the principal source of the Rio de Oroya. In this direction, as well as
+in other parts adjacent to Yauli, there are numerous remains of mining
+works, formerly the property of Portuguese. These works were destroyed
+at the time of the persecution of the Portuguese in Peru, when the
+consul, Juan Bautista, was hanged by the Inquisition, in Lima. Over
+those events there hangs a veil of mystery, which will probably never be
+removed. The Portuguese were the most powerful and intelligent
+mine-owners in Peru, and their prosperity excited the envy of the
+Spanish viceroy. A number of Portuguese emigrants, who came from
+Brazil, to settle in the Peruvian province of Maynas, furnished the
+viceroy with a ground of complaint, real or pretended. He set forth
+that the Portuguese of the eastern parts of South America intended to
+make themselves masters of Peru, and conjointly with the Inquisition
+he commenced coercive measures against them. Their consul was accused
+of heresy, condemned and hanged, and the emigrants were pursued and
+put to death. Some of them escaped into the forests, where they were
+massacred by the Indians, and only a very few succeeded in getting
+back to Brazil. Many of the wealthy Portuguese mine-owners, seeing the
+danger that threatened them, sank their vast treasures in lakes, or
+buried them in retired places in the plains. These treasures consisted
+chiefly of smelted ore and silver coin, and only a very small portion
+was afterwards discovered. Thus were these active and intelligent
+mine-owners sacrificed, either to a chimerical and unfounded
+suspicion, or to a feeling of avarice, which, after all, failed in
+attaining its object. The consequences were disastrous to the country.
+Peruvian mining has never recovered the prosperity which it enjoyed
+under the management of the Portuguese.
+
+Between Yauli and Pachachaca the way is difficult, and without an
+accurate knowledge of the route, the traveller is likely to lose his
+way, and may even incur the danger of sinking in the marshes which
+spread along the bank of the river. From Pachachaca a broad and gentle
+sloping valley conducts to La Oroya, a distance of about three leagues.
+In the range of mountains forming the southern boundary of this valley,
+the river winds its way through deep ravines. About half a league from
+Pachachaca there is a ford where the road divides; one division passing
+over the steep mountains of Yanaclara to Jauja, and the other running
+into the wild valleys of Huayhuay. Midway between Pachachaca and La
+Oroya there is a small, miserable Indian village called Saco, which is
+seldom visited by travellers, as it is difficult to procure in it the
+commonest necessaries of food. In this place there is a natural bridge
+across the river, which has worked out a bed for itself beneath the
+rocks. At several points along the course of this river I observed
+similar bridges of rock, but this one only is passable for horses.
+
+La Oroya lies on the left bank of the river of that name, and
+communicates with the right bank by means of a large hanging bridge
+(Puente de Soga). These bridges are composed of four ropes (sogas) made
+of twisted cow-hide, and about the thickness of a man's arm. The four
+ropes are connected together by thinner ones of the same material,
+fastened over them transversely. The whole is covered with branches,
+straw, and roots of the Agave tree. On either side, a rope rather more
+than two feet above the bridge serves as a balustrade. The sogas are
+fastened on each bank of the river by piles, or riveted into the rock.
+During the long continuous rains these bridges become loose and require
+to be tightened; but they are always lower in the middle than at the
+ends, and when passengers are crossing them they swing like hammocks. It
+requires some practice, and a very steady head, to go over the soga
+bridges unaccompanied by a Puentero.[64] However strongly made, they are
+not durable; for the changeableness of the weather quickly rots the
+ropes, which are made of untanned leather. They frequently require
+repairing, and travellers have sometimes no alternative but to wait for
+several days until a bridge is passable, or to make a circuit of 20 or
+30 leagues. The Puente de Soga of Oroya is fifty yards long, and one and
+a half broad. It is one of the largest in Peru; but the bridge across
+the Apurimac, in the province of Ayacucho, is nearly twice as long, and
+it is carried over a much deeper gulf.
+
+Another curious kind of bridge is that called the Huaro. It consists
+of a thick rope extending over a river or across a rocky chasm. To
+this rope are affixed a roller, and a strong piece of wood formed
+like a yoke, and by means of two smaller ropes, this yoke is drawn
+along the thick rope which forms the bridge. The passenger who has to
+cross the Huaro is tied to the yoke, and grasps it firmly with both
+hands. His feet, which are crossed one over the other, rest on the
+thick rope, and the head is held as erectly as possible. All these
+preliminaries being completed, an Indian, stationed on the opposite
+side of the river or chasm, draws the passenger across the Huaro. This
+is altogether the most disagreeable and dangerous mode of conveyance
+that can possibly be conceived. If the rope breaks, an accident of no
+unfrequent occurrence, the hapless traveller has no chance of escaping
+with life, for being fastened, he can make no effort to save himself.
+Horses and mules are driven by the Indians into the river, and are
+made to swim across it, in doing which they frequently perish,
+especially when being exhausted by a long journey, they have not
+strength to contend against the force of the current.
+
+The village of Oroya, about a quarter of a mile from the bridge, is
+built on a declivity, and according to Maclean's calculation is 12,010
+feet above the level of the sea. It contains fifty-one miserable huts,
+which are the habitations of about two hundred Indians. From Oroya
+several roads branch off into the different mountain districts. The most
+frequented is that over the level height of Cachi-Cachi to Jauja. Along
+this road there are extensive tracts of ground covered with calcareous
+petrifactions. Another road leading to Tarma passes by the ancient Inca
+fortress Huichay. A third, and much frequented road is that by way of
+Huaypacha, and from thence to Junin and Cerro de Pasco.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 52: All these calculations are by English feet.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Jardine and Selby's Annals of Natural History.]
+
+[Footnote 54: Nivelacion barometrica desde el Callao hasta Pasco, por el
+camino de Obrajillo, y desde el mismo lugar hasta la capital por via de
+Tarma, hecha y calculada por Mariano Eduardo Rivero y Usturitz in
+Memorial de Ciencias naturales, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Darwin's Journal, p. 350]
+
+[Footnote 56: The Spaniards term this plant _Una de gato_ (Cat's-claw),
+the stalk being furnished with hooked thorns resembling claws.]
+
+[Footnote 57: For further information relative to this disease, see my
+communication to Wunderlich and Roser's "_Archiv fuer Physiologische
+Heilkunde_."]
+
+[Footnote 58: See page 153.]
+
+[Footnote 59: By a nail is lost a shoe, by a shoe a horse, and by a
+horse a rider.]
+
+[Footnote 60: According to Maclean, the elevation of Matucanas is 8026
+feet above the level of the sea. I presume that this calculation
+refers to the village itself, which is situated about the eighth of a
+league from the tambo, and lies much lower.]
+
+[Footnote 61: According to Maclean's calculation, the Tambo de Viso is
+9072 feet above the sea.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Maclean states the elevation to be 10,984 feet above
+the sea. Rivero makes it 9570, and Gay 10,408 feet. Gay's is the only
+measurement which in any manner corresponds with mine and Maclean's.
+In general Gay's calculations are between 600 and 800 feet higher
+than ours.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Maclean makes it 15,543 feet; Gay, 15,924 feet; and Rivero,
+only 14,608 feet above the level of the sea.]
+
+[Footnote 64: The _Puenteros_ (Bridge Guides) are Indians who assist
+travellers in crossing these dangerous bridges.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+The Cordillera and the Andes--Signification of the terms--Altitude
+of the Mountains and Passes--Lakes--Metals--Aspect of the
+Cordillera--Shattered Rocks--Maladies caused by the diminished
+Atmospheric Pressure--The Veta and the Surumpe--Mountain Storms--The
+Condor--Its habits--Indian mode of Catching the Bird--The Puna or
+Despoblado--Climate--Currents of Warm Air--Vegetation--Tuberous
+Plant called the Maca--Animals of the Puna--The Llama, the Alpaco,
+the Huanacu and the Vicuna--The Chacu and the Bolas--Household
+Utensils of the Ancient Peruvians--The Viscacha and the
+Chinchilla--Puna Birds and Amphibia--Cattle and Pasture--Indian
+Farms--Shepherds' Huts--Ancient Peruvian Roads and
+Buildings--Treasure concealed by the Indians in the Puna.
+
+
+Two great mountain chains, running parallel with each other, intersect
+Peru in the direction from S.S.W. to N.N.E. The chain nearest the coast
+of the Pacific is at the average distance of from sixty to seventy
+English miles from the sea. The other chain takes a parallel direction
+but describes throughout its whole course a slight curve eastward. These
+two ranges of mountain are called the Cordilleras, or the Andes: both
+terms being used indiscriminately. Even the creoles of Peru confound
+these two terms, sometimes calling the western chain by one name, and
+sometimes by the other. Nevertheless, a strict distinction ought to be
+observed:--the western chain should properly be called the Cordillera,
+and the eastern chain the Andes. The latter name is derived from the
+Quichua word Antasuyu; _Anta_ signifying metal generally, but especially
+copper, and _Suyu_ a district; the meaning of Antasuyu, therefore, is
+the metal district. In common parlance, the word Suyu was dropped, and
+the termination _a_ in _Anta_ was converted into _is_. Hence the word
+_Antis_, which is employed by all old writers and geographers; and even
+now is in common use among the Indian population of Southern Peru. The
+Spaniards, according to their practice of corrupting the words of the
+Quichua language, have transformed Antis into _Andes_, and they apply
+the name without distinction to the western and the eastern chain of
+mountains.[65]
+
+The old inhabitants of Peru dwelt chiefly along the base of the eastern
+mountain chain, where they drew from the mines the metal which afforded
+material for their tasteful and ingenious workmanship: those mountains
+consequently retained the name of Antis or Andes. In the time of the
+Incas, both chains were called Ritisuyu (Snow-Districts). The Spaniards,
+on the invasion of the country, advancing from the sea-coast, first
+arrived at the western mountains, and to them they gave the name of
+_Cordillera_, the term commonly employed in the Spanish language, to
+designate any mountain chain. Most of the earlier travellers and
+topographists named the western chain the _Cordillera de los Andes_, and
+regarded it as the principal chain, of which they considered the eastern
+mountains to be merely a branch. To the eastern range of mountains they
+gave the name of _Cordillera Oriental_. I will here strictly observe the
+correct denominations, calling the western chain the Cordillera, or the
+coast mountains; and the eastern chain the Andes, or the inner
+Cordillera.
+
+These two great mountain chains stand in respect to height in an inverse
+relation one to the other; that is to say, the greater the elevation of
+the Cordillera, the more considerable is the depression of the Andes. In
+South Peru the ridge of the Cordillera is considerably lower than that
+portion of the Andes which stretches through Bolivia. The medium height
+of the Cordillera in South Peru is 15,000 feet above the sea; but here
+and there particular points rise to a much more considerable elevation.
+The medium height of the Andes is 17,000 feet above the sea. In central
+Peru the Cordillera is higher than the Andes. There the altitude of the
+latter along the body of the chain is 13,000 feet above the sea: on the
+ridge there are a few points some hundred feet higher. Between Pasco
+and Loxas the average height of the Cordillera is between 11,000 and
+12,000 feet above the sea; and the average elevation of the Andes at the
+corresponding point is about 2000 feet lower.
+
+The passes do not run through valleys, but always over the ridges of the
+mountains. The highest mountain passes are the Rinconada (16,452 feet
+above the sea); the Piedra Parada (16,008 feet); the Tingo (15,600
+feet); the Huatillas (14,850 feet); the Portachuelo de la Viuda (14,544
+feet); the Altos de Toledo (15,530 feet); and the Altos de los Huesos
+(14,300 feet). In both chains there are innumerable small lakes; these
+are met with in all the mountain passes, and most of them are the
+sources of small rivers.
+
+Both the mountain chains, as well as their lateral branches, are rich in
+metallic produce; but in the principal mountains gold is rare. Some rich
+mines on the coast, and in the province of Arequipa, are now nearly
+exhausted. Wash gold is plentiful in the rivers of North Peru, but it is
+not carefully collected. Silver, which constitutes the principal wealth
+of Peru, is found in greatest abundance in the principal chains, viz.,
+in Northern and Central Peru, in the Cordillera; and in Southern Peru in
+the Andes. It presents itself in all forms and combinations, from the
+pure metal to the lead-ore mixed with silver. Even in the highest
+elevations, in parts scarcely trodden by human footsteps, rich veins of
+silver are discovered. It is scarcely possible to pass half a day in
+these regions without encountering new streaks. Quicksilver is likewise
+found, but in such small quantities, that the gain does not pay the
+labor of the miners. The only quicksilver vein of any magnitude is at
+Huancavelica. Both mountain chains are very rich in copper-ore; but it
+is extracted only from the Cordillera, for the distance of the Andes
+from the coast renders the transport too expensive. The lead and iron
+mines, though amazingly prolific, are not worked; the price of the metal
+being too low to pay the labor.
+
+The Cordillera presents an aspect totally different from that of the
+Andes. It is more wild and rugged, its ridge is broader, and its summits
+less pyramidical. The summits of the Andes terminate in slender sharp
+points like needles. The Cordillera descends in terraces to the level
+heights, whilst the slope of the Andes is uniform and unbroken. The
+summits of the calcareous hills which stretch eastward from the great
+chain of the Cordillera are broken and rugged. Large cubical blocks of
+stone become detached from them, and roll down into the valleys. In the
+Quebrada of Huari near Yanaclara, which is 13,000 feet above the sea, I
+collected among other fragments of rock some of a species which is found
+at Neufchatel in Switzerland. This disintegration, which is the effect
+of protracted rain and cold, imparts to the mountain ridges the most
+singular and beautiful forms; their fantastic outlines appearing like
+the work of human hands. Imagination may easily picture them to be
+monuments of the time of the Incas; for viewed from a distance, they
+look like groups of giants or colossal animals. In former times the
+Indians viewed these masses of rock with devout reverence, for they
+believed them to be the early inhabitants of the earth whom Pacchacamac
+in his anger transformed to stone. I may here notice some very curious
+forms of rock which have long been a subject of controversy among
+Peruvian travellers. On the road leading from Ayacucho to Huancavelica,
+on the level height of Paucara, about a league beyond the village of
+Parcos, there is a considerable number of sand-stone pyramids from eight
+to twenty-two feet high. They are of a reddish-white color; but in many
+places the inclemency of the weather has overspread them with a blackish
+crust. They are detached one from another. Ulloa, in his _Noticias
+Americanas_, after fully describing these pyramids, declares himself
+doubtful whether they are the work of man or of nature. He inclines to
+regard them as human creations, and suggests that they may possibly have
+been the tombs of distinguished curacas and caciques; but he admits that
+he is not acquainted with any similar monuments in Peru. As each pyramid
+consists of only one block of stone, and all are very regularly shaped,
+Ulloa is not indisposed to believe that the Indians possessed the secret
+art of melting stone. These blocks are, however, of sand-stone, and
+their fractures are the result of the inclemency of the weather. They
+are all pyramidal-shaped, and tolerably equal in size. In several of
+them the points are as sharp and regular as though they had been wrought
+by the chisel of the sculptor. These curious pyramids cover the plateau
+along a distance of more than two miles: sometimes standing closely
+together, and sometimes at considerable distances apart. The whole line
+of chalk and slate mountains extending from Ayacucho to Huancavelica is
+shattered, and presents similar, though less regular detritus.
+
+I have, in my last chapter, observed that the Cordillera is the point
+of partition between the waters of the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans.
+All the waters of the eastern declivity of the Cordillera--all those
+which have their source on the level heights and on the western
+declivity of the Andes,--flow from thence in the direction of the east,
+and work their way through the eastern mountain chain. Throughout the
+whole extent of South America there is not a single instance of the
+Cordillera being intersected by a river; a fact the more remarkable
+because in Southern Peru and Bolivia, the coast chain is lower than the
+Andes. This interesting phenomenon, though it has deeply engaged the
+attention of geologists, has not yet been satisfactorily explained. I
+concur in the view taken by Mr. Darwin, who observes that it would be
+too rash to assign to the eastern chain of Bolivia and Central Chile, a
+later origin than the western chain (the nearest the Pacific), but that
+the circumstance of the rivers of a lower mountain chain having forced
+their way through a higher chain seems, without this supposition, to be
+enigmatical. Mr. Darwin is of opinion that the phenomenon is assignable
+to a periodical and gradual elevation of the second mountain line (the
+Andes); for a chain of islets would at first appear, and as these were
+lifted up, the tides would be always wearing deeper and broader
+channels between them.
+
+In the heights of the Cordillera the effect of the diminished
+atmospheric pressure on the human frame shows itself in intolerable
+symptoms of weariness and an extreme difficulty of breathing. The
+natives call this malady the _Puna_ or the _Soroche_; and the Spanish
+Creoles give it the names of _Mareo_ or _Veta_. Ignorant of its real
+causes they ascribe it to the exhalations of metals, especially
+antimony, which is extensively used in the mining operations. The first
+symptoms of the veta are usually felt at the elevation of 12,600 feet
+above the sea. These symptoms are vertigo, dimness of sight and
+hearing, pains in the head and nausea. Blood flows from the eyes, nose,
+and lips. Fainting fits, spitting of blood, and other dangerous
+symptoms, usually attend severe attacks of veta. The sensations which
+accompany this malady somewhat resemble those of sea-sickness, and hence
+its Spanish name _mareo_. But sea-sickness is unaccompanied by the
+distressing difficulty of breathing experienced in the veta. This
+disorder sometimes proves fatal, and I once witnessed a case in which
+death was the result. Inhabitants of the coast and Europeans, who for
+the first time visit the lofty regions of the Cordillera, are usually
+attacked with this disorder. Persons in good health and of a spare habit
+speedily recover from it, but on plethoric and stout individuals its
+effects are frequently very severe. After an abode of some time in the
+mountainous regions, the constitution becomes inured to the rarefied
+atmosphere. I suffered only two attacks of the veta; but they were very
+severe. The first was on one of the level heights; and the second on the
+mountain of Antaichahua. The first time I ascended the Cordillera I did
+not experience the slightest illness, and I congratulated myself on
+having escaped the veta; but a year afterwards I had an attack of it,
+though only of a few hours' duration. The veta is felt with great
+severity in some districts of the Cordillera, whilst in others, where
+the altitude is greater, the disorder is scarcely perceptible. Thus it
+would seem that the malady is not caused by diminished atmospheric
+pressure, but is dependent on some unknown climatic circumstances. The
+districts in which the veta prevails with greatest intensity are, for
+the most part, rich in the production of metals, a circumstance which
+has given rise to the idea that it is caused by metallic exhalations.
+
+I have already described the effect of the Puna climate on beasts of
+burthen. Its influence on some of the domestic animals is no less severe
+than on the human race. To cats, it is very fatal, and at the elevation
+of 13,000 feet above the sea those animals cannot live. Numerous trials
+have been made to rear them in the villages of the upper mountains, but
+without effect; for after a few days' abode in those regions, the
+animals die in frightful convulsions; but when in this state they do not
+attempt to bite. I had two good opportunities of observing the disease
+at Yauli. Cats attacked in this way are called, by the natives,
+_azorochados_, and antimony is alleged to be the cause of the distemper.
+Dogs are also liable to it, but it visits them less severely than cats,
+and with care they may be recovered.
+
+Another scourge of the traveller in the Cordillera, is the disease
+called the _Surumpe_. It is a violent inflammation of the eyes, caused
+by the sudden reflection of the bright rays of the sun on the snow. By
+the rarefied air and the cutting wind, the eyes, being kept in a
+constant state of irritation, are thereby rendered very susceptible to
+the effects of the glaring light. In these regions the sky is often
+for a time completely overshadowed by snow clouds, and the greenish
+yellow of the plain is soon covered by a sheet of snow: then suddenly
+the sun's rays burst through the breaking clouds, and the eyes,
+unprepared for the dazzling glare, are almost blinded. A sharp burning
+pain is immediately felt, and it speedily increases to an intolerable
+degree. The eyes become violently inflamed, and the lids swell and
+bleed. The pain of the surumpe is the most intense that can be
+imagined, and frequently brings on delirium. The sensation resembles
+that which it may be imagined would be felt if cayenne pepper or
+gunpowder were rubbed into the eyes. Chronic inflammation, swelling of
+the eyelids, dimness of sight, and even total blindness are the
+frequent consequences of the surumpe. In the Cordillera, Indians are
+often seen sitting by the road-side shrieking in agony, and unable to
+proceed on their way. They are more liable to the disease than the
+Creoles, who, when travelling in the mountains, protect their eyes by
+green spectacles and veils.
+
+Heavy falls of snow in the Cordillera are usually accompanied by
+thunder and lightning. During five months of the year, from November to
+March, storms are of daily occurrence. They begin, with singular
+regularity, about three o'clock in the afternoon, and continue until
+five or half-past five in the evening. After that time storms of
+thunder and lightning never occur; but the falls of snow sometimes
+continue till midnight. As evening approaches, cold mists are drifted
+from the mountain-tops down upon the plains; but they are dispersed by
+the rays of the morning sun, which in a few hours melt the snow. The
+furious tempests in these regions exceed any idea that can be formed
+of them, and can only be conceived by those who have witnessed them.
+Some of these mountain districts have acquired an ominous character for
+storms; Antaichahua is one of the places to which this sort of fearful
+celebrity belongs. For hours together flash follows flash, painting
+blood-red cataracts on the naked precipices. The forked lightning darts
+its zig-zag flashes on the mountain-tops, or, running along the ground,
+imprints deep furrows in its course; whilst the atmosphere quivers
+amidst uninterrupted peals of thunder, repeated a thousandfold by the
+mountain echoes. The traveller, overtaken by these terrific storms,
+dismounts from his trembling horse, and takes refuge beneath the
+shelter of some overhanging rock.
+
+In these sterile heights, Nature withholds her fostering influence
+alike from vegetable and animal life. The scantiest vegetation can
+scarcely draw nutriment from the ungenial soil, and animals shun the
+dreary and shelterless wilds. The condor alone finds itself in its
+native element amidst these mountain deserts. On the inaccessible
+summits of the Cordillera that bird builds its nest, and hatches its
+young in the months of April and May. Few animals have attained so
+universal a celebrity as the condor. That bird was known in Europe, at
+a period when his native land was numbered among those fabulous
+regions which are regarded as the scenes of imaginary wonders. The
+most extravagant accounts of the condor were written and read, and
+general credence was granted to every story which travellers brought
+from the fairy land of gold and silver. It was only at the
+commencement of the present century that Humboldt overthrew the
+extravagant notions that previously prevailed respecting the size,
+strength, and habits of that extraordinary bird.
+
+The full-grown condor measures, from the point of the beak to the end
+of the tail, from four feet ten inches to five feet; and from the tip
+of one wing to the other, from twelve to thirteen feet. This bird feeds
+chiefly on carrion: it is only when impelled by hunger that he seizes
+living animals, and even then only the small and defenceless, such as
+the young of sheep, vicunas, and llamas. He cannot raise great weights
+with his feet, which, however, he uses to aid the power of his beak.
+The principal strength of the condor lies in his neck and in his feet;
+yet he cannot, when flying, carry a weight exceeding eight or ten
+pounds. All accounts of sheep and calves being carried off by condors
+are mere exaggerations. This bird passes a great part of the day in
+sleep, and hovers in quest of prey chiefly in the morning and evening.
+Whilst soaring at a height beyond the reach of human eyes, the
+sharp-sighted condor discerns his prey on the level heights beneath
+him, and darts down upon it with the swiftness of lightning. When a
+bait is laid, it is curious to observe the numbers of condors which
+assemble in a quarter of an hour, in a spot near which not one had been
+previously visible. These birds possess the senses of sight and smell
+in a singularly powerful degree.
+
+Some old travellers, Ulloa among others, have affirmed that the plumage
+of the condor is invulnerable to a musket-ball. This absurdity is
+scarcely worthy of contradiction; but it is nevertheless true that the
+bird has a singular tenacity of life, and that it is seldom killed by
+fire-arms, unless when shot in some vital part. Its plumage,
+particularly on the wings, is very strong and thick. The natives,
+therefore, seldom attempt to shoot the condor: they usually catch him by
+traps or by the laso, or kill him by stones flung from slings, or by the
+_Bolas_. A curious method of capturing the condor alive is practised in
+the province of Abancay. A fresh cow-hide, with some fragments of flesh
+adhering to it, is spread out on one of the level heights, and an Indian
+provided with ropes creeps beneath it, whilst some others station
+themselves in ambush near the spot, ready to assist him. Presently a
+condor, attracted by the smell of flesh, darts down upon the cow-hide,
+and then the Indian, who is concealed under it, seizes the bird by the
+legs, and binds them fast in the skin, as if in a bag. The captured
+condor flaps his wings, and makes ineffectual attempts to fly; but he is
+speedily secured, and carried in triumph to the nearest village.
+
+The Indians quote numerous instances of young children having been
+attacked by condors. That those birds are sometimes extremely fierce is
+very certain. The following occurrence came within my own knowledge,
+whilst I was in Lima. I had a condor, which, when he first came into my
+possession, was very young. To prevent his escape, as soon as he was
+able to fly, he was fastened by the leg to a chain, to which was
+attached a piece of iron of about six pounds weight. He had a large
+court to range in, and he dragged the piece of iron about after him all
+day. When he was a year and a half old he flew away, with the chain and
+iron attached to his leg, and perched on the spire of the church of
+Santo Tomas, whence he was scared away by the carrion hawks. On
+alighting in the street, a Negro attempted to catch him for the purpose
+of bringing him home; upon which he seized the poor creature by the ear,
+and tore it completely off. He then attacked a child in the street (a
+negro boy of three years old), threw him on the ground, and knocked him
+on the head so severely with his beak, that the child died in
+consequence of the injuries. I hoped to have brought this bird alive to
+Europe; but, after being at sea two months on our homeward voyage, he
+died on board the ship in the latitude of Monte Video.
+
+Between the Cordillera and the Andes, at the height of 12,000 feet
+above the sea, there are vast tracts of uninhabited table-lands. These
+are called in the Quichua language the _Puna_; and the Spaniards give
+them the name of the _Despoblado_ (the uninhabited). These table-lands
+form the upper mountain regions of the South American Highlands. They
+spread over the whole extent of Peru, from north-west to south-east, a
+distance of 350 Spanish miles, continuing through Bolivia, and
+gradually running eastward into the Argentine Republic. With reference
+to geography and natural history, these table-lands present a curious
+contrast to the _Llanos_ (plains) of South America, situated on the
+other side of the Andes to the north-east. Those boundless deserts,
+full of organic life, are, like the Puna, among the most interesting
+characteristics of the New World.
+
+The climate of these regions is not less rigorous than that of the high
+mountain ridges. Cold winds from the west and south-west, blow nearly
+all the year round from the ice-topped Cordillera; and for the space of
+four months these winds are daily accompanied by thunder, lightning, and
+snow-storms. The average state of the thermometer during the cold season
+(which is called summer, because it then seldom snows) is, during the
+night, -5 deg. R.; and at midday, +9 deg. 7' R. In winter the mercury seldom
+falls during the night below freezing point, and it continues between
++1 deg. and 0 deg. R.; but at noon it ascends only to 7 deg. R. It is, however,
+quite impossible to determine with precision the medium temperature of
+these regions. For the space of a few hours the heat will frequently
+vary between 18 deg. and 20 deg. R. The transition is the more sensibly felt on
+the fall of the temperature, as it is usually accompanied by
+sharp-biting winds, so keen, that they cut the skin on the face and
+hands. A remarkable effect of the Puna wind is its power of speedily
+drying animal bodies, and thereby preventing putridity. A dead mule is,
+in the course of a few days, converted into a mummy; not even the
+entrails presenting the least trace of decomposition.
+
+It frequently happens that, after being long exposed to these cold
+winds, the traveller enters warm atmospheric currents. These warm
+streams are sometimes only two or three paces, and at other times,
+several hundred feet broad. They run in a parallel direction with each
+other, and one may pass through five or six of them in the course of a
+few hours. On the level heights between Chacapalpa and Huancavelica, I
+remarked that they were especially frequent during the months of August
+and September. According to my repeated observations, I found that these
+warm streams chiefly follow the direction of the Cordillera; namely,
+from S.S.W. to N.N.E. I once travelled the distance of several leagues
+through a succession of these currents of warm air, none of which
+exceeded seven-and-twenty paces in breadth. Their temperature was 11 deg. R.
+higher than that of the adjacent atmosphere. It would appear they are
+not merely temporary, for the mule-drivers can often foretel with
+tolerable accuracy where they will be encountered. The causes of these
+phenomena well merit the investigation of meteorologists.
+
+The aspect of the Puna is singularly monotonous and dreary. The
+expansive levels are scantily covered with grasses of a yellowish-brown
+hue, and are never enlivened by fresh-looking verdure. Here and there,
+at distant intervals, may be seen a few stunted Quenua trees
+(_Polylepis racemosa_, R. P.), or large patches of ground covered with
+the Ratanhia shrub[66] (_Krameria triandria_, R. P.). Both are used by
+the Indians as fuel, and for roofing their huts.
+
+The cold climate and sterile soil of the Puna are formidable impediments
+to agriculture. Only one plant is cultivated in these regions with any
+degree of success. It is the _maca_, a tuberous root grown like the
+potatoe, and like it used as an article of food. In many of the Puna
+districts the maca constitutes the principal sustenance of the
+inhabitants. It has an agreeable, and somewhat sweetish flavor, and when
+boiled in milk it tastes like the chestnut. As far as I am aware this
+plant has not been mentioned by any traveller, nor has its botanical
+character yet been precisely determined. Possibly it is a species of
+Tropaeolum, but of this I am uncertain. The root is about the size of a
+large chestnut. Macas may be kept for more than a year, if, after being
+taken from the earth, they are left a few days to dry in the sun, and
+then exposed to the cold. By this means they become shrivelled and very
+hard. From these dried macas, the Indians prepare a sort of soup or
+rather syrup, which diffuses a sweet, sickly sort of odor, but which,
+when eaten with roasted maize, is not altogether unpalatable. The maca
+thrives best at the height of between 12,000 and 13,000 feet above the
+sea. In the lower districts it is not planted, for the Indians declare
+it to be flavorless when grown there. Besides the maca barley is reared
+in the Puna. I saw there fields of barley 13,200 feet above the sea. It
+does not, however, attain full maturity, seldom even shoots into ears,
+and is cut whilst green as fodder for horses.
+
+But poor and scanty as is the vegetation of the Puna, the animal
+kingdom is there richly and beautifully represented. Those regions are
+the native home of the great Mammalia, which Peru possessed before
+horses and black cattle were introduced by the Spaniards. I allude to
+the llama and his co-genera the alpaco, the huanacu, and the vicuna.
+On these interesting animals I will subjoin a few observations.[67]
+The two first are kept as domestic animals; the llama perfectly, and
+the alpaco partially tame.
+
+The llama measures from the sole of the hoof to the top of the head, 4
+feet 6 to 8 inches; from the sole of the hoof to the shoulders, from 2
+feet 11 inches to 3 feet. The female is usually smaller and less strong
+than the male, but her wool is finer and better. The color is very
+various; generally brown, with shades of yellow or black; frequently
+speckled, but very rarely quite white or black. The speckled brown llama
+is in some districts called the moromoro.
+
+The young llamas are left with the dam for about the space of a year,
+after which time they are removed and placed with flocks. When about
+four years old, the males and females are separated; the former are
+trained to carry burthens, and the latter are kept in the pastures of
+the level heights. Most of the flocks of llamas are reared in the
+southern Puna provinces, viz.:--Cuzco and Ayacucho, and from thence
+they are sent to the silver mines of North Peru. The price of a strong
+full-grown llama is from three to four dollars; but if purchased in
+flocks in the provinces above named, they may be had for one and a
+half or two dollars each. Shortly after the conquest the price of one
+of these animals was between eighteen and twenty ducats; but the
+increase of horses, mules, and sheep, lowered their value. The burthen
+carried by the llama should not exceed one hundred and twenty-five
+pounds, and the animal is seldom laden with more than a
+hundred-weight. When the llama finds his burthen too heavy he lies
+down, and cannot be made to rise until some portion of the weight is
+removed from his back. In the silver mines the llamas are of the most
+important utility, as they frequently carry the metal from the mines
+in places where the declivities are so steep that neither asses nor
+mules can keep their footing.
+
+The Indians frequently proceed with large flocks of llamas to the coast,
+to procure salt. Their daily journeys are short, never exceeding three
+or four leagues; for the animals will not feed during the night, and
+therefore they are allowed to graze as they go, or to halt for a few
+hours at feeding-time. When resting they make a peculiar humming noise,
+which, when proceeding from a numerous flock at a distance, is like a
+number of AEolian harps sounding in concert.
+
+A flock of laden llamas journeying over the table-lands is a beautiful
+sight. They proceed at a slow and measured pace, gazing eagerly around
+on every side. When any strange object scares them, the flock
+separates, and disperses in various directions, and the arrieros have
+no little difficulty in reassembling them. The Indians are very fond
+of these animals. They adorn them by tying bows of ribbon to their
+ears, and hanging bells round their necks; and before loading, they
+always fondle and caress them affectionately. If, during a journey,
+one of the llamas is fatigued and lies down, the arriero kneels beside
+the animal, and addresses to it the most coaxing and endearing
+expressions. But notwithstanding all the care and attention bestowed
+on them, many llamas perish on every journey to the coast, as they are
+not able to bear the warm climate.
+
+Some old travellers have stated that the Indians employ the llama for
+riding and for draught; but these accounts are quite erroneous. It
+sometimes happens that when crossing a river an Indian lad, to avoid
+getting wet, may mount on the back of one of the llamas; but in such a
+case, he immediately dismounts on reaching the opposite bank. The flesh
+of the llama is spongy, and not agreeable in flavor. Its wool is used
+for making coarse cloths.
+
+The alpaco, or paco, is smaller than the llama. It measures from the
+lower part of the hoof to the top of the head only three feet three
+inches, and to the shoulders two feet and a half. In form it resembles
+the sheep, but it has a longer neck and a more elegant head. The fleece
+of this animal is beautifully soft and very long; in some parts it is
+four or five inches in length. Its color is usually either white or
+black; but in some few instances it is speckled. The Indians make
+blankets and ponchos of the alpaco wool. It is also frequently exported
+to Europe, and it sells at a good price in England. The alpacos are kept
+in large flocks, and throughout the whole of the year they graze on the
+level heights. At shearing time only they are driven to the huts. They
+are in consequence very shy, and they run away at the approach of a
+stranger. The obstinacy of the alpaco is remarkable. When one of these
+animals is separated from the flock, he throws himself on the ground,
+and neither force nor persuasion will induce him to rise;--sometimes
+suffering the severest punishment rather than go the way the driver
+wishes. Few animals seem to require so imperatively the companionship of
+its own species, and it is only when brought to the Indian huts very
+young, that the alpacos can be separated from their flocks.
+
+The largest animal of this family is the huanacu. It measures five feet
+from the bottom of the hoof to the top of the head, and three feet three
+inches to the shoulders. In form it so nearly resembles the llama, that
+until a very recent period, zoologists were of opinion that the llama
+was an improved species of the huanacu, and that the latter was the
+llama in its wild state. In the "Fauna Peruana" I have explained the
+erroneousness of this opinion, and described the specific differences
+existing between the two animals. On the neck, back, and thighs the
+huanacu is of a uniform reddish-brown color. The under part of the body,
+the middle line of the breast, and the inner side of the limbs are of a
+dingy white. The face is dark grey, and the lips of a clear white. Of
+the huanacus there are not those varieties which are found among the
+llamas and the alpacos. The wool is shorter and coarser than that of the
+llama, and it is of nearly uniform length on all parts of the body.
+
+The huanacus live in small herds of five or seven, seldom exceeding
+the latter number. In some districts they are very shy, and retreat
+when any one approaches. If taken very young they may be tamed; but
+they are always ready to fall back into their wild state. It is with
+great difficulty they can be trained as beasts of burthen. In the
+menageries of Europe, huanacu brought from Chile are frequently
+represented to be llamas.
+
+The vicuna is a more beautiful animal than any of those just
+described. Its size is between that of the llama and the alpaco. It
+measures from the sole of the foot to the top of the head four feet
+one inch, and two and a half feet to the shoulders. The neck is longer
+and more slender than in either of the other relative species; and
+from them the vicuna is also distinguished by the superior fineness of
+its short, curly wool. The crown of the head, the upper part of the
+neck, the back, and thighs, are of a peculiar reddish-yellow hue,
+called by the people of the country _color de vicuna_. The lower part
+of the neck, and the inner parts of the limbs, are of a bright ochre
+color, and the breast and lower part of the body are white.
+
+During the rainy season the vicuna inhabits the ridges of the
+Cordillera, where some scanty vegetation is to be found. It never
+ventures up to the naked rocky summits, for its hoofs being accustomed
+only to turfy ground, are very soft and tender. It lives in herds,
+consisting of from six to fifteen females, and one male, who is the
+protector and leader of the herd. Whilst the females are quietly
+grazing, the male stands at the distance of some paces apart, and
+carefully keeps guard over them. At the approach of danger he gives a
+signal, consisting of a sort of whistling sound, and a quick movement of
+the foot. Immediately the herd draws closely together, each animal
+anxiously stretching out its head in the direction of the threatening
+danger. They then take to flight; first moving leisurely and cautiously,
+and then quickening their pace to the utmost degree of speed; whilst the
+male vicuna who covers the retreat frequently halts, to observe the
+movements of the enemy. The females, with singular fidelity and
+affection, reward the watchful care of their protector. If he is wounded
+or killed, they gather round him in a circle, uttering their shrill
+tones of lamentation, and they will suffer themselves to be captured or
+killed, rather than desert him by pursuing their flight. The neigh of
+the vicuna, like that of the other animals of its class, resembles a
+short, sharp whistle. But when the shrill sound vibrates through the
+pure Puna air, the practised ear can readily distinguish the cry of the
+vicuna from that of the other animals of the same family.
+
+The Indians seldom employ fire-arms in hunting the vicunas. They catch
+them by what they term the _chacu_. In this curious hunt, one man at
+least belonging to each family in the Puna villages takes a part, and
+women accompany the train, to officiate as cooks to the hunters. The
+whole company, frequently amounting to seventy or eighty individuals,
+proceeds to the Altos (the most secluded parts of the Puna), which are
+the haunts of the vicunas. They take with them stakes, and a great
+quantity of rope and cord. A spacious open plain is selected, and the
+stakes are driven into the ground in a circle, at intervals of from
+twelve to fifteen feet apart, and are connected together by ropes
+fastened to them at the height of two or two and a half feet from the
+ground. The circular space within the stakes is about half a league in
+circumference, and an opening of about two hundred paces in width is
+left for entrance. On the ropes by which the stakes are fastened
+together the women hang pieces of colored rags, which flutter about in
+the wind. The chacu being fully prepared, the men, some of whom are
+mounted on horseback, range about within a circuit of several miles,
+driving before them all the herds of vicunas they meet with, and forcing
+them into the chacu. When a sufficient number of vicunas is collected,
+the entrance is closed. The timid animals do not attempt to leap over
+the ropes, being frightened by the fluttering rags suspended from them,
+and, when thus secured, the Indians easily kill them by the _bolas_.
