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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/3042-h.zip b/3042-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..aac2b9c --- /dev/null +++ b/3042-h.zip diff --git a/3042-h/3042-h.htm b/3042-h/3042-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7fb9b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/3042-h/3042-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5530 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Hispanic Nations of the New World, by William R. Shepherd + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Hispanic Nations of the New World, by +William R. Shepherd + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Hispanic Nations of the New World + Volume 50 in The Chronicles Of America Series + +Author: William R. Shepherd + +Editor: Allen Johnson + +Release Date: February 1, 2009 [EBook #3042] +Last Updated: February 6, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISPANIC NATIONS *** + + + + +Produced by The James J. Kelly Library Of St. Gregory's +University, Dianne Bean, Joseph Buersmeyer, Alev Akman, and David Widger + + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE HISPANIC NATIONS <br /> OF THE NEW WORLD, + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + A CHRONICLE OF OUR SOUTHERN NEIGHBORS + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h3> + By William R. Shepherd + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h4> + New Haven: Yale University Press <br /><br /> Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & + Co. <br /><br /> London: Humphrey Milford <br /><br /> Oxford University Press + <br /><br /><br /> 1919 + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + Contents + </h2> + <p> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> <b>THE HISPANIC NATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD</b> + </a> <br /> + </p> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE HERITAGE FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. </a> + </td> + <td> + "OUR OLD KING OR NONE" + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a> + </td> + <td> + "INDEPENDENCE OR DEATH" + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> + </td> + <td> + PLOUGHING THE SEA + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE AGE OF THE DICTATORS + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> + </td> + <td> + PERIL FROM ABROAD + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> + </td> + <td> + GREATER STATES AND LESSER + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. </a> + </td> + <td> + "ON THE MARGIN OF INTERNATIONAL LIFE" + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> + </td> + <td> + MEXICO IN REVOLUTION + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. </a> + </td> + <td> + THE REPUBLICS OF THE CARIBBEAN + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a> + </td> + <td> + PAN-AMERICANISM AND THE GREAT WAR + </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <a href="#link2H_4_0014"> BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE </a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h1> + THE HISPANIC NATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. THE HERITAGE FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL + </h2> + <p> + At the time of the American Revolution most of the New World still + belonged to Spain and Portugal, whose captains and conquerors had been the + first to come to its shores. Spain had the lion's share, but Portugal held + Brazil, in itself a vast land of unsuspected resources. No empire mankind + had ever yet known rivaled in size the illimitable domains of Spain and + Portugal in the New World; and none displayed such remarkable contrasts in + land and people. Boundless plains and forests, swamps and deserts, mighty + mountain chains, torrential streams and majestic rivers, marked the + surface of the country. This vast territory stretched from the temperate + prairies west of the Mississippi down to the steaming lowlands of Central + America, then up through tablelands in the southern continent to high + plateaus, miles above sea level, where the sun blazed and the cold, dry + air was hard to breathe, and then higher still to the lofty peaks of the + Andes, clad in eternal snow or pouring fire and smoke from their summits + in the clouds, and thence to the lower temperate valleys, grassy pampas, + and undulating hills of the far south. + </p> + <p> + Scattered over these vast colonial domains in the Western World were + somewhere between 12,000,000 and 19,000,000 people subject to Spain, and + perhaps 3,000,000, to Portugal; the great majority of them were Indians + and negroes, the latter predominating in the lands bordering on the + Caribbean Sea and along the shores of Brazil. Possibly one-fourth of the + inhabitants came of European stock, including not only Spaniards and their + descendants but also the folk who spoke English in the Floridas and French + in Louisiana. + </p> + <p> + During the centuries which had elapsed since the entry of the Spaniards + and Portuguese into these regions an extraordinary fusion of races had + taken place. White, red, and black had mingled to such an extent that the + bulk of the settled population became half-caste. Only in the more + temperate regions of the far north and south, where the aborigines were + comparatively few or had disappeared altogether, did the whites remain + racially distinct. Socially the Indian and the negro counted for little. + They constituted the laboring class on whom all the burdens fell and for + whom advantages in the body politic were scant. Legally the Indian under + Spanish rule stood on a footing of equality with his white fellows, and + many a gifted native came to be reckoned a force in the community, though + his social position remained a subordinate one. Most of the negroes were + slaves and were more kindly treated by the Spaniards than by the + Portuguese. + </p> + <p> + Though divided among themselves, the Europeans were everywhere politically + dominant. The Spaniard was always an individualist. Besides, he often + brought from the Old World petty provincial