+These bolas consist of three balls, composed either of lead or stone;
+two of them heavy, and the third rather lighter. They are fastened to
+long, elastic strings, made of twisted sinews of the vicuna, and the
+opposite ends of the strings are all tied together. The Indian holds the
+lightest of the three balls in his hand, and swings the two others in a
+wide circle above his head; then, taking his aim at the distance of
+about fifteen or twenty paces, he lets go the hand-ball, upon which all
+the three balls whirl in a circle, and twine round the object aimed at.
+The aim is usually taken at the hind legs of the animals, and the cords
+twisting round them, they become firmly bound. It requires great skill
+and long practice to throw the bolas dexterously, especially when on
+horseback: a novice in the art incurs the risk of dangerously hurting
+either himself or his horse, by not giving the balls the proper swing,
+or by letting go the hand-ball too soon.
+
+The vicunas, after being secured by the bolas, are killed, and the flesh
+is distributed in equal portions among the hunters. The skins belong to
+the Church. The price of a vicuna skin is four reals. When all the
+animals are killed, the stakes, ropes, &c., are packed up carefully, and
+conveyed to another spot, some miles distant, where the chacu is again
+fixed up. The hunting is continued in this manner for the space of a
+week. The number of animals killed during that interval varies according
+to circumstances, being sometimes fifty or sixty, and at other times
+several hundred. During five days I took part in a chacu hunt in the
+Altos of Huayhuay, and in that space of time 122 vicunas were caught.
+With the money obtained by the sale of the skins a new altar was erected
+in the church of the district. The flesh of the vicuna is more tender
+and better flavored than that of the llama. Fine cloth and hats are made
+of the wool. When taken young, the vicunas are easily tamed, and become
+very docile; but when old, they are intractable and malicious. At Tarma
+I possessed a large and very fine vicuna. It used to follow me like a
+dog whenever I went out, whether on foot or on horseback.
+
+The frequent hunting seems not to have the effect of diminishing the
+numbers of these animals. If in the vicinity of the villages where
+chacus are frequently established, they are less numerous than in
+other parts, it is because, to elude the pursuit of the hunters, they
+seek refuge in the Altos, where they are found in vast numbers.
+Several modern travellers have lamented the diminution of the vicunas,
+but without reason. In former times those animals were hunted more
+actively than at present.
+
+Under the dynasty of the Incas, when every useful plant and animal was
+an object of veneration, the Peruvians rendered almost divine worship
+to the llama and his relatives, which exclusively furnished them with
+wool for clothing, and with flesh for food. The temples were adorned
+with large figures of these animals made of gold and silver, and their
+forms were represented in domestic utensils made of stone and clay.
+In the valuable collection of Baron Clemens von Huegel at Vienna, there
+are four of these vessels, composed of porphyry, basalt, and granite,
+representing the four species, viz., the llama, the alpaco, the
+huanacu, and the vicuna. These antiquities are exceedingly scarce, and
+when I was in Peru I was unable to obtain any of them. How the ancient
+Peruvians, without the aid of iron tools, were able to carve stone so
+beautifully, is inconceivable.
+
+Besides the animals above mentioned, several others peculiar to the Puna
+are deserving of remark. Among these are the Tarush (_Cervus
+antisiensis_, Orb.); the timid roe, which inhabits the high forests
+skirting the Andes; the Viscacha (_Lagidium peruanum_, May, and _L.
+pallipes_, Benn.), and the Chinchilla (_Eriomys Chinchilla_, Licht.),
+whose skin supplies the beautiful fur so much prized by the ladies of
+Europe. The viscachas and chinchillas resemble the rabbit in form and
+color, but they have shorter ears and long rough tails. They live on the
+steep rocky mountains, and in the morning and evening they creep out
+from their holes and crevices to nibble the alpine grasses. At night the
+Indians set before their holes traps made of horse-hair, in which the
+animals are easily caught. The most remarkable of the beasts of prey in
+these high regions is the Atoc (_Canis Azarae_, Pr. Max.). It is a
+species of fox, which is found throughout the whole of South America.
+The warmer Puna valleys are inhabited by the Cuguar (_Felis concolor_,
+L.), or, as the Indians call it, the Poma. When driven by hunger, this
+animal ventures into the loftiest Puna regions, even to the boundary of
+the eternal snow. The wild Hucumari (_Ursus ornatus_, Fr. Cuv.) but
+seldom wanders into the cold Puna. The hucumari is a large black bear,
+with a white muzzle and light-colored stripes on the breast.
+
+Of the numerous Puna birds, the majority of which may be classed as
+water-fowl, I will notice only a few of the most characteristic. Next
+to the condor, the most remarkable bird of prey is the Huarahuau, or
+the Aloi (_Polylorus megalopterus_, Cob.),[68] one of the gyr-falcon
+species. This bird, which is a constant inhabitant of the level
+heights, preys on the carcases of dead horses, mules, &c., but never
+attempts to meddle with living animals. It is very harmless, and has
+so little timidity, that it suffers itself to be approached near
+enough to be knocked down with a stick. The Acacli, or Pito (_Colaptes
+rupicola_, Orb.), flutters about the mountains; it is a woodpecker,
+brown-speckled, with a yellow belly. This bird is seen in very great
+numbers, and it is difficult to imagine how it procures food in the
+Puna, where there are no insects. All the other woodpecker species
+exclusively confine themselves to woody regions.
+
+The thickets of rushy grass are inhabited by the Pishacas, or Yutu, a
+species of partridge (_Tinamotis Pentlandii_, Vig.) which the Indians
+catch by dogs. These dogs of the Puna Indians are a peculiar race
+(_Canis Ingae_, Tsch.). They are distinguished by a small head, a
+pointed muzzle, small erect ears, a tail curling upwards, and a thick
+shaggy skin. They are in a half-wild state, and very surly and
+snappish. They furiously attack strangers, and even after having
+received a deadly wound they will crawl along the ground, and make an
+effort to bite. To white people they appear to have a particular
+antipathy; and sometimes it becomes rather a venturous undertaking for
+a European traveller to approach an Indian hut, for these mountain
+dogs spring up to the sides of the horse, and try to bite the rider's
+legs. They are snarlish and intractable even to their masters, who are
+often obliged to enforce obedience by the help of a stick. Yet these
+dogs are very useful animals for guarding flocks, and they have a keen
+scent for the pishacas, which they catch and kill with a single bite.
+
+There is a very curious little bird in the Puna, about the size of a
+starling. Its plumage is exceedingly pretty, being on the back brown,
+striped with black; on the throat grey, with two dark stripes, and on
+the breast white. This bird has the remarkable peculiarity of making a
+monotonous sound at the close of every hour, during the night. The
+Indians call it the Ingahuallpa, or Cock of the Inga (_Thinocorus
+Ingae_, Tsch.), and they associate many superstitious notions with its
+regular hourly cry. The Puna morasses and lagunas are animated by
+numerous feathered inhabitants. Among them is the huachua (_Chloephaga
+melanoptera_, Eyt.), a species of goose. The plumage of the body is
+dazzlingly white, the wings green, shading into brilliant violet, and
+the feet and beak of a bright red. The Licli (_Charadrius resplendens_,
+Tsch.) is a plover, whose plumage in color is like that of the huachua,
+but with a sort of metallic brightness. There are two species of ibis
+which belong to the Puna, though they are occasionally seen in some of
+the lower valleys. One is the Bandurria (_Theristocus melanopis_,
+Wagl.), and the other is the Yanahuico (_Ibis Ordi_, Bonap.). On the
+lagunas swim large flocks of Quiullas (_Larus serranus_, Tsch.), white
+mews, with black heads and red beaks, and the gigantic water-hen
+(_Fulica gigantea_, Soul.). The plumage of the latter is dark-grey, and
+at the root of the red beak there is a large yellow botch, in the form
+of a bean, whence the Indians give this bird the name of _Anash sinqui_,
+or bean nose. Among the few amphibia found in these regions one is
+particularly remarkable. It is a small kind of toad (_Leiuperus
+viridis_, Tsch.), and inhabits the boundaries of the perpetual snow.
+
+The grasses of the Puna are used as fodder, and in many of the sheltered
+valleys there are farms (_Haciendas de Ganado_), where large herds of
+cattle are reared. The owners of some of these farms possess several
+thousand sheep, and from four to five hundred cows. During the rainy
+season the cattle are driven into the Altos. They graze in those high
+regions, often at the altitude of 15,000 feet above the sea. When the
+frost sets in they are brought down to the marshy valleys, and they
+suffer much from insufficiency of pasture. From the wool of the sheep a
+coarse kind of cloth, called Bayeta, is made in the Sierra. Some of this
+wool is exported, and is much prized in Europe. The old black cattle and
+sheep are slaughtered, and their flesh, when dried, is the principal
+food of the inhabitants of the Puna, particularly of the mining
+population. The dried beef is called _Charqui_, and the mutton is called
+_Chalona_. The bulls graze in the remote Altos, and most of them are
+reserved for the bull fights in the Sierra villages. As they seldom see
+a human being they become exceedingly wild; so much so that the herdsmen
+are often afraid to approach them. In the daytime they roam about marshy
+places, and at nightfall they retire for shelter beneath some
+overhanging rock. These animals render travelling in many parts of the
+Puna extremely dangerous, for they often attack people so suddenly as to
+afford no time for defence. It is true they usually announce their
+approach by a deep bellow; but the open plain seldom presents any
+opportunity for escape. On several occasions a well-aimed shot alone
+saved me from the attack of one of these ferocious bulls.
+
+The walls of the haciendas are of rough unhewn stone. They are divided
+into large square rooms, always damp, cold, and uninhabitable. Beneath
+the straw roofs there usually hang long rows of the stuffed skins of
+foxes; for every Indian who kills an old fox receives, by way of
+reward, a sheep, and for a young one a lamb. The Cholos are therefore
+zealous fox-hunters, and they may possibly succeed in altogether
+extirpating that animal which in some districts is so numerous as to
+be a perfect scourge.
+
+As the sheep, even in the dry season, find pasture more easily than the
+horned cattle, they are left during the whole year in the higher parts
+of the Puna, under the care of Indian shepherds. At night they are
+driven into _cerales_, large square roofless buildings, and are guarded
+by dogs. The shepherds make a practice of every year burning the dry
+grass of the Puna, in order to improve the growth of the fodder. A Puna
+fire does not, however, present the imposing spectacle of the prairie
+fires, as described by travellers in North America, possibly because the
+Puna straw is shorter, and is always somewhat damp.
+
+The dwellings of the shepherds are built in the same rude style which
+characterizes all the huts in the Puna, and they impress the European
+traveller with a very unfavorable notion of the intelligence of the
+people. The architecture of these huts consists in laying down some
+large stones, in a circle of about eight or ten feet in diameter, by
+way of a foundation. These stones are covered with earth or turf, and
+then with successive layers of stones and earth, until the wall
+attains the height of about four feet: at the point most sheltered
+from the wind, an opening of a foot and a half or two feet high serves
+as a door. On this low circular wall rests the roof, which is formed
+in the following manner. Six or eight magay[69] poles are fastened
+together, so as to form a point at the top. Over these poles thin
+laths are laid horizontally, and fastened with straw-bands, and the
+whole conical-formed frame-work is overlaid with a covering of Puna
+straw. As a security against the wind, two thick straw-bands are
+crossed over the point of the roof, and at their ends, which hang down
+to the ground, heavy stones are fastened. The whole fabric is then
+completed. The hut at its central point is about eight feet high; but
+at the sides, no more than three and a half or four feet. The entrance
+is so low, that one is obliged to creep in almost bent double; and
+before the aperture hangs a cow-hide, by way of a door.
+
+Internally these huts present miserable pictures of poverty and
+uncleanliness. Two stones serve as a stove, containing a scanty fire fed
+by dry dung (_bunegas_), and turf (_champo_). An earthen pot for cooking
+soup, another for roasting maize, two or three gourd-shells for plates,
+and a porongo for containing water, make up the catalogue of the goods
+and chattels in a Puna hut. On dirty sheep-skins spread on the ground,
+sit the Indian and his wife, listlessly munching their coca; whilst the
+naked children roll about paddling in pools of water formed by continual
+drippings from the roof. The other inhabitants of the hut are usually
+three or four hungry dogs, some lambs, and swarms of guinea-pigs.
+
+From all this it will readily be imagined that a Puna hut is no very
+agreeable or inviting retreat. Yet, when worn out by the dangers and
+fatigues of a long day's journey, and exposed to the fury of a
+mountain storm, the weary traveller, heedless of suffocating clouds of
+smoke and mephitic odors, gladly creeps into the rude dwelling. Taking
+up his resting-place on the damp floor, with his saddle-cloth for a
+pillow, he is thankful to find himself once again in a human
+habitation, even though its occupants be not many degrees elevated
+above the brute creation.
+
+In the Puna there are many remains of the great high road of the Incas,
+which led from Cuzco to Quito, stretching through the whole extent of
+Peru. It was the grandest work that America possessed before European
+civilisation found its way to that quarter of the world. Even those who
+are unacquainted with the wise dominion of the ancient Peruvian
+sovereigns, their comprehensive laws, and the high civilisation they
+diffused over the whole country, must by this gigantic work be impressed
+with the highest idea of the cultivation of the age; for
+well-constructed roads may always be regarded as proofs of a nation's
+advancement. There is not in Peru at the present time any modern road
+in the most remote degree comparable to the Incas' highway. The best
+preserved fragments which came under my observation were in the
+Altos, between Jauja and Tarma. Judging from these portions, it would
+appear that the road must have been from twenty-five to thirty feet
+broad, and that it was paved with large flat stones. At intervals of
+about twelve paces distant one from another there is a row of smaller
+stones, laid horizontally and a little elevated, so that the road
+ascended, as it were, by a succession of terraces. It was edged on
+each side by a low wall of small stones.
+
+Other remains of ancient Peru, frequently met with in these parts, are
+small buildings, formerly used as stations for the messengers who
+promulgated the commands of the Incas through all parts of the country.
+Some of these buildings are still in a tolerably good state of
+preservation. They were always erected on little hillocks, and at such
+distances apart, that from each station the nearest one on either side
+was discernible. When a messenger was despatched from a station a signal
+was hoisted, and a messenger from the next successive station met him
+halfway, and received from him the despatch, which was in this manner
+forwarded from one station to another till it reached its destination. A
+constant communication was thus kept up between the capital and the most
+distant parts of the country. A proof of the extraordinary rapidity with
+which these communications were carried on is the fact, recorded on
+unquestionable authority, that the royal table in Cuzco was served with
+fresh fish, caught in the sea near the Temple of the Sun in Lurin, a
+distance of more than 200 leagues from Cuzco.
+
+The messenger stations have by some travellers been confounded with
+the forts, of which remains are met with along the great Inca road. The
+forts were buildings destined for totally different purposes. They were
+magazines for grain, and were built by the Incas to secure to their
+armies in these barren regions the requisite supplies of food. Vestiges
+of these forts are frequently seen in the Altos of Southern and Central
+Peru. They are broad round towers, usually built against a rocky
+declivity, and with numerous long apertures for the admission of air.
+
+Even the broad level heights in which no trace of human habitations is
+discoverable, have been excavated by the mercenary Peruvian mestizos and
+creoles in search of hidden treasures. Their faith in the existence of
+concealed riches is founded on the following tradition. When the last
+reigning Inca, Atabiliba or Atahuallpa, was made prisoner by Don
+Francisco Pizarro, in Caxamarca, he proposed to ransom himself from the
+Spanish commander. The price he offered for his liberty was to fill with
+gold the cell in which he was confined, to the height of a certain line
+on the wall, which Pizarro marked with his sword. The cell, it may be
+mentioned, was twenty-two feet long and seventeen broad. A quantity of
+gold which the Inca ordered to be collected in Caxamarca and its
+vicinity, when piled up on the floor of the cell, did not reach above
+halfway to the given mark. The Inca then despatched messengers to Cuzco
+to obtain from the royal treasury the gold required to make up the
+deficiency; and accordingly eleven thousand llamas were despatched from
+Cuzco to Caxamarca, each laden with one hundred pounds of gold. But ere
+the treasure reached its destination, Atahuallpa was hanged by the
+advice of Don Diego de Almangra and the Dominican monk Vicente de
+Valverde. The terror-stirring news flew like wild-fire through the land,
+and speedily reached the convoy of Indians, who were driving their
+richly-laden llamas over the level heights into Central Peru. On the
+spot where the intelligence of Atahuallpa's death was communicated to
+them, the dismayed Indians concealed the treasure, and then dispersed.
+
+Whether the number of the llamas was really so considerable as it is
+stated to have been, may fairly be doubted; but that a vast quantity
+of gold was on its way to Caxamarca, and was concealed, is a
+well-authenticated fact. That the Indians should never have made any
+attempt to recover this treasure is quite consistent with their
+character. It is not improbable that even now some particular
+individuals among them may know the place of concealment; but a
+certain feeling of awe transmitted through several centuries from
+father to son, has, in their minds, associated the hidden treasure
+with the blood of their last king, and this feeling doubtless prompts
+them to keep the secret inviolate.
+
+From traditionary accounts, which bear the appearance of probability,
+it would appear that the gold was buried somewhere in the Altos of Mito,
+near the valley of Jauja. Searches have frequently been made in that
+vicinity, but no clue to the hiding-place has yet been discovered.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 65: Some derive the word Andes from the people called Antis,
+who dwelt at the foot of these chains of mountains. A province in the
+department of Cuzco, which was probably the chief settlement of that
+nation, still bears the name of Antas.]
+
+[Footnote 66: From the most remote times the Ratanhia has been employed
+by the Indians as a medicine. It is one of their favorite remedies
+against spitting of blood and dysentery. Most of the Ratanhia exported
+to Europe is obtained in the southern provinces of Peru, particularly in
+Arica and Islay. The extract which is prepared in Peru, and which was
+formerly sent in large quantities to Europe, is now scarcely an object
+of traffic. For several years past no Ratanhia has been shipped from
+Callao, and but very little from Truxillo.]
+
+[Footnote 67: More lengthened information respecting them may be found in
+the "Fauna Peruana." I have there noted all their specific varieties,
+and have corrected the erroneous accounts given of them by some previous
+travellers.]
+
+[Footnote 68: _Phalcoboenus montanus_, Orb.]
+
+[Footnote 69: The Magay is the stem of the American Agave. It has a sort
+of spungy sap; but it is covered externally with a strong tough bast.
+The Magay supplies the inhabitants of Upper Peru with an excellent kind
+of light and strong building wood.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+Cerro de Pasco--First discovery of the Mines--Careless mode of working
+them--Mine Owners and Mine Laborers--Amalgamating and
+Refining--Produce of the Mines--Life in Cerro de Pasco--Different
+Classes of the Population--Gaming and Drunkenness--Extravagance and
+Improvidence of the Indian Mine Laborers--The Cerro de San
+Fernando--Other Important Mining Districts in Peru--The Salcedo
+Mine--Castrovireyna--Vast Productiveness of the Silver Mines of
+Peru--Rich Mines secretly known to the Indians--Roads leading from
+Cerro de Pasco--The Laguna of Chinchaycocha--Battle of Junin--Indian
+Robbers--A Day and a Night in the Puna Wilds.
+
+
+Having traversed the long and difficult route from the capital of Peru,
+by way of the wild Cordillera to the level heights of Bombon, and from
+thence having ascended the steep winding acclivities of the mountain
+chain of Olachin, the traveller suddenly beholds in the distance a large
+and populous city. This is the celebrated Cerro de Pasco, famed
+throughout the world for its rich silver mines. It is situated in 10 deg.
+48' S. latitude and 76 deg. 23' W. longitude, and at the height of 13,673
+feet above the sea level. It is built in a basin-shaped hollow,
+encircled by barren and precipitous rocks. Between these rocks difficult
+winding roads or paths lead down to the city, which spreads out in
+irregular divisions, surrounded on all sides by little lagunes, or
+swamps. The pleasing impression created by the first view of Cerro de
+Pasco from the heights is very greatly modified on entering the town.
+Crooked, narrow, and dirty streets are bordered by rows of
+irregularly-built houses; and miserable Indian huts abut close against
+well-built dwellings, whose size and structure give a certain European
+character to the city when viewed from a distance. Without bestowing a
+glance on the busy throng which circulates through the streets and
+squares, the varied styles of the buildings sufficiently indicate to the
+observer how many different classes of people have united together to
+found, in the tropics, and on the very confines of the perpetual snow, a
+city of such magnitude, and of so motley an aspect. The wild barrenness
+of the surrounding scenery, and the extreme cold of the rigorous
+climate--the remote and solitary position of the city--all denote that
+one common bond of union must have drawn together the diversified
+elements which compose the population of Cerro de Pasco. And so it
+really is. In this inhospitable region, where the surface of the soil
+produces nothing, nature has buried boundless stores of wealth in the
+bowels of the earth, and the silver mines of Cerro de Pasco have drawn
+people from all parts of the world to one point, and for one object.
+
+History relates that about two hundred and fifteen years ago an Indian
+shepherd, named Huari Capcha, tended his flocks on a small pampa to the
+south-east of the Lake of Llauricocha, the mother of the great river
+Amazon. One day, when the shepherd had wandered farther than usual from
+his hut, he sought a resting-place on a declivity of the Cerro de
+Santiestevan, and when evening drew in he kindled a fire to protect
+himself against the cold; he then lay down to sleep. When he awoke on
+the following morning, he was amazed to find the stone beneath the ashes
+of his fire melted and turned to silver. He joyfully communicated the
+discovery to his master, Don Jose Ugarte, a Spaniard, who owned a
+hacienda in the Quebrada de Huariaca. Ugarte forthwith repaired to the
+spot, where he found indications of a very rich vein of silver ore,
+which he immediately made active preparations for working. In this mine,
+which is distinguished by the name of _La Descubridora_ (the
+discoverer), silver is still obtained. From the village of Pasco, about
+two leagues distant, where already productive mines were worked, several
+rich mine owners removed to Llauricocha; here they sought and discovered
+new veins, and established new mining works. The vast abundance of the
+ore drew new speculators to the spot; some to work the mines, and others
+to supply the necessary wants of the increasing population. In this
+manner was rapidly founded a city, which, at times when the produce of
+metal is very considerable, counts 18,000 inhabitants.
+
+In Cerro de Pasco there are two very remarkable veins of silver. One of
+them, the Veta de Colquirirca, runs nearly in a straight line from north
+to south, and has already been traced to the length of 9,600 feet, and
+the breadth of 412; the other vein is the Veta de Pariarirca, which
+takes a direction from east-south-east to west-north-west, and which
+intersects the Veta de Colquirirca precisely, it is supposed, under the
+market-place of the city. Its known extent is 6,400 feet in length, and
+380 feet in breadth. From these large veins numberless smaller ones
+branch off in various directions, so that a net-work of silver may be
+supposed to spread beneath the surface of the earth. Some thousand
+openings or mouths (_bocaminas_) are the entrances to these mines. Most
+of these entrances are within the city itself, in small houses; and some
+are in the dwellings of the mine-owners. Many of them are exceedingly
+shallow, and not more than five hundred deserve the name of shafts. All
+are worked in a very disorderly and careless way; the grand object of
+their owners being to avoid expense. The dangerous parts in the shafts
+are never walled up, and the excavations proceed without the adoption
+of any measures of security. The consequence is, that accidents caused
+by the falling in of the galleries are of frequent occurrence; and
+every year the lives of numbers of the Indian miners are sacrificed. A
+melancholy example of the effects of this negligence is presented by
+the now ruined mine of Matagente (literally _Kill People_), in which
+three hundred laborers were killed by the falling in of a shaft. I
+descended into several of the mines, among others into the
+_Descubridora_, which is one of the deepest, and I always felt that I
+had good reason to congratulate myself on returning to the surface of
+the earth in safety. Rotten blocks of wood and loose stones serve for
+steps, and, where these cannot be placed, the shaft, which in most
+instances runs nearly perpendicular, is descended by the help of rusty
+chains and ropes, whilst loose fragments of rubbish are continually
+falling from the damp walls.
+
+The mine laborers, all of whom are Indians, are of two classes. One
+class consists of those who work in the mines all the year round without
+intermission, and who receive regular wages from the mine owners;--the
+other class consists of those who make only temporary visits to Cerro de
+Pasco, when they are attracted thither by the _boyas_.[70] This latter
+class of laborers are called _maquipuros_. Most of them come from the
+distant provinces, and they return to their homes when the boya is at an
+end. The mine laborers are also subdivided into two classes, the one
+called _barreteros_, whose employment consists in breaking the ore; and
+the other called _hapires_, or _chaquiris_, who bring up the ore from
+the shaft. The work allotted to the hapires is exceedingly laborious.
+Each load consists of from fifty to seventy-five pounds of metal, which
+is carried in a very irksome and inconvenient manner in an untanned
+hide, called a capacho. The hapire performs his toilsome duty in a state
+of nudity, for, notwithstanding the coldness of the climate, he becomes
+so heated by his laborious exertion, that he is glad to divest himself
+of his clothing. As the work is carried on incessantly day and night,
+the miners are divided into parties called _puntas_, each party working
+for twelve successive hours. At six o'clock morning and evening the
+_puntas_ are relieved. Each one is under the inspection of a mayor-domo.
+When a mine yields a scanty supply of metal, the laborers are paid in
+money; the barreteros receiving six reals per day, and the hapires only
+four. During the _boyas_ the laborers receive instead of their wages in
+money, a share of the ore. The Indians often try to appropriate to
+themselves surreptitiously pieces of ore; but to do this requires great
+cunning and dexterity, so narrowly are they watched by the mayor-domos.
+Nevertheless, they sometimes succeed. One of the hapires related to me
+how he had contrived to carry off a most valuable piece of silver. He
+fastened it on his back, and then wrapping himself in his poncho, he
+pretended to be so ill, that he obtained permission to quit the mine.
+Two of his confederates who helped him out, assisted him in concealing
+the treasure. The _polvorilla_, a dark powdery kind of ore, very full of
+silver, used to be abstracted from the mines by the following stratagem.
+The workmen would strip off their clothes, and having moistened the
+whole of their bodies with water, would roll themselves in the
+_polvorilla_ which stuck to them. On their return home they washed off
+the silver-dust and sold it for several dollars. But this trick being
+detected, a stop was soon put to it, for, before leaving the mines, the
+laborers are now required to strip in order to be searched.
+
+The operation of separating the silver from the dross is performed at
+some distance from Cerro de Pasco, in haciendas, belonging to the great
+mine owners. The process is executed in a very clumsy, imperfect, and at
+the same time, a very expensive manner. The amalgamation of the
+quicksilver with the metal is effected by the tramping of horses. The
+animals employed in this way are a small ill-looking race, brought from
+Ayacucho and Cuzco, where they are found in numerous herds. The
+quicksilver speedily has a fatal effect on their hoofs, and after a few
+years the animals become unfit for work. The separation of the metals is
+managed with as little judgment as the amalgamation, and the waste of
+quicksilver is enormous. It is computed that on each mark of silver,
+half a pound of quicksilver is expended. The quicksilver, with the
+exception of some little brought from Idria and Huancavelica, comes from
+Spain in iron jars, each containing about seventy-five pounds weight of
+the metal. In Lima the price of these jars is from sixty to 100 dollars
+each, but they are occasionally sold as high as 135 or 140 dollars.
+Considering the vast losses which the Peruvian mine owners sustain by
+the waste of quicksilver and the defective mode of refining, it may
+fairly be inferred, that their profits are about one-third less than
+they would be under a better system of management.
+
+In Cerro de Pasco there are places called _boliches_, in which the
+silver is separated from the dross by the same process as that practised
+in the _haciendas_, only on a smaller scale. In the _boliches_ the
+amalgamation is performed, not by horses but by Indians, who mix the
+quicksilver with the ore by stamping on it with their feet for several
+hours in succession. This occupation they usually perform barefooted,
+and the consequence is, that paralysis and other diseases caused by the
+action of mercury, are very frequent among the persons thus employed.
+The owners of the _boliches_, who are mostly Italians, are not mine
+proprietors. They obtain the metal from the Indians, who give them their
+_huachacas_[71] in exchange for brandy and other articles. On the other
+hand, the owners of the _boliches_ obtain the money required for their
+speculations from capitalists, who make them pay an enormous interest.
+Nevertheless, many amass considerable fortunes in the course of a few
+years; for they scruple not to take the most unjust advantage of the
+Indians, whose laborious toil is rewarded by little gain.
+
+The law requires that all the silver drawn from the mines of Cerro de
+Pasco shall be conveyed to a government smelting-house, called the
+_Callana_, there to be cast into bars of one hundred pounds weight, to
+be stamped, and charged with certain imposts. The value of silver in
+Cerro de Pasco varies from seven to eight dollars per mark. The standard
+value in Lima is eight dollars and a half.
+
+It is impossible to form anything like an accurate estimate of the
+yearly produce of the mines of Cerro de Pasco; for a vast quantity of
+silver is never taken to the Callana, but is smuggled to the coast,
+and from thence shipped for Europe. In the year 1838, no less than
+85,000 marks of contraband silver were conveyed to the sea port of
+Huacho, and safely shipped on board a schooner. The quantity of silver
+annually smelted and stamped in the Callana is from two to three
+hundred thousand marks--seldom exceeding the latter amount. From 1784
+to 1820, 1826, and 1827, the amount was 8,051,409 marks; in the year
+1784 it was 68,208 marks; and in 1785, 73,455 marks. During seventeen
+years it was under 200,000 marks; and only during three years above
+300,000. The produce of the mines is exceedingly fluctuating. The
+successive revolutions which have agitated the country have tended
+very considerably to check mining operations. On the overthrow of
+Santa Cruz, Don Miguel Otero, the most active and intelligent mine
+owner of Cerro de Pasco, was banished; an event which had a very
+depressing influence on all the mining transactions of that part of
+South America. Within the last few years, however, mining has
+received a new impetus, and attention has been directed to the
+adoption of a more speedy and less expensive system of amalgamation.
+
+As a place of residence Cerro de Pasco is exceedingly disagreeable;
+nothing but the pursuit of wealth can reconcile any one to a long
+abode in it. The climate, like that of the higher Puna, is cold and
+stormy. The better sort of houses are well built, and are provided
+with good English fire-places and chimneys. But however comfortably
+lodged, the new comer cannot easily reconcile himself to the
+reflection that the earth is hollow beneath his feet. Still less
+agreeable is it to be awakened in the night by the incessant hammering
+of the Indian miners. Luckily earthquakes are of rare occurrence in
+those parts: it would require no very violent shock to bury the whole
+city in the bosom of the earth.
+
+Silver being the only produce of the soil, the necessaries of life are
+all exceedingly dear in the Cerro, as they have to be brought from
+distant places. The warehouses are, it is true, always plentifully
+supplied even with the choicest luxuries; but the extortion of venders
+and the abundance of money render prices most exorbitant. The market
+is so well supplied with provisions that it may vie with that of Lima.
+The products of the coast, of the table-lands and the forests, are all
+to be procured in the market of Cerro de Pasco; but the price demanded
+for every article is invariably more than double its worth. House
+rents are also extravagantly high; and the keep of horses is
+exceedingly expensive.
+
+The population of Cerro de Pasco presents a motley assemblage of human
+beings, such as one would scarcely expect to find in a city situated
+at 14,000 feet above the sea, and encircled by wild mountains. The Old
+and the New Worlds seem there to have joined hands, and there is
+scarcely any nation of Europe or America that has not its
+representative in Cerro de Pusco. The Swede and the Sicilian, the
+Canadian and the Argentinian, are all united here at one point, and
+for one object. The inhabitants of this city may be ranked in two
+divisions, viz., traders and miners--taking both terms in their most
+comprehensive sense. The mercantile population consists chiefly of
+Europeans or white Creoles, particularly those who are owners of large
+magazines. The keepers of coffee houses and brandy shops are here, as
+in Lima, chiefly Italians from Genoa. Other shops are kept by the
+Mestizos, and the provision-dealers are chiefly Indians, who bring
+their supplies from remote places.
+
+The mining population may be divided into mine owners (_mineros_) and
+Indian laborers. The majority of the mineros are descendants of the old
+Spanish families, who, at an early period, became possessors of the
+mines, whence they derived enormous wealth, which most of them
+dissipated in prodigal extravagance. At the present time, only a very
+few of the mineros are rich enough to defray, from their own resources,
+the vast expense attending the operations of mining. They consequently
+raise the required money by loans from the capitalists of Lima, who
+require interest of 100 or 120 per cent., and, moreover, insist on
+having bars of silver at a price below standard value. To these hard
+conditions, together with the custom that has been forced upon the
+miners of paying their laborers in metal, at times when it is very
+abundant, may be traced the cause of the miserable system of
+mine-working practised in Cerro de Pasco. To liquidate his burthensome
+debts the minero makes his laborers dig as much ore as possible from the
+mine, without any precautions being taken to guard against accidents.
+The money-lenders, on the other hand, have no other security for the
+recovery of their re-payment than the promise of the minero, and a
+failure of the usual produce of a mine exposes them to the risk of
+losing the money they have advanced.
+
+Under these circumstances it can scarcely be expected that the character
+and habits of the minero should qualify him to take a high rank in the
+social scale. His insatiable thirst for wealth continually prompts him
+to embark in new enterprises, whereby he frequently loses in one what he
+gains in another. After a mine has been worked without gain for a series
+of years, an unexpected _boya_ probably occurs, and an immense quantity
+of silver may be extracted. But a minero retiring on the proceeds of a
+boya is an event of rare occurrence. A vain hope of increasing fortune
+prompts him to risk the certain for the uncertain: and the result
+frequently is, that the once prosperous minero has nothing to bequeath
+to his children but a mine heavily burthened with debt. The
+persevering ardor of persons engaged in mining is truly remarkable.
+Unchecked by disappointment, they pursue the career in which they have
+embarked. Even when ruin appears inevitable, the love of money subdues
+the warnings of reason, and hope conjures up, from year to year,
+visionary pictures of riches yet to come.
+
+Joined to this infatuated pursuit of the career once entered on, an
+inordinate passion for cards and dice contributes to ruin many of the
+mineros of Cerro de Pasco. In few other places are such vast sums staked
+at the gaming-table; for the superabundance of silver feeds that
+national vice of the Spaniards and their descendants. From the earliest
+hours of morning cards and dice are in requisition. The mine owner
+leaves his silver stores, and the shop-keeper forsakes his counter, to
+pass a few hours every day at the gaming-table; and card-playing is
+the only amusement in the best houses of the town. The mayordomos,
+after being engaged in the mines throughout the whole day, assemble
+with their comrades in the evening, round the gaming-table, from which
+they often do not rise until six in the morning, when the bell summons
+them to resume their subterraneous occupations. They not unfrequently
+gamble away their share of a boya before any indication of one is
+discernible in the mine.
+
+The working class of miners is composed of Indians, who throng to Cerro
+de Pasco from all the provinces, far and near, especially when boyas are
+expected. At times, when the mines are not very productive, the number
+of Indian laborers amounts to between three and four thousand; but when
+there is a great supply of metal, the ordinary number of mine-workers is
+more than tripled. The Indians labor with a degree of patient industry,
+which it would be vain to expect from European workmen similarly
+circumstanced. This observation applies to the hapires in particular.
+Content with wretched food, and still more wretched lodging, the hapire
+goes through his hard day's work, partaking of no refreshment but coca,
+and at the end of the week (deduction being made for the food, &c.,
+obtained on credit from the minero), he, possibly, finds himself in
+possession of a dollar. This sum he spends on his Sunday holiday in
+chicha and brandy, of which he takes as much as his money will pay
+for, or as he can get on credit. When excited by strong drinks, such
+as maize beer, chicha, and brandy, to which they are very much
+addicted, the Indian miners are exceedingly quarrelsome. The laborers
+belonging to the different mines go about the streets rioting and
+attacking each other, and they frequently get involved in dangerous
+affrays. No Sunday or Friday passes over without the occurrence of
+battles, in which knives, sticks, and stones are used as weapons; and
+the actors in these scenes of violence inflict on each other severe
+and often fatal wounds. Any effective police interference to quell
+these street riots, is out of the question.
+
+When an unusually abundant produce of the mines throws extra payment
+into the hands of the mine laborers, they squander their money with the
+most absurd extravagance, and they are excellent customers to the
+European dealers in dress and other articles of luxury. Prompted by a
+ludicrous spirit of imitation, the Indian, in his fits of drunkenness,
+will purchase costly things which he can have no possible use for, and
+which he becomes weary of, after an hour's possession. I once saw an
+Indian purchase a cloak of fine cloth, for which he paid ninety-two
+dollars. He then repaired to a neighboring pulperia,[72] where he drank
+till he became intoxicated, and then, staggering into the street, he
+fell down, and rolled in the kennel. On rising, and discovering that his
+cloak was besmeared with mud, he threw it off, and left it in the
+street, for any one who might choose to pick it up. Such acts of
+reckless prodigality are of daily occurrence. A watchmaker in Cerro de
+Pasco informed me that one day an Indian came to his shop to purchase
+a gold watch. He showed him one, observing that the price was twelve
+gold ounces (204 dollars), and that it would probably be too dear for
+him. The Cholo paid the money, and took the watch; then, after having
+examined it for a few minutes, he dashed it on the ground, observing
+that the thing was of no use to him. When the Indian miner possesses
+money, he never thinks of laying by a part of it, as neither he nor
+any of his family feel the least ambition to improve their miserable
+way of life. With them, drinking is the highest of all gratifications,
+and in the enjoyment of the present moment, they lose sight of all
+considerations for the future. Even those Cholos who come from distant
+parts of the country to share in the rich harvest of the mines of
+Cerro de Pasco, return to their homes as poor as when they left them,
+and with manners and morals vastly deteriorated.
+
+Besides the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which in point of importance are
+nowise inferior to those of Potosi, there are numerous very rich mining
+districts in Peru. Among the most prolific may be ranked the provinces
+of Pataz, Huamanchuco, Caxamarca, and Hualgayoc. In this last-named
+province is situated the Cerro de San Fernando, on which Alexander Von
+Humboldt has conferred so much celebrity. The rich silver veins were
+discovered there in the year 1771; and there are now upwards of 1400
+bocaminas. On the insulated mountain the veins of metal intersect each
+other in every direction, and they are alike remarkable for being easily
+worked and exceedingly prolific. The mines of Huantaxaya, situated on
+the coast in the neighborhood of Iquique, were also very rich, and the
+silver obtained from them was either pure or containing a very slight
+admixture of foreign substances. They yielded an incredible quantity of
+metal, but they were speedily exhausted; and are now totally barren. The
+chains of hills in the southern districts of Peru contain a multitude of
+very rich mines, of which the most remarkable are those of San Antonio
+de Esquilache, Tamayos, Picotani, Cancharani, and Chupicos; but owing to
+bad working and defective drainage, many of the veins are in a very
+ruinous state, and the metal drawn from them bears no proportion to the
+quantity they contain. The Salcedo mine is very celebrated for the vast
+abundance of its produce, and the tragical end of its original owner.
+
+Don Jose Salcedo, a poor Spaniard, who dwelt in Puno, was in love with a
+young Indian girl, whose mother promised, on condition of his marrying
+her daughter, that she would show him a rich silver mine. Salcedo
+fulfilled the condition, obtained possession of the mine, and worked it
+with the greatest success. The report of his wealth soon roused the envy
+of the Count de Lemos, then viceroy of Peru, who sought to possess
+himself of the mine. By his generosity and benevolence Salcedo had
+become a great favorite with the Indian population, and the viceroy took
+advantage of this circumstance to accuse him of high treason, on the
+ground that he was exciting the Indians against the Spanish government.
+Salcedo was arrested, tried, and condemned to death. Whilst he was in
+prison, he begged to be permitted to send to Madrid the documents
+relating to his trial, and to appeal to the mercy of the king. He
+proposed, if the viceroy would grant his request, that he would pay him
+the daily tribute of a bar of silver, from the time when the ship left
+the port of Callao with the documents, until the day of her return. When
+it is recollected that at that period the voyage from Callao to Spain
+occupied from twelve to sixteen months, some idea may be formed of the
+enormous wealth of Salcedo and his mine. The viceroy rejected this
+proposition, ordered Salcedo to be hanged, and set out for Puno to take
+possession of the mine.[73]
+
+But this cruel and unjust proceeding failed in the attainment of its
+object. As soon as Salcedo's death-doom was pronounced, his
+mother-in-law, accompanied by a number of relations and friends,
+repaired to the mine, flooded it with water, destroyed the works, and
+closed up the entrance so effectually that it was impossible to trace it
+out. They then dispersed; but some of them, who were afterwards
+captured, could not be induced, either by promises or tortures, to
+reveal the position of the mouth of the mine, which to this day remains
+undiscovered. All that is known about it is that it was situated in the
+neighborhood of Cerro de Laycacota and Cananchari.
+
+Another extraordinary example of the productiveness of the Peruvian
+mines, is found at San Jose, in the department of Huancavelica. The
+owner of the mines of San Jose requested the viceroy Castro, whose
+friend he was, to become godfather to his first child. The viceroy
+consented, but at the time fixed for the christening, some important
+affair of state prevented him from quitting the capital, and he sent
+the vice-queen to officiate as his proxy. To render honor to his
+illustrious guest, the owner of the San Jose mines laid down a triple
+row of silver bars along the whole way (and it was no very short
+distance), from his house to church. Over this silver pavement the
+vice-queen accompanied the infant to the church, where it was
+baptized. On her return, her munificent host presented to her the
+whole of the silver road, in token of his gratitude for the honor she
+had conferred on him. Since that time, the mines and the province in
+which they are situated have borne the name of Castrovireyna. In most
+of these mines the works have been discontinued. Owing to defective
+arrangements, one of the richest of these mines fell in, and 122
+workmen were buried in the ruins. Since that catastrophe, the Indians
+refuse to enter the mines. Many stories are related of spirits and
+apparitions said to haunt the mines of Castrovireyna. I was surprised
+to hear these tales, for the imagination of the Indian miners is not
+very fertile in the creation of this sort of superstitious terrors.
+
+Notwithstanding the enormous amount of wealth, which the mines of Peru
+have already yielded, and still continue to yield, only a very small
+portion of the silver veins has been worked. It is a well-known fact,
+that the Indians are aware of the existence of many rich mines, the
+situation of which they will never disclose to the whites, nor to the
+detested mestizos. Heretofore mining has been to them all toil and
+little profit, and it has bound them in chains from which they will not
+easily emancipate themselves. For centuries past, the knowledge of some
+of the richest silver mines has been with inviolable secresy transmitted
+from father to son. All endeavors to prevail on them to divulge these
+secrets have hitherto been fruitless. In the village of Huancayo, there
+lived, a few years ago, two brothers, Don Jose and Don Pedro Yriarte,
+two of the most eminent mineros of Peru. Having obtained certain
+intelligence that in the neighboring mountains there existed some veins
+of pure silver, they sent a young man, their agent, to endeavor to gain
+further information on the subject. The agent took up his abode in the
+cottage of a shepherd, to whom, however, he gave not the slightest
+intimation of the object of his mission. After a little time, an
+attachment arose between the young man and the shepherd's daughter, and
+the girl promised to disclose to her lover the position of a very rich
+mine. On a certain day, when she was going out to tend her sheep, she
+told him to follow her at a distance, and to notice the spot where she
+would let fall her _manta_; by turning up the earth on that spot, she
+assured him he would find the mouth of a mine. The young man did as he
+was directed, and after digging for a little time, he discovered a mine
+of considerable depth, containing rich ore. Whilst busily engaged in
+breaking out the metal, he was joined by the girl's father, who
+expressed himself delighted at the discovery, and offered to assist
+him. After they had been at work for some hours, the old Indian handed
+to his companion a cup of chicha, which the young man thankfully
+accepted. But he had no sooner tasted the liquor than he felt ill, and
+he soon became convinced that poison had been mixed with the beverage.
+He snatched up the bag containing the metal he had collected, mounted
+his horse, and with the utmost speed galloped off to Huancayo. There,
+he related to Yriarte all that had occurred, described as accurately
+as he could the situation of the mine, and died on the following
+night. Active measures were immediately set on foot, to trace out the
+mine, but without effect. The Indian and all his family had
+disappeared, and the mine was never discovered.
+
+In Huancayo there also dwelt a Franciscan monk. He was an inveterate
+gamester, and was involved in pecuniary embarrassments. The Indians in
+the neighborhood of his dwelling-place were much attached to him, and
+frequently sent him presents of poultry, cheese, butter, &c. One day,
+after he had been a loser at the gaming-table, he complained bitterly of
+his misfortunes to an Indian, who was his particular friend. After some
+deliberation, the Indian observed, that possibly he could render him
+some assistance; and, accordingly, on the following evening, he brought
+him a large bag full of rich silver ore. This present was several times
+repeated; but the monk, not satisfied, pressed the Indian to show him
+the mine from whence the treasure was drawn. The Indian consented, and
+on an appointed night he came, accompanied by two of his comrades, to
+the dwelling of the Franciscan. They blindfolded him, and each in turn
+carried him on his shoulders to a distance of several leagues, into the
+mountain passes. At length they set him down, and the bandage being
+removed from his eyes, he discovered that he was in a small and somewhat
+shallow shaft, and was surrounded by bright masses of silver. He was
+allowed to take as much as he could carry, and when laden with the rich
+prize, he was again blindfolded, and conveyed home in the same manner as
+he had been brought to the mine. Whilst the Indians were conducting him
+home, he hit on the following stratagem. He unfastened his rosary, and
+here and there dropped one of the beads, hoping by this means to be
+enabled to trace his way back on the following day; but in the course of
+a couple of hours his Indian friend again knocked at his door, and
+presenting to him a handful of beads, said, "Father, you dropped your
+rosary on the way, and I have picked it up."
+
+When I was in Jauja, in the year 1841, an Indian whom I had previously
+known, from his having accompanied me on one of my journeys in the
+Sierra, came to me and asked me to lend him a crow-bar. I did so, and
+after a few days, when he returned it, I observed that the end was
+covered with silver. Some time afterwards I learned that this Indian had
+been imprisoned by order of the sub-prefect, because he had offered for
+sale some very rich silver ore, and on being questioned as to where he
+had obtained it, his answer was that he found it on the road; a tale,
+the truth of which was very naturally doubted. The following year, when
+I was again in Jauja, the Indian paid me another visit. He then informed
+me that he had been for several months confined in a dark dungeon and
+half-starved, because the sub-prefect wanted to compel him to reveal the
+situation of a mine which he knew of, but that he would not disclose the
+secret, and adhered firmly to the statement he had made of having found
+the ore. After a little further conversation, he became more
+communicative than I had any reason to expect, though he was fully
+convinced I would not betray him. He confessed to me that he actually
+knew of a large vein containing valuable silver, of which he showed me a
+specimen. He further told me that it was only when he was much in want
+of money that he had recourse to the mine, of which the shaft was not
+very deep; and, moreover, that after closing it up, he always carried
+the loose rubbish away to a distance of some miles, and then covered
+the opening so carefully with turf and cactus, that it was impossible
+for any one to discern it. This Indian dwelt in a miserable hut, about
+three leagues from Jauja, and his occupation was making wooden stirrups,
+which employment scarcely enabled him to earn a scanty subsistence. He
+assured me it was only when he was called upon to pay contributions,
+which the government exacts with merciless rigor, that he had recourse
+to the mine. He then extracted about half an aroba of ore, and sold it
+in Jauja, in order to pay the tax levied on him.
+
+I could quote many well-authenticated instances of the same kind; but
+the above examples sufficiently prove the reluctance of the Indians to
+disclose the secret of their hidden treasures, and their indifference
+about obtaining wealth for themselves. It is true that the Indians are
+not, in all parts of the country, so resolutely reserved as they are in
+Huancayo and Jauja, for all the most important mines have been made
+known to the Spaniards by the natives. But the Peruvian Indians are
+composed of many different races, and though all were united by the
+Incas into one nation, yet they still differ from each other in manners
+and character. The sentiment of hatred towards the whites and their
+descendants has not been kept up in an equal degree among them all. In
+proportion as some are friendly and social with the Creoles, others
+are reserved and distrustful. In general, the Indians regard with
+unfriendly feelings those whites who seek to trace out new mines; for
+they cherish a bitter recollection of the fate of Huari Capcha, the
+discoverer of the mines of Cerro de Pasco, who, it is said, was thrown
+into a dungeon by the Spaniard, Ugarte, and ended his days in
+captivity. I have not met with any proofs of the authenticity of this
+story, but I frequently heard it related by the Indians, who referred
+to it as their justification for withholding from the whites any
+directions for finding mines.
+
+But to return to Cerro de Pasco. That city has, by its wealth, become
+one of the most important in the Peruvian Republic; and under improved
+legislation, and a judicious mining system, it might be rendered still
+more prosperous and fully deserving of its title of "Treasury of
+Peru." Though from its situation Cerro de Pasco is cut off from the
+principal lines of communication with other parts of Peru, yet the
+city is itself the central point of four roads, on which there is
+considerable traffic. Westward runs the road to Lima, through the
+Quebrada of Canta, by which all the silver that is not contraband is
+transported to the capital. The silver, when melted into bars, is
+consigned to the care of the mule-drivers, merely on their giving a
+receipt for it; and in this manner they are sometimes entrusted with
+loads of the value of several hundred thousand dollars, which they
+convey to Lima unattended by any guards or escort. There is, however,
+no danger of their being plundered; for the robbers do not take the
+stamped bars of silver. The silver specie, on the other hand, which is
+sent from Lima, is escorted by a military guard as far as Llanga or
+Santa Rosa de Quibe. The escort is not, however, very adequate to
+resist the highway robbers, consisting of numerous bands of armed
+negroes. On the east is the road running through the Quebrada de
+Huarriaca to the town of Huanuco and the Huallaga Forests. The road on
+the north of Cerro de Pasco leads to the village of Huanuco el Viejo,
+one of the most remarkable places of Peru, being full of interesting
+ruins of the time of the Incas. From Huanuco the road leads to Huaraz,
+and from thence to the north coast. The south road passes over the
+level heights to Tarma, Jauja, and the other southern provinces.
+
+From the village of Pasco two roads diverge, the one leading to Lima,
+the other to Tarma. The former crosses the Pampa of Bombon and the
+Diezmo, and continues onward to the Pass of La Viuda. The latter leads
+by way of the Tambo Ninacaca, and the village of Carhuamayo[74] to
+Junin, passing near a very large lake, situated at the height of 13,000
+feet above the sea. This lake is the Laguna de Chinchaycocha,[75] which
+is twelve leagues long, and at its utmost breadth measures two leagues
+and a half. It is the largest of the South American lakes, next to the
+Laguna de Titicaca, which is eighty-four English miles long and
+forty-one broad. As the lake of Chinchaycocha loses by various outlets
+much more water than it receives from its tributary sources, it is
+evident that it must be fed by subterraneous springs. Its marshy banks
+are overgrown by totora (_Malacochaete Totora_), and are inhabited by
+numerous water fowl. The Indians entertain a superstitious belief that
+this lake is haunted by huge, fish-like animals, who at certain hours of
+the night leave their watery abode to prowl about the adjacent pasture
+lands, where they commit great havoc among the cattle. The southwestern
+end of the lake is intersected by a marshy piece of ground, interspersed
+with stones, called the Calzada, which forms a communication between the
+two banks of the lake. At the distance of about half a league from the
+lake is a village, which, under the Spanish domination, was called
+Reyes. Adjacent to it is the celebrated Pampa of Junin, which, on the
+24th of August, 1824, was the scene of a battle between the Spanish
+forces, commanded by General Canterac, and the insurgents, headed by Don
+Simon Bolivar. The result of this battle had an important influence on
+the destiny of Peru. It is generally believed that treachery in the
+Spanish army threw the victory into the hands of the insurgents. A few
+days prior to the battle Bolivar is said to have received, from the
+Spanish camp, a letter in cypher, which he transmitted for explanation
+to his minister, Monteagudo, in Cerro de Pasco. The answer received
+from the minister was, that the letter recommended Bolivar to attack
+the enemy without a moment's delay, for that on the part of the
+Spaniards the victory was insured to him. The bearer of the letter is
+still living, and he does not deny that he was in the secret of the
+whole plot. The insurgents were victorious, and in commemoration of
+their triumph they gave to the village of Reyes, and to the whole
+province, the name of Junin, calling them after the plain on which the
+battle was fought.
+
+From Junin, the road runs to the distance of eight leagues across a
+difficult level height, to Cacas, a hamlet containing only a few
+huts. From thence, it is continued three leagues further, through
+several narrow Quebradas, and finally terminates in the beautiful
+valley of Tarma.
+
+Many of the Indians in the neighborhood of Cerro de Pasco, especially
+those who dwell in the Puna, in the direction of Cacas, infest the roads
+for the purpose of plunder. They conceal themselves behind the rocks,
+where they lie in wait for travellers, whom they severely wound, and
+sometimes even kill, by stones hurled from their slings. When great
+boyas occur in the mines of the Cerro, these roads are so unsafe that it
+is not prudent to travel, except in well-armed parties. The solitary
+traveller who seeks a night's lodging in one of the Puna huts, exposes
+himself to great peril; for the host not unfrequently assassinates his
+sleeping guest. Nor is there much greater security in villages, such as
+Junin and Carhuamayo. Only a few years ago, the bodies of three
+travellers were found in the house of the Alcalde of Junin, the
+principal authority in the village. The travellers had sought shelter
+for the night, and were inhumanly murdered. Every year persons known to
+have been travelling in these parts, mysteriously disappear, and there
+is every reason to believe they have been murdered by the Indians. Many
+of these Indians are mine laborers, who, for their incorrigible
+turpitude, have been banished from the Cerro, and who live by pillage.
+
+I will close this chapter with a brief description of four-and-twenty
+hours which I passed during a journey in the wildest part of the Puna
+region.
+
+On the 12th of January, 1840, having passed the night in the hut of a
+Puna shepherd, I awoke next morning at day-break. The sun was just
+beginning to cast a light tinge of red on the snow-capped tops of the
+Cordillera. Through the aperture in the roof of the hut, which served
+the purpose of a chimney, there penetrated a feeble light, just
+sufficient to show the misery and poverty that prevailed in the interior
+of the habitation. I rose from the resting-place on which, only a few
+hours previously, I had stretched myself exhausted by cold and fatigue,
+and raising the cow-hide, which closed the doorway of the hut, I crept
+out to make preparations for the continuance of my journey.
+
+I saddled my mule, and put into one of the saddle-bags a small supply
+of food. Whilst I was thus engaged, one of those fierce little dogs
+which are domiciled in every Indian hut, slily watched my movements;
+and though he had rested at the foot of my bed during the night, yet he
+was only prevented, by the repeated threats of his master, from making
+an attack upon me. My Indian host handed me my gun; I paid for my
+night's lodging by a few reals and some paper cigars; and having asked
+him to direct me on my way, I rode off whilst he was expressing his
+gratitude, and his kind wishes in the words, "_Dios lo pague!_"
+
+The sky was overhung by a thick mist, and the snow which had fallen
+during the night covered the ground as far as the eye could reach. On my
+way I met an old Indian woman driving her sheep. The bleating flock
+moved slowly on, leaving a deep furrow in the snow, and seeming
+impatient till the genial sun should dispel the mist and dissolve the
+white covering which overspread their scanty pasture. A little further
+on I met the son of this same Indian shepherdess. He and his dog were
+busily engaged in catching partridges, destined to be sold on the
+following Sunday, in the nearest village.
+
+My road lay along a gentle acclivity, interspersed with rocks and
+swamps, which often obliged me to make wide detours. The swamps (or as
+the natives call them, _Attoladeros_) are dangerous enemies to
+travellers in the Puna, who, with their horses and mules, sometimes
+sink into them and perish. Even in the most open parts of the country
+it is not easy to discern the swamps, and the ground often sinks
+beneath the rider where he least expects it. At length the sun began to
+disperse the mist, and the snow gradually melted beneath his burning
+rays. Inspired with new vigor, I took a survey of the wild solitude
+around me. I was now on one of the level heights, about 14,000 feet
+above the sea. On both sides arose the high Cordillera summits crowned
+with eternal ice; detached peaks here and there towering to the skies.
+Behind me lay, deep and deeper, the dark valleys of the lower mountain
+regions, which, with the scarcely discernible Indian villages, receded
+in the distance, till they blended with the line of the horizon. Before
+me stretched the immeasurable extent of the level heights, at intervals
+broken by ridges of hills. It seemed as though here, in the snow plains
+of the Cordillera, Nature had breathed out her last breath. Here life
+and death meet together as it were to maintain the eternal struggle
+between being and annihilation.
+
+How little life had the sun yet wakened around me! The dull yellow Puna
+grass, scarcely the length of one's finger, blended its tint with the
+greenish hue of the glaciers. Advancing further on my onward course, how
+joyfully I greeted as old acquaintance the purple gentiana and the
+brown calceolaria! With what pleasure I counted the yellow blossoms of
+the echino-cactus! and presently the sight of the ananas-cactus pictured
+in my mind all the luxuriance of the primeval forests. These cacti were
+growing amidst rushes and mosses and syngeneses, which the frost had
+changed to a rusty brown hue. Not a butterfly fluttered in the rarefied
+atmosphere; no fly nor winged insect of any kind was discernible. A
+beetle or a toad creeping from their holes, or a lizard warming himself
+in the sun, are all that reward the search of the naturalist.
+
+As I journeyed onward, animate life awakened in rich variety around me.
+Birds, few in species, but numerous in individuals, everywhere met my
+view. Herds of vicunas approached me with curious gaze, and then on a
+sudden fled with the swiftness of the wind. In the distance I observed
+stately groups of huanacus turning cautiously to look at me, and then
+passing on. The Puna stag (_tarush_) slowly advanced from his lair in
+the mountain recesses, and fixed on me his large, black, wondering eyes;
+whilst the nimble rock rabbits (_viscachas_) playfully disported and
+nibbled the scanty herbage growing in the mountain crevices.
+
+I had wandered for some hours admiring the varieties of life in this
+peculiar alpine region, when I stumbled against a dead mule. The poor
+animal had probably sunk beneath his burthen, and had been left by his
+driver to perish of cold and hunger. My presence startled three
+voracious condors, which were feeding on the dead carcass. These kings
+of the air proudly shook their crowned heads, and darted at me furious
+glances with their blood-red eyes. Two of them rose on their giant
+wings, and in narrowing circles hovered threateningly above my head,
+whilst the third, croaking fiercely, kept guard over the booty. I
+cocked my gun in readiness for defence, and cautiously rode past the
+menacing group, without the least desire of further disturbing their
+banquet. These condors were the only hostile animals I encountered in
+this part of the Puna.
+
+It was now two o'clock in the afternoon, and I had ridden on a
+continuous though gradual ascent since sunrise. My panting mule
+slackened his pace, and seemed unwilling to mount a rather steep ascent
+which we had now arrived at. To relieve him I dismounted, and began
+walking at a rapid pace. But I soon felt the influence of the rarefied
+atmosphere, and I experienced an oppressive sensation which I had never
+known before. I stood still for a few moments to recover myself, and
+then tried to advance; but an indescribable oppression overcame me. My
+heart throbbed audibly; my breathing was short and interrupted. A
+world's weight seemed to lie upon my chest; my lips swelled and burst;
+the capillary vessels of my eyelids gave way, and blood flowed from
+them. In a few moments my senses began to leave me. I could neither see,
+hear, nor feel distinctly. A grey mist floated before my eyes, and I
+felt myself involved in that struggle between life and death which, a
+short time before, I fancied I could discern on the face of nature. Had
+all the riches of earth, or the glories of heaven, awaited me a hundred
+feet higher, I could not have stretched out my hand towards them.
+
+In this half senseless state I lay stretched on the ground, until I felt
+sufficiently recovered to remount my mule. One of the Puna storms was
+now gathering, thunder and lightning accompanied a heavy fall of snow,
+which very soon lay a foot deep on the ground. In a short time I
+discovered that I had missed my way. Had I then known the Puna as well
+as I afterwards did, I should have shaped my course by the flight of
+birds. But unluckily I pursued the fresh track of a herd of vicunas,
+which led me directly into a swamp. My mule sank, and was unable to
+extricate himself. I was almost in despair. Nevertheless, I cautiously
+alighted, and with incredible difficulty I succeeded in digging out with
+a dagger the mud in which the animal's legs were firmly fixed, and at
+length I got him back to a solid footing. After wandering about in
+various directions, I at length recovered the right path, which was
+marked by numerous skeletons protruding above the snow. These were the
+remains of beasts of burthen, which had perished on their journeys; a
+welcome, though an ominous guide to the wandering traveller. The clouds
+now suddenly separated, and the blazing light of the tropical sun glared
+dazzlingly on the white plain of snow. In a moment I felt my eyes
+stricken with _surumpe_.
+
+Suffering the most violent pain, and tormented by the apprehension of
+blindness, I with great difficulty pursued my way. My mule could
+scarcely wade through the sward, which was becoming more and more
+thick; and night was advancing. I had lost all feeling in my feet, my
+benumbed fingers could scarcely hold the bridle, and I well knew that
+the nearest point at which I could obtain the shelter of a human
+habitation was eight German miles distant. I was beginning to give
+myself up for lost, when I observed a cave beneath an overhanging rock.
+Mother Nature, in whose service I had undertaken my long and perilous
+wanderings, at that critical juncture, provided for me a retreat,
+though in one of her rudest sheltering places. I entered the cave,
+which protected me securely against the wind and the snow. Having
+unsaddled my mule, I made a bed of my saddle clothes and poncho. I tied
+the animal to a stone, and whilst he eagerly regaled himself with the
+little grass that was not buried beneath the snow, I satisfied my
+hunger with some roasted maize and cheese.
+
+Exhausted by the fatigue of the day, I lay down to sleep; but no sooner
+had I fallen into a slumber, than I was awaked by a violent smarting
+in my eyes, occasioned by the _surumpe_. There was no longer any hope
+of sleep. The night seemed endless. When the dawn of morning appeared,
+I made an effort to open my eyes, which were closed with coagulated
+blood. On looking around me I beheld all the horror of my situation. A
+human corpse had served for my pillow. Shuddering I went in search of
+my mule, for I was eager to hurry from this dismal spot; but my misery
+was not yet at an end. The poor beast lay dead on the ground; in his
+ravenous hunger he had eaten of the poisonous _garbancillo_. What
+could I do! In despair I turned back to the cave.
+
+The sun had now fully risen, and his genial rays diffused warmth over
+this frozen region. Somewhat roused by the reviving light and life
+around me, I began to examine the body of my lifeless companion. Haply,
+thought I, he may be one of my own race; a traveller who has perished
+of cold and hunger. No. He was a half-caste Indian, and many deadly
+wounds on his head showed that he had died of the slings of Indian
+robbers, who had stripped him even of his clothes, and concealed the
+body in the cave.
+
+I seized my gun and shot a rock rabbit, then collecting some fuel, I
+kindled a fire, and roasted the little animal, which afforded me a no
+very savory breakfast. I then waited patiently in the hope that some
+timely help would deliver me from my dreary situation.
+
+It was about noon. I heard a monotonous short cry. With joy I
+recognized the well-known sound. I climbed up the nearest rock, and
+looking down into a hollow, I perceived two Indians whom I had seen the
+day before, driving their llamas to the nearest mine works. I prevailed
+on them, by the gift of a little tobacco, to let me have one of their
+llamas to carry my luggage, and having strewed a few handfuls of earth
+on the corpse of the murdered man, I departed. The scene of the
+incidents above described was the Cave of Lenas, in the Altos which
+lead southward to the Quebrada of Huaitara.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[Footnote 70: A mine is said to be in _boya_ when it yields an
+unusually abundant supply of metal. Owing to the great number of mines
+in Cerro de Pasco, some of them are always in this prolific state.
+There are times when the _boyas_ bring such an influx of miners to
+Cerro de Pasco that the population is augmented to double or triple its
+ordinary amount.]
+
+[Footnote 71: Huachacas are the portions of ore which are distributed
+among the Indians at the time of the _boyas_, instead of their wages
+being paid in money.]
+
+[Footnote 72: A shop in which chicha, brandy, &c., are vended.]
+
+[Footnote 73: The date of Salcedo's death was May, 1669.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Ninacaca is 12,853 feet, and Carhuamayo 13,087 feet above
+the sea level.]
+
+[Footnote 75: It is also called the Laguna de Reyes, and the Laguna de
+Junin.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+The Sierra--Its Climate and Productions--Inhabitants--Trade--Eggs
+circulated as money--Mestizos in the Sierra--Their Idleness and Love of
+Gaming and Betting--Agriculture--The Quinua Plant, a substitute for
+Potatoes--Growth of Vegetables and Fruits in the Sierra--Rural
+Festivals at the Seasons of Sowing and Reaping--Skill of the Indians in
+various Handicrafts--Excess of Brandy-Drinking--Chicha--Disgusting mode
+of making it--Festivals of Saints--Dances and Bull-Fights--Celebration
+of Christmas-Day, New-Year's Day, Palm Sunday, and Good
+Friday--Contributions levied on the Indians--Tardy and Irregular
+Transmission of Letters--Trade in Mules--General Style of Building in
+the Towns and Villages of the Sierra--Ceja de la Montana.
+
+
+The Peruvian highlands, or level heights, described in a previous
+chapter under the designation of the Puna, are intersected by numerous
+valleys situated several thousand feet lower than the level heights,
+from which they totally differ in character and aspect. These valleys
+are called the Sierra. The inhabitants of Lima usually comprehend under
+the term Sierra, the whole interior of Peru, and every Indian who is not
+an inhabitant of the coast, or of the forest regions, is called by them
+a _Serrano_. But strictly speaking, the Sierra includes only the valleys
+between the Cordillera and the Andes, and I shall here use the term in
+its more limited and proper sense.
+
+In the Sierra there are only two seasons throughout the year. The winter
+or rainy season commences in October; but the rains are neither so heavy
+nor so continuous as in the forest districts. The falls of rain seldom
+last longer than two or three days in succession. Storms of thunder and
+lightning are very frequent in the Sierra; they are not accompanied by
+snow as in the Puna, but often by hail. The thermometer never falls
+below +4 deg. R., and during the daytime it is on the average at +11 deg. R. In
+April the summer season sets in, bringing with it an uninterrupted
+succession of warm bright days. The nights in summer are colder than in
+winter. In a summer night the thermometer will sometimes fall below
+freezing point, and the cold is often very severe. About noon the heat
+is oppressive, though the average heat of the day does not exceed 13, 9 deg.
+R. During the summer season the horizon is frequently obscured by heavy
+dark clouds, which seldom break over the valleys, but continue frowning
+over the hills. The natives call these portentous clouds _Misti
+Manchari_ (terror of the whites),[76] because the inhabitants of the
+coast always regard them as indicative of stormy weather.
+
+The climate of the Sierra favors the natural fruitfulness of the soil,
+which richly repays the labor of the husbandman; but plants, peculiar to
+the warm tropical regions, do not thrive well here. Prior to the
+European emigration to Peru, only maize, quinua (_Chenopodium Quinoa_,
+L.), and a few tuberous roots were grown in the Sierra; but since the
+Spanish conquest, the European cereals, lucerne, and various kinds of
+vegetables are cultivated with perfect success. But the eye of the
+traveller seeks in vain for those stately forests which clothe the
+mountainous districts of Europe; the barren acclivities afford nurture
+only for the agave-tree, and some very large species of cactus. Groups
+of willow trees (_Salix Humboldtii_), which attain the height of about
+twenty or twenty-five feet, together with the quinua-tree, form here and
+there little thickets on the banks of rivers.
+
+These regions, so favored by nature, have from the earliest period
+been the chosen dwelling-places of the Peruvians; and therefore in the
+Sierra, which, measured by its superficies, is not of very great
+extent, the population has increased more than in any other part of
+Peru. The valleys already contain numerous towns, villages, and
+hamlets, which would rise in importance, if they had greater facility
+of communication one with another. But they are surrounded on all
+sides by mountains, which can be crossed only by circuitous and
+dangerous routes. The few accessible pathways are alternately up
+rugged ascents, and down steep declivities; or winding through narrow
+ravines, nearly choked up by broken fragments of rock, they lead to
+the dreary and barren level heights.
+
+The Serranos, or inhabitants of the Sierra, especially those who dwell
+in the smaller villages, are chiefly Indians. In the towns and larger
+villages, the mestizos are numerous. The whites are very thinly
+scattered over the Sierra; but many of the mestizos are very anxious to
+be thought white Creoles. A rich serrano, who bears in his features the
+stamp of his Indian descent, will frequently try to pass himself off to
+a foreigner for an old Spaniard. Here, even more than on the coast, the
+mestizo is ambitious to rank himself on a level with the white, whilst
+he affects to regard the Indian as an inferior being.
+
+The few Spaniards who reside in the Sierra are men who have served in
+the Spanish army, and who, at the close of the war of independence,
+settled in that part of Peru. Many of them keep shops in the towns and
+villages, and others, by advantageous marriages, have become the
+possessors of haciendas. Those who have enriched themselves in this way
+are remarkable alike for ignorance and pride, and give themselves the
+most ludicrous airs of assumed dignity. The Creoles are the principal
+dealers in articles of European commerce. They journey to Lima twice or
+thrice a year to make their purchases, which consist in white and
+printed calicoes, woollen cloths, hard-wares, leather, soap, wax, and
+indigo. In the Sierra, indigo is a very considerable article of traffic:
+the Indians use a great quantity of it for dyeing their clothes; blue
+being their favorite color. Wax is also in great demand; for in the
+religious ceremonies, which are almost of daily occurrence, a vast
+quantity of tapers is consumed. The principal articles of traffic
+produced by the natives are woollen ponchos and blankets, unspun colored
+wool, saddle-cloths, stirrups and horseshoes. The last-named articles
+are purchased chiefly by the arrieros of the coast. It may seem strange
+that stores of horseshoes should be kept ready made; but so it is; for
+though in Europe we make the shoe to fit the hoof, yet in Peru it is the
+practice to cut the hoof to fit the shoe. On Yca brandy more money is
+expended than on every other article of trade combined. The quantity of
+that spirit annually transported to the Sierra exceeds belief. To see
+the Indians on Sundays and festival days thronging to the shops of the
+spirit dealers, with their jugs and bottles, one might fairly presume
+that more brandy is drunk in the Sierra in one day, than in many of the
+towns of Europe in a year. In some parts--for example, in the province
+of Jauja--hens' eggs are circulated as small coin, forty-eight or fifty
+being counted for a dollar. In the market-place and in the shops the
+Indians make most of their purchases with this brittle sort of money:
+one will give two or three eggs for brandy, another for indigo, and a
+third for cigars. These eggs are packed in boxes by the shop-keepers,
+and sent to Lima. From Jauja alone, several thousand loads of eggs are
+annually forwarded to the capital.
+
+Most of the mestizos possess little estates (_chacras_), the produce of
+which, consisting of grain, vegetables and clover, is disposed of in the
+towns of the Sierra, or in the mining districts of the Puna. As the
+profits arising from the chacras usually suffice to provide their owners
+with a comfortable subsistence, the mestizos pass their lives in
+idleness and pleasure. They spend the chief portion of the day in the
+true Spanish style, gossiping in groups in the streets, and wrapped in
+their mantles. When the state of the weather does not admit of this sort
+of out-door lounging the time is passed in gaming or cock-fighting. This
+latter diversion is no less in favor in the Sierra than in Lima. Such
+enormous bets are laid at these cock-fights, that the losses frequently
+entail ruin on persons of tolerably good fortune.
+
+The agriculture of the Sierra is wholly consigned to the Indians, who
+either cultivate their own lands, or for very poor wages labor for the
+mestizos. In September, the ground is ploughed and prepared for sowing,
+which operation is performed in October, and the reaping takes place in
+April or May. By this means the seed is left in the ground throughout
+all the rainy season. In February violent frost frequently comes on
+during the night, by which the seed is so much injured that the harvest
+fails, and the scarcity occasions severe suffering and even famine. When
+the cold clear nights create apprehensions of damage to the seed, the
+people form themselves into processions, and go through the villages
+and towns imploring the mercy of Heaven. In the dead of the night it is
+no unusual thing to be aroused by the ringing of bells. The inhabitants
+then get up and hurry to church, where the solemn processions are
+formed. Penitents clothed in sackcloth go through the streets, scourging
+themselves; and the Indians, in their native language, utter prayers and
+offer up vows to Heaven. For the space of some hours an incessant
+movement and agitation pervade the streets, and when day begins to dawn
+the people return to their homes, trembling between hope and fear. The
+fate of the Indians, when their harvest fails them, is indeed truly
+miserable, for, abstemious as they are, they can scarcely procure
+wherewith to satisfy their hunger. In the year 1840, which was a period
+of scarcity, I saw the starving Indian children roaming about the
+fields, and eating the grass like cattle.
+
+Maize is the species of grain most extensively cultivated in the Sierra:
+it is of excellent quality, though smaller than that grown on the coast.
+Wheat, though it thrives well, is cultivated only in a very limited
+quantity, and the bread made from it is exceedingly bad. The other
+species of European grain, barley excepted, are unknown to the Serranos.
+To compensate for the want of them, they have the quinua (_Chenopodium
+Quinoa_, L.), which is at once a nutritious, wholesome, and pleasant
+article of food. The leaves of this plant, before it attains full
+maturity, are eaten like spinach; but it is the seeds which are most
+generally used as food. They are prepared in a variety of ways, but most
+frequently boiled in milk or in broth, and sometimes cooked with cheese
+and Spanish pepper. The dried stems of the quinua are used as fuel.
+Experiments in the cultivation of this plant have been tried in some
+parts of Germany, and with considerable success. It would appear,
+however, that its flavor is not much liked; a circumstance rather
+surprising to the traveller who has tasted it in Peru, where it is
+regarded in the light of a delicacy. It were to be wished that the
+general cultivation of the quinua could be introduced throughout Europe;
+for during the prevalence of the potatoe disease this plant would be
+found of the greatest utility. It is a well-known fact that potatoes and
+tea, two articles now in such universal use, were not liked on their
+first introduction into Europe. The quinua plant, which yields a
+wholesome article of food, would thrive perfectly in our hemisphere,
+and, though in its hitherto limited trial it has not found favor, there
+is no reason to conclude that it may not at a future time become an
+object of general consumption.
+
+Four kinds of tuberous plants are successfully cultivated in the Sierra;
+viz., the potatoe, the ulluco, the oca, and the mashua. Of potatoes
+there are several varieties, and all grow in perfection. The ulluco
+(_Tropaeolum tuberosum_) is smaller than the potatoe, and is very various
+in its form, being either round, oblong, straight, or curved. The skin
+is thin, and of a reddish-yellow color, and the inside is green. When
+simply boiled in water it is insipid, but is very savory when cooked as
+a _picante_. The oca (_Oxalis tuberosa_) is an oval-shaped root; the
+skin pale red, and the inside white. It is watery, and has a sweetish
+taste; for which reason it is much liked by the Peruvians. The mashua is
+the root of a plant as yet unknown to botanists. It is cultivated and
+cooked in the same manner as those already described. In form, however,
+it differs from them all. It is of a flat pyramidal shape, and the lower
+end terminates in a fibrous point. It is watery, and insipid to the
+taste; but is nevertheless much eaten by the Serranos. As the mashua
+roots will not keep, they are not transported from the places in which
+they are grown, and, therefore, are not known in Lima. The Indians use
+the mashua as a medicine: they consider it an efficacious remedy in
+cases of dropsy, indigestion, and dysentery.
+
+The vegetables and fruits of Europe thrive luxuriantly in the warm
+Sierra valleys; yet but few of them have been transplanted thither, and
+those few are but little esteemed. Some of the cabbage and salad
+species, together with onions, garlic, and several kinds of pulse, are
+all that are cultivated. It is remarkable that in these regions no
+indigenous fruit-trees are to be seen. The only fruit really belonging
+to the Sierra is the Tuna. In some of the sheltered ravines, or, as they
+are called, Quebradas, oranges, lemons, and granadillas flourish at the
+height of 10,000 feet above sea level. The fruits which have been
+transplanted from Europe are for the most part indifferent, as not the
+least care is bestowed on their cultivation. The effect of this neglect
+is particularly obvious in apples, pears, and damson-plums. Cherries and
+chestnuts are unknown in these parts; but on the other hand, peaches and
+apricots (_duraznos_) grow in amazing abundance, and many very fine
+species are found, especially in the southern provinces. Excursions to
+the _duraznales_ (apricot gardens), in the months of April and May, to
+eat the ripe fruit fresh plucked from the trees, are among the most
+favorite recreations of the Serranos. Some of the Sierra districts are
+celebrated throughout Peru for their abundance of fruit. This luxuriance
+is particularly remarkable in several of the deep valleys, for instance,
+in Huanta; but, strictly speaking, these deep valleys partake less of
+the character of the Sierra than of the higher forest regions.