traditions which were + intensified in the New. The inhabitants of towns, many of which had been + founded quite independently of one another, knew little about their remote + neighbors and often were quite willing to convert their ignorance into + prejudice: The dweller in the uplands and the resident on the coast were + wont to view each other with disfavor. The one was thought heavy and + stupid, the other frivolous and lazy. Native Spaniards regarded the + Creoles, or American born, as persons who had degenerated more or less by + their contact with the aborigines and the wilderness. For their part, the + Creoles looked upon the Spaniards as upstarts and intruders, whose sole + claim to consideration lay in the privileges dispensed them by the home + government. In testimony of this attitude they coined for their oversea + kindred numerous nicknames which were more expressive than complimentary. + While the Creoles held most of the wealth and of the lower offices, the + Spaniards enjoyed the perquisites and emoluments of the higher posts. + </p> + <p> + Though objects of disdain to both these masters, the Indians generally + preferred the Spaniard to the Creole. The Spaniard represented a distant + authority interested in the welfare of its humbler subjects and came less + into actual daily contact with the natives. While it would hardly be + correct to say that the Spaniard was viewed as a protector and the Creole + as an oppressor, yet the aborigines unconsciously made some such hazy + distinction if indeed they did not view all Europeans with suspicion and + dislike. In Brazil the relation of classes was much the same, except that + here the native element was much less conspicuous as a social factor. + </p> + <p> + These distinctions were all the more accentuated by the absence both of + other European peoples and of a definite middle class of any race. + Everywhere in the areas tenanted originally by Spaniards and Portuguese + the European of alien stock was unwelcome, even though he obtained a + grudging permission from the home governments to remain a colonist. In + Brazil, owing to the close commercial connections between Great Britain + and Portugal, foreigners were not so rigidly excluded as in Spanish + America. The Spaniard was unwilling that lands so rich in natural + treasures should be thrown open to exploitation by others, even if the + newcomer professed the Catholic faith. The heretic was denied admission as + a matter of course. Had the foreigner been allowed to enter, the risk of + such exploitation doubtless would have been increased, but a middle class + might have arisen to weld the the discordant factions into a society which + had common desires and aspirations. With the development of commerce and + industry, with the growth of activities which bring men into touch with + each other in everyday affairs, something like a solidarity of sentiment + might have been awakened. In its absence the only bond among the dominant + whites was their sense of superiority to the colored masses beneath them. + </p> + <p> + Manual labor and trade had never attracted the Spaniards and the + Portuguese. The army, the church, and the law were the three callings that + offered the greatest opportunity for distinction. Agriculture, grazing, + and mining they did not disdain, provided that superintendence and not + actual work was the main requisite. The economic organization which the + Spaniards and Portuguese established in America was naturally a more or + less faithful reproduction of that to which they had been accustomed at + home. Agriculture and grazing became the chief occupations. Domestic + animals and many kinds of plants brought from Europe throve wonderfully in + their new home. Huge estates were the rule; small farms, the exception. On + the ranches and plantations vast droves of cattle, sheep, and horses were + raised, as well as immense crops. Mining, once so much in vogue, had + become an occupation of secondary importance. + </p> + <p> + On their estates the planter, the ranchman, and the mine owner lived like + feudal overlords, waited upon by Indian and negro peasants who also tilled + the fields, tended the droves, and dug the earth for precious metals and + stones. Originally the natives had been forced to work under conditions + approximating actual servitude, but gradually the harsher features of this + system had given way to a mode of service closely resembling peonage. Paid + a pitifully small wage, provided with a hut of reeds or sundried mud and a + tiny patch of soil on which to grow a few hills of the corn and beans that + were his usual nourishment, the ordinary Indian or half-caste laborer was + scarcely more than a beast of burden, a creature in whom civic virtues of + a high order were not likely to develop. If he betook himself to the town + his possible usefulness lessened in proportion as he fell into drunken or + dissolute habits, or lapsed into a state of lazy and vacuous dreaminess, + enlivened only by chatter or the rolling of a cigarette. On the other + hand, when employed in a capacity where native talent might be tested, he + often revealed a power of action which, if properly guided, could be + turned to excellent account. As a cowboy, for example, he became a capital + horseman, brave, alert, skillful, and daring. + </p> + <p> + Commerce with Portugal and Spain was long confined to yearly fairs and + occasional trading fleets that plied between fixed points. But when + liberal decrees threw open numerous ports in the mother countries to + traffic and the several colonies were given also the privilege of + exchanging their products among themselves, the volume of exports and + imports increased and gave an impetus to activity which brought a notable + release from the torpor and vegetation characterizing earlier days. Yet, + even so, communication was difficult and irregular. By sea the distances + were great and the vessels slow. Overland the natural obstacles to + transportation were so numerous and the methods of conveyance so + cumbersome and expensive that the people of one province were practically + strangers to their neighbors. + </p> + <p> + Matters of