+
+The periods of sowing and reaping are celebrated by the Indians with
+merry-making, a custom which has descended from the time of the Incas,
+when those periods corresponded with the two great divisions of the
+year. Even a scanty harvest, an event of frequent occurrence, occasions
+no interruption to these rustic festivals. Bands of music, consisting of
+trumpets, fiddles, and flutes, play whilst the corn is cut down, and
+during their work, the laborers freely regale themselves with chicha,
+huge barrels of which are placed for their unrestrained use. The
+consequence is, that they are almost continually intoxicated; and yet
+whilst in this state it is no unusual thing to see them dancing with
+heavy loads of sheaves on their heads. Their dinner is cooked in the
+fields, in large pots and kettles, and to partake of it they all sit
+down on the ground in rows, one behind another. The wheat and barley
+when cut are spread out in little heaps on the ground, and, instead of
+thrashing, the grain is pressed out of the ears by the tramping of
+horses, the animals being driven round and round in a circle. As soon as
+this process is ended, the agents of the Government and the priests make
+their appearance to claim the tithes.
+
+In the larger villages and towns of the Sierra, the Indians frequently
+employ themselves in handicrafts, in some of which they attain a high
+degree of perfection, for they are not wanting either in talent or in
+mechanical dexterity. As goldsmiths they are remarkably skilful, and in
+this branch of industry they produce work which, for taste and
+exquisite finish, cannot be excelled in the capitals of Europe. The
+various kinds of vessels and figures of silver wire (_filigranas_), made
+by the cholos in Ayacucho, have always been favorite articles of
+ornament in Spain. The Indians of Jauja are very skilful in working
+iron, and the objects of their workmanship are much esteemed throughout
+Peru. Of leather also they make various things in very beautiful style;
+and saddle-cloths, bridles, &c., of their manufacture are much more
+elegant and infinitely cheaper than those made in Lima. In Cuzco and the
+adjacent provinces many of the Indians evince considerable talent in
+oil-painting. Their productions in this way are, of course, far from
+being master-pieces; but when we look on the paintings which decorate
+their churches, and reflect that the artists have been shut out from the
+advantages of education and study; and moreover, when we consider the
+coarse materials with which the pictures have been painted, it must be
+acknowledged that they indicate a degree of talent, which, if duly
+cultivated, would soar far above mediocrity. In Tarma and its
+neighborhood the natives weave an exquisitely fine description of
+woollen cloth. They make ponchos of vicuna wool, which sell for 100 or
+120 dollars each, and which are equal to the finest European cloth.
+The beauty of these Indian textures is truly wonderful, considering
+the rude process of weaving practised by the natives. They work
+various colors, figures, and inscriptions in the cloth, and do all
+this with a rapidity which equals the operations of ordinary looms.
+The most valuable textures they weave are those produced from the wool
+of the vicuna and the alpaco. They likewise make very fine textures of
+cotton and silk. It is curious that the Indians of each province have
+some particular branch of industry to which they exclusively apply
+themselves, to the neglect of all others.
+
+The Serranos are a very sociable people. In the towns they keep up a
+continual round of evening parties, in which singing and dancing are
+favorite amusements; but on these occasions they indulge in
+brandy-drinking to a terrible excess. As soon as a party is assembled,
+bottles and glasses are introduced, and each individual, ladies as well
+as gentlemen, drinks to the health of the company. For a party of thirty
+or more persons, not more than three or four glasses are brought in, so
+that one glass is passed repeatedly from hand to hand, and from mouth to
+mouth. The quantity of brandy drunk at one of the evening parties called
+in the Sierra _Jaranas_, is almost incredible. According to my
+observation, I should say that a bottle to each individual, ladies
+included, is a fair average estimate, the bottles being of the size of
+those used in Europe for claret. In the year 1839, whilst I was residing
+for a time in one of the largest towns of the Sierra, a ball was given
+in honor of the Chilian General Bulnes; on that occasion the brandy
+flowed in such quantities, that, when morning came, some members of the
+company were found lying on the floor of the ball-room in a state of
+intoxication. These facts naturally create an impression very
+unfavorable to the inhabitants of the Sierra; but a due allowance must
+be made for the want of education and the force of habit on the part of
+those who fall into these excesses. These people possess so many
+excellent moral qualities, that it would be unjust to condemn them
+solely on account of these orgies. The Serrano is far from being
+addicted to habitual drunkenness, notwithstanding his intemperate use of
+strong drinks amidst the excitement of company.
+
+But if the vice of excessive drinking be occasionally indulged in among
+the better class of people of the Sierra, it is much more frequent among
+the Indian inhabitants. Every one of their often-recurring festivals is
+celebrated by a drinking bout, at which enormous quantities of brandy
+and chicha are consumed. In some districts of the Sierra the chicha is
+prepared in a peculiar and very disgusting manner by the Indians.
+Instead of crushing the _jora_ (dried maize-grain) between two stones,
+which is the usual method, the Indians bruise it with their teeth. For
+this purpose a group of men and women range themselves in a circle round
+a heap of _jora_; each gathers up a handful, chews it, and then ejects
+it from the mouth into a vessel allotted for its reception. This mass,
+after being boiled in water, and left to ferment, is the much admired
+_chicha mascada_ (that is to say, _chewed chicha_), the flavor of which
+is said to surpass that of the same beverage made in any other way. But
+they who have been eye-witnesses of the disgusting process, and who bear
+in mind various other preparations of Indian cookery in which the teeth
+perform a part, require some fortitude ere they yield to the pressing
+invitation of the hospitable Serrano, and taste the proffered nectar.
+
+When it is wished to make the chicha particularly strong and well
+flavored, it is poured into an earthen jar along with several pounds of
+beef. This jar is made perfectly air-tight, and buried several feet deep
+in the ground, where it is left for the space of several years. On the
+birth of a child it is customary to bury a _botija_ full of chicha,
+which, on the marriage of the same child, is opened and drunk. This
+chicha has a very agreeable flavor, but is so exceedingly potent, that a
+single glass of it is sufficient to intoxicate a practised
+chicha-drinker, or, as they say in the country, a _chichero_.
+
+Every village in the Sierra has its own tutelary saint, whose festival
+is celebrated with great solemnity. Bull-fights and dances constitute
+the principal diversions on these occasions. These dances are relics of
+the _Raymi_ or monthly dances, by which the Incas used to mark the
+divisions of time; and they are among the most interesting customs
+peculiar to these parts of Peru. The dancers wear dresses similar to
+those worn by the ancient Peruvians when they took part in the _Raymi_.
+Their faces and arms are painted in various colors, and they wear
+feather caps and feather ponchos. They have bracelets and anklets, and
+they are armed with clubs, wooden swords, and bows and arrows. Their
+music, too, is also similar to that of their forefathers. Their
+instruments consist of a sort of pipe or flute made of reed, and a drum
+composed simply of a hoop with a skin stretched upon it. To the
+inharmonious sound of these instruments, accompanying monotonous Quichua
+songs, the dances commence with those solemn movements with which the
+Incas used to worship the sun: they then suddenly assume a more joyous
+character, and at last change to the wild war-dance, in which the mimic
+contest, stimulated by copious libations of chicha, frequently ends in a
+real fight. In the larger towns, where the Mestizo portion of the
+population predominates, these dances are discouraged, and in course of
+time they will probably be entirely discontinued, though they are
+scrupulously adhered to by the Indians.
+
+On festival days, bull-fights constitute the most favorite popular
+diversion. In the Sierra this barbarous sport is conducted with even
+more recklessness and cruelty than in the _Corridas_ of Lima. Every
+occasion on which an entertainment of this sort takes place is attended
+with loss of life, and sometimes the sacrifice both of men and horses is
+very considerable. During my residence in Jauja, fourteen Indians and
+nineteen horses were killed or seriously wounded in a bull-fight; yet
+catastrophes of this kind appear to make no impression on the people.
+
+Some of the church festivals are celebrated by the Indians of the
+Sierra, in a manner which imparts a peculiar coloring to the religious
+solemnities. In the midnight mass on Christmas Eve, they imitate in the
+churches the sounds made by various animals. The singing of birds, the
+crowing of cocks, the braying of asses, the bleating of sheep, &c., are
+simulated so perfectly, that a stranger is inclined to believe that the
+animals have assembled in the temple to participate in the solemnity. At
+the termination of the mass, troops of women perambulate the streets,
+during the remainder of the night. Their long black hair flows loosely
+over their bare shoulders; and in their hands they carry poles with
+long fluttering strips of paper fixed to the ends of them. They
+occasionally dance and sing peculiarly beautiful melodies, accompanied
+by a harp, a fiddle, and a flute; and they mark the measure of the
+music by the movement of their poles.
+
+The celebration of Christmas-day is marked by the appearance of what are
+termed the _Negritos_. These are Indians, with their faces concealed by
+hideous negro masks. Their dress consists of a loose red robe, richly
+wrought with gold and silver thread, white pantaloons, and their hats
+are adorned with waving black feathers. In their hands they carry gourd
+bottles, painted in various gay colors, and containing dried seeds.
+Whilst they sing, the _Negritos_ shake these gourds, and mark the time
+by the rattling of the dried seeds. They perform the dances of the
+Guinea negroes, and imitate the attitudes and language of a race which
+they hold in abhorrence and contempt. For the space of three days and
+nights these negritos parade the streets, entering the houses and
+demanding chicha and brandy, with which the inhabitants are glad to
+supply them, to avoid violence and insult.
+
+On New Year's Day other groups of mummers, called _Corcobados_,
+perambulate the streets. They are enveloped in cloaks of coarse grey
+woollen cloth, their head-gear consists of an old vicuna hat, with a
+horse's tail dangling behind. Their features are disguised by ludicrous
+masks with long beards; and, bestriding long sticks or poles, they move
+about accompanied by burlesque music. Every remarkable incident that has
+occurred in the families of the town during the course of the year, is
+made the subject of a song in the Quichua language; and these songs are
+sung in the streets by the _Corcobados_. Matrimonial quarrels are
+favorite subjects, and are always painted with high comic effect in
+these satirical songs. The Corcobados go about for two days; and they
+usually wind up their performances by drinking and fighting. When two
+groups of these Corcobados meet together, and the one party assails with
+ridicule anything which the other is disposed to defend, a terrible
+affray usually ensues, and the sticks which have served as hobby-horses,
+are converted into weapons of attack.
+
+In order to facilitate the conversion of the idolatrous Indians, the
+Spanish monks who accompanied Pizarro's army, sought to render the
+Christian religion as attractive as possible in the eyes of the heathen
+aborigines of Peru. With this view they conceived the idea of
+dramatizing certain scenes in the life of Christ, and having them
+represented in the churches. In the larger towns these performances have
+long since been discontinued, but they are still kept up in most of the
+villages of the Sierra; indeed the efforts made by enlightened
+ecclesiastics for their suppression, have been met with violent
+opposition on the part of the Indians.
+
+On Palm Sunday, an image of the Saviour seated on an ass is paraded
+about the principal streets of the town or village. The Indians strew
+twigs of palm over the animal, and contend one with another for the
+honor of throwing their ponchos down on the ground, in order that the
+ass may walk over them. The animal employed in this ceremony is, when
+very young, singled out for the purpose, and is never suffered to carry
+any burthen save the holy image. He is fed by the people, and at every
+door at which he stops, the inmates of the house pamper him up with the
+best fodder they can procure. The ass is looked upon as something almost
+sacred, and is never named by any other appellation than the _Burro de
+Nuestro Senor_ (our Lord's ass). In some villages I have seen these
+animals so fat that they were scarcely able to walk.
+
+Good Friday is solemnized in a manner the effect of which, to the
+unprejudiced foreigner, is partly burlesque and partly seriously
+impressive. From the early dawn of morning the church is thronged with
+Indians, who spend the day in fasting and prayer. At two in the
+afternoon a large image of the Saviour is brought from the sacristy and
+laid down in front of the altar. Immediately all the persons in the
+church rush forward with pieces of cotton to touch the wounds. This
+gives rise to a struggle, in which angry words and blows are
+interchanged; in short, there ensues a disgraceful scene of uproar,
+which is only checked by the interposition of one of the priests. Order
+being restored, the sacred image is fixed on the cross by three very
+large silver nails, and the head is encircled by a rich silver crown. On
+each side are the crosses of the two thieves. Having gaped at this
+spectacle to their hearts' content, the cholos retire from the church.
+At eight in the evening they reassemble to witness the solemn ceremony
+of taking down the Saviour from the cross. The church is then
+brilliantly lighted up. At the foot of the cross stand four white-robed
+priests, called _los Santos Varones_ (the holy men), whose office it is
+to take down the image. At a little distance from them, on a sort of
+stage or platform, stands a figure representing the Virgin Mary. This
+figure is dressed in black, with a white cap on its head. A priest, in a
+long discourse, explains the scene to the assembled people, and at the
+close of the address, turning to the Santos Varones, he says, "Ye holy
+men, ascend the ladders of the cross, and bring down the body of the
+Redeemer!" Two of the Santos Varones mount with hammers in their hands,
+and the priest then says, "Ye holy man, on the right of the Saviour,
+strike the first blow on the nail of the hand, and take it out!" The
+command is obeyed, and no sooner is the stroke of the hammer heard, than
+deep groans and sounds of anguish resound through the church; whilst the
+cry of "_Misericordia! misericordia!_" repeated by a thousand imploring
+voices, produces an indescribable sensation of awe and melancholy. The
+nail is handed to one of the priests standing at the foot of the altar,
+who transfers it to another, and this one in his turn presents it to the
+figure of the Virgin. To that figure the priest then turns and addresses
+himself, saying: "Thou afflicted mother, approach and receive the nail
+which pierced the right hand of thy holy Son!" The priest steps forward
+a few paces, and the figure, by some concealed mechanism, advances to
+meet him, receives the nail with both hands, lays it on a silver plate,
+dries its eyes, and then returns to its place in the middle of the
+platform. The same ceremony is repeated when the two other nails are
+taken out. Throughout the whole performance of these solemnities, an
+uninterrupted groaning and howling is kept up by the Indians, who at
+every stroke of the hammer raise their cries of _Misericordia!_ These
+sounds of anguish reach their climax when the priest consigns the body
+of the Saviour to the charge of the Virgin. The image is laid in a
+coffin tastefully adorned with flowers, which, together with the figure
+of the Virgin Mary, is paraded through the streets. Whilst this
+nocturnal procession, lighted by thousands of wax tapers, is making the
+circuit of the town, a party of Indians busy themselves in erecting
+before the church door twelve arches decorated with flowers. Between
+every two of the arches they lay flowers on the ground, arranging them
+in various figures and designs. These flower-carpets are singularly
+ingenious and pretty. Each one is the work of two cholos, neither of
+whom seems to bestow any attention to what his comrade is doing; and
+yet, with a wonderful harmony of operation, they create the most
+tasteful designs--arabesques, animals, and landscapes, which grow, as it
+were by magic, under their hands. Whilst I was in Tarma, I was at once
+interested and astonished to observe on one of these flower-carpets the
+figure of the Austrian double eagle. On inquiry I learned from an Indian
+that it had been copied from the quicksilver jars, exported from Idria
+to Peru. On the return of the procession to the church, a hymn, with
+harp accompaniment, is sung to the Virgin, as the figure is carried
+under the arches of flowers. The bier of the Saviour is then deposited
+in the church, where it is watched throughout the night.
+
+On the following morning, at four o'clock, the ceremony of hanging Judas
+takes place in front of the church. A figure of Judas, the size of
+life, is filled with squibs and crackers, and is frequently made to bear
+a resemblance to some obnoxious inhabitant of the place. After the match
+is applied to the combustible figure, the cholos dance around it, and
+exult in the blowing up of their enemy.
+
+In the Sierra, as well as on the coast, the priests are usually the
+tyrants rather than the guardians of their flocks; and they would
+frequently be the objects of hatred and vengeance but for the
+deep-rooted and almost idolatrous reverence which the Indians cherish
+for priestcraft. It is disgusting to see the Peruvian priests, who
+usually treat the Indians like brutes, behaving with the most degrading
+servility when they want to get money from them. The love of the Indians
+for strong drinks is a vice which the priests turn to their own
+advantage. For the sake of the fees they frequently order religious
+festivals, which are joyfully hailed by the Indians, because they never
+fail to end in drinking bouts.
+
+Added to the ill treatment of the priests, the Indians are most unjustly
+oppressed by the civil authorities. In the frequent movements of troops
+from one place to another, they are exposed to great losses and
+vexations. They are compelled to perform the hardest duties without
+payment, and often the produce of their fields is laid under
+contribution, or their horses and mules are pressed into the service of
+the military. When intelligence is received of the march of a battalion,
+the natives convey their cattle to some remote place of concealment in
+the mountains, for they seldom recover possession of them if once they
+fall into the hands of the soldiery.
+
+Every fortnight a mail is despatched with letters from Lima to Tarma,
+Jauja, Huancavelica, Ayacucha, Cuzco, and into Bolivia; another
+proceeds to the northern provinces; a third to Arequipa and the
+southern provinces; and every week one is despatched to Cerro de
+Pasco. In Lima, the letter-bag is consigned to the charge of an
+Indian, who conveys it on the back of a mule to the next station,[77]
+where it is received by another Indian; and in this manner, handed
+from cholo to cholo, the letter-bag traverses the whole of its
+destined route, unaccompanied by an official courier. As soon as the
+mail arrives at a station, a flag is displayed at the house of the
+post-master, to intimate to those who expect letters that they may
+receive them; for they are not sent round to the persons to whom they
+are addressed, and it is sometimes even a favor to get them three or
+four days after their arrival. The Peruvian post is as tardy as it is
+ill-regulated. On one of my journeys, I started from Lima two days
+after the departure of the mail. On the road I overtook and passed the
+Indian who had charge of the letters, and, without hurrying myself, I
+arrived in Tarma a day and a half before him. Ascending the
+Cordillera, I once met an Indian very leisurely driving his ass before
+him with the mail-bag fastened to its back. Between the towns which do
+not lie in the regular line of route, there is no post-office
+communication; for example, between Pasco and Caxamarca, or between
+Pasco and Tarma, or Jauja; and when it is wished to despatch letters
+from one to another of these towns, private messengers must be
+employed. The consequence is, that business, which in Europe would be
+conducted through the medium of correspondence, can be arranged only
+by personal communication in Peru. Travelling is difficult, but not
+very expensive, as every one possesses horses or mules.
+
+The best mules employed in the Sierra are obtained from the province
+of Tucuman in Buenos Ayres. Formerly the arrieros used annually to
+bring droves of several thousand mules through Bolivia and the
+Peruvian Sierra, selling as many as they could on the way, and taking
+to Cerro de Pasco those that remained unsold. During the Spanish
+domination, the mule trade was in the hands of the Government, to
+whose agents it afforded ample opportunity for the exercise of
+injustice and extortion. It was one of the most oppressive of the
+_repartimientos_.[78] Every Indian was compelled to purchase a mule,
+and was not allowed even the privilege of choosing the animal. The
+mules were distributed by the authorities, and were tied to the doors
+of the houses for whose occupants they were destined. After the
+distribution of the mules, a collector went round to receive the
+payment. During the war in Buenos Ayres the traffic in mules suffered
+very considerably. For the space of twelve years not a mule had been
+brought from that part of South America to Peru, when in 1840 the
+Tucumanians revisited the Sierra with their droves of mules. They were
+joyfully welcomed by the Serranos, who gave good prices for the
+animals, and since then the traffic has begun to revive.
+
+In tracing the characteristic features of the Sierra, I have as far as
+possible confined myself to generalities, and I will not now weary the
+reader by entering upon a minute description of particular towns and
+villages. All are built pretty nearly after one model. The large
+quadrangular Plaza is closed on three of its sides with buildings, among
+which there is always the Government house (_cabildo_), and the public
+jail; the fourth side is occupied by a church. From this Plaza run in
+straight lines eight streets, more or less broad, and these streets are
+crossed at right angles by others; all presenting the same uniformity as
+in Lima. The houses are roomy, surrounded by court-yards, and consist of
+a ground-floor and a story above, but very frequently of the
+ground-floor only. The walls are of brick, and the roofs are tiled.
+The churches are in very bad taste, with the exception of a few in the
+larger towns, which have a good appearance externally, and are richly
+decorated within. The smaller Indian villages are poor and dirty, and
+are built with little attention to regularity. But even in them the
+quadrangular Plaza is never wanting, and at least four straight
+streets issue from it.
+
+The Sierra is by far the most populous part of Peru. The banks of the
+rivers flowing through the fertile valleys are thickly clustered with
+villages, which give a peculiar charm to the landscape, doubly pleasing
+to the eye of the traveller who comes from the barren parts of the
+country. The cultivated lands afford evidence of progressive
+improvement, and it is easy to imagine the flourishing condition to
+which this country might arrive with increased population.
+
+From the Sierra two separate roads lead to the eastern declivity of the
+Andes. One lies along the banks of the mountain rivers, and the other
+passes over the ridges of the mountains. The first way is very
+difficult, and scarcely practicable, for in some parts the streams flow
+through narrow ravines, bordered on each side by perpendicular rocks,
+and occasionally their course is hidden amidst impenetrable forests. The
+other way, across the mountains, leads again into the Puna region, and
+from thence over the steep ridges of the Andes to their barren summits.
+Descending from these summits, we arrive on the sharp ridges of one of
+the many side branches of the Puna Cordillera, which run eastward. The
+Peruvians call these sharp mountain ridges _Cuchillas_ (knives). After
+crossing the Andes, and descending a few hundred feet lower, in the
+direction of the east, the traveller beholds a country totally different
+from that which he left on the western declivity of the mountains. On
+the eastern side the soil is richly covered with vegetation. From the
+cuchillas the road ascends to some higher ridges, crowned with stunted
+trees and brushwood, which, gradually spreading upward, blend with the
+high forests. These wooded ridges are called by the natives _Ceja de la
+Montana_ (the mist of the mountains). In these regions the climate is
+generally more mild than in the Sierra, for the mercury never falls to
+freezing point, and in the middle part of the day it never rises so
+high as in the warm Sierra valleys. Throughout the whole year the
+_Ceja de la Montana_ is overshadowed by thick mists, rising from the
+rivers in the valleys. In the dry season these mists are absorbed by
+the sun's rays, but in winter they float in thick clouds over the
+hills, and discharge themselves in endless torrents of rain. The damp
+vapors have an injurious effect on the health of the inhabitants of
+these districts, which are, however, very thinly populated, as the
+constant moisture unfits the soil for the cultivation of anything
+except potatoes. The pure alpine air of the Puna is preferred by the
+Indians to the vapory atmosphere of the Ceja.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 76: The Indians apply the designation _Misti_, meaning
+_Mestizo_, to all persons except Indians or Negroes, whether they be
+Europeans or White Creoles.]
+
+[Footnote 77: The distance from one station to another varies from six
+to twelve miles.]
+
+[Footnote 78: _Repartimientos_ (literally, distributions) were the
+compulsory sale of articles by the provincial authorities.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+Road to the Primeval Forests--Barbacoas, or Indian Suspension
+Bridges--Vegetation--Hollow Passes--Zoology--the
+Montana--Plantations--Inhabitants--Trade in Peruvian Bark--Wandering
+Indians--Wild Indians or Indios Bravos--Languages, Manners, and
+Customs of the Indios Bravos--Dress--Warlike Weapons and Hunting
+Arms--Dwellings--Religion--Physical formation of the Wild Indian
+Tribes--Animals of the Aboriginal Forests--Mammalia--Hunting the
+Ounce--Birds--Amphibia--Poisonous Serpents--Huaco--Insects--Plants.
+
+
+Leaving Ceja de la Montana, we will trace the route to the Aboriginal
+forests, which extend eastwardly from the bases of the Andes. The whole
+plain is overspread by a thick veil of mist, which does not disperse
+until about noon, and then an undulating dark green canopy clouds the
+vapory atmosphere. A European, whose heart throbs at the bare idea of
+one of those vast virgin forests, gazes anxiously forward on the
+boundless distance, and finds the pace of his cautious mule too tardy
+for his impatient hopes and wishes. He beholds in perspective the goal
+of his long journey. Nature, in all her virginal freshness and grandeur,
+opens to his astonished eyes, and he feels a sensation of delight he
+never before experienced. Regardless of present toil and danger, he sees
+only the pleasure to come. But he is soon drawn back to cool reality,
+and is forcibly reminded of the truth, that every enjoyment must be
+earned by labor. The road is broken, narrow, and steep; over the woody
+sides of the hill it is easily passable; but as soon as it begins to
+descend, it presents all those difficulties which have been
+interestingly described by the early travellers in Peru. The scanty
+population of the surrounding districts, the native listlessness of the
+Indians, and their indifference to the conveniences of life, are
+obstacles to the making of roads which might be passable without
+difficulty and danger. However, where nature from the state of the
+country has compelled man to establish a communication, it is executed
+in the most rude and unsatisfactory manner. A most decided proof of this
+is apparent in the bridges called _barbacoas_, which are constructed
+where the way is through a _derumbo_, or a small narrow mountain-pass,
+or where there is an obstruction caused by a rock which cannot be passed
+circuitously. The barbacoas are constructed in the following manner.
+Stakes from three to three and a half feet long are driven into the
+ground, or into the crevices of rocks. Over the ends of these stakes are
+fastened strong branches of trees, the interstices are filled up with
+mud, and the whole is covered by a sort of matting composed of plaited
+branches and reeds. If the ground admits of it, which is seldom the
+case, a pile of stones is built up beneath the barbacoa, extending to at
+least one half its breadth. When it is considered that there is,
+probably, on the one side of this bridge, a rock inclining at a very
+acute angle, or an almost perpendicular declivity of a hill of loose
+earth, and that on the other side there yawns a deep abyss against which
+there is not the least protection, the traveller may well be pardoned if
+he shudders as he passes over the creaking and shaking barbacoa. These
+fragile bridges are often so much worn, that the feet of the mules slip
+through the layers of mud and reeds, and whilst making efforts to
+disengage themselves, the animals fall over the edge of the barbacoa,
+and are hurled into the chasm below, dragging down the crazy structure
+along with them. In consequence of these accidents, the way is often for
+weeks, or even months, impassable.
+
+In the construction of these rude bridges, I observed that the Indians,
+in their simplicity, always faithfully copy their great instructress,
+nature. The majority of the plants growing in these regions belong, if I
+may use the expression, to an aerial vegetation. The small, gnarled,
+low-branched trees, have often scarcely one half of their roots in the
+earth: the other half spreads over the surface of the soil; then winding
+round the roots or branches of some neighboring plant, fastens on it,
+and intimately uniting with it, forms a kind of suspension bridge, over
+which the intertwining of numerous luxuriant climbing plants makes a
+strong, impenetrable network. All the trees and shrubs are covered with
+innumerable parasites, which, in the higher regions, are met with in
+their smaller forms, as lichens, mosses, &c.; but lower down, in the
+course of the various transformations they undergo, they appear in
+larger development.
+
+The whole vegetable kingdom here is stamped by a peculiar character. It
+presents immense fulness and luxuriance: it spreads widely, with but
+little upward development, rising on the average only a few feet above
+the earth. Trees, shrubs, and tendrils, in endless complication of
+color, entwine together, sometimes fostering, sometimes crushing each
+other. Out of the remains of the dead arises a new generation, with an
+increase of vital impulse. It seems as though the ice-crowned Andes
+looked down with envy on the luxuriant vegetation of the forests, and
+sought to blight it by sending down cold, nightly winds. The low
+temperature of the night counteracts that extreme development which
+the humidity of the soil and the great heat of the day promote. But
+what the vegetation loses in upward growth it gains in superficial
+extension, and thereby it secures more protection against the
+ever-alternating temperature.
+
+The further we descend the eastern declivity, the more difficult becomes
+the way. During the rainy season deep fissures are worked out by the
+flow of waters; the ground is slippery and full of holes. The sides of
+these hollow passes are often so close together that the rider cannot
+keep his legs down on each side of his mule, and is obliged to raise up
+his feet and thrust them forward. When beasts of burthen, coming in
+opposite directions, meet in these places, the direst confusion ensues,
+and frequently sanguinary conflicts arise among the Indians. The weaker
+party are then obliged to unload their mules, and the poor beasts are
+dragged backward by their hind legs, until they reach a point at which
+there is sufficient space for the others to pass. When I was proceeding
+through one of these cavities on Christmas-eve, 1840, I encountered a
+heavily laden ass coming down a steep declivity. Ere I had time to leap
+from my saddle, the ass came direct upon me with such force that my
+horse was driven backwards by the concussion, and I was thrown. Ten
+months afterwards, another encounter of the same kind threatened me with
+a similar disaster, and to save myself I had no alternative but to shoot
+the ass. The Indian who was driving the animal neglected the usual
+warning cry, given by the arrieros when they enter those dangerous
+passes, and he was regardless of my repeated calls desiring him to stop.
+
+In some steep places, with the view of improving the roads, the Indians
+lay down large stones in the form of steps; but to ride over these rude
+flights of steps is no easy task, for the stones are small, and are
+placed at the distance of a foot and a half or two feet apart. The mule
+begins by placing his hind feet on the first stone, then springing
+forward he reaches the third stone with his fore feet, at the same time
+placing his hind feet to the second. By this manoeuvre the mule's body
+is kept at full stretch, and the rider is obliged to lean forward over
+the animal's neck to avoid being thrown head-foremost by the violent
+jerks when the mule springs from step to step. It is absolute torture
+to ride down a descent of five or six leagues, along a road such as I
+have just described: willingly would the harassed rider dismount and
+pursue his course on foot; but were he to attempt to do so, the mule
+would stand stock still. I have already remarked the singular
+obstinacy with which the mules refuse to proceed when their riders
+dismount, and it sometimes gives rise to very comical scenes. On my
+way to Vitoc, I was passing through a ravine in which the uprooted
+trunk of a tree was resting slantwise against a rock. Though there was
+not room for me to ride under it, yet there was sufficient space to
+allow my mule to pass, and I accordingly dismounted; but all my
+efforts to drive the animal forward were fruitless. I had no
+alternative but to ride close up to the tree, then spurring the mule,
+I quickly slipped out of the saddle, and seizing the trunk of the
+tree, I hung to it until the mule had passed on.
+
+No less difficult and dangerous are the steep declivities over loamy
+soils, which are frequently met with in these districts. On them the
+mule has no firm footing, and is in danger of slipping down at every
+step. But the wonderful instinct of these animals enables them to
+overcome the difficulty. They approximate the hind and fore feet in
+the manner of the Chamois goat, when he is about to make a spring, and
+lowering the hinder part of the body in a position, half sitting half
+standing, they slide down the smooth declivity. At first this sliding
+movement creates a very unpleasant feeling of apprehension, which is
+not altogether removed by frequent repetitions. Accidents frequently
+occur, in which both mule and rider are mortally injured.
+
+There is more variety of animals in these regions than in the
+mountainous parts; but they have few peculiarities of character. The
+swift-footed roe of the Cordillera roams here and dwells in the
+thickets, avoiding the warm forest. The dark brown coati (_Nasua
+montana_, Tsch.) howls, and digs at the roots of trees in search of
+food; the shy opossum crawls fearfully under the foliage; the lazy
+armadillo creeps into his hole; but the ounce and the lion seldom
+stray hither to contest with the black bear (_Ursus frugilegus_,
+Tsch.) the possession of his territory. The little hairy tapir
+(_Tapirus villosus_, Wagn.) ventures only at twilight out of his close
+ambush to forage in the long grass.
+
+Of the birds there is not much variety of species; but all are
+remarkable for gay-colored plumage. Among the most characteristic of
+these districts are the red-bellied tanagra (_Tanagra igniventris_,
+Orb.), the fire-colored pyranga (_Phoenisoma bivittata_, Tsch.), two
+species of the crow, one of which is of a fine blue color (_Cyanocorax
+viridicyanus_, G. R. Gray), the other green on the back and bright
+yellow on the belly (_Cyanoc. peruanus_, Cab.). The Indians call the
+latter _Quienquien_, as it utters a sort of screaming sound resembling
+these syllables. Individual birds belonging to the Penelope family (_P.
+rufiventris_ and _adspersa_, Tsch.) and the green pepper-eater
+(_Pteroglossus caeruleo-cinctus_, Tsch., _Pt. atrogularis_, Sturm.) are
+found in the lower forests.
+
+Proceeding still further downward we at length reach the _Montana_. The
+Peruvians apply this name to the vast aboriginal forests which extend
+across the whole country from north to south along the eastern foot of
+the Andes. Those which lie higher, and in which the spaces between the
+lofty trees are overgrown with thick masses of bushes and twining
+plants, are called by the natives simply _Montanas_. Those which are
+free from these intermediate masses of vegetation they call _Montanas
+reales_ (royal mountains). At first sight they produce the impression of
+a virgin forest of oaks.
+
+The distance from the Ceja to the district properly called the Montana
+is very various at different points. In some parts it takes six or
+eight days' hard riding; in other directions the traveller may, in the
+morning, leave the snow-covered Puna huts, and at sunset, on the
+uninhabited margin of the primeval forest, he may taste pine-apples
+and bananas of his own gathering. Such a day certainly deserves to
+form an epoch in his life; for in the course of a few hours he passes
+through the most opposite climates of the earth, and the gradual
+progression of the development of the vegetable world is spread out in
+visible reality before him.
+
+The Montanas of Peru are, in general, but thinly peopled with Christian
+Indians. They are employed either in cultivating their own fields, or in
+working as day-laborers in the great plantations. The productions of the
+haciendas consist chiefly of sugar, coffee, maize, coca, tobacco,
+oranges, bananas, and pine-apples, which are sent to the Sierra. The
+cultivation of bark, balsams, gums, honey and wax, also occupies a
+great number of Indians.
+
+The plantation buildings stand on rising grounds. The walls are
+constructed of reeds, the interstices being filled up with loam, and the
+roofs are of straw or palm leaves. Around the buildings are the fields
+allotted to cultivation, in which the soils favorable to the production
+of certain plants are selected. The coffee usually grows round the
+house, and an adjacent building contains the store-rooms. The
+fruit-trees grow along the margins of the maize fields; marshy ground
+is selected for the sugar fields; in the vicinity of brooks and
+streams the useful banana flourishes; the pine-trees are ranged in
+rows on the hot, dry declivities, and the coca is found to thrive best
+in warm, hollow dells.
+
+As the humidity of the atmosphere, added to the multitudes of insects,
+mice and rats, prevents any lengthened preservation of provisions, the
+cultivators sell or exchange them as speedily as possible; hence arises
+a very active intercourse in business between the Montanas and the
+Sierra. The mountain Indians bring llamas, dried meat, potatoes, bark,
+and salt, to exchange for fruit; it is very seldom that any money
+circulates in this traffic. Only the owners of plantations sell their
+productions for ready money, with which they purchase, in the upland
+towns, European goods, particularly printed and plain cottons, coarse
+woollen stuffs, knives, hatchets, fishing-tackle, &c.; with these goods
+they pay their laborers, charging them for every article five or even
+six times its value. As there is throughout these forest regions a great
+want of men, the plantation owners endeavor to get the few Indians who
+settle voluntarily on their property, fixed to it for ever. They sell
+them indispensable necessaries at an extravagant price, on condition of
+their paying for them by field labor.
+
+I have seen an Indian give five days' labor, from six o'clock in the
+morning to sunset, for a red pocket-handkerchief, which in Germany would
+not be worth four groschen. The desire to possess showy articles, the
+necessity of obtaining materials for his wretched clothing, or
+implements to enable him, in his few free hours, to cultivate his own
+field, and, above all, his passion for coca and intoxicating drinks, all
+prompt the Indian to incur debt upon debt to the plantation owner. The
+sugar-cane is seldom used in the forest plantations for making sugar.
+The juice is usually converted into the cakes called _chancacas_, which
+have been already mentioned, or it is made into _guarapo_, a strong
+liquor, which the Indians spare no effort to procure. When they begin to
+be intoxicated, they desire more and more of the liquor, which is
+readily given, as it is the interest of the owners to supply it. After
+some days of extreme abstinence they return to their work, and then the
+Mayordomo shows them how much their debt has increased, and the
+astonished Indian finds that he must labor for several months to pay it;
+thus these unfortunate beings are fastened in the fetters of slavery.
+Their treatment is, in general, most tyrannical. The Negro slave is
+far more happy than the free Indians in the haciendas of this part of
+Peru. At sunrise all the laborers must assemble in the courtyard of
+the plantation, where the Mayordomo prescribes to them their day's
+work, and gives them the necessary implements. They are compelled to
+work in the most oppressive heat, and are only allowed to rest thrice
+for a few minutes, at times fixed, for chewing their coca and for
+dinner. For indolence or obstinacy they suffer corporal punishment,
+usually by being put into a kind of stocks, called the CEPO, in which
+the culprit stands from twelve to forty-eight hours, with his neck or
+legs fixed between two blocks of wood.
+
+The labor of bringing the forest lands into a productive state is one of
+the severest tasks in the Montanas, and it can only be performed in the
+hottest season of the year. As the soil is always moist, and the
+vegetation full of sap, the trees must be cut down about the end of the
+rainy season, and after drying for some months they are burned; but they
+are seldom brought into a state of such aridity as to be destroyed by
+the action of the fire. This is a considerable obstruction to the
+progress of raising plants; for the seed must be sown between the felled
+trees, which are perhaps only half-charred, and are still damp. In
+consequence of this, the practice is, in the first year, to plant maize
+at the places where the burnt trees are laid; the maize grows in almost
+incredible abundance, and the result is a singularly rich harvest, after
+which, part of the burned wood is removed. The same process is renewed
+after every harvest, until all the burnt trees are cleared off and a
+free field gained for the cultivation of the perennial plants.
+
+Far more fortunate than the Indians who are neighbors of the
+plantations, are those who live far back in the interior of the
+forests, and who, in consequence of their great distance from any
+settlement, seldom have intercourse with the civilized world. Content
+with what bounteous nature offers them, and ignorant of the wants of
+more refined life, they seek nothing beyond such things as they can,
+without any great efforts, obtain in the districts in which they
+dwell. There they plant their little patches of ground, the care of
+which is consigned to the women. The men takes their bows and arrows
+and set out on hunting expeditions, during which they are for weeks,
+often months, absent from their homes. The rainy season drives them
+back to their huts, where they indulge in indolent repose, which is
+only occasionally suspended when they are engaged in fishing. The
+return of the sunny sky draws them out again on their expeditions, in
+which they collect a sufficient supply of food for the year.
+
+But wherever these Indians have settled on the banks of great rivers,
+the trading intercourse produces an alteration in their mode of life.
+Europeans and Creoles then try to create among them, as among the
+plantation Indians, a desire to satisfy unnecessary wants, and thereby
+they are induced to collect the valuable productions of the forests.
+In the loftier districts of the Montanas the Peruvian bark is found:
+the lower and more marshy places produce the sarsaparilla, and a sort
+of wood for dyeing called _Llangua_. This last-named article has not
+yet found its way to Europe.
+
+In the month of May the Indians assemble to collect the Peruvian bark,
+for which purpose they repair to the extensive Cinchona woods. One of
+the party climbs a high tree to obtain, if possible, an uninterrupted
+view over the forest, and to spy out the _Manchas_, or spots where there
+are groups of Peruvian bark trees. The men who thus spy out the trees
+are called _Cateadores_, or searchers. It requires great experience to
+single out, in the dark leaf-covered expanse, the Cinchona groups merely
+by the particular tint of the foliage, which often differs but very
+little from that of the surrounding trees. As soon as the cateador has
+marked out and correctly fixed upon the mancha, he descends to his
+companions, and leads them with wonderful precision through the almost
+impenetrable forest to the group. A hut is immediately built, which
+serves as a resting-place during night, and is also used for drying
+and preserving the bark. The tree is felled as near the root as
+possible, divided into pieces, each from three to four feet long, and
+with a short curved knife a longitudinal incision is made in the bark.
+After a few days, if the pieces are found to be getting dry, the bark
+already incised is stripped off in long slips, which are placed in the
+hut, or in hot weather laid before it to dry. In many parts,
+particularly in the central and southern districts of Peru, where the
+moisture is not very great, the bark is dried in the forest, and the
+slips are packed in large bundles. In other districts, on the
+contrary, the bark is rolled up green, and sent to the neighboring
+villages, where it is dried. Towards the end of September the
+_Cascarilleros_[79] return to their homes.
+
+In the more early periods of South American history, the bark was a
+principal article of Peruvian commerce. Since the commencement of the
+present century its value has, however, considerably diminished, chiefly
+in consequence of adulterated and inferior kinds, which are supplied
+from other quarters, perhaps also on account of the more frequent use of
+quinine; for in the production of the alkaloids less bark is employed
+than was formerly used in substance. During the war of independence the
+bark trade received its death-blow, and for the space of several years
+scarcely more than a few hundred-weights of bark were exported from
+Peru. The Montanas of Huanuco, which once furnished all the apothecaries
+of Europe with the "divine medicine," are beginning again to yield
+supplies. From the roots of the felled trees a vigorous after-growth has
+commenced. In the Montanas of Huamalies a kind of bark is found, the
+nature of which is not yet defined by botanists; and from the Montanas
+of Urubamba comes the highly esteemed _Cascarilla de Cuzco_, which
+contains an alkaloid, named _Cusconin_.[80] Possibly the medicinal
+bark may again become a flourishing branch of trade for Peru, though
+it can never again recover the importance which was attached to it a
+century ago. During my residence in Peru, a plan was in agitation for
+establishing a quinine manufactory at Huanuco. The plan, if well
+carried out, would certainly be attended with success. There is in
+Bolivia an establishment of this kind conducted by a Frenchman; but
+the quinine produced is very impure. The inhabitants of the Peruvian
+forests drink an infusion of the green bark as a remedy against
+intermitting fever. I have found it in many cases much more
+efficacious than the dried kind, for less than half the usual dose
+produces, in a short time, convalescence, and the patient is secure
+against returning febrile attacks.
+
+A class of Indians who live far back in the heart of the woods of
+Southern Peru and Bolivia employ themselves almost exclusively in
+gathering balsams and odorous gums from resinous plants, many of which
+are burned in the churches as incense. They also collect various
+objects, supposed to be sympathetic remedies, such as the claws of the
+tapir, against falling sickness; and the teeth of poisonous snakes
+which, carefully fixed in leaves, and stuck into the tubes of rushes,
+are regarded as powerful specifics against headache and blindness.
+Various salves, plasters, powders, seeds, roots, barks, &c., to each of
+which is attributed some infallible curative power, are prepared and
+brought to market by the Indians. When the rainy season sets in they
+leave the forest and proceed in parties to the mountainous country. On
+these occasions, contrary to the general custom of the Indians, the men,
+not the women, carry the burthens. They are accompanied by the women as
+far as the Sierra; for the loads, which are often very heavy, graze the
+backs of the men who carry them, and the women then act as surgeons. The
+injured part is first carefully washed with copaiba balsam, moistened,
+then covered with leaves fixed on with small strips of leather, overlaid
+with the hide of some forest animal. These operations being performed,
+the loads are again fastened on the backs of the Indians. In their
+native forests these people wear but little clothing. Their dress is
+limited to a sort of loose tunic without sleeves for the women, and for
+the men merely a piece of cloth fastened round the waist. They go
+barefooted; but they paint their feet and legs with the juice of the
+Huito (_Genipa oblongifolia_, R. Pav.) in such a manner that they seem
+to be wearing half-boots. The juice of the Huito has the effect of
+protecting them against the stings of insects. The coloring adheres so
+strongly to the skin that it cannot be washed off by water; but oil
+speedily removes it. In the Sierra these Indians put on warmer clothing,
+and on their feet they wear a kind of boots called _aspargetas_, made of
+the plaited tendrils of plants.
+
+The stock of balsams and drugs being disposed of, the Indians, after a
+few months' absence, return to their homes. Some of them, however,
+wander to the distance of two or three hundred leagues from their native
+forests, traversing the greater part of Peru, and even visiting Lima,
+carrying large flask gourds filled with balsams. These wandering tribes
+seek frequent contact with other nations. They are not distrustful and
+reserved, but, on the contrary, annoyingly communicative. It is not easy
+to discover the cause of this exception, or to ascertain the time when
+the Indians began to travel the country as physicians and apothecaries.
+The earliest writers on the oldest epochs of Peruvian history make no
+mention of this race of medical pedlars.
+
+The Indians here alluded to all profess Christianity, and must, as
+_Indios Christianos_, in strict correctness, be distinguished from the
+wild Indians, _Indios Bravos_, who exclusively inhabit the eastern
+Montanas of Peru, towards the frontiers of Brazil. These Indios Bravos
+comprehend numerous tribes, each of which has its own customs, religion,
+and also, in general, its own language. Only very few of them are known,
+for since the overthrow of the missions there is little communication
+with them. Respecting the Indios Bravos who inhabit the Montanas of
+Southern Peru, I have been unable to collect any accurate information.
+They remain quite unknown, for impenetrable wilds intervene between them
+and the civilized world, and seldom has a European foot ventured into
+their territory. The wild Indians in Central Peru are most set against
+the Christians, particularly those called Iscuchanos, in the Montana de
+Huanta, and those known by the name of Chunchos, in the Montana de
+Vitoc. The Iscuchanos sometimes maintain with the inhabitants of Huanta
+a trade of barter; but this intercourse is occasionally interrupted by
+long intervals of hostility, during which the Iscuchanos, though rather
+an inoffensive race, commit various depredations on the Huantanos;
+driving the cattle from the pastures, carrying off the produce of the
+soil, and spreading terror throughout the whole district. Some years
+ago, when the inhabitants of Huanta had assembled for the procession of
+the Festival of Corpus Christi, a troop of Iscuchanos came upon them
+with wild bulls, turning the infuriated animals against the procession,
+which was dispersed, and many of the Huantanos were killed or severely
+wounded. These Iscuchanos are so favored by the locality of the district
+they inhabit, that even were a military expedition sent to drive them
+farther back into the woods, it would probably be unsuccessful.
+
+The Chunchos are far more dangerous, and are one of the most formidable
+races of the Indios Bravos. They inhabit the most southern part of the
+Pampa del Sacramento (the terra incognita of Peru), and chiefly the
+district through which flow the rivers Chanchamayo and Perene. Those
+regions are inhabited by a great number of tribes, most of which are
+only known by name. The frontier neighbors of the Chunchos are the
+sanguinary Campas or Antes who destroyed the missions of Jesus Maria in
+Pangoa, and who still occasionally pay hostile visits to San
+Buenaventura de Chavini, the extreme Christian outpost in the Montana de
+Andamarca. The savage race of the Casibos, the enemies of all the
+surrounding populations, inhabit the banks of the river Pachitea. This
+race maintains incessant war with all the surrounding tribes, and
+constantly seeks to destroy them. According to the accounts of the
+missionaries, they, as well as the Antes and Chunchos, are still
+cannibals, and undertake warlike expeditions for the purpose of
+capturing prisoners, whom they devour. After the rainy season, when
+the Simirinches, the Amapuahas, or Consbos, hunt in the western
+forests, they often fall into the hands of the Casibos, who imitate in
+perfection the cries of the forest animals, so that the hunters are
+treacherously misled, and being captured, are carried off as victims.
+Many horrible accounts of this barbarous tribe were related by the
+missionaries centuries ago, when romantic stories and exaggerations of
+every kind were the order of the day; but the most recent
+communications of the missionaries from Ocopa confirm the fact, that
+in the year 1842, the Casibos continued to be savage Anthropophagi. It
+is worthy of remark that they never eat women, a fact which some may
+be inclined to attribute to respect for the female sex. It is,
+however, assignable to a different feeling. All the South American
+Indians, who still remain under the influence of sorcery and
+empiricism, consider women in the light of impure and evil beings, and
+calculated to injure them. Among a few of the less rude nations this
+aversion is apparent in domestic life, in a certain unconquerable
+contempt of females. With the Anthropophagi the feeling extends,
+fortunately, to their flesh, which is held to be poisonous.
+
+The languages spoken by the wild Indian tribes are very various. From
+the Maranon to Omaguas, Quichua, the language of the Incas, is spoken.
+On the left bank of the Ucayali the dialect of the Panos prevails. On
+the right bank the Cascas, the Sinabus, and the Diabus, preserve their
+own idioms, which are so different that those races are reciprocally
+unable to communicate with each other. On Upper Ucayali evidences of
+common origin are said to be apparent between the Simirinches, Campas,
+Runaguas, and Mochobos. But on this subject no accurate conclusions
+can be formed; for the accounts given by the missions in early periods
+were very imperfect, and most of the races are so intractable that it
+has since been impossible to collect correct information. According
+to the accounts of travelled missionaries which I had the opportunity
+of examining in the convent of Ocopa, it appears that, besides the
+Quichua, the idioms spoken by the Panos, Cascas, Simirinches, and the
+Chunchos, may be set down as dialects of decidedly different origins.
+
+The mode of living among all these Indians is very much the same. War
+and hunting in summer, and repairing their warlike weapons in winter,
+are the occupations of the men. The women cultivate the fields, lay up
+the stores of provisions, fish, spin and cook. Their clothes are of the
+most simple kind. Many of the races wear no clothing, and have their
+bodies wholly or partially bedaubed with paint. The men of some races
+wear a kind of shirt without sleeves, and the women a petticoat reaching
+from the waist to the knees. These garments are made of cotton obtained
+from the uncultivated tree _Bombax_, and their color is white, blue, or
+red. The custom of boring the ears, the nose, and the under lip, for the
+insertion of some ornament, is much practised, particularly by the
+Panos, Shipeos, and Pirras. They paint their bodies, but not exactly in
+the tattoo manner; they confine themselves to single stripes. The Sensis
+women draw two stripes from the shoulder, over each breast, down to the
+pit of the stomach; the Pirras women paint a band in the form of a
+girdle round the waist, and they have three of a darker color round each
+thigh. These stripes, when once laid on, can never be removed by
+washing. They are made with the unripe fruit of one of the Rubiacaceae.
+Some tribes paint the face only; others, on the contrary, do not touch
+that part; but bedaub with colors their arms, feet, and breasts.
+
+In hunting, bows and arrows are the principal weapons used by the
+Indians. In war they use, besides bows and arrows, clubs and a kind of
+sword made of wood. The arrows are reeds, five or six feet long, and
+of the thickness of a finger. The point is of very hard wood, and is
+strongly barbed by notches and with sharp fish teeth about three
+inches long. To the other extremity of the arrow colored feathers are
+always affixed.
+
+Among many Indians, particularly in the western and northern districts
+of the Pampa del Sacramento, the _Pocuna_ is a weapon much used in
+hunting. It is made of a long reed, and measures eight or ten, or even
+more, feet. At one end are fixed two teeth of a javali, or white-lipped
+peccary (_Dicotyles labiatus_), on which the reed is rested when taking
+aim. The arrows, which are only one and a half or two inches long, are
+made of the thick part of a strong cactus stem. In general their small
+arrows are poisoned, for otherwise the wound would be too inconsiderable
+to kill even a little bird. The poison for arrows differs almost with
+every tribe, and very mysterious ceremonies are observed at its
+preparation. On this account the art of preparing it, and the
+ingredients employed, are only very partially known to Europeans. Their
+elements are obtained from several plants not yet defined botanically,
+among which the _Apihuasca_ and poison capsicum are much resorted to.
+Infusions of the leaves of a very strong kind of tobacco, and of the
+Sanano (_Tabernaemontana Sanano_, R. P.), and of Euphorbiaceae, are also
+taken. Some modern travellers, contrary to the testimony of the oldest
+writers on Peru, have asserted that no animal substance is employed in
+the poison for arrows. I am, however, enabled to state, on the authority
+of an Indian who had himself often made the poison, that not only the
+black and very poisonous emmet (_Cryptacereo atrato affin_), but also
+the teeth of the formidable serpent, known to the Indians by the name of
+Miuamaru or Jergon (_Lachesis picta_, Tsch.), are used for that purpose.
+
+The wound of the poisoned arrow is fatal and rapid. Men and large
+mammalia die in about four or five minutes after receiving the wound;
+the smaller mammiferous animals and birds, in two minutes. The blow-reed
+sends these deadly arrows with great certainty to the distance of
+thirty-two or thirty-six paces. Hunting with the blow-reed must be long
+practised in order to acquire dexterity in its use, and great caution is
+requisite to avoid being self-wounded by the small sharp arrows. An
+example came to my knowledge in the case of an Indian who let an arrow
+fall unobserved from his quiver; he trod upon it, and it penetrated the
+sole of his foot; in a very short time he was a corpse.
+
+The club called _Matusino_ is four or five feet long, and is encircled
+in a spiral form at the thick end, by a row of deer's horns. A single
+long horn is fastened in the centre, the chief use of which is to
+stick it in the earth when the club is rested. Only a few races of
+upper and lower Ucayali and the Sensis use this formidable weapon,
+which is very inconvenient and obstructive in passing through thick
+forests. The _macana_, or wooden sword, is made of strong _chunta_.
+The color of this wood is a deep blackish brown; it is very hard and
+heavy, and is always used for implements which require great
+durability and strength. The macana is about four feet long, one inch
+thick, and from five to six inches broad; towards the hilt end the
+breadth is about three inches, and it is rounded. It is so well cut
+and polished, that a sabre scarcely excels it in sharpness. The weapon
+is so heavy that it requires both hands to wield it.
+
+There are not only offensive, but also defensive, weapons. One of the
+latter is the _viche_, a very simple shield, one and a half or two feet
+in diameter. It consists of a strong frame of twisted creeping plants,
+over which the skin of a deer or tapir is stretched and fastened with
+twine. On the inside there are two holds for the arm; the edge is
+adorned with colored feathers.
+
+The Indians of the races above noticed seldom live in villages, but
+chiefly in huts scattered through the forests. Sometimes they construct
+a few of their dwellings near together, and so form a hamlet. Their huts
+are either quadrangular, oblong, or circular. The walls consist of
+strong stems of trees, bound together by twining plants; and the roof is
+of palm leaves laid over a skeleton of reeds. The entrance, which is on
+the side opposite to the prevailing wind, is left open, and but seldom
+protected by a door. At Chanchamayo I saw a very simple kind of hut
+among the Chunchos. It resembled an open umbrella with the handle stuck
+in the earth. The single wall, which also formed its roof, consisted of
+eight long reeds: they spread out below in the form of a fan, standing
+obliquely on the earth, and fastened to three stems of trees. On this
+simple skeleton were laid lengthways the leaves of the omero, a kind of
+palm. A strong stem fixed firmly in the earth, extended obliquely to the
+middle of the inner side of the wall, and two thinner stems on each
+side, served as supports for this frail building. According to the
+direction of the wind the hut is turned round.
+
+The Indian huts all stand detached from each other, and they are seldom
+divided internally into apartments. They occupy very little ground,
+never more than sixty square feet of superficies. In the principal
+settlement of an Indian race, the huts are scattered over a circuit of
+some miles in the forests.
+
+Any form of government is a thing quite unknown to most of the Indios
+Bravos of Peru. Uniformity of speech, manners, and arms, unite together
+a number of Indians, who thus form a race, but there is among them no
+bond of subjection, or of duty to any government, either voluntarily
+chosen, or self-constituted. Among the inhabitants of Lower Ucayali,
+however, the oldest, or the bravest individuals of each race are either
+publicly, or silently recognised as chiefs. Respect to age prevails only
+among a few of the races, as the Setebos, Mayorhunas, and Panos. Among
+others, as the Campos, Casibos, and Cunchos, the old are put to death.
+It is a general custom of the wild Indians to kill their aged prisoners
+immediately on their being captured.
+
+Social meetings among these races are of rare occurrence. Gloomy,
+reserved, and distrustful, the Indian is only at ease in the circle he
+has himself formed. When, however, the general interest of the race is
+in question, then he comes boldly forward in support of the whole. The
+usual assemblages are for the arrangement of long hunting excursions,
+and warlike expeditions. The departures and the returns are celebrated
+by tumultuous feasts, in which intoxicating drinks flow freely. Most of
+the liquors are prepared from Yucca, or the fruits of the Chunta, called
+the _Mazato_, or other species of palms. In the most remote forests, and
+among the most insulated tribes, the preparation of intoxicating liquors
+is known; and there certainly is not in all South America an Indian race
+which is not familiar with it. Wild dances form part of the
+entertainments, and the banquet usually ends with a sanguinary battle.
+
+Marriage in most races is celebrated socially, but not among those in
+which polygamy prevails. The formula observed on the occasion differs in
+different tribes; in some the union is effected under painful ceremonies
+to the bride, in others with fasting and penitential torments to the
+bridegroom. In general the Indian selects a wife for himself. In the
+greater number of tribes a maiden is set up as a prize, and the young
+men commence a life or death contest for her. The oldest warriors are
+arbitrators, and from their hands the conqueror receives the prize. This
+is the practice among the inhabitants of the Rio de Santa Catalina. With
+them, as well as with most of the tribes of Western Ucayali, the birth
+of a child is festively celebrated. The oldest individuals of the race
+assemble to receive the child, which is repeatedly blown on to drive
+demons and sickness away from it; the name of an animal is then given
+to it, and, according to Don Pedro Beltran, the witnesses of the
+ceremony mark with a wooden pencil some hieroglyphic characters on two
+leaves, which are carefully preserved, and on the death of the Indian,
+deposited in the grave with him.
+
+The dead are buried in the huts. The survivors having testified their
+sorrow by a melancholy howl three times repeated, leave the place and
+build a new residence for themselves in a distant district. They break
+in pieces all the household furniture of the deceased, but they bury
+with him his warlike weapons and his agricultural implements, under the
+conviction that he will use them in the place to which he is going. A
+peculiar custom among several races is this: the oldest son cuts a
+piece from the heel of his deceased father, which he hangs round his
+neck, and wears as a sacred relic. Some of the tribes on the Perene
+and Capanegua do not, like most wild nations, respect the remains of
+the dead, but throw the bodies into the forest unburied, to be
+devoured by beasts of prey.
+
+Very little is correctly known of the religion of the Peruvian Indios
+Bravos. All believe in the existence of superior beings, and distinguish
+them as good and evil; and they are accordingly venerated from
+gratitude, or from fear. The former they regard as beneficent; but the
+latter as having the power of bringing into exercise all the destroying
+forces of nature. These people, therefore, find in the sky, in the air,
+and on the earth, objects for their adoration. Certain constellations
+are regarded as favorable phenomena, while others are looked at with a
+secret horror. The sun is by all gladly worshipped, more particularly by
+the descendants of those who in early times stood in connexion with the
+Incas. On the other hand, they pay but a reluctant tribute to the moon,
+perhaps because by its pale light fearful images are reflected around
+them in the forests, and because its phases are to them involved in
+impenetrable mystery. They ascribe thunder and lightning to demoniacal
+influences, and to the same origin they attribute certain winds which
+have an injurious influence on their health. But their religious notions
+are not connected exclusively with the phenomena of nature, which are to
+them inexplicable. With all their ideas on surrounding nature, two
+conflicting principles are invariably connected, one of which is
+believed to be beneficial, the other injurious to them. In the animals
+of the forest, the plants, the stones, in everything, they trace these
+beneficent or demoniacal powers. Every idea, every action is with them a
+consequence of the influence of one of these two powers, and free will
+is impossible. Though a rude materialism cripples the intelligence of
+these Indians, yet they seem to be sensible of the connexion between
+that which is perceptible to their senses, and something
+higher--something beyond the sphere of corporeal perception. But of the
+nature of this higher something they have no comprehension, nor do they
+endeavor to render to themselves any account of it. They are satisfied
+with an obscure idea of the difference between the visible and the
+invisible; but still this idea is so contracted that they always give to
+the spiritual a corporeal form: and they attribute to natural objects
+with which they come most in contact, the possession of good or evil
+qualities, thus assigning to them the nature of spiritual beings.
+
+None of these tribes appear, as yet, to have advanced so far as to be
+impressed with the persuasion that the whole of nature is guided by
+unchangeable laws over which one will presides. In general, they have
+no idea of a spiritual unity, and are utter strangers to the knowledge
+of one God. They all, however, believe in the immortality of the soul.
+They see the lifeless body, they have certain proof that the earthly
+integument is no longer the abode of the soul; but, as they can form
+no notion of anything spiritual entirely self-existent, they imagine
+that their dead will, in new life, appear under a new bodily form. The
+several tribes differ greatly in their belief of the nature of the
+metamorphoses which they expect to take place. Those who look forward
+to the re-appearance of the deceased in human life, bury with the men
+hunting and agricultural instruments; but their notions even on this
+head are not very clear, and when questioned on the subject their
+answers are very confused. They say that they are going to a very
+beautiful place, far from their present dwelling; but, according to
+their conception, it appears that the place, though distant, is still
+on earth. Those races who believe in metamorphoses into the forms of
+the lower animals, are persuaded that the dead in their new forms will
+inhabit the woods around their homes, and avenge the wrongs they have
+suffered during life. This is the belief of the inhabitants of Upper
+Ucayali and Pachitea.
+
+In considering the physical formation of the wild Indians, we may class
+them according to their natural divisions, viz., the inhabitants of the
+more highly situated lands, or mountains, and those of the low hot flat
+country. The former dwell on the eastern side of the hill-chain,
+dividing the river territory of the Huallaga and Ucayali, and spreading
+to the banks of the Chauchamayo, Perene, and Apurimac. These are the
+Iscuchanos. They are rather tall and generally slim; their limbs are
+vigorous; their hands and feet small, and in walking their toes are much
+turned in. The head is proportionally large, with very strong bones; the
+forehead is low, the eyes small and animated, the nose large and rather
+sharp, the cheek-bones a little prominent. The mouth is not large, and
+the lips are delicately formed, but often disfigured by ornaments. The
+ears are small, quite the reverse of those of the Indians of the flat
+lands. The pointed chin is only sparingly covered with beard, which does
+not appear until advanced age, and on the cheeks there is none. The hair
+of the head is long, stiff, and of a brilliant black. Many of the tribes
+dye their hair; the Chunchos dye it red, and the Antis are said to dye
+it blue; as to the latter color it appears to me improbable, but I
+mention it on the authority of Friar Leceta. The skin is fine and soft,
+the color a deep rusty brown. In speaking of the South American Indians,
+it is usual to describe their skin as copper color, but this term is
+incorrect, for there certainly is no single tribe to which it might be
+perfectly applicable. It appears to me that the color of all is much
+fainter, and tending more to brown or yellow. "Rusty brown," if the
+expression may be used, appears to me far more descriptive.
+
+The second natural section of the wild Indians inhabits the northern
+part of the Pampa del Sacramento, the banks of the Ucayali, and of the
+Maranon. They are smaller than those just described. There is a
+certain peculiarity in the make of these people; for though they are
+broad over the shoulders yet their chests are flat, and their shoulder
+blades lie low. Their limbs are lank, and their hands rather small;
+the soles of the feet are broad and flat. The face is broad, the eyes
+long shaped, the pupil deeply set, the nose is flat, with large
+oblique nostrils, and the cheek-bones are prominent. The mouth is
+wide, the lips thick, and among some tribes the mouth and nose are
+very close together. The chin is small and round, the ears large and
+standing out from the head. The hair and beard of these Indians are
+the same as in those of the hilly country. The color of the skin
+varies much; in some it is a light reddish brown; in others, a kind of
+yellow, very like that of the Mongols. The women of all these tribes
+are exceedingly ugly, and far from corresponding with the picture a
+European imagination might form of the daughters of the aboriginal
+forests. These women soon become old, for they not only fulfil female
+duties, but execute the greater part of those severer labors which
+ought to fall to the share of the stronger sex.
+
+To the above outline sketch of the human inhabitants of the aboriginal
+forests, I will now add some description of the animal world, as it came
+under my observation in those luxuriant regions.
+
+Unlike the peaceful repose which presides over animal life on the level
+heights, are the constant aggressions and combats which prevail in the
+forest regions. There the strong attack the weak, and the cunning
+inveigle the unwary: strength and intelligence, caution and instinct,
+are unceasingly in active operation. The variegated forms and colors
+which meet the eye, and the multifarious cries and tones which resound
+through the woods, form, altogether, the most singular contrast. The
+gold-feathered colibri hums lightly through the air, soaring over the
+heavy, sombre-colored tapir. The sprightly singing-bird pours forth his
+melodious chants amidst the thick foliage of the aged trees, whilst the
+fierce ounce, prowling for his prey, growls as he passes over their
+enormous, spreading roots. Slowly do the eye and the ear learn to
+distinguish individuals in the vast mass of apparent chaotic confusion,
+and to recognise quickly fleeting forms, or distant resounding sounds.
+
+The whole of the animal world is here developed to the view, and it
+would be difficult to assign the predominance to any one class. Yet,
+perhaps, the variegated feathered tribe is relatively most extensively
+represented. The number of the mammalia is also important. They are
+seldom seen by the hunter during the day, but twilight draws them from
+their hiding-places.
+
+Troops of monkeys skip from tree to tree, looking timidly around, and
+uttering mournful howls. Among them are swarms of the black marimonda
+(_Ateles_), with slender long arms and red-brown or black faces; in some
+the faces are encircled with white hair (_Ateles marginatus_, Geoff.),
+which gives them a striking resemblance to an old negro. Next is seen a
+group of silver-grey monkeys (_Lagothrix Humboldtii_, Geoff.), stalking
+over heaps of broken branches and twigs in search of a resting-place.
+These monkeys, which are the largest in South America, are about three
+feet high, and are bold and vicious. When wounded they take a position
+of defence against the hunter, struggling, and uttering loud cries, upon
+which their companions hasten down from the trees to assist them. But
+soon a short stifled cry is heard: it is the cry of mortal convulsion.
+That sound drives them instantly back, and they disperse in wild flight.
+The sly sayu ventures to approach the dwellings of men, where he
+plunders maize fields with incredible dexterity. The delicate
+silky-haired monkey, shivering at every cool breeze or shower of rain,
+and starting at the slightest noise, creeps for shelter into the
+thicket, where he lies peeping with his penetrating eyes in the
+direction of the apprehended danger.
+
+At sunset swarms of bats flutter through field and forest in all
+directions, and greedily devour the insects which in the twilight awaken
+to full activity. Some of these bats (_Phyllostoma hastatum_, Geoff.)
+are remarkable for their expanse of wing, which measures nearly two
+feet. Others are distinguished for ugliness and for their offensive
+smell. These latter fly into the Indian huts at night and greatly annoy
+the inhabitants, who cannot get rid of them by fire or smoke, or any
+other means, until at the midnight hour they retire of their own accord.
+Not less troublesome are the leaf-nosed bats (_Phyllostoma_), which
+attack both man and beast. This bat rubs up the skin of his victim, from
+which he sucks the blood. The domestic animals suffer greatly from the
+nocturnal attacks of these bats, and many are destroyed by the
+exhaustion consequent on the repeated blood-sucking. The blood drawn by
+the bat itself does not exceed a few ounces; but if, when satisfied, it
+drops down to the ground, or flies away, the wound continues to bleed
+for a long time, and in the morning the animal is often found in a very
+weak condition, and covered with blood. One of my mules, on which a
+leaf-nosed bat made a nightly attack, was only saved by having his back
+rubbed with an ointment made of spirits of camphor, soap and petroleum.
+The blood-suckers have such an aversion to the smell of this ointment
+that on its application they ceased to approach the mule. These bats are
+very mischievous in the plantations of the forests, where beasts of
+burden and horned cattle are exposed to their attacks. Whether they
+venture to assail man has been a much disputed question. Several
+travellers declare that they do not. I may, however, mention a case
+which occurred within my own knowledge. A bat (_Ph. erythromos_, Tsch.)
+fastened on the nose of an Indian lying intoxicated in a plantation, and
+sucked so much blood that it was unable to fly away. The slight wound
+was followed by such severe inflammation and swelling that the features
+of the Cholo were not recognisable.
+
+Many beasts of prey, and among them some of formidable strength and
+fierceness, make havoc among the other animals of the forests. In the
+lofty Montanas the black bear (_U. frugilegus_, Tsch.) roams as wild as
+his fellow-depredator of the Cordillera. He often enters the maize
+fields of the Indians, breaks the stalks of the plants and drags the
+green tops away to his hole. When this bear cannot obtain his customary
+vegetable food, consisting chiefly of the fruits of a pandanea
+(_Phytelephas_), he watches for the deer and wild boars, or attacks the
+oxen employed to turn the machinery in the sugar-mills: he has even
+been known to assail solitary travellers. The lively coatis traverse the
+forests in flocks. They collect round the roots of trees and search for
+the larvae of insects; light-footed, they climb up bush and tree to find
+birds' nests, and feast on the eggs and the young. With a monotonous
+howl, not unlike that made by some dogs on a clear moonlight night, the
+yellow-breasted glutton (_Galictis barbara_, Wieg.), the omeyro of the
+Indians, announces his presence. But the most fierce of all these wild
+forest animals are those of the feline class. The spotless dark-grey
+yaguarundi, not much larger than the wild cat of Europe, pursues all
+kinds of birds, particularly the pigeon, the partridge, and the
+penelope. The oscollo (_F. celidogaster_, Tem.), the uturunca (_F.
+pardalis_, L.), and the long-tailed, yellowish-grey tiger-cat (_F.
+macrourura_, Pr. M.), all lie in wait, not only for the weaker mammalia,
+but sometimes they even venture into the plantations and kill dogs and
+poultry. The maneless Mexican Lion (the puma) roams through the upper
+regions of the forest, where he has almost undisputed hunting-ground. He
+fearlessly assails victims who cannot effectually defend themselves,
+such as the horse, the mule, and the ass, and he tears large pieces of
+flesh from their ribs; but he does not venture to meddle with oxen. He
+shuns men, and in the forest he even flies from the unarmed Indian. I
+fired at a very large puma, which immediately fled, roaring loudly.
+When severely wounded and driven into a corner, this animal frequently
+commences a combat of despair, and sometimes kills the hunter. The
+puma measures in length about four feet, and in height more than two
+feet. More direful than any of the felines mentioned above is the
+sanguinary ounce,[81] which possesses vast strength, and is of a most
+savage disposition. Though the favorite haunts of this animal are the
+expansive Pajonales, yet he frequently takes up his abode in the
+vicinity of villages and plantations, spreading terror among the
+inhabitants. Far from being intimidated at the sight of men, he often
+attacks individuals, and when pressed by hunger is not afraid, even
+in broad daylight, to slip into the forest villages in order to carry
+off food, and the booty, when once seized, is not easily recovered.
+
+An amusing example of this occurred in the Montana of Vitoc. An Indian
+one night heard his only pig squeaking loudly, as if in pain. He
+hastened to the door of his hut to see what was the matter, and he
+discovered that an ounce had seized the pig by the head, and was
+carrying it off. The Cholo, who determined to make an effort to recover
+his property, seized the pig by the hind legs, and endeavored to drag it
+from the grasp of the robber. This contest was kept up for some time,
+the ounce, with his eyes glaring in the darkness, holding fast the head
+of the pig, and the Indian pulling it hard by the legs. At length the
+Indian's wife came to the door of the hut with a lighted fagot, and the
+scared ounce, with terrible howlings, slowly retired to the forest. In
+general the Indians have a great dread of these animals, and seldom
+venture singly into the parts they frequent. The ounce hunter is the
+only one who ventures to approach them. He is armed with a long spear,
+with which he gives the ferocious animal a death-blow. He lets the ounce
+come within a few paces of him without making the least show either of
+flight or attack. If, however, the stroke he aims does not immediately
+reach the seat of life, the hunter, in general, becomes the victim of
+his bold attempt. Before he can stand on his defence, the wounded ounce
+drags him to the ground, and tears the flesh from his bones.
+
+Sometimes the villagers collect their dogs together for a general hunt.
+They drive the ounce into a place from whence there is no escape, or
+often up a tree, where they shoot him with long arrows sent from their
+bows or blow-tubes. In a few places snares are laid, or large holes are
+dug, and a sharp-pointed stake is stuck in the middle, covered with
+stalks and branches of trees, on which the bait is laid. The ounce is,
+however, too cunning to be easily caught in traps, and it is only when
+pressed by hunger that he can be tempted by a bait. In some districts
+the ounces have increased so greatly, and done so much damage, that the
+natives have been compelled to remove and settle in other places. I need
+only refer to the Quebrada of Mayunmarca, in the Montana of Huanta,
+near the road to Anco. There once stood the little village of Mayumarca,
+which has been abandoned for more than a hundred years, as it was found
+that the jaguars annually decimated the inhabitants; this Quebrada is
+still in such bad repute that not a single Indian will venture into it.
+
+There is a black variety of the ounce, by many erroneously regarded as a
+distinct species. It has the identical marks of the common jaguar, or
+ounce, only its color is a dark, blackish-brown, whereby the whole of
+the black spots are rendered indistinct. On the lower banks of the
+Ucayali and the Maranon this dark variety is more frequently met with
+than in the higher forests; in the Montanas of Huanta and Urubamba it is
+also not uncommon. It is upon the whole larger, stronger, and more
+daring than the lighter kind, and I have actually seen many black
+skins which exceeded the usual length; but of specific distinctions
+there is no indication. The superstitious Indians assign extraordinary
+powers to everything that departs from the common course; the black
+ounce is, accordingly, supposed to possess singular properties. The
+yana chinca holds a prominent place in the religious ceremonies of
+some of the Indian races.
+
+Turning from these fierce natives of the forest, we will now take a
+glimpse at the peaceful inhabitants of those umbrageous regions. In
+the hollow stems of trees, or among their canopied branches, are found
+the timid marsupial animals (_Did. impavida_, and _noctivaga_, Tsch.).
+These animals remain in obscure holes until the sun sinks beneath the
+horizon, when they slip out in search of insects and fruit. Not
+unfrequently they penetrate into the slightly guarded Indian huts,
+creeping into every corner, until at last they are caught in traps
+baited with pieces of banana and pine-apple. The lofty
+_Terebinthaceae_, with their walnut-like fruit, are inhabited by
+swarms of squirrels, which strongly remind the European of his own
+woods. Numbers of the mouse family, from the small tree-mouse
+(_Drymomys parvulus_, Tsch.) to the large, loathsome, spinous rat
+(_Echinomys leptosoma_, Wagn.) swarm over all the Montanas, and love
+to approximate to the dwellings of man. These animals destroy the
+gathered harvest, and even in these remote regions they become a
+plague. It is a striking fact, that certain animals are almost
+inseparable from man. They keep with him, or follow him wherever he
+settles. The mouse genus is one of these. On the coast, mice are not
+the same as on the mountains, and in the forests they are again
+different. Everywhere they leave their original dwelling-places, which
+they exchange for an abode with man. As the mouse and the rat attack
+the gathered fruits of the earth, the agouti preys on those yet
+standing in the field. These animals are seldom found in the depths of
+the forest, but more frequently on its edge near the chacras of the
+Indians. Shortly before sunset they leave the thickets, and stealthily
+repair to the maize, yucca, and anana fields, where they scratch up the
+root and eat the grain and fruit; but the slightest noise drives them
+back to their holes. In the deeper recesses of the forest resounds the
+monotonous, drawling cry of the sloth. Here we have a symbol of life
+under the utmost degree of listlessness, and of the greatest
+insensibility in a state of languid repose. This emblem of misery fixes
+itself on an almost leafless bough, and there remains defenceless; a
+ready prey to any assailant. Better defended is the scale-covered
+armadillo, with his coat of mail. Towards evening he burrows deep holes
+in the earth, and searches for the larvae of insects, or he ventures out
+of the forest, and visits the yucca fields, where he digs up the
+well-flavored roots. The ant-eater rakes up with his long curved claws
+the crowded resorts of ants, stretches out his long, spiral, and
+adhesive tongue, into the midst of the moving swarm, and draws it back
+covered with a multitude of crawling insects.
+
+In the soft marshy grounds, or in the damp shady recesses of the
+forests, the heavy tapir reposes during the heat of the day; but when
+the fresh coolness of evening sets in, he roves through the forest,
+tears the tender twigs from the bushes, or seeks food in the
+grass-covered Pajonales. Sometimes a multitude of tapirs sally from the
+forests into the cultivated fields, to the great alarm of the Indians. A
+broad furrow marks the tract along which they have passed, and the
+plants they encounter in their progress are trampled down or devoured.
+Such a visit is particularly fatal to the coca fields; for the tapirs
+are extremely fond of the leaves of the low-growing coca plant, and they
+often, in one night, destroy a coca field which has cost a poor Indian
+the hard labor of a year.
+
+Flocks of the umbilical hog, or peccary, traverse the level Montanas. If
+one of them is attacked by the hunter, a whole troop falls furiously on
+him, and it is only by promptly climbing up a tree that he can escape;
+then, whizzing and grunting, they surround the stem, and with their
+snouts turn up the earth round the root, as if intending to pull down
+the tree and so get at their enemy. The stag lurks in the thicket to
+withdraw from the eyes of the greedy ounce; but towards evening he
+leaves his hiding place, and sometimes strays beyond the boundary of the
+forest; he ventures into the maize fields of the plantations, where he
+tarries until night is far advanced.
+
+The same diversity of nature and habits is seen in the numerous hosts of
+birds that inhabit the leafy canopies of the forest. On the loftiest
+trees, or on detached rocks, eagles, kites, and falcons, build their
+eyries. The most formidable of these birds of prey, both for boldness
+and strength, the _Morphnus harpyia_, Cab., darts down on the largest
+animals, and fears not to encounter the fiercest inhabitants of the
+forest. The owl (_Noctua_, _Scops_, _Strix_), and the goat-milker
+(_Caprimulgus_, _Hydropsalis_, _Chordiles_), fly with softly flapping
+wings to their hunting quarters to surprise their victims while asleep.
+In the hilly parts of the Montanas the black ox-bird (_Cephalopterus
+ornatus_, Geoff.), the _Toropishu_ of the Indians, fills the forest with
+his distant bellow, similar to the roaring of a bull. The _Tunqui_[82]
+inhabits the same district. This bird is of the size of a cock; the body
+is bright red, but the wings are black. The head is surmounted by a tuft
+of red feathers, beneath which the orange bill projects with a slight
+curve. It lives sociably with other birds in thickets, or among Cinchona
+trees, the fruit of which is part of its food. Its harsh cry resembles
+the grunt of the hog, and forms a striking contrast to its beautiful
+plumage. Numberless fly-catchers and shrikes (_Muscicapidae_ and
+_Laniadae_) hover on tree and bush, watching for the passing insects,
+which they snatch up with extraordinary dexterity. Finches twitter on
+the summits of the loftiest trees beyond the reach of the hunter's shot:
+they are distinguished, like the _Ampelidae_, who, however, live amongst
+the lower bushes, by the lively and almost dazzling colors of their
+feathers. In modest plumage of cinnamon-brown, with head and neck of
+dark olive, the _Organista_[83] raises, in the most woody parts of the
+forest, her enchanting song, which is usually the prognostic of an
+approaching storm. The tender, melancholy strains and the singular
+clearness of the innumerable modulations charm the ear of the astonished
+traveller, who, as if arrested by an invisible power, stops to listen to
+the syren, unmindful of the danger of the threatening storm. On old
+decayed stumps of trees the busy creeper[84] and the variegated
+woodpecker are seen pecking the insects from under the loose bark, or by
+their tapping bring them out of their concealed crevices; while the
+red-tailed potter-bird (_Opetiorynchus ruficandus_, Pr. Max.) builds his
+dwelling of potter's clay, or loam, as firmly as if it were destined to
+last for ever. The pouched starlings[85] hang their nests, often four or
+five feet long, on the slender branches of trees, where they swing to
+and fro with the slightest breath of wind. Like a dazzling flash of
+colored light the colibri (humming-bird) appears and disappears. No
+combination of gorgeous coloring can exceed that which is presented in
+the plumage of the golden-tailed humming or fly-bird (_Trochilus
+chrysurus_, Cuv.) which haunts the warm primeval forests, but it is
+still more frequently found in the pure atmosphere of the ceja-girded
+Montanas. The silky cuckoo (_Trogon heliothrix_, Tsch.) retires into the
+thickest masses of foliage, from which its soft rose-colored plumage
+peeps out like a flower. The cry of the voracious chuquimbis[86]
+accompanies the traveller from his first steps in the Montanas to his
+entrance into the primeval forests, where he finds their relative, _Dios
+te de_.[87] This bird accompanies its significant cry by throwing back
+its head and making a kind of rocking movement of its body. The Indians,
+who are always disposed to connect superstitious ideas with the natural
+objects they see around them, believe that some great misfortune will
+befall any one who may shoot this bird, because it utters the sacred
+word, _Dios_. Long trains of green parrots fill the air with their noisy
+chattering. One kind of these birds (_Ps. mercenarius_, Tsch.) is
+remarkable for regular migrations. Every morning they sally forth in
+flocks from the upper to the lower forests, where they pass the day, and
+they regularly return before sunset to their roosting-places. From year
+to year these parrots leave their night quarters daily at the same hour,
+and return with equal punctuality before sunset. This regularity of
+departing and returning has caused the natives to give them the name of
+_Jornaleros_ (day-laborers). From the depth of the forests sounds often
+arise which resemble human voices, and the astonished hunter then
+believes that he is in the vicinity of his companions, or, perhaps, of
+hostile Indians. He eagerly listens, and it is only when well acquainted
+with the sounds of the winged inhabitants of the woods that he can
+recognise the melancholy tones of the wood-pigeons (_C. infuscata_,
+Licht.; _C. melancholica_, Tsch.). When day begins to depart, groups of
+the pheasant-like Hachahuallpa[88] assemble, and with the cry of _Ven
+aca_, _Ven aca_,[89] summon their distant companions.
+
+Not only are the trees of the forests peopled with myriads of birds,
+but the earth has also its feathered inhabitants, who seldom soar
+above the level of the soil. They build their nests among the roots
+and fallen branches, and depend for movement more on their feet than
+on their wings. Among those members of the winged tribe, who show no
+disposition to soar into the regions of air, we find here the
+turcassa, a pigeon with richly-shaded plumage; the beautifully
+speckled toothed fowl (_Odontophorus speciosus_, Tsch.), and
+short-tailed grass fowl, or crake,[90] whose flesh when cooked is
+delicately white and finely flavored. In marshy places and on the
+slimy banks of rivers, the jabiru (_Mycteria americana_, L.) loves to
+wade, together with the rose-colored spoon-bill (_Platalea ajaja_,
+L.); the fish-devouring ibis (_Tantalus loculator_, L.), the
+curved-billed snipe (_Rhynchoea Hilaerea_, Val.), the party-colored
+cranes, plovers, land-rails, shrites, and even sea-swallows.[91] In
+the rivers there are ducks: these birds are, perhaps, carried down by
+the currents from the Andes, or, possibly, they fly in great trains
+from the inner waters of Brazil.
+
+Of the amphibia in the principal forests of Peru, only the great
+fresh-water tortoise (_Hydraspis expansa_, Fitz.) is useful to the
+natives. On the sandy banks of rivers this animal buries its eggs, from
+which the Indians extract oil: its flesh, also, supplies well-flavored
+food. All other animals of this class are objects of terror, or at least
+of aversion, to the Indians. In the warm sand of the river banks, lies
+the lazy caiman.[92] He keeps his jaws wide open, only closing them to
+swallow the innumerable flies which he catches on his tongue. To the
+helplessness of these animals when on land, the natives have to be
+thankful that they are not the most dangerous scourges of the forest: in
+water, their boldness and swiftness of motion are fearful. The number of
+lizards here is not great, nor do they attain so considerable a size as
+in other equatorial regions. The serpents are to be feared, and on
+approaching them, it is not easy to decide at the first view whether
+they belong to a poisonous or innoxious species. In the forests, where
+the fallen leaves lie in thick, moist layers, the foot of the hunter
+sinks deep at every step. Multitudes of venomous amphibia are hatched
+in the half-putrescent vegetable matter, and he who inadvertently steps
+on one of these animals may consider himself uncommonly fortunate if he
+can effect his retreat without being wounded. But it is not merely in
+these places, which seem assigned by nature for their abode, that
+loathsome reptiles are found: they creep between the roots of large
+trees, under the thickly interwoven brushwood, on the open grass plots,
+and in the maize and sugar-cane fields of the Indians: nay, they crawl
+even into their huts, and most fortunate is it for the inhabitants of
+those districts that the number of the venomous, compared with the
+innoxious reptiles, is comparatively small. Of the poisonous serpents,
+only a few kinds are known whose bite is attended with very dangerous
+consequences. The _Miuamaru_, or _Jergon_ (_Lachesis picta_, Tsch.), is,
+at most, three feet long, with a broad, heart-shaped head, and a thick
+upper lip. It haunts the higher forests, while in those lower down his
+place is filled by his no less fearful relative _Flammon_ (_Lachesis
+rhombeata_, Prince Max.), which is six or seven feet in length. These
+serpents are usually seen coiled almost in a circle, the head thrust
+forward, and the fierce, treacherous-looking eyes glaring around,
+watching for prey, upon which they pounce with the swiftness of an
+arrow; then, coiling themselves up again, they look tranquilly on the
+death-struggle of the victim. It would appear that these amphibia have
+a perfect consciousness of the dreadful effect of their poisonous
+weapon, for they use it when they are neither attacked nor threatened,
+and they wound not merely animals fit for their food, but all that
+come within their reach. More formidable than the two snakes just
+described, but happily much less common, is the brown, ten-inch long
+viper.[93] It is brown, with two rows of black circular spots. The
+effect of its bite is so rapid, that it kills a strong man in two or
+three minutes. So convinced are the natives of its inevitably fatal
+result, that they never seek any remedy; but immediately on receiving
+the wound, lay themselves down to die. In the Montanas of Pangoa this
+viper abounds more than in any other district, and never without
+apprehension do the Cholos undertake their annual journey for the coca
+harvest, as they fear to fall victims to the bite of this viper. The
+warning sound of the rattlesnake is seldom heard in the hot Montanas,
+and never in the higher regions.
+
+Nature, who in almost all things has established an equilibrium,
+supplies the natives with remedies against the bite of the serpent. One
+of the cures most generally resorted to is the root of the amarucachu
+(_Polianthes tuberosa_, L.), cut into slips and laid upon the wound.
+Another is the juice of the creeping plant called vejuco de huaco
+(_Mikania Huaco_, Kth.), which is already very widely celebrated. This
+latter remedy was discovered by the negroes of the equatorial province,
+Choco. They remarked that a sparrow-hawk, called the _huaco_, picked up
+snakes for its principal food, and when bitten by one it flew to the
+vejuco and ate some of the leaves. At length the Indians thought of
+making the experiment on themselves, and when bitten by serpents they
+drank the expressed juice of the leaves of the vejuco, and constantly
+found that the wound was thereby rendered harmless. The use of this
+excellent plant soon became general; and in some places the belief of
+the preservative power of the vejuco juice was carried so far that men
+in good health were inoculated with it. In this process some spoonfuls
+of the expressed fluid are drunk, and afterwards some drops are put into
+incisions made in the hands, feet, and breast. The fluid is rubbed into
+the wounds by fresh vejuco leaves. After this operation, according to
+the testimony of persons worthy of credit, the bite of the poisonous
+snake fails for a long time to have any evil effect. Besides the two
+plants mentioned above, many others are used with more or less favorable
+results. The inhabitants of the Montana also resort to other means,
+which are too absurd to be detailed here; yet their medicines are often
+of benefit, for their operation is violently reactive. They usually
+produce the effect of repeated emetics, and cause great perspiration.
+There is much difference in the modes of external treatment of the
+wound, and burning is often employed. I saw an Indian apply to his
+wife's foot, which had been bitten, a plaster, consisting of moist
+gunpowder, pulverised sulphur, and finely-chopped tobacco, mixed up
+together. He laid this over the wounded part and set fire to it. This
+application, in connexion with one of the nausea-exciting remedies taken
+inwardly, had a successful result.
+
+Innoxious snakes[94] wind on tendrilled climbing plants, or lie like
+necklaces of coral on the brown decayed leaves (_Elap. affinis_, Fitz.).
+Where the branches of rivers enter the gloomy forests and form little
+narrow lagunes, over which the high trees spread in vaulted cupolas
+almost impervious to the light of day, there dwells the powerful giant
+snake (_Eunectes murinus_, Wagl.), called by the Indians, in their
+figurative language, _yacumaman_, "mother of the waters." Stretched in
+listless repose, or winding round the stem of an old tree, bathing her
+tail in the cool lagune, she watches wistfully for the animals of the
+forest who come to the waters to quench their thirst. Whilst she gazes
+at her distant prey, the fascinating power of her eyes seems to subdue
+the trembling victim, and, unable even to attempt escape, he falls an
+easy sacrifice.
+
+The amphibia of the frog species, which lie concealed in silent repose
+during the day, raise, after sunset, their far-sounding voices. The
+violet colored throat-bladder (_Cystignathus silvestris_, Tsch.)
+maintains his loud, uniform croak beneath the bushes, or penetrates into
+the huts of the inhabitants. The _trapichero_, or sugar-mill frog, is a
+large species, almost half a foot in length. Its croak resembles very
+much the grating sound caused by the working of a sugar mill, for which
+reason the natives have given it the name of trapichero, or the
+_sugar-miller_. The croaking of these frogs, whose manifold tones blend
+together in confused union, augments not a little the distressing
+dreariness of a forest night.
+
+Of the numerous species of insects which swarm in these regions, few are
+remarkable for beauty; but many fix attention by their peculiar habits.
+The bites and stings of numbers of them are very dangerous, and it
+requires much caution to guard against their attacks.
+
+Variegated butterflies flutter noiselessly among the spreading branches
+of the trees, or sun themselves on the warm masses of fallen leaves. The
+most remarkable of these butterflies is the large atlas, whose
+brilliant blue tints shine out with lustrous radiance in the dim light
+of the forest. Along the banks of rivers, and especially in hot marshy
+spots, small musquitoes swarm. The bite of this animal produces an
+intolerable burning sensation, and often causes considerable
+inflammation. But more troublesome, and also much more numerous, are the
+stinging-flies (_sancudos_). On my first arrival in the Montana, I lay
+several days exceedingly ill in consequence of severe swelling of the
+head and limbs, caused by the bites of these insects. To the inhabitant
+of the forest the sancudos are an incessant torment. In no season of the
+year, in no hour of the day or night, is there any respite from their
+attacks. Rubbing the body with unctuous substances, together with the
+caustic juices of certain plants, and at night enclosing one's self in a
+tent made of _tucuyo_ (cotton cloth), or palm-tree bast, are the only
+means of protection against their painful stings. The clothes commonly
+worn are not sufficient, for they are perforated by the long sting of
+the larger species, particularly of the much-dreaded
+_huir-pasimi-sancudo_ (Lip-gnat). Regularly every evening at twilight
+fresh swarms of these mischievous insects make their appearance.
+
+The ticks (_ixodes_) are a class of insects destined by nature for the
+suction of plants; but they often forsake trees, shrubs, and grasses, to
+fasten on man and other animals. With their long sharp stings they make
+punctures, in which they insert their heads, and thereby occasion very
+painful sores. These insects appear to have no preference for any
+particular class of animals. They are often found on the hair of dead
+mammalia, and among the feathers of birds which have been shot; even the
+toad, the frog, and the scaly lizard are not spared by them. Much more
+troublesome than these insects are the antanas, which are not visible to
+the naked eye. They penetrate the surface of the skin, and introduce
+themselves beneath it, where they propagate with incredible rapidity;
+and when some thousands of them are collected together, a blackish spot
+appears, which quickly spreads. If these insects are not destroyed when
+they first introduce themselves into the punctures, they multiply with
+incalculable rapidity, destroying the skin, and all the tender parts in
+contact with it. Washing with brandy, which is often found to be a
+remedy against the less mischievous isancos, is not sufficient for the
+removal of the antanas. For their extirpation the only effectual remedy
+is frequently bathing the part affected with a mixture of spirits of
+wine and corrosive sublimate.
+
+Who can describe the countless myriads of ants which swarm through the
+forests? Every shrub is full of creeping life, and the decayed
+vegetation affords harbor for some peculiar kinds of these insects.
+The large yellow _puca-cici_ is seen in multitudes in the open air,
+and it even penetrates into the dwellings. This insect does not bite,
+but its crawling creates great irritation to the skin. The small black
+_yana-cici_, on the contrary, inflicts most painful punctures. A very
+mischievous species of stinging ant is the black _sunchiron_. This
+insect inflicts a puncture with a long sting, which he carries in the
+rear of his body. The wound is exceedingly painful, and is sometimes
+attended by dangerous consequences. My travelling companion, C. Klee,
+being stung by one of these ants, suffered such severe pain and
+fever, that he was for a short while delirious. A few nights
+afterwards, a similar attack was made on myself during sleep. It
+suddenly awoke me, and caused me to start up with a convulsive
+spring. I must confess that I never, in my whole life, experienced
+such severe pain as I did at that moment.
+
+A most remarkable phenomenon is exhibited by the swarms of the species
+called the _naui-huacan-cici_,[95] the great _wandering ant_. They
+appear suddenly in trains of countless myriads, and proceed forward in
+a straight direction, without stopping. The small, the weak, and the
+neuters are placed in the centre, while the large and the strong flank
+the army, and look out for prey. These swarms, called by the natives
+_Chacus_, sometimes enter a hut and clear it of all insects, amphibia,
+and other disagreeable guests. This work being accomplished, they again
+form themselves into a long train, and move onwards. The united force
+of these small creatures is vast, and there is no approach to the
+fabulous, when it is related that not only snakes, but also large
+mammalia, such as agoutis, armadillas, &c., on being surprised by
+them, are soon killed. On the light dry parts of the higher Montanas we
+find the large conical dwellings of the termes so firmly built, that
+they are impenetrable even to rifle shot. They sometimes stand singly,
+sometimes together, in long lines. In form they strongly resemble the
+simple, conical Puna huts.
+
+Before leaving the animal kingdom of these forest regions, which I have
+here sketched only briefly and fragmentally, I must notice two insects,
+the _Cucaracha_ and the _Chilicabra_, species of the Cockroach
+(_Blatta_). They are exceedingly numerous and troublesome. The
+Cucaracha, which more particularly infests the deep regions of the
+forest, is an inch and a half long, and above half an inch broad; it is
+reddish brown, with a yellow neck. The Chilicabra, though smaller, is
+more mischievous, by reason of its greater numbers. They settle in the
+huts, where they destroy provisions, gnaw clothes, get into beds, and
+into the dishes at meal time. These insects defy every precaution that
+can be taken against their tormenting attacks. Luckily, nature has
+provided enemies for their destruction. Among these is a small reddish
+yellow ant, called by the Indians, the _Pucchu-cici_, a useful member
+of the ant family, for it pursues and destroys the mischievous
+cockroaches. There is also a very elegant little bird, called the
+_Cucarachero_ (_Troglodytes audax_, Tsch.) which wages war against
+these insects. On seizing one of them it first bites off the head, then
+devours the body, and throws away the tough wings. These operations
+being completed, it hops to the nearest bush, and tunes its melodious
+song, the sounds of which closely resemble the words "_Acabe la
+tarea!_" a name which the Indians give to this bird.[96] I could yet
+fill many pages with descriptions of insects which are dangerous or
+troublesome, and among them are included the julus, measuring six
+inches in length, the large black and red scorpion, not forgetting the
+numerous poisonous wasps and the cicadas. However, those which have
+been noticed will suffice to afford an idea of the ever-active
+movements of animal life in the forests.
+
+Willingly would I take a view of the vegetation of the virgin forests,
+and attempt to sketch its progressive developments and alternations
+from the hilly Montanas of the eastern declivities of the Andes to the
+humid level banks of the larger rivers; but I do not feel myself
+competent to undertake a labor to which former travellers intimately
+acquainted with the world of plants have already rendered full
+justice.[97] Being devoted to the study of zoology, and,
+unfortunately, too little familiar with botany, I have confined myself
+to a description of the general impression produced by the luxuriant
+growth of the soil, without entering into the individualities of the
+vegetation. In the more highly situated Montanas, where the cinchona
+is found in the place of its nativity, the gigantic orchidae, the
+numerous fern plants, the tree-like nettles, the wonderful bignonias,
+and the numerous, impenetrable complications of climbing plants,
+powerfully rivet the attention of the observer. Lower down, in the
+lighter forest soil, amidst numerous shrubs and climbers, the eye
+delights to dwell on the manifold forms of the stately palm, on the
+terebinthaceae, on the thickly-leaved balsam-yielding leguminosae, on
+the luxuriant laurels, on the pandaneae or the large-leaved heliconias,
+and on the solaneae, with their gigantic blossoms and thousands of
+flowers. Descending still further, the flat lands of the forest assume
+a dark and gloomy aspect. The massive foliage of trees overarches
+stems which are the growth of centuries, and form a canopy almost
+impervious to the light of day. On the slimy soil no small shrub
+uprears its head, no flowering plant unfolds its blossom. The mighty
+trees stand alone, and erect in rows, like gravestones in a
+churchyard; and the child of darkness--the rapidly-shooting
+mushroom--finds genial nurture on the warm humid earth.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 79: Bark-gatherers. The Peruvians call the bark
+_cascarilla_, and they point out the distinctions of a great number of
+species and varieties.]
+
+[Footnote 80: From Cuzco, the ancient residence of the Incas. It was
+discovered by the French chemists Corriol and Pelletier, in the
+Cascarilla which is shipped in Arica; hence this alkaloid is also
+called _Aricin_.]
+
+[Footnote 81: The Indian name for this animal is _Chaque chinca_. The
+black variety _Yana chinca_ is called by the Spaniards _Tigre_ or
+_Yaguar_.]
+
+[Footnote 82: _Rupicola peruviana_, Ch. Dum. The color of the female
+is reddish brown, and she is named by the natives _Tunqui mulato_; the
+male is called _Tunqui Colorado_. In some parts of the Montana the
+_Cephalopterus ornatus_ is called _Yana Tunqui_. Thus, even the
+Indians have observed the relationship of these birds, which, classed
+according to our system of natural history, actually belong to one
+family, the _Ampelidae_. Their affinity is indicated very correctly by
+the Indian name.]
+
+[Footnote 83: The Organistas of Peru, Brazil, and Guiana, &c.,
+mentioned by so many travellers, all belong to the family of the
+Troglodytinae, to the two genera, _Troglodytes_, Vieill, and
+_Cyphorhinus_, Cab. The Peruvian Organista above alluded to, is the
+_Troglodytes leucophrys_, Tsch. In Guiana it appears to be the
+_Cyphorhinus carinatus_, Cab.]
+
+[Footnote 84: _Xenops_, _Anabates_, _Dendrocolaptes_, and many other
+kinds of _Capito_ and _Picus_.]
+
+[Footnote 85: These are different kinds of _Cassicus_ and _Icterus_.]
+
+[Footnote 86: Kinds of Pteroglossus. Those most frequently met with in
+the Montanas are the _Pt. atrogularis_, Sturm; _Pt. coeruleocinctus_,
+Tsch. (_Aulacorhynchus_, Orb.); and _Pt. Derbianus_, Gould.]
+
+[Footnote 87: _Dios te de_ signifies _May God give it thee_. The sound
+which is interpreted, _Dios te de_ resembles very much the cry of most
+of the Toucans, or pepper-eaters.]
+
+[Footnote 88: Several kinds of Penelope.]
+
+[Footnote 89: The cry of this bird closely resembles the Spanish words
+_Ven aca_ (Come hither).]
+
+[Footnote 90: Seven species of Crypturus.]
+
+[Footnote 91: _Sterna erythrorhynchos_, Prince Max., _St.
+magnirostris_, Licht.]
+
+[Footnote 92: _Champsa fissipes, sclerops et nigra_, Wagl.]
+
+[Footnote 93: _Echidna ocellata_, Tsch. This is the only species of the
+viper family belonging to South America, as yet known.]
+
+[Footnote 94: _Sphenocephalus melanogenys_, Tsch.; _Lygophis Reginae_,
+Wagl.; _L. taeniurus_, Tsch.; _L. elegans_, Tsch.]
+
+[Footnote 95: From _naui_, the eye, _huacay_, to cry, and _cici_, the
+ant;--so called by the Indians, because the pain of its numerous stings
+brings tears into the eyes.]
+
+[Footnote 96: "_Acabe la tarea_" may be translated "_My task is
+finished_." But the Indians are not very consistent in their
+interpretations of the song of the _Cucarachero_; for in some districts,
+they contend that it repeats the words--_Casa te Soltera_, "_Go and get
+married, Maiden_."]
+
+[Footnote 97: A. von Humboldt, von Martius, and, in particular, Poeppig,
+who has published a narrative of his journey through Peru, distinguished
+by its precision, and written in a style so elegant and simple that its
+perusal affords the utmost interest and pleasure.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+Montana of San Carlos de Vitoc--Villages--Hacienda of Maraynioc--the
+Coca Plant--Mode of Cultivating and Gathering it--Mastication of
+Coca--Evil Consequences of its excessive Use--Its Nutritious
+Qualities--Indian Superstitions connected with the Coca
+Plant--Suggestions for its Introduction in the European
+Navies--Fabulous animal called the Carbunculo--The Chunchos--Missions
+to Cerro de la Sal--Juan Santos Atahuallpa--The Franciscan
+Monks--Depopulation of Vitoc.
+
+
+The Montana of San Carlos de Vitoc is, without exception, one of the
+most interesting districts of Peru. It has on the one side, and at a
+short distance, the populous villages of the Sierra, and on the other it
+borders on the forests, through which the wild Indians range in their
+hunting excursions. It was formerly the principal key to the missionary
+stations of the Pampa del Sacramento, the Chanchamayo, Perenc, and Upper
+Ucayali. It is only twenty leagues distant from Tarma, from whence the
+road leads through the fertile valley Acobamba, to Palca. Eastward of
+the latter place are the ruins of a fort, which in former times must
+have been a place of considerable importance. The wild Indians have
+repeatedly made hostile sallies from their forests, and it is only by
+this bulwark, which, with four small field-pieces, completely defends
+the narrow valley, that they have been checked in their advance on
+Tarma. An exceedingly steep path runs about a league and a half up the
+acclivity; then, becoming somewhat more level, it extends to the base of
+the crest, which at that part is about 14,000 feet above the level of
+the sea. Here the aspect of the Andes is by no means so imposing as that
+of the Cordillera, for the glaciers and steep rocky summits are wanting.
+The highest peaks rise only about 200 feet above the crest. As in the
+Cordillera, the eastern declivity inclines much more gently than the
+western, but the road is marshy, and is interspersed with large
+hollows, into which the mules often fall and are killed. After passing
+over the Andes, two leagues further, we come to the hacienda
+Maraynioc, where numerous herds of cattle are kept. Round the hacienda
+there are potato plantations, and the potatoes reared here are so
+excellent, that they are celebrated throughout the whole Sierra. Every
+morning the sky is obscured by heavy clouds; it rains regularly two days
+in the week, and there are frequent falls of snow; yet notwithstanding
+this excessive humidity, a bad harvest is an event never to be
+apprehended. The cultivation of maize is, however, found to be
+impracticable here, for soon after germination the ears rot. A small
+stream flows past the hacienda, and after a course of about three
+leagues, it reaches the Montana de Vitoc. Formerly, the road ran close
+along the bank of this stream, but in consequence of the repeated
+depopulation of Vitoc, it became neglected, and at length impassable.
+The way is now over the Cuchillo, or sharp edge of a mountain ridge, and
+it must be at least four times longer than the course formerly taken.
+From Maraynioc the road proceeds, for the length of a league, through a
+valley overgrown with brushwood, and then rises to a lateral branch of
+the Andes, which is almost as high as the main chain. The Indians call
+this ridge, _Manam rimacunan_ ("Thou shall not speak!"), for a heavy
+wind, accompanied by drifting snow, blows constantly, and renders it
+scarcely possible to open the mouth to utter a word. From Manarimacunan,
+downwards, to the lower Montana, the road passes over stones laid in
+_echelon_ form, and through a very slippery hollow way, which descends
+rapidly downward, and is surrounded by almost impenetrable woods; the
+only open and level place is the field of Chilpes, which is a few
+hundred paces long.
+
+Here it is highly interesting to contemplate the rapid increase of
+vegetation, and the varied changes in the animal world. From the brink
+of a ridge where only feeble vegetation can be seen, we descend a few
+leagues and speedily find ourselves in the region of the Cinchona tree,
+and in the evening we are among lofty palms. The first human dwellings
+seen on entering the Montana are half a dozen small huts, forming the
+hamlet Amaruyo, formerly called Sibis, and immediately after we come to
+the village of Vitoc. It consists of about fifty wretched huts, and has
+a small church, in which worship is performed twice a year for the
+inhabitants of the whole valley.
+
+Vitoc is surrounded by two rivers, which unite in a sharp angle, called
+the Tingo, and which separate the valley from the territory of the wild
+Indians. The valley is deep, and the surrounding heights are broken by
+many quebradas. The soil is very fruitful, and the locality is less than
+some others infested with troublesome insects; yet it is but scantily
+peopled, for, besides the two villages and the Hacienda of Maraynioc,
+already mentioned, it contains only a few scattered chacras. The
+inhabitants of this, the most favored district of the Montanas, scarcely
+amount to 200. The villagers employ themselves chiefly in the
+cultivation of pines, which are sent to Lima. The Indians of Palca and
+Tapo bring them potatoes, salt, and butcher's meat, for which the
+villagers exchange their pine-apples. The fruit is conveyed by asses
+to the coast, where, however, it seldom arrives in good condition. The
+other productions of the Montana are maize, oranges, bananas, paltas,
+Spanish pepper, &c.; but these articles are sold only in the Sierra.
+Each inhabitant of the village cultivates his own piece of ground,
+which he can enlarge when he pleases; but these people are too
+indolent to devote themselves seriously to agriculture. It is only
+when the governor in Tarma compels them to pay the annual
+contribution, that they make an effort to augment their earnings; they
+then seek a market for the products of their cultivation, and sell
+them for ready money. Vitoc and some of the villages in its
+neighborhood form altogether only one ecclesiastical community, whose
+pastor lives in Tarma the whole year round. He goes to Pucara only
+once in six or eight months, to read a couple of masses, and to
+solemnize marriages and christenings, but chiefly to collect fees for
+burials which may have taken place during his absence.
+
+The plantation of Pacchapata is of considerable extent, but produces
+very little. The system of repartimientos, already described, by which
+the poor Indian is kept in a state of slavery by advances of clothing,
+meat, brandy, &c., is practised in this hacienda to a great extent. The
+laborer who is set down in the plantation-book as a debtor for ten or
+twelve dollars, has a good chance of remaining during the rest of his
+life a tributary slave; for if he tries by prolonged labor to relieve
+himself from the debt the owner of the plantation causes brandy to be
+made, and this is too great a temptation to be resisted by an Indian.
+The butcher's meat given to the laboring Indians in general consists of
+_Chalonas_, that is, the dried flesh of sheep which have died in the
+haciendas of the hilly districts. For a meagre, tough, unwholesome
+chalona the Indian has to add a dollar and a half or two dollars to his
+debt, while a living sheep in the Sierra would not cost half the price.
+It is the same with other articles furnished by the haciendas. European
+importations, such as can be purchased at very low prices in the Sierra,
+are sold at high profits by the owners of plantations to the poor
+Indians, who have to repay them by long and severe labor.
+
+At Pacchapata, besides maize, yuccas, and fruits, sugar, coffee, and
+coca are also cultivated. The sugar-cane grows in abundance, and is of
+good quality. An excellent kind of coffee is grown here; the bean is
+slightly globular, and its color is a greenish blue. In former times the
+viceroy used to send the coffee of Vitoc as a highly-esteemed present to
+the court of Madrid. The coca is also very fine, and yields three
+harvests in the year; which, however, is only the case in a few of the
+Montanas, as, for example, at Pangoa and Huanta. I may here subjoin
+some notice of this highly interesting plant.
+
+The coca (_Erythroxylon coca_, Lam.) is a shrub about six feet in
+height, with bright green leaves and white blossoms. The latter are
+succeeded by small scarlet berries. It is raised from the seed, in
+garden-beds called _almazigas_. When the young shoots are one and a half
+or two feet high, they are removed to regularly laid out coca fields
+(_cocales_), where they are planted at the distance of about three spans
+from each other. The coca requires humidity; therefore, during the first
+year or two after it is planted in the fields, maize is sown between the
+_matas_, or young shoots, to screen them from the too great influence of
+the sun. When the leaves are ripe, that is to say, when on being bent
+they crack or break off, the gathering commences. The leaves are
+stripped from the branches, a task usually performed by women, and it
+requires great care lest the tender leaves and young twigs should be
+injured. In some districts, the Indians are so very careful in
+gathering the coca, that, instead of stripping off the leaves, they cut
+them from the stem by making an incision with their nails. The plant
+thus rendered leafless is soon again overgrown with verdant foliage.
+After being gathered, the leaves are spread out on coarse woollen cloths
+and dried in the sun. The color of the leaves when dried is a pale
+green. The drying is an operation which likewise demands great care
+and attention, for if the leaves imbibe damp, they become dark
+colored, and then they sell for a much lower price than when they are
+green. The dry coca is finely packed in woollen sacks, and covered
+with sand. These sacks are of various sizes and colors, in different
+parts of the Montanas. In Huanuco they are grey or black, and when
+filled weigh from 75 to 80 pounds. In Vitoc they are grey and white,
+and contain 150 pounds. In Huanta and Anco they are small in size, and
+black or brown in color, and contain merely one aroba. In the Montanas
+of Urubamba, Calca, and Paucartambo, the coca leaves are put into
+small baskets called _cestos_, and covered with sand. Great care is
+also requisite in the carriage of the coca, for if damp be allowed to
+penetrate the sack, the leaves become hot, or as the natives express
+it, _Se calientan_, and are thereby rendered useless.
+
+The Indians masticate the coca. Each individual carries a leathern
+pouch, called the _huallqui_, or the _chuspa_, and a small flask gourd,
+called the _ishcupuru_. The pouch contains a supply of coca leaves, and
+the gourd is filled with pulverised unslaked lime. Usually four times,
+but never less than three times a day, the Indian suspends his labor,
+for the purpose of masticating coca. This operation (which is termed
+_chacchar_ or _acullicar_) is performed in the following manner: some of
+the coca leaves, the stalks having been carefully picked off, are
+masticated until they form a small ball, or as it is called an
+_acullico_. A thin slip of damp wood is then thrust into the
+_ishcupuru_, or gourd, and when drawn out some portion of the powdered
+lime adheres to it. The _acullico_, or ball of masticated coca leaves,
+is, whilst still lying in the mouth, punctured with this slip of wood,
+until the lime mixing with it, gives it a proper relish, and the
+abundant flow of saliva thus excited is partly expectorated and partly
+swallowed. When the ball ceases to emit juice, it is thrown away, and
+a new one is formed by the mastication of a fresh mouthfull of coca
+leaves. In Cerro de Pasco, and in places still further south, the
+Indians use, instead of unslaked lime, a preparation of the pungent
+ashes of the quinua (_Chenopodium Quinua_, L.). This preparation is
+called _Llucta_ or _Llipta_. In using it a piece is broken off and
+masticated along with the _acullico_. In some of the Montana regions
+the Llucta is made from the ashes of the musa root. The application of
+the unslaked lime demands some precaution, for if it comes in direct
+contact with the lips and gums, it causes a very painful burning.
+During a fatiguing ride across the level heights, where, owing to the
+cold wind, I experienced a difficulty of respiration, my Arriero
+recommended me to chew coca, assuring me that I would experience great
+relief from so doing. He lent me his _huallqui_, but owing to my
+awkward manner of using it, I cauterized my lips so severely that I
+did not venture on a second experiment.
+
+The flavor of coca is not unpleasant. It is slightly bitter, aromatic,
+and similar to the worst kind of green tea. When mixed with the ashes of
+the musa root it is somewhat piquant, and more pleasant to European
+palates than it is without that addition. The smell of the fresh dried
+leaves in a mass is almost overpowering; but this smell entirely goes
+when they are packed in the sacks. All who masticate coca have a very
+bad breath, pale lips and gums, greenish and stumpy teeth, and an ugly
+black mark at the angles of the mouth. An inveterate _coquero_, or coca
+chewer, is known at the first glance. His unsteady gait, his
+yellow-colored skin, his dim and sunken eyes encircled by a purple ring,
+his quivering lips and his general apathy, all bear evidence of the
+baneful effects of the coca juice when taken in excess. All the mountain
+Indians are addicted more or less to the practice of masticating coca.
+Each man consumes, on the average, between an ounce and an ounce and a
+half per day, and on festival days about double that quantity. The
+owners of mines and plantations allow their laborers to suspend their
+work three times a day for the _chacchar_, which usually occupies
+upwards of a quarter of an hour; and after that they smoke a paper
+cigar, which they allege crowns the zest of the coca mastication. He
+who indulges for a time in the use of coca finds it difficult, indeed
+almost impossible, to relinquish it. This fact I saw exemplified in
+the cases of several persons of high respectability in Lima, who are
+in the habit of retiring daily to a private apartment for the purpose
+of masticating coca. They could not do this openly, because among the
+refined class of Peruvians the chacchar is looked upon as a low and
+vulgar practice, befitting only to the laboring Indians. Yet,
+Europeans occasionally allow themselves to fall into this habit; and I
+knew two in Lima, the one an Italian and the other a Biscayan, who
+were confirmed coqueros in the strictest sense of the word. In Cerro
+de Pasco there are societies having even Englishmen for their members,
+which meet on certain evenings for the chacchar. In these places,
+instead of lime or ashes, sugar is served along with the coca leaves.
+A member of one of these clubs informed me that on the few first
+trials the sugar was found very agreeable, but that afterwards the
+palate required some more pungent ingredient.
+
+The operation of the coca is similar to that of narcotics administered
+in small doses. Its effects may be compared to those produced by the
+thorn-apple rather than to those arising from opium. I have already
+noticed the consequences resulting from drinking the decoction of the
+datura.[98] In the inveterate coquero similar symptoms are observable,
+but in a mitigated degree. I may mention one circumstance attending the
+use of coca, which appears hitherto to have escaped notice: it is,
+that after the mastication of a great quantity of coca the eye seems
+unable to bear light, and there is a marked distension of the pupil. I
+have also observed this peculiarity of the eye in one who had drunk a
+strong extract of the infusion of coca leaves. In the effects
+consequent on the use of opium and coca there is this distinction,
+that coca, when taken even in the utmost excess, never causes a total
+alienation of the mental powers or induces sleep; but, like opium, it
+excites the sensibility of the brain, and the repeated excitement,
+occasioned by its intemperate use after a series of years, wears out
+mental vigor and activity.
+
+It is a well known fact, confirmed by long observation and experience,
+that the Indians who regularly masticate coca require but little food,
+and, nevertheless, go through excessive labor with apparent ease. They,
+therefore, ascribe the most extraordinary qualities to the coca, and
+even believe that it might be made entirely a substitute for food.
+Setting aside all extravagant and visionary notions on the subject, I am
+clearly of opinion that the moderate use of coca is not merely
+innoxious, but that it may even be very conducive to health. In support
+of this conclusion, I may refer to the numerous examples of longevity
+among Indians who, almost from the age of boyhood, have been
+in the habit of masticating coca three times a day, and who in the
+course of their lives have consumed no less than two thousand seven
+hundred pounds, yet, nevertheless, enjoy perfect health.[99] The food of
+the Indians consists almost exclusively of vegetable substances,
+especially roasted maize and barley converted into flour by crushing,
+which they eat without the admixture of any other substance. The
+continued use of this farinaceous food occasions severe obstructions,
+which the well known aperient qualities of the coca counteract, and many
+serious diseases are thereby prevented. That the coca is in the highest
+degree nutritious, is a fact beyond dispute. The incredible fatigues
+endured by the Peruvian infantry, with very spare diet, but with the
+regular use of coca; the laborious toil of the Indian miner, kept up,
+under similar circumstances, throughout a long series of years;
+certainly afford sufficient ground for attributing to the coca leaves,
+not a quality of mere temporary stimulus, but a powerful nutritive
+principle. Of the great power of the Indians in enduring fatigue with no
+other sustenance than coca, I may here mention an example. A Cholo of
+Huari, named Hatun Huamang, was employed by me in very laborious
+digging. During the whole time he was in my service, viz., five days and
+nights, he never tasted any food, and took only two hours' sleep
+nightly. But at intervals of two and a half or three hours, he regularly
+masticated about half an ounce of coca leaves, and he kept an acullico
+continually in his mouth. I was constantly beside him, and therefore I
+had the opportunity of closely observing him. The work for which I
+engaged him being finished, he accompanied me on a two days' journey of
+twenty-three leagues across the level heights. Though on foot, he kept
+up with the pace of my mule, and halted only for the _chacchar_. On
+leaving me, he declared that he would willingly engage himself again for
+the same amount of work, and that he would go through it without food if
+I would but allow him a sufficient supply of coca. The village priest
+assured me that this man was sixty-two years of age, and that he had
+never known him to be ill in his life.
+
+The Indians maintain that coca is the best preventive of that difficulty
+of respiration felt in the rapid ascents of the Cordillera and the Puna.
+Of this fact I was fully convinced by my own personal experience. I
+speak here, not of the mastication of the leaves, but of their decoction
+taken as a beverage. When I was in the Puna, at the height of 14,000
+feet above the level of the sea, I drank, always before going out to
+hunt, a strong infusion of coca leaves. I could then during the whole
+day climb the heights and follow the swift-footed wild animals without
+experiencing any greater difficulty of breathing than I should have felt
+in similar rapid movement on the coast. Moreover, I did not suffer from
+the symptoms of cerebral excitement or uneasiness which other travellers
+have observed. The reason perhaps is, that I only drank this decoction
+in the cold Puna, where the nervous system is far less susceptible than
+in the climate of the forests. However, I always felt a sense of great
+satiety after taking the coca infusion, and I did not feel a desire for
+my next meal until after the time at which I usually took it.
+
+By the Peruvian Indians the coca plant is regarded as something sacred
+and mysterious, and it sustained an important part in the religion of
+the Incas. In all ceremonies, whether religious or warlike, it was
+introduced, for producing smoke at the great offerings, or as the
+sacrifice itself. During divine worship the priests chewed coca leaves,
+and unless they were supplied with them, it was believed that the favor
+of the gods could not be propitiated. It was also deemed necessary that
+the supplicator for divine grace should approach the priests with an
+_Acullico_ in his mouth. It was believed that any business undertaken
+without the benediction of coca leaves could not prosper; and to the
+shrub itself worship was rendered. During an interval of more than 300
+years Christianity has not been able to subdue the deep-rooted idolatry;
+for everywhere we find traces of belief in the mysterious power of this
+plant. The excavators in the mines of Cerro de Pasco throw masticated
+coca on hard veins of metal, in the belief that it softens the ore, and
+renders it more easy to work. The origin of this custom is easily
+explained, when it is recollected, that in the time of the Incas it was
+believed that the _Coyas_, or the deities of metals, rendered the
+mountains impenetrable, if they were not propitiated by the odor of
+coca. The Indians, even at the present time, put coca leaves into the
+mouths of dead persons, to secure to them a favorable reception on their
+entrance into another world, and when a Peruvian Indian on a journey
+falls in with a mummy, he, with timid reverence, presents to it some
+coca leaves as his pious offering.
+
+Soon after the conquest of Peru, when the Spaniards treated the Indians
+and all their customs with contempt, coca became an object of aversion
+to the whites. The reverence rendered by the natives to the coca plant
+induced the Spaniards to believe that it possessed some demoniacal
+influence. The officers of the government and the clergy, therefore,
+endeavored, by all possible means, to extirpate its use, and this is one
+cause, hitherto overlooked, of the hatred with which the Indians
+regarded the Spaniards. In the second council held at Lima, in 1567,
+coca was described "as a worthless object, fitted for the misuse and
+superstition of the Indians;" and a royal decree of October 18, 1569,
+expressly declares that the notions entertained by the natives that coca
+gives them strength, is an "illusion of the devil" (_una elusion del
+Demonio_). The Peruvian mine owners were the first to discover the
+importance of the _chacchar_ in assisting the Indians to go through
+their excessive labor, and they, together with the plantation owners,
+became the most earnest defenders of coca. The consequence was, that, in
+defiance of royal and ecclesiastical ordinances, its use increased
+rather than diminished. One of the warmest advocates of the plant was
+the Jesuit Don Antonio Julian, who, in a work entitled, "Perla de
+America," laments that coca is not introduced into Europe instead of
+tea and coffee. "It is," he observes, "melancholy to reflect that the
+poor of Europe cannot obtain this preservative against hunger and
+thirst; that our working people are not supported by this strengthening
+plant in their long-continued labors."[100] In the year 1793, Dr. Don
+Pedro Nolasco Crespo pointed out in a treatise the important advantages
+that would be derived from the use of the coca plant, if introduced into
+the European navies, and he expresses a wish that experiments of its
+utility in that way could be tried. Though it is not probable that Dr.
+Crespo's wish will ever be realized, yet there is little doubt that the
+use of coca as a beverage on board ship would be attended with very
+beneficial results. It would afford a nutritious refreshment to seamen
+in the exercise of their laborious duties, and would greatly assist in
+counteracting the unwholesome effects of salt provisions. As a stimulant
+it would be far less injurious than ardent spirits, for which it might
+be substituted without fear of any of the evil consequences experienced
+by the _coqueros_. After a long and attentive observation of the effects
+of coca, I am fully convinced that its use, in moderation, is no way
+detrimental to health; and that without it the Peruvian Indian, with his
+spare diet, would be incapable of going through the labor which he now
+performs. The coca plant must be considered as a great blessing to Peru.
+It is an essential means of preserving the nationality of the Indians,
+and in some measure mitigating the melancholy fate of that once great
+race which disease and excessive labor now threaten to destroy.
+
+In former times the cultivation of coca in the Montana de Vitoc was very
+considerable. Upwards of 4,000 arobas used to be annually forwarded to
+the market of Tarma. Now only fifty arobas are sent. Vitoc produces no
+fodder for horses or mules; those animals, therefore, are very lean and
+feeble in this district, and are usually unfit for work after two years.
+Indeed, they suffer so much from the attacks of the blood-sucking bat
+and the gad-fly (_tabano_), that after being only a few weeks in the
+Montana de Vitoc, their strength is exhausted, and they are scarcely
+able to reach the Puna. Black cattle, on the contrary, thrive
+excellently; but it is not possible to keep up herds, for the young
+calves are all devoured by the numerous animals of prey. The llamas,
+which the Cholos bring from Tapo to Vitoc, are so enfeebled and overcome
+by the journey, that on the second day after their arrival it is often
+found necessary to send them to a colder district.
+
+In this Montana the large animals of prey seldom approach human
+habitations, though sometimes the ounce pays them a visit, and the
+Cuguar descends from the Ceja. Other animals of the feline genus are
+very numerous, and their depredations render it impossible to breed
+poultry. Even the fabulous animal, called the _carbunculo_, is said to
+have been seen oftener than once in Vitoc. In almost every place I
+visited on the coast, in the Sierra, and in the Montanas, extraordinary
+stories concerning this animal were related; and many persons even
+assured me they had seen him. The carbunculo is represented to be of the
+size of a fox, with long black hair, and is only visible at night, when
+it slinks slowly through the thickets. If followed, he opens a flap or
+valve in the forehead, from under which an extraordinary, brilliant, and
+dazzling light issues. The natives believe that this light proceeds from
+a brilliant precious stone, and that any fool hardy person who may
+venture to grasp at it rashly is blinded; then the flap is let down, and
+the animal disappears in the darkness. Such are the stories related by
+the Indians; and it appears that the belief of the existence of the
+carbunculo has prevailed in Peru from the earliest times, and certainly
+before the conquest, so that its introduction cannot be attributed to
+the Spaniards. It is even prevalent among many of the wild Indian
+tribes, by whom the early missionaries were told the stories which they
+in their turn repeated about the animal. As yet nobody has been
+fortunate enough to capture such an animal, though the Spaniards always
+showed themselves very desirous to obtain possession of the precious
+jewel; and the viceroys, in their official instructions to the
+missionaries, placed the carbunculo in the first order of desiderata.
+What animal may have served as a foundation for those fabulous stories,
+it is certainly difficult to decide; probably a different one in each
+particular district. On the coast it may have been the _anash_ (one of
+the mephitic animals), which seeks for his food only at night. I have
+often observed for a moment a singularly brilliant flashing in the eyes
+of that animal when irritated.
+
+The worst enemies of the delightful Montana de Vitoc are the wild
+Indians, who are only separated from the Christian Indians by the two
+rivers Aynamayo and Tullumayo. They belong to the ferocious race of the
+_Chunchos_, and in their savage manners they somewhat resemble the
+Casibos and Campas. They have their chief residence in Chibatizo, nine
+leagues from Pucara. Only three leagues from Pacchapata, at the
+confluence of the Chanchamayo and Tullumayo, they have a pretty large
+village; and Palmapata, which they temporarily took possession of, is
+situated still nearer. They frequently extend their hunting excursions
+to the banks of the great rivers, and make inroads upon the territory of
+Vitoc, cruelly murdering all the Cholos they meet with. Any kind of
+friendly intercourse with them is impracticable. I took some pains to
+accomplish that object, but without success. While they were on their
+hunting expeditions I have left in their huts knives, fish-hooks,
+ear-rings, and other things. In return for these presents they left for
+me some of their edible roots, among which were yuccas, but all were
+poisoned, so that, had we not observed caution, I and my venturous
+companion, Klee, might have fallen victims to the treachery of these
+Indians. The Chunchos, when on their expeditions, are almost in a state
+of nudity. Sometimes they wear a short whitish-brown shirt without
+sleeves. This garment, when worn by the chiefs, is red. Most of them dye
+their hair with achote (_Bixa Orellana_, L.), a deep vermilion, and
+paint the face and breast of the same color. Their weapons consist of a
+bow of chonta (_Guilielma speciosa_), with which they use two kinds of
+arrows. One kind are very long, with round points and barbs of chonta;
+the others are shorter, and have points made of reed, which inflict deep
+wounds, very difficult to be healed. They also use the great wooden
+sword, the _macana_. A cross having been put up in the forest, they
+fastened to it a few days afterwards a macana and two arrows, as
+symbols of irreconcilable enmity to Christians. Their warlike instrument
+is a reed, two feet long and four inches broad, through which their
+howlings resound in horrible discord.
+
+It is a custom with the inhabitants of Vitoc to undertake two
+expeditions every year against the Chunchos. They are the most laughable
+enterprises imaginable. All the Cholos of the valley, with the Alcalde
+at their head, or rather in the midst of them, proceed, armed with
+sticks, axes, forest knives, and _two_ muskets,[101] to explore the banks
+of both rivers. The front ranks advance with drums beating, and a number
+of Indians carry large calabashes filled with guarapo, to which they pay
+their earnest devotions every half hour. When by accident some of the
+Chunchos are seen, the Cholos fly with all the rapidity that terror can
+inspire, and cannot be got together again till they reach their village;
+then they raise a tremendous shout, and when safe in their dwellings
+boast proudly of their heroic deeds.
+
+The Chunchos are in possession of a very rich bed of salt, some twelve
+or fourteen leagues from Vitoc, from whence they permit the neighboring
+tribes with whom they are at peace, to supply themselves with salt.
+Hostile tribes, such as the Campas and the Callisecas, sometimes attempt
+to carry away salt, and then a sanguinary contest ensues. This stratum
+of salt comes from the top of a hill, called the Cerro de la Sal, and it
+runs in the direction from south-west to north-east, to the length of
+nearly three leagues, covering a breadth of about thirty ells. The salt
+is mixed with red earth. It is probably a continuation of the great salt
+bed of Maynas, stretching eastward along the left bank of the Perene. It
+may be presumed that it does not extend as far as the immense Pajonal,
+as the Campas go for their salt to the Cerro de la Sal.
+
+In former times various attempts were made to convert the Chunchos to
+Christianity; and these attempts were partially successful. The first
+missionary who ventured among them was the intrepid Fray Geronimo
+Ximenes. In 1635 he penetrated from Huancabamba to the Cerro de la Sal,
+and there preached the gospel in the language of the people. He built a
+chapel, and then directed his course south-west to Vitoc, where he
+founded the village San Buenaventura. Two years after he embarked on the
+Chanchamayo, with the intention of extending his mission to the Campas
+tribe, by whom he was killed, together with his companion, Fray
+Christoval Larios, and twenty-eight other Spaniards. Several
+missionaries subsequently proceeded to the Cerro de la Sal, and found
+favor with the natives, so that in 1640 they had no less than seven
+villages of converted Chunchos, Amagas, and Campas; but only a few years
+afterwards all the missionaries and soldiers were killed and the chapels
+were destroyed. The Franciscan monks, inspired by their indefatigable
+zeal, ventured in 1671, on a new mission to the fatal Cerro de la Sal;
+and they had the good fortune to found a village in which eight hundred
+Neophytes were collected. A second and smaller village was founded in
+the vicinity of the destroyed San Buenaventura, and named Santa Rosa de
+Quimiri; but the avarice of some Spaniards who fancied there were gold
+mines in the Cerro de la Sal, induced them to get the missions withdrawn
+from the superintendence of the priests, and to turn the whole into a
+political system. Then commenced the oppression of the Indians in those
+parts. The consequence was a great insurrection in 1674, when all the
+whites were massacred. Thus were the labors of the missionaries a second
+time annihilated. Every attempt for the conversion of Indians was for a
+long time fruitless, and the missionaries who ventured to approach them
+were shot. After the lapse of about thirty years, during which interval
+the Chunchos had fallen back to their original savage state, the founder
+of the Convent of Ocopa, Fray Francisco de San Jose, with four priests
+and two lay brothers, penetrated into the valley of Vitoc, and entered
+upon the territory of the Chunchos. At this time (1709) Vitoc was first
+peopled, and in the course of twenty years six large villages were
+built. In the year 1739 these missions, again flourishing, counted ten
+Christian villages and three thousand baptized Indians. Three years
+afterwards the Indian insurrection, headed by the apostate Juan Santos,
+destroyed all the missions of Central Peru.
+
+Juan Santos was an Indian born at Huamanga, and he claimed descent from
+the last of the Incas. This claim was probably well founded, for before
+the revolt he was called Atahuallpa, which was the name of the Inca put
+to death by Pizarro. Juan Santos was haughty, high spirited, and clever.
+In the year 1741 he killed, in a quarrel, a Spaniard of high rank, and
+to elude the pursuit of justice, he fled to the forests. There he
+brooded over plans for taking vengeance on the oppressors of his
+country. He first addressed himself to the tribes of the Campas, and
+having gained them over, he proceeded to Quisopongo in the Pajonal. From
+thence, in the year 1742, he made his first attack on the mission of the
+Cerro de la Sal. The Spaniards had already been warned of the intended
+rising, but they considered it too unimportant to call for serious
+measures of repression; and whilst lulling themselves in their imagined
+security, they were surprised and massacred by the Indians. The
+insurrection spread with incredible rapidity. Juan Santos himself led
+all the principal attacks. In one night he took the fortress of Quimiri
+with sixty-five men, all of whom were massacred in the most cruel
+manner. The well-defended fort of Paucartambo was next taken by a small
+number of Chunchos, commanded by Juan Santos. All the Christian churches
+were destroyed by the insurgents. The sacred images and the priests were
+tied together, and cast into the rivers; the villages were burned, and
+the cultivated fields laid waste. The number of Spanish soldiers killed
+in this insurrection was 245; the number of priests, 26. In the course
+of a few weeks all the missions of central Peru were completely
+destroyed, and terror spread even to the mountains. The Spanish
+government found it necessary to adopt the most vigorous measures, for
+there was reason to fear that the mountain Indians would revolt. Castles
+and forts were built on the frontiers of all the Montanas and strongly
+garrisoned; but the insurrection did not extend further. The ultimate
+fate of Juan Santos Atahuallpa has never been satisfactorily
+ascertained. Some assert that he became a powerful ruler, and that as
+long as he lived the races of the Chunchos, Pacanes, Chichirrenes,
+Campas, and Simirinches, were united. On an old manuscript in the
+monastery of Ocopa I found a marginal note, in which it was said, "As to
+the monster, the apostate Juan Santos Atahuallpa, after his diabolical
+destruction of our missions, the wrath of God was directed against him
+in the most fearful manner. He died the death of Herod, for his living
+body was devoured by worms."
+
+Shortly after the tragical downfall of these missions, two priests, Fra
+Francisco Otasua and Fray Salvador Pando, visited the ruins of Quimiri,
+and endeavored to conciliate the rebels; but in vain. After three
+months, during which they suffered dreadful ill treatment from the
+Chunchos, they returned to the monastery of Ocopa.
+
+These missionaries were all monks of the order of San Francisco. Their
+active zeal and heroic submission to any sacrifice in furtherance of the
+cause in which they were embarked must excite at once astonishment and
+admiration. Undaunted by incredible privations and laborious exertions
+in the pathless forests, without food or shelter; undismayed by the
+continual apprehension of a violent and cruel death, they courageously
+obeyed the inward impulse which inspired them to preach the gospel to
+the wild Indians. When intelligence was received of the violent death of
+one of the brotherhood, others immediately offered to supply the place
+of the victim, and the superiors of the order had much difficulty in
+restraining the zealous monks. In the central and northern missions of
+Peru, 129 Franciscan monks were murdered by the wild Indians. Those
+who compose that number are recorded by name, but many others
+disappeared without leaving a trace of what had become of them, and of
+course they are not included in the list. The number of lay brethren
+who perished is much greater. It is indeed melancholy to reflect how
+little advantage has been obtained by the sacrifice of so many
+valuable lives. The missions have nearly all disappeared, and the
+Indians have now retrograded into the savage state in which they were
+before the conquest of Peru.
+
+The Franciscan monks were mild and patient teachers. They proceeded on
+the principle of leaving the Christian religion to act for itself, and
+they scorned to promote it by any kind of compulsion. The Dominicans, on
+the other hand, who came to Peru with the conquerors, preached
+Christianity with fire and sword. The Jesuits, who headed the missions
+of Southern Peru, adopted the one way or the other, as they found most
+advantageous to the object they had in view. By this means they secured
+the attachment of the neophytes, and retained most of their conversions.
+Many of the Jesuit missionaries were highly intelligent and
+well-informed men. We are indebted to them for important geographical
+and statistical information, and in particular for some philological
+works of great value, viz., a grammar and dictionary of the language of
+every tribe they converted. The Dominican monks, who were mere ignorant
+fanatics, sacrificed to their blind zeal for conversion all the
+monuments of the early civilization of the Peruvians, and restrained,
+rather than promoted, the intellectual development of the people. The
+Franciscans, animated by pious inspiration, earnestly preached the
+doctrines of Christ to the wild inhabitants of the distant forests; but
+they communicated little information to the rest of world. A few
+imperfect maps, and some scanty notices on the manners and customs of
+the Indians, are the whole amount of their laical labors.
+
+In the year 1779 an attempt was again made to penetrate to the Cerro de
+la Sal, and a road was opened leading from Palca to Chanchamayo, where a
+fort was built; but at the expiration of five years the government
+destroyed it, as continued irruptions of the Chunchos could not be
+checked. In 1784, the governor of Tarma, Don Juan Maria de Galvas,
+supported by the Superior of Ocopa, Fray Manuel Sobreviela, visited the
+valley of Vitoc, which had been abandoned since the Indian insurrection.
+The new village of San Teodoro de Pucara was founded, and the destroyed
+fort, Santa Ana de Colla, was rebuilt. The Montana was soon peopled, and
+in a short time it contained upwards of forty haciendas and large
+chacras. The village of Sorriano, scarcely two leagues from Colla, was
+then inhabited by Chunchos, who showed a willingness to maintain
+friendly intercourse with the occupants of Vitoc, from whom they took
+meat, tools, and other things, which they repaid by agricultural labor.
+Unfortunately, the plantation owners soon began to take an undue
+advantage of this friendly intercourse, and to charge exorbitant prices
+for the articles required by the Indians. For a pin or a needle they
+demanded two days' work, for a fishing-hook four, and for a wretched
+knife, eight, ten, or more. A rupture was the consequence. The Chunchos
+burned their own village, and returned again to Chanchamayo. Still,
+however, they continued on a sort of amicable footing with the Cholos,
+until one of the latter wantonly shot a Chuncho at a festival. The tribe
+then mustered in thousands to avenge the murder. They destroyed the
+Christian villages, and massacred all the inhabitants who were not able
+to fly. Thus was Vitoc once more depopulated: Cardenas, the military
+governor of Tarma, made a fresh endeavor to restore the cultivation of
+this fine valley. He made the road again passable, laid out the large
+plantation Chuntabamba, built and garrisoned the Colla fort. The site of
+the former Chuncho village, Sorriano, was converted into a _cocal_ (or
+coca field), and the Montana began once more to assume a flourishing
+aspect. Still, however, the Chunchos continued to harass their
+neighbors, particularly during the time of the coca harvest, which could
+not be gathered without military protection. During one of the harvests
+a laborer was shot by the wild Indians, which so terrified the Cholos,
+that they all fled to Sorriano. Soon after, Cardenas died, and the coca
+plantation being neglected, became a waste. A few years afterwards the
+hacienda of Pacchapata was laid out. During the war of independence the
+Spaniards destroyed Fort Colla, and the inhabitants of Vitoc were left
+without any means of defence against their savage enemies. The last
+attempt to reduce the Chunchos to subjection and order was made by a
+military expedition under the command of General Don Francisco de Paula
+de Otero, but owing to ill-arranged plans it totally failed. No more
+than twenty-five years have elapsed since the valley of Vitoc, with its
+rich plantations, was in the most flourishing prosperity. Now only faint
+traces of its past cultivation are discernible.
+
+The history of the Montana of Vitoc is the history of all the Montanas
+of Peru. In all, we perceive the alternate rise and decline of
+cultivation and civilization, caused by the efforts of the missionaries,
+and the incursions of the wild Indians. Throughout all these districts
+the present condition exhibits a marked inferiority to the past, a
+circumstance which may be accounted for by the long-continued civil war,
+during the contest for independence. Nevertheless, the internal
+tranquillity of the country, and the increasing population, suggest
+favorable prognostics for the future.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 98: See page 189.]
+
+[Footnote 99: I allude here to individuals (and such cases are by no
+means singular) who have attained the great age of 130. Supposing these
+Indians to have begun to masticate coca at ten years old, and calculate
+their daily consumption as a minimum at one ounce, the result is the
+consumption of twenty-seven hundred weight, in 120 years.]
+
+[Footnote 100: The worthy Padre forgets the high price that would be
+charged for coca in Europe. In Tarma and Huenuco the aroba (twenty-five
+pounds) costs at an average six Spanish dollars; add to this the
+carriage to Lima, the freight to Europe, custom-house duties, &c., and
+this price would be nearly doubled.]
+
+[Footnote 101: The whole valley of Vitoc can furnish only two muskets,
+and these are in as useless a state as possible. As for powder, there
+is a constant want of it. During my residence in Vitoc I usually gave
+the Alcalde some of my powder when he went out with his Cholos, or
+when there was a firing on festival days. The want of a suitable
+number of muskets, and sufficient powder in the dangerous vicinity of
+the Chunchos, is characteristic of the improvidence of the
+inhabitants of Vitoc.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+Oppressions exercised by the Spaniards upon the Peruvian Indians--The
+Repartimiento and the Mita--Indian Insurrections--Tupac Amaru--His
+Capture and Execution--War of Independence--Character of the Peruvian
+Indians--Music--Dress--Superstitions--Longevity--Diminished
+Population of Peru--Languages spoken by the Aboriginal
+Inhabitants--Specimen of Quichua Poetry--The Yaravies--The
+Quipu--Water Conduits--Ancient Buildings--Fortresses--Idols--Domestic
+Utensils--Ancient Peruvian Graves--Mode of Burying the Dead--Mummies.
+
+
+A glance at the history of Peru serves to show that prior to the Spanish
+conquest the Indians were the subjects of a dynasty, to which they
+rendered willing obedience. We find, indeed, an uninterrupted series of
+revolutions and wars, arising out of the continued extension of the
+empire, to which nations differing one from another in language,
+religion, and manners, were gradually annexed. For some time after their
+subjugation these nations struggled to recover their independence, but
+the wise and mild government of the Incas gradually restored peace, and
+established unity. In course of time, the magnitude of the empire led to
+its downfall. Huayna Inca-Capac divided his dominions between his two
+sons. To the elder, Huascar, he gave the southern portion of the empire,
+and to the younger, Atahuallpa, he gave the northern division. Between
+the two brothers there arose disputes, which led to a sanguinary war;
+and in that fatal interval, Pizarro, with his invading forces, landed in
+Peru. With a degree of speed, which internal union among the people
+would have rendered impossible, the Spaniards made themselves masters of
+the country, massacred alike sovereigns and subjects, destroyed the
+sanctuaries, and established a new religion and new laws. The barbarous
+cruelties by which that religion and those laws were upheld are too well
+known to require repetition here. Of the many oppressive measures to
+which the Spaniards enforced submission from the conquered people, I
+will briefly notice two: the _Repartimiento_ and the _Mita_. The
+Repartimiento was the distribution, among the natives, of articles of
+European production. These distributions were under the superintendence
+of the provincial authorities, the corregidores, and the sub-delegados.
+The law was doubtless intended, in its origin, for the advantage and
+convenience of the native Indians, by supplying them with necessaries at
+a reasonable price. But, subsequently, the Repartimiento became a source
+of oppression and fraud, in the hands of the provincial authorities. All
+the corregidores and sub-delegados became traders. They purchased
+consignments of manufactured goods from Europe, at a cheap rate, and
+sold them to the Indians at exorbitant prices. To add to the grievance,
+the articles thus forced upon the natives were, in many instances, not
+necessaries, but objects of luxury utterly useless to them. Even more
+oppressive and cruel than the Repartimiento, was the Mita, which
+consisted of the forced labor of the Indians in the mines and
+plantations. Every Spaniard who wished to work a mine, obtained from the
+corregidor a certain number of Indians, to each of whom he gave daily
+four reals as wages, with the agreement of paying to the government a
+yearly tax of eight dollars. The condition of the Indians who were
+distributed to the plantation owners was even worse than that of the
+mine laborers; they received only two reals per day, and were required
+to work in the fields from three in the morning until after sunset. The
+Indians employed in this compulsory labor, whether in the mines or the
+plantations, were called _Mitas_. But there was another sort of forced
+labor, for which no wages were paid. It was indeed less toilsome than
+working in the mines and plantations, yet the Indians employed in it
+were frequently subject to much ill-treatment. I allude to domestic
+service in the houses of the corregidores, sub-delegados, and priests.
+The Indians thus employed were called _Pongos_, and they were required
+to continue in their places for the space of a year, after which they
+were discharged. A corregidor frequently had half a dozen of these
+pongos, whom he provided with miserable food and wretched clothing.[102]
+
+In the mines and plantations countless numbers of Indians were annually
+swept away by the excessive labor consequent on the mita. Some writers
+estimate at nine millions the number of Indians sacrificed in the mines
+in the course of three centuries. This estimate is certainly too high;
+but three millions more may be added for the number of victims of the
+mita in the plantations.
+
+That the government in Spain should have tolerated this barbarous
+system, so obviously calculated to bring ruin on the nation, may
+naturally be matter of surprise. But a glance at the Indian laws (_Leyes
+de Indias_) suffices to show the distinction between the intentions of
+the Spanish government and the corrupt legislation of the country. The
+laws are, with some few exceptions, conceived in a mild spirit, and show
+that their framers had in view the well-being of the colonies. The
+execution of these laws was consigned to the superintendence of what was
+termed the Indian council (_Consejo de Indias_). This council consisted
+of a certain number of men who resided in Spain, and who either were
+only in part acquainted with the real state of things in South America,
+or were bribed by Indian gold to wink at the abuses committed there.
+From this council were chosen the viceroys and high authorities of the
+colonies, who, whilst in the exercise of their official functions,
+amassed enormous wealth by unjust exactions from the Indians. One of the
+latest viceroys of Peru was a man who arrived in Lima in a state of
+utter poverty, and who, in the short space of three years, amassed the
+immense sum of five millions of dollars.
+
+Could it be matter of surprise if at length the Indians rose against
+their oppressors, and made an effort to shake off the heavy yoke of
+their tyrants? For two hundred years they had borne it silently, without
+a single attempt to emancipate themselves. Juan Santos Atahuallpa was
+the first who stirred up revolt against the Spaniards. The insurrection
+which he had headed, though deemed too insignificant to fix the
+attention of the short-sighted government of Lima, nevertheless,
+convinced the Indians that they were strong enough to make a stand
+against their oppressors. Several partial risings in Southern Peru were
+speedily put down; a leader was wanted to organize the disconnected
+plans and movements of the insurgents. This want was at length supplied
+in the person of the ill-fated Tupac Amaru, cacique of Tungasuca, a
+descendant of the last Inca.
+
+The event which caused Tupac Amaru to attempt a movement against the
+Spaniards occurred in 1780. In that year, the corregidor of Tinta, Don
+Antonio Ariaga, made repartimientos to the amount of 340,000 dollars,
+and with the most cruel rigor enforced payment of the useless articles
+distributed. The cacique of Tungasuca assembled the irritated Indians,
+who seized the corregidor and hanged him. This was the signal for a
+general rising in all the neighboring districts. The forces of Tupac
+Amaru augmented daily. He was invested with the title of Inca, and
+treated with the honors due to sovereignty. For several months an active
+war was maintained in the Puna, where several towns and villages were
+taken by the insurgents. Tupac Amaru had made himself master of the
+village of Chucuito, and was preparing to advance upon Cuzco, when,
+about the end of April, 1781, he, and all his family, were made
+prisoners by the Spaniards. He was tried and condemned to death,
+together with his wife, two sons, his brother-in-law, and several other
+individuals of note among the Indians.
+
+But the execution of Tupac Amaru, which was marked by circumstances of
+monstrous barbarity, far from stemming the tide of revolution, served
+only to stimulate the vengeance of the insurgents. They once more
+mustered their warlike bands, under the command of Casimiro Tupac Amaru,
+the brother of the late cacique, his son Andres, and an intrepid Indian
+chief, named Nicacatari. The latter, assisted by Andres, burned several
+villages of Upper Peru, and murdered all the whites. They next advanced
+upon the strongly fortified town of Sorrata, whither the Spaniards of
+the surrounding districts had fled for protection. The town was taken by
+the insurgents, and the inhabitants, 22,000 in number, inhumanly put to
+death, with the exception of eighty-seven priests and monks. The Indians
+then advanced westwards, defeating several Spanish corps, and spreading
+terror and dismay through the country. But, that which neither the arms
+nor the executions of the Spaniards could accomplish, was effected by
+their gold. A treacherous Indian, bribed by the promise of a large
+reward, conducted a division of Spanish soldiers to the spot where the
+chiefs were accustomed to meet, unattended by any guard, to hold their
+council. They were surprised, captured, and condemned to death. Once
+more deprived of leaders, the Indians disbanded and withdrew, some to
+their homes, and others into the forests. Numberless victims paid the
+debt of retribution to the Spanish government, which now adopted every
+measure that could tend to annihilate the nationality of the native
+Indians. Their dances, their music, their dress--all that could revive
+the remembrance of their progenitors, was condemned to rigorous
+prohibition; they were even forbidden the use of their mother tongue,
+the Quichua language. The only beneficial result of these wars, in which
+upwards of a hundred thousand lives were sacrificed, was the abolition
+of the Repartimientos, which had been the cause of the insurrections.
+
+Peace was now, at least to appearance, restored; and if, occasionally,
+symptoms of disturbance arose, they were immediately repressed. This
+state of things continued until the Creoles themselves gave the signal
+of revolt, and the War of Independence broke out in all the Spanish
+colonies of South America. In this enterprise the Indians readily took
+part. But it is a great mistake to suppose that the Indian natives made
+common cause with the Creoles against the Spaniards for the purpose of
+bringing about the present form of government. They wished to emancipate
+themselves in order to establish their own dynasty and a government
+modelled after that of their forefathers. They wanted not a republic,
+but a monarchy, and a sovereign chosen from the sacred race of the
+Incas. Having no clear comprehension of the real object of the War of
+Independence, the Indians, when they saw whites fighting against whites,
+directed their hostility against all _Pucacuncas_ (pale faces) without
+distinction, killing loyalists or patriots, just as they happened to
+fall in their way. This hatred was so bitterly manifested, that in some
+provinces all the whites and mestizos were obliged to fly, even though
+they were the most decided enemies of the Spanish loyalists. In Jauja
+the Indians vowed not to leave even a white dog or a white fowl alive,
+and they even scraped the whitewash from the walls of the houses.
+
+The provisional government ordered levies of troops to be made in the
+provinces which had fallen into the hands of the patriots; and then, for
+the first time, Indians were enrolled in the army as regular troops. But
+it was only in a very few districts that they voluntarily took part in
+the conflict for independence: they performed the forced service of
+conscripts, and whenever an opportunity enabled them to retire from it,
+they did so. The Spanish dominion being overthrown, the war terminated,
+and a republican constitution was established. The Indians then clearly
+perceived that they had been made the tools of the leaders of the
+revolution. Upon the whole, their condition was but little improved; for
+if they were relieved from some oppressive laws, other hardships weighed
+heavily on them, and they found that they still were slaves in the land
+of their fathers. The creoles, like the Spaniards, will draw the string
+of despotism till it snaps. Then will arise another Indian insurrection
+like that headed by Tupac Amaru, but with a more successful result.
+After a fearful struggle, they may reconquer their fatherland, and
+re-establish their ancient constitution; and can it be matter of
+surprise if they wreak cruel vengeance on the enemies of their race?
+
+Since the War of Independence, the Indians have made immense progress.
+During the civil war, which was kept up uninterruptedly for the space of
+twenty years, they were taught military manoeuvres and the use of
+fire-arms. After every lost battle the retreating Indians carried with
+them in their flight their muskets, which they still keep carefully
+concealed. They are also acquainted with the manufacture of gunpowder,
+of which in all their festivals they use great quantities for squibs and
+rockets. The materials for the preparation of gunpowder are found in
+abundance in the valleys of the Sierra.
+
+In the year 1841, when I was passing through a miserable village on the
+confines of one of the Montanas of Central Peru, I took up my abode for
+some days in the hut of an Indian, and whilst there I accidentally saw
+eighteen muskets which were deposited in a place of concealment. I,
+quite unsuspectingly, inquired of the Indian, why he thought it
+requisite to keep so many weapons of defence? He replied, with a
+sinister frown, that the time would come when he should find them
+useful. I could easily perceive that my accidental discovery was by no
+means agreeable to him; and from the very marked change which I observed
+in his manner. I deemed it prudent to withdraw from the village and its
+vicinity. Whilst my horse was being saddled, I noticed my host and some
+of his confidential friends engaged in very earnest conversation, and I
+could easily perceive that I was the subject of it. On my departure the
+Indian asked me, with apparent friendliness of manner, which way I was
+going? When I was beyond the sphere of his observation, I deemed it
+prudent to proceed quite in an opposite direction from the route which I
+told him I intended to take.
+
+The character of the Peruvian Indian is essentially gloomy. It was not
+always so, if we may give credit to the animated pictures drawn by early
+travellers in Peru; but three hundred years of oppression and suffering
+have impressed their melancholy stamp on the feelings and manners of the
+people. This gloominess is strikingly manifested in their songs, their
+dances, their dress, and their whole domestic economy. The favorite
+musical instruments of the Indians are those called the _Pututo_ and the
+_Jaina_. The former is a large conch, on which they perform mournful
+music, as the accompaniment of their funeral dances. In early times this
+conch was employed in the solemnities of royal interments; now its use
+is exclusively reserved for the anniversaries held in commemoration of
+certain events connected with the fallen Inca dynasty. The _Jaina_
+appears to be of more modern origin; it is a rude kind of clarionet,
+made from a reed. Its tone is indescribably melancholy, and it produces
+an extraordinary impression on the natives. If a group of Indians are
+rioting and drinking, or engaged in furious conflict with each other,
+and the sound of the _Jaina_ is suddenly heard, the tumult ceases, as if
+by a stroke of magic. A dead stillness prevails, and all listen devoutly
+to the magic tones of the simple reed; tones which frequently draw tears
+from the eyes of the apathetic Indian.
+
+Their garments are all of dark and sombre hues. Dark blue is a favorite
+color, and appears to be generally adopted for mourning; for whenever
+the Indians follow a corpse to the grave, they always wear dark blue
+ponchos. The dress of the men usually consists of short trowsers, of
+coarse brown cloth, fastened round the waist by a girdle, and a woollen
+or cotton shirt. They seldom wear a jacket, the ponchos of Alpaca wool
+being always the outer garment. On their feet they wear sandals of
+untanned leather, which merely cover the toes, and are fastened round
+the ancle.
+
+The dress of the women consists of a loose under garment, without
+sleeves, and made of coarse blue woollen cloth. It is confined round the
+waist by a broad girdle, called the _huccau_. Over the arms are drawn
+black sleeves, reaching from the wrist to about the middle of the upper
+arm. A sort of robe or tunic, called the _anacu_, descends from the
+shoulders to the knees. It is fastened, not in front, but on one side.
+This garment is made of a thin sort of woollen stuff. It is always
+black, being worn in token of mourning for the Incas. On the occasion of
+certain festivals, the Indian women wear a particolored dress, called a
+_faldillin_. This garment frequently exhibits the most glaring contrasts
+of color, one half being bright red, and the other yellow, in addition
+to which it is sometimes adorned with flowers of brilliant hues, and
+tasteless, gold embroidery. A _mantilla_, consisting of a narrow piece
+of woollen cloth, passed over the shoulders, and fastened under the
+chin, either with a long silver pin, or a cactus-thorn, completes the
+costume. In this mantilla, or in a poncho, mothers are accustomed to
+wrap their infants, and fastening them to their backs, they carry them
+about in this manner for a whole day, whilst engaged in their work.
+
+In their domestic relations, the Indians are unsocial and gloomy.
+Husband, wife, and children live together with but little appearance of
+affection. The children seem to approach their parents timidly, and
+whole days sometimes elapse without the interchange of a word of
+kindness between them. When the Indian is not engaged in out-door work,
+he sits gloomily in his hut, chewing coca, and brooding silently over
+his own thoughts. To his friend he is more communicative than to his
+wife. With the former, he will often discourse, apparently on some
+secret topic, for the space of half a night; nevertheless, he cannot be
+accused of treating his wife with any degree of cruelty, or of
+regarding her merely in the light of his slave, as is customary among
+many uncivilized races of people.
+
+Besides the official authorities, to which the Government exacts
+obedience, the Peruvian Indian acknowledges other authorities, whose
+functions and power are similar to those which existed under the Inca
+dynasty. In like manner, though they have embraced the Christian faith,
+yet they obstinately adhere to certain religious ceremonies, which have
+been transmitted to them by their idolatrous progenitors. Thus their
+religion is a singular combination of Christian principles and
+heathenish forms. Hitherto the most patient and intelligent of their
+religious instructors have failed to outroot this attachment to old
+forms. The Christian religion has been spread among the Indians by
+force; and for centuries past, they have regarded the priests only in
+the light of tyrants, who make religion a cloak for the most scandalous
+pecuniary extortions, and whose conduct is in direct opposition to the
+doctrines they profess. If they render to them unconditional obedience,
+accompanied by a sort of timid reverence, it is to be attributed less to
+the operation of the Christian principle, than to a lingering attachment
+to the theocratic government of the Incas, which has impressed the
+Peruvians with a sacred awe of religion.
+
+The superstition with which the Indians are so deeply imbued is adverse
+to the inculcation of pure religious faith; it is the more difficult to
+be eradicated, inasmuch as it has its origin in early tradition, and has
+in later times been singularly blended with the Catholic form of
+worship. Of this superstition I may here adduce some examples. As soon
+as a dying person draws his last breath, the relatives, or persons in
+attendance, put coca leaves into the mouth of the corpse, and light a
+wax candle. They then collect together the household goods and clothes
+of the deceased and wash them in the nearest river. They put on the dead
+clothes, which are made after the pattern of a monk's habit, and they
+hang round the neck of the corpse a little bag, containing seeds of
+coca, maize, barley, quinua, &c., for his plantations in the next world.
+In the evening ashes are strewed on the floor of the room, and the door
+is securely fastened. Next morning the ashes are carefully examined to
+ascertain whether they show any impression of footsteps; and imagination
+readily traces marks, which are alleged to have been produced by the
+feet of birds, dogs, cats, oxen, or llamas. The destiny of the dead
+person is construed by the foot-marks which are supposed to be
+discernible. The worst marks are those of hens' claws, which are
+believed to denote that the soul of the deceased is doomed to
+irrevocable perdition. The marks of the hoofs of llamas are considered
+favorable, and are believed to indicate that the soul, after a short
+purgatory, will be transferred to the joys of paradise. The funeral is
+conducted according to Christian forms, and under the superintendence of
+a priest. But as soon as the priest takes his departure food is put into
+the grave along with the dead body, which is interred without a coffin.
+I have sometimes seen one of the nearest relatives leap into the grave
+and strike the body with his foot, but the meaning of this strange
+proceeding I never could clearly understand. Some curious ceremonies are
+observed on All Souls' Day. In every house in which a member of the
+family has died in the course of the year, a table is laid out with
+brandy, coca, tobacco, together with some of the favorite dishes of the
+deceased person, and the chamber is kept closed the whole day. The
+family firmly believe that the spirit of their departed relative on that
+day revisits his earthly abode, and partakes of the repast that is
+spread out on the table. A widow usually wears mourning for the space of
+twelve months. In some provinces, on the anniversary of her husband's
+death, the widow puts on a bridal dress, and over it her ordinary
+garments. All her relatives visit her in her dwelling, where, to the
+accompaniment of doleful music, she takes the lead in a funeral dance.
+As the hour approaches at which the husband died in the previous year,
+the dancing and the music become more and more mournful; but whenever
+the hour is past one of the female friends approaches the widow and
+removes her black mantilla. The other females then strip off the rest of
+her mourning garments, and adorn her head with flowers. At length she
+appears in a complete bridal dress. The musicians strike up a lively
+strain, to which the whole party dance, and the evening is passed in
+drinking and merry-making.
+
+Among the Peruvian Indians there are marked varieties of form and
+complexion. These differences are most distinctly observable between
+the inhabitants of the coast and those of the mountain and forest
+regions. In general, the Peruvian Indian is of middle height, rather
+slender, and not very robust. The coast Indians are more plump than the
+inhabitants of other districts, because they lead a less laborious life,
+and are less exposed to privations. It is scarcely possible to trace any
+particular national physiognomy among the Indians. In each province a
+distinct character is observable in the features of the inhabitants. The
+varieties of feature are less distinctly marked than the differences of
+complexion. The peculiar tints of the skin are decidedly defined, and
+indicate respectively the inhabitants of the three principal regions.
+The colder the climate, the fairer is the skin. For example, the color
+of the Puna Indian is a dark red-brown; that of the native of the Sierra
+is considerably lighter; it is a rusty red, but still darker than that
+of the coast Indians; and the natives of the forests are yellow, nearly
+approaching to maize color. These differences are singularly striking,
+when one has an opportunity of seeing the inhabitants of the different
+regions in juxtaposition. It is curious that the Cholos of the Puna,
+when they settle in the forests, become only a very little clearer; and
+that, on the other hand, the yellow Indians of the Montana, after being
+several years in the Puna, still retain their characteristic tint. The
+women are, on the whole, extremely ugly, with round, inexpressive faces.
+Their hands and feet are very small.
+
+The Indians are, on the average, remarkable for longevity, though they
+frequently shorten their lives by the intemperate use of strong drinks.
+Instances are not rare of Indians living to be 120 or 130 years of age,
+and retaining full possession of their bodily and mental powers.
+Stevenson mentions that on examining the church registers of Barranca,
+he found that within an interval of seven years, eleven Indians had been
+interred, whose united ages amounted to 1207, being an average of 109
+years to each. In the year 1839 there was living in the valley of Jauja
+an Indian who, according to the baptismal register shown to me by the
+priest, was born in the year 1697. He himself declared that he had not
+for the space of ninety years tasted a drop of water, having drunk
+nothing but chicha. Since he was eleven years of age, he alleged that
+he had masticated coca, at least three times every day, and that he had
+eaten animal food only on Sundays; on all the other days of the week he
+had lived on maize, quinua, and barley. The Indians retain their teeth
+and hair in extreme old age; and it is remarkable that their hair never
+becomes white, and very seldom even grey. Those individuals whose
+advanced ages have been mentioned above, had all fine black hair.
+
+Since the Spanish conquest, the population of Peru has diminished in an
+almost incredible degree. When we read the accounts given by the old
+historiographers of the vast armies which the Incas had at their
+command; when we behold the ruins of the gigantic buildings, and of the
+numerous towns and villages scattered over Peru, it is difficult to
+conceive how the land could have been so depopulated in the lapse of
+three centuries. At the time of the conquest it was easy, in a short
+space of time, to raise an army of 300,000 men, and, moreover, to form
+an important reserved force; whilst now, the Government, even with the
+utmost efforts, can scarcely assemble 10,000 or 12,000 men. According to
+the census drawn up in 1836, Peru did not contain more than 1,400,000
+men, being not quite so many as were contained at an earlier period in
+the department of Cuzco alone. Unfortunately there is no possibility of
+obtaining anything approaching to accurate estimates of the population
+of early periods; and even if such documents existed, it would be
+difficult to deduce from them a comparison between Peru as it now is,
+and Peru at the period when Bolivia, a part of Buenos Ayres, and
+Columbia, belonged to the mighty empire. I will here quote only one
+example of the immense diminution of the population. Father Melendez
+mentions that shortly after the conquest, the parish of Ancallama, in
+the province of Chancay, contained 30,000 Indians fit for service (that
+is to say, between the ages of eighteen and fifty); now, the same parish
+contains at most 140 individuals, of whom one-third are Mestizos. The
+whole coast of Peru, now almost totally depopulated, was once so thickly
+inhabited, that to subdue King Chimu, in North Peru alone, an army of
+80,000 men was requisite. The causes of the diminished Indian population
+of Peru have been so frequently and fully detailed by previous writers,
+that I need not here do more than briefly advert to them. They are found
+in the extensive and reckless massacres committed by the Spaniards
+during the struggle of the conquest; in the suicides and voluntary
+deaths resorted to by the natives to escape from the power of their
+oppressors; in the mita, the small-pox, the scarlet fever, and the
+introduction of brandy. The mita alone, especially the labor in the
+mines, has swept away four times as many Indians as all the other causes
+combined. Since the abolition of the mita, the Indian population has
+been on the increase, though there has not yet been time for any marked
+result to become manifest; the more especially, considering the numbers
+of lives sacrificed during the frequent civil wars. Nevertheless, it is
+easy to foresee that a decided augmentation of the Indian inhabitants of
+the western parts of South America will, ere long, be apparent.
+
+Among the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru a variety of languages are in
+use. In the southern parts of the country, particularly about Cuzco, the
+_Quichua_ is spoken. It was the dialect of the court, and that which was
+most generally diffused, and the Spaniards therefore called it _la
+lengua general_. In the highlands of Central Peru, the Chinchaysuyo
+language prevailed. The Indians of the coast, who belonged to the race
+of the Chunchos, spoke the _Yunga_. The _Kauqui_ was the language of
+that part of Central Peru which corresponds with the present province of
+Yauyos. The inhabitants of the north-eastern parts of Peru, as far as
+the Huallaga, spoke the _Lama_ language,[103] and the natives of the
+highland regions of Quito spoke the _Quitena_.[104] These different
+languages, which, with the exception of the Lama, proceed all from one
+source, differ so considerably, that the inhabitants of the several
+districts were reciprocally incapable of understanding each other, and
+the Incas found it necessary to introduce the Quichua among all the
+nations they subdued. The other dialects were thereby much corrupted,
+and at the time of the Spanish invasion, they were seldom correctly
+spoken. This corruption was naturally increased more and more after the
+arrival of the Spaniards, by the introduction of a new language. Only
+for a few of the new articles brought by the Spaniards to Peru did the
+Indians form new names, taking the roots of the words from their own
+language: for most things they adopted the Spanish names. By this means,
+but still more by the future intercourse of the people with the
+invaders, the purity of the natural language rapidly disappeared in
+proportion to the influence which the Spaniards obtained by their
+increase in numbers and moral superiority. At present the Quichua is a
+compound of all the dialects and the Spanish; it is spoken in the
+greatest purity in the southern provinces, though even there it is much
+intermixed with Aymara words. In Central Peru the Chinchaysuyo prevails,
+and on the coast the Spanish and the Yunga. The present Indians and
+people of mixed blood, who of necessity must speak the ever-changing
+Quichua, and also the Spanish, speak both in so corrupt a manner, that
+it is frequently almost impossible to understand them.
+
+The family of the Incas had a secret language of their own, which was
+not learned by subjects. This language is now almost totally lost, not
+more than two dozen words of it being preserved. In early times, the
+Quichua language was much cultivated. It was used officially in public
+speaking, and professors were sent by the Inca family into the provinces
+to teach it correctly. For poetry, the Quichua language was not very
+well adapted, owing to the difficult conjugation of the verbs, and the
+awkward blending of pronouns with substantives. Nevertheless, the poetic
+art was zealously cultivated under the Incas. They paid certain poets
+(called the _Haravicus_), for writing festival dramas in verse, and also
+for composing love-songs and heroic poems. Few of these heroic poems
+have been preserved, a circumstance the more to be regretted, as many of
+them would doubtless have been important historical documents; but for
+that very reason, the Spaniards spared no pains to obliterate every
+trace of them. Some of the love-songs have, however, been preserved. In
+Quichua poetry, the lines are short, and seldom thoroughly rhythmical.
+Rhymes were only exceptional, and were never sought for. The poetry was,
+therefore, merely a sort of broken prose.
+
+A specimen of one of the best of the Quichua love-songs is given by
+_Garcilaso de la Vega_, in his "Commentaries and Poems." It is copied
+from papers left by a monk named Blas Valera; and some lines of it are
+here subjoined. The subject is an old Peruvian tradition:--A maiden of
+royal blood (_nusta_) is appointed by the Creator of the world
+(_Pacchacamac_) in heaven, to pour water and snow on the earth out of
+a pitcher; her brother breaks the pitcher, whereupon thunder and
+lightning arise.
+
+        Cumac nusta      Beautiful Princess,
+        Turallayquim     Thy Pitcher
+        Puynuyquita      Thy brother hath broken
+        Paquicayan       Here in Pieces;
+        Hina mantara     For that blow
+        Cunununun        It thunders; and lightning
+        Yllapantac       Flashes all around.
+
+There were, however, instances of versification which may properly be
+called poetry. Of this the _Yaravies_, or elegies, afford some fair
+examples. These poems have for their subjects unfortunate love, or
+sorrow for the dead. They were recited or sung by one or more voices,
+with an accompaniment of melancholy music, and made a great impression
+on the hearers. A foreigner, who for the first time hears one of these
+_Yaravies_ sung, even though he may not understand the Quichua words, is
+nevertheless deeply moved by the melody. The strain is sad and sweet. No
+other music is at once so dismal and so tender. What the _donina_ is as
+an instrument, the _yaravie_ is in singing; both convey the expression
+of a deeply troubled heart. The _yaravie_ has been imitated by the
+Spaniards in their own language, and some of the imitations are very
+beautiful; but they have not been able to reach the deep melancholy of
+the Quichua elegy. The modern poetry of the Indians is inferior to the
+old; the words are a mixture of Quichua and Spanish, and are scarcely
+intelligible. The Spanish words have often Quichua terminations affixed
+to them; on the other hand, sometimes the Quichua words are inflected
+after the Spanish manner, making altogether a barbarous compound.
+
+The ancient Peruvians had no manuscript characters for single sounds;
+but they had a method by which they composed words and incorporated
+ideas. This method consisted in the dexterous intertwining of knots on
+strings, so as to render them auxiliaries to the memory. The instrument
+consisting of these strings and knots was called the QUIPU. It was
+composed of one thick head or top string, to which, at certain
+distances, thinner ones were fastened. The top string was much thicker
+than these pendent strings, and consisted of two doubly twisted threads,
+over which two single threads were wound. The branches, if I may apply
+the term to these pendent strings, were fastened to the top ones by a
+simple loop; the knots were made in the pendent strings, and were either
+single or manifold. The lengths of the strings used in making the quipu
+were various. The transverse or top string often measures several yards,
+and sometimes only a foot long; the branches are seldom more than two
+feet long, and in general they are much shorter.
+
+The strings were often of different colors; each having its own
+particular signification. The color for soldiers was red; for gold,
+yellow; for silver, white; for corn, green, &c. This writing by knots
+was especially employed for numerical and statistical tables; each
+single knot representing ten; each double knot stood for one hundred;
+each triple knot for one thousand, &c.; two single knots standing
+together made twenty; and two double knots, two hundred.
+
+This method of calculation is still practised by the shepherds of the
+Puna. They explained it to me, and I could, with very little trouble,
+construe their quipus. On the first branch or string they usually placed
+the numbers of the bulls; on the second, that of the cows; the latter
+being classed into those which were milked, and those which were not
+milked; on the next string were numbered the calves, according to their
+ages and sizes. Then came the sheep, in several subdivisions. Next
+followed the number of foxes killed, the quantity of salt consumed,
+and, finally, the cattle that had been slaughtered. Other quipus showed
+the produce of the herds in milk, cheese, wool, &c. Each list was
+distinguished by a particular color, or by some peculiarity in the
+twisting of the string.
+
+In this manner the ancient Peruvians kept the accounts of their army. On
+one string were numbered the soldiers armed with slings; on another, the
+spearmen; on a third, those who carried clubs, &c. In the same manner
+the military reports were prepared. In every town some expert men were
+appointed to tie the knots of the quipu, and to explain them. These men
+were called _quipucamayocuna_ (literally, officers of the knots).
+Imperfect as was this method, yet in the flourishing period of the Inca
+government the appointed officers had acquired great dexterity in
+unriddling the meaning of the knots. It, however, seldom happened that
+they had to read a quipu without some verbal commentary. Something was
+always required to be added if the quipu came from a distant province,
+to explain whether it related to the numbering of the population, to
+tributes, or to war, &c. Through long-continued practice, the officers
+who had charge of the quipus became so perfect in their duties, that
+they could with facility communicate the laws and ordinances, and all
+the most important events of the kingdom, by their knots.
+
+All attempts made in modern times to decipher Peruvian quipus have
+been unsatisfactory in their results. The principal obstacle to
+deciphering those found in graves, consists in the want of the oral
+communication requisite for pointing out the subjects to which they
+refer. Such communication was necessary, even in former times, to the
+most learned quipucamayocuna. Most of the quipus here alluded to seem
+to be accounts of the population of particular towns or provinces,
+tax-lists, and information relating to the property of the deceased.
+Some Indians in the southern provinces of Peru are understood to
+possess a perfect knowledge of some of the ancient quipus, from
+information transmitted to them from their ancestors. But they keep
+that knowledge profoundly secret, particularly from the whites. The
+ancient Peruvians also used a certain kind of hieroglyphics, which
+they engraved in stone, and preserved in their temples. Notices of
+these hieroglyphics are given by some of the early writers. There
+appears to be a great similarity between these Peruvian hieroglyphics
+and those found in Mexico and Brazil.
+
+I have already mentioned one of the largest and most wonderful works of
+Peruvian antiquity, namely, the great military road which passes through
+the whole empire leading from Cuzco to Quitu, and which has many highly
+important lateral branches. The magnificent water-conduits, by which
+barren sand wastes and sterile hills were converted into fruitful
+plantations, are monuments of equivalent greatness. Traces of these
+water-conduits are to be seen throughout the whole of Peru, and even
+where the canals themselves no longer exist, the divisional boundaries
+of the fields they watered are still discernible. In many districts
+where the valleys of the Sierra run into the Puna--(I allude here only
+to the declivities above Tarmatambo, on the road towards Jauja)--there
+may be seen many square fields of uniform size, each of which is
+surrounded by a low stone wall; these fields are at present overgrown
+with Puna grass, and are not fit for cultivation. They are what were
+called _Tapu_ lands, which were distributed to every subject of the Inca
+empire, so that each family enjoyed the produce arising from the
+cultivation of a certain portion of ground. These Tapu lands were
+watered by skilfully constructed aqueducts, whereby they were rendered
+suitable for agriculture. The Spaniards having destroyed the conduits,
+the reservoirs dried up, and the soil became barren. Many of these
+conduits were subterraneous, and it is now no longer possible to find
+them; in some parts they were constructed with pipes of gold, which the
+Spaniards eagerly seized as valuable booty.
+
+There still exist vast remains of well-constructed colossal buildings,
+as palaces, fortresses, and temples. The walls of these edifices were
+built of square stones, so finely cut, and joined so closely together,
+that between any two there is not space sufficient to insert the edge of
+the thinnest paper. In the royal palace of Cuzco, and in the Temple of
+the Sun, a fusion of gold or silver was used for cement between the
+stones. This was, however, only employed as a luxury; for in other great
+edifices, for example, in the baths of Huamalies in the province of
+Jauja, stones are kept together by their own weight and the precision of
+the workmanship. These stones are of very considerable magnitude; some
+being from twelve to sixteen feet long, from eight to ten feet high, and
+equally broad. They are not all square; some are polygonal, and some
+spherical, but they were all joined one to another with the same
+exactness: of this a remarkable example is presented in the highly
+interesting ruins of the palace of Limatambo. A question which naturally
+suggests itself is,--how did the ancient Peruvians, without iron tools,
+hew these vast stones, and afterwards work the different fragments so
+skilfully? The first point is to me quite inexplicable; the second may
+possibly be accounted for by friction; the softest of two stones which
+was to be brought into a particular shape being rubbed by a harder, and
+afterwards polished by pyritous plants. The removal of the block from
+the quarry where it was excavated to the place of its destination, and
+the raising of fragments of stone to considerable heights, could only
+have been effected by the co-operation of thousands of men, for no kind
+of elevating machinery or lever was then known.
+
+The fortresses give a high idea of the progress made by the ancient
+Peruvians in architectural art. These structures were surrounded by
+ramparts and trenches. The larger ones were protected by the solidity of
+the walls, and the smaller ones by difficulty of access. The approaches
+to them were chiefly subterraneous; and thereby, they were enabled to
+maintain secret communication with the palaces and temples in their
+neighborhood. The subterraneous communications were carefully
+constructed; they were of the height of a man, and in general from three
+to four feet broad. In some parts they contract suddenly in width, and
+the walls on each side are built with sharp pointed stones, so that
+there is no getting between them, except by a lateral movement. In other
+parts they occasionally become so low, that it is impossible to advance,
+except by creeping on all fours. Every circumstance had been made a
+subject of strict calculation; it had been well considered how treasures
+might be removed from the palaces and temples to the fortresses, and
+placed securely beyond the reach of an enemy, for in the rear of every
+narrow pass there were ample spaces for soldiers, who might dispute the
+advance of a whole army. Besides the remains of the fortress of Cuzco,
+which are gradually disappearing every year, the most important are
+those of Calcahilares and Huillcahuaman. Less interesting, though still
+very curious, are the ruins of Chimu-canchu in Manische, near Truxillo,
+which are not of stone but of brick. The architecture of the small
+fortress of _Huichay_, two leagues from Tarma, which defended the
+entrance to that valley, is very remarkable. The front is built of small
+but firmly united stones, and covers a large cavity, in which there are
+numerous divisions, intended for the preservation of warlike stores, and
+for quartering soldiers. On the steep declivity of the hill there had
+been a deep trench, between which there was a wall fourteen feet higher,
+flanked by three bastions. Around this fortress nitre is found in great
+abundance. It is now collected by the Huancas (the inhabitants of the
+valley of Jauja), for making gunpowder. The diggings for nitre have
+almost obliterated the entrance to the cavity, and the fortress is
+already so much injured that possibly in another century scarcely a
+trace of the edifice will remain. Notwithstanding a search of several
+days, I did not succeed in discovering the mouth of the cavity, though
+an old Indian, who, years ago, had often visited it, pointed out to me
+what he supposed to be its precise situation. The walls of
+perpendicular rock in the neighborhood of Huichay are often 60 to 80
+feet high, and the clefts or fissures in them are filled up with small
+stones. It would be incomprehensible how the Indians ascended to
+perform this labor, were it not perceived that they have hollowed
+passages in the mountain. It would appear they must have had
+dwellings, or stores for provisions, on the higher part of the hill,
+for small windows are often perceptible in walls of masonry.
+
+The old Indian villages of the Sierra are for the most part situated on
+heights, or sharp ridges, which are now completely barren, as they no
+longer receive the artificial watering with which they were formerly
+supplied. All lie open to the east, so that the inhabitants could behold
+their Deity the moment he appeared on the horizon. All large towns had a
+square in their centre, where the religious dances were performed. From
+the square a certain number of regular roads or streets always ran in
+the direction of the four quarters of the firmament. There are great
+varieties in the construction of the houses. Small insignificant huts
+often stand close to a palace having twenty or twenty-five windows in
+one front. Private dwellings in the mountainous parts are built of
+unhewn stone, cemented with a very strong calcareous mortar. On the
+coast the walls are of brick. In the departments of Junin and Ayacucho,
+I met with the ruins of great villages, consisting of dwellings of a
+peculiar construction, in the form of a tower. Each house is
+quadrangular, with a diameter of about six feet, and seventeen or
+eighteen feet high. The walls are from one to one and a half feet thick.
+The doors, which open to the east or south, are only a foot and a half
+high, and two feet wide. After creeping in (which is a work of some
+difficulty) the explorer finds himself in an apartment about five and a
+half feet in height, and of equal breadth, without any windows. In the
+walls there are closets or cupboards, which served to contain domestic
+utensils, food, &c. Earthen pots with maize, coca, and other things, are
+still often found in these closets. The ceiling of the room is
+overlaid with flat plates of stone, and in the centre an aperture, two
+feet wide, is left, forming a communication with the second floor,
+which is precisely like the first, but has two small windows. The roof
+of this apartment has also an aperture, affording access to the third
+floor, the ceiling of which forms the roof of the house, and consists
+of rather thick plates of stone. The upper room is usually less lofty
+than the two rooms below it, and seems to have been used as a
+provision store-room. I found in one of these upper rooms the mummy of
+a child very well embalmed. The family appear to have lived chiefly on
+the ground-floors. The place for cooking is often plainly perceptible.
+The second floor was probably the sleeping apartment. In the course of
+my travels, when overtaken by storms, I often retreated for shelter
+into one of these ruined dwellings.
+
+The ancient Peruvians frequently buried their dead in their own houses,
+and then removed from them. This custom appears to have been very
+general about the time of the Spanish conquest, when a great number of
+Indians committed suicide in despair. Household utensils were placed in
+the graves, when the dead were buried in the houses, as well as when
+they were interred in other places. In many houses in which I made
+diggings I regularly found the following arrangement. Under a stratum of
+earth two feet deep lay the body, in a state of good preservation, and
+generally, but not always, in a sitting posture. On clearing away
+another stratum of earth equally deep there is found a variety of
+household vessels for cooking, together with water-pots of clay, gourds,
+hunting and fishing implements, &c. There is frequently a third layer of
+earth, beneath which the gold and silver vessels and the household
+deities are deposited. The idols are of clay, stone, and copper, or of
+the precious metals. Those of clay are hollow, flat, compressed, and in
+most instances the faces are painted. Those of stone are of granite,
+porphyry, or sand-stone. These stone images are solid, and often several
+feet high. The golden idols are always hollow; but they exhibit no
+distinct trace of the soldering. They are of various sizes; some of them
+weigh three quarters of a pound. Those of silver are always solid. All
+these images of deities have the same physiognomy, and
+disproportionately large head. In most instances the head is covered by
+a peculiar kind of cap.
+
+The vessels used for holding water or other liquids are very various in
+color and form. Most of them exhibit ludicrous caricatures of human
+figures; others are unrecognisable representations of animals or fancy
+figures. These vessels have in general two apertures, one by which they
+were filled, and the other by which the liquid was poured out. On
+filling them a feeble flute-like sound is heard. It is occasioned by the
+air escaping through the other aperture. Most of these vessels are made
+of red or black clay, well glazed. Those for holding chicha were very
+capacious. Some of them, which have been found hermetically closed, have
+contained chicha upwards of three hundred years old, and remarkable for
+a very smoky flavor. On the vessels made of gourds fanciful figures are
+generally carved. Gold drinking cups have been found, adorned with well
+executed embossed ornaments, and like the images, showing no trace of
+soldering. Among the warlike weapons, the stone battle-axes are very
+remarkable; they have at both ends a tube, in which the handle was fixed
+by ligatures. Articles for personal adornment, such as nose and lip
+rings, neck chains, pins, bracelets, and ancle bands, are usually of
+gold, and set with small colored shells. The sceptres of the Incas are
+of gold, and exquisitely wrought; those of the Curacas of silver; and
+those of the Caciques of copper, sometimes gilt.
+
+Idols and utensils made of wood are very rarely found. It would appear
+that the ancient Peruvians found more difficulty in the working of wood
+than that of metal and stone. The Peruvians give to all objects dug up
+from the old graves, the name of _Huaqueros_, from Huaca, the word for
+grave in the Quichua language.
+
+The huacas or graves vary in form or magnitude. When destined for single
+individuals they were made small; but when for families, they were of
+considerable extent. On the sandy soil of the coast, no elevation marks
+the spot where the bodies are interred; but further inland (though still
+in the coast region), the graves are for the most part elevated and
+arched, and are built of bricks. In the Sierra the tombs are of stone,
+quadrangular, oval, or of an obelisk form.
+
+In the huacas, the bodies are found in a sitting position, and supported
+by stones or reeds: the face turned towards the east. In front of the
+body it was customary to place two rows of pots containing quinua,
+maize, potatoes, dried llama flesh, and other kinds of provisions, and
+these pots were all covered with small lids. On each side of the body
+were ranged cooking utensils, and vessels containing water and chicha.
+The body and all the objects deposited in the grave were covered with a
+layer of sand, above which were spread various articles of clothing.
+Over these was placed another layer of sand, and then the tomb was built
+above the whole.
+
+The bodies are found wrapped in several coverings; and when first taken
+out of the graves, they have the appearance of unfinished statues; the
+position of the head, knees, and feet being alone recognisable. A strong
+net-work, composed of twisted straw or bast incloses a thick rush mat,
+in which the body is wrapped. These coverings being removed, there is
+found a broad, woollen bandage, passing round the body, and fastening
+the rushes or sticks which support it in a sitting position. Under this
+bandage is a red or party-colored covering which goes over the whole
+body; and beneath this are one or two yellowish-white coverings,
+strongly sewed up. On removing these coverings, there are found some
+pots or drinking cups, a few ornaments, the _Huallqui_ with coca, and in
+most instances a silver or gold idol suspended from the neck of the
+body. The undermost wrapper consists of a cloth of rather fine texture.
+Probably it was originally white, but time has changed it to a
+reddish-yellow. This covering being unsewed, the naked corpse appears;
+the head alone being encircled with two or three bandages, called
+_Huinchas_. The body is always in a sitting posture; the knees being
+drawn up towards the face, and the arms crossed over the breast, in
+such a manner that the chin rests between the two clenched hands. The
+wrists are tied together, and the ligature with which they are
+fastened is passed round the neck. This, which was evidently done only
+to keep the hands fixed in the required position, has led some
+commentators on Peruvian antiquities to suppose that the bodies found
+with strings round the necks were those of hanged persons. In the
+mouth there is a thin piece of gold, silver or copper; most of the
+bodies are in a good state of preservation, though the features are
+not discernible. The hair is always found perfectly free from decay;
+and that of the females is beautifully plaited.
+
+The question has arisen, whether these bodies were embalmed, or whether
+their preservation is merely the result of the mummifying nature of the
+climate. Both conjectures have found zealous supporters. Don Francisco
+Barrero, keeper of the Museum of Natural History in Lima, mentions, in
+the _Memorial de Ciencias Naturales_,[105] that among the ancient
+Peruvians certain men were appointed as embalmers, and he describes the
+process they adopted as follows:--They first extracted the brain through
+the nose, then took out the eyes, and stopped up the sockets with
+cotton. The bowels, lungs, and even the tongue, were removed, after
+which the body and skull were filled with a kind of powder, which
+immediately after it is taken out of the mummies, diffuses a slight
+odor of turpentine; this odor, however, it soon loses on being
+exposed to the action of the air. The face, hands, and feet, were
+rubbed over with an oily substance, after which the body was incased
+in the envelopes above described. I am disposed to believe that this
+process never had any existence, save in the imagination of Barrera:
+it indeed resembles the manner in which the Egyptians prepared their
+mummies; but no such method was practised among the Indians. The
+mummies collected in the museum of Lima present not the slightest
+trace of this powder, or indeed of any kind of preservative
+material--a fact which is mentioned by the director of that
+establishment, Don E. Mariano de Rivero, in his _Antiguedades
+Peruanas_.[106]
+
+On those parts of the coast where it never rains, the combined heat of
+the sun and the sand has dried up the bodies; in the mountain districts,
+the pure atmosphere and the peculiarly drying nature of the wind have
+produced the same effect. Similar appearances may be traced to different
+circumstances. Of this fact the burial ground of Huacho, and the
+mummified animals seen on the level heights, furnish the most convincing
+proofs. In districts exposed to frequent rain, mummies are found in very
+bad preservation, most of them being mere skeletons. All are in sitting
+postures. In those parts of the Sierra where the soil is impregnated
+with nitre, bodies, which must have lain in the ground for several
+centuries, are found in a very fresh condition, notwithstanding the
+humidity.
+
+Garcilaso de la Vega and the Padre Acosta state that the ancient
+Peruvians were acquainted with the art of embalming, but that they
+employed it only for the bodies of their kings. In the Temple of the Sun
+at Cuzco, there were found excellently preserved mummies of the Incas,
+each seated on a throne. Several years after the Spanish conquest, these
+mummies were conveyed to Lima, and were buried in the court of the
+hospital of San Andres. It is deeply to be deplored that the fanaticism
+of the Spanish conquerors should have destroyed these interesting
+remains of the ancient sovereigns of Peru.
+
+The facts adduced in the course of this volume, relative to the
+barbarous colonization system of the Spaniards, must sufficiently prove
+how adverse was Spanish dominion to the improvement of the natives, and
+to the prosperity of the country. For Peru, Nature's bounteously favored
+land, let us hope that there is reserved a future, happier than either
+the past or the present!
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 102: Even to this day the custom of forced domestic service is
+kept up in some parts of the Sierra, where the priest is allowed the
+services of a female cook, who is called a _Mita_, and a man servant,
+for whom the name of _Pongo_ is reserved. These servants are kept for
+the space of a week.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Adelung, in his "Review of all Languages," considers the
+Calchaqui (still spoken in Tucuman) to be a dialect of the Quichua. It
+is, however, a dialect of the Aymara. Adelung makes another mistake
+when he observes, that the Lama language is spoken in the neighborhood
+of Truxillo.]
+
+[Footnote 104: Of the _Quichua_, _Quitena_, and _Lama_ languages
+several grammars and dictionaries exist. Of the _Kauqui_ only single
+words have been preserved. There is a very imperfect dictionary of the
+_Chinchaysuyo_ by Figueredo. Of the _Yunga_ there is a grammar with a
+_Confesionario_ and Prayers by Fernando de Carrera--a very scarce work.]
+
+[Footnote 105: Vol. II., p. 106.]
+
+[Footnote 106: Published in 1846.]
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+
+Inconsistencies in hyphenation retained. (brush-wood, brushwood;
+court-yard, courtyard; day-break, daybreak; goat-skin, goat-skin;
+hair-dressers, hairdressers; horse-shoes, horseshoes;
+house-tops, housetops; light-house, lighthouse;
+mayor-domos, mayordomos; mid-day, midday; needle-woman, needlewoman;
+net-work; network; nick-name, nickname; north-west, northwest;
+run-away, runaway; sea-ports, seaports; shop-keeper/s, shopkeeper/s;
+south-east, southeast; south-west, southwest; two-fold, twofold)
+
+Inconsistency in abbreviation "P. M." Sometimes it is "P.M." without a
+space. Original text retained in all cases.
+
+Page 22, inserted opening quote mark. ("_Las diez han)
+
+Page 25, species of fox "_Canis Azarae_" is attributed to "Wild." Not
+consistent with Page 174 "_Canis azarae_" attributed to "Pr. Max." and
+to Page 221 "_Canis Azarae_" also attributed to "Pr. Max." Mismatch in
+captialization and also in name of discoverer. Original text retained
+in all cases.
+
+Page 25, "III." changed to "Ill." (_Scolopax frenata_, Ill.)
+
+Page 59, "heterogegeous" changed to "heterogeneous". (heterogeneous
+objects are jumbled)
+
+Page 67, "Limena" retained. Elsewhere in the text it is "Limena".
+(Limena is a noble specimen)
+
+Page 75, "grostesque" changed to "grotesque". (painted with grotesque
+figures)
+
+Page 85, inserted missing comma. (Alsop & Co., Templeman)
+
+Page 108, unusual word "recal" retained. Possibly "recall". (The
+ladies of Lima recal)
+
+Page 112, missing degree sign added. (December 28, at 6 in the morning,
+26.0 deg. C.;)
+
+Page 117, "vavors" changed to "vapors". (there were seen fiery vapors)
+
+Page 135, "litttle" changed to "little". (full of little egg-shaped)
+
+Footnote 42, unusual phrase "no thing" retained. (He who created the
+world out of no thing)
+
+Page 154, unusual spelling of placename "Cozco" retained. Elsewhere in
+text it is "Cuzco". (erected in Cozco, the capital)
+
+Page 168, inserted missing period. (_Pelecanus thayus_, Mol.;)
+
+Page 172, compass directions "SS.E" changed to "S.S.E"; "NN.W."
+changed to "N.N.W." (Andes, namely from S.S.E.) (N.N.W., the western
+declivity)
+
+Page 177, "Eschidna" changed to "Echidna". See other occurrence at
+Footnote 93. (_Echidna ocellata_, Tsch.)
+
+Page 178, "melancholv" changed to "melancholy". (melancholy howl)
+
+Page 180, inconsistent spelling of placename "Periachi", later on
+"Pariachi". Original text retained for both. (At Periachi, four
+leagues from) (Two leagues beyond Pariachi)
+
+Page 182, inserted hyphen. (river of Chillon flowed north-westward)
+
+Page 198, unusual spelling "befel" retained. Possibly "befell". (an
+accident which befel me)
+
+Page 209, "swenllig" changed to "swelling". (inflammation, swelling
+of)
+
+Page 218, "jus" changed to "just". (than any of those just)
+
+Page 222, "sent" changed to "scent". (scent for the pishacas)
+
+Page 278, ungrammatical construction "The men takes" retained. (The
+men takes their bows)
+
+Page 284, period changed to comma. (Quichua, the idioms spoken)
+
+Page 288, period added. (festively celebrated.)
+
+Page 299, inserted missing opening round bracket. (... fly-catchers and
+shrikes (_Muscicapidae_ and....)
+
+Page 301, unusual bird name "shrites" retained. Possibly "shrikes".
+(shrites, and even sea-swallows)
+
+Page 301, "tsch." changed to "Tsch." (_Odontophorus speciosus_, Tsch.)
+
+Page 325, "Fra" retained. Fra is acceptable as a title for friars but
+elsewhere in this text "Fray" is used. (two priests, Fra Francisco
+Otasua and Fray Salvador)
+
+Page 327, "coco" changed to "coca", coco is possible but coca more
+likely from context. (the coca plantation being neglected)
+
+Footnotes frequently have missing end of paragraph/sentence
+punctuation. Periods added.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Travels in Peru, on the Coast, in the
+Sierra, Across the Cordilleras and the Andes, into the Primeval Forests, by J. J. von Tschudi
+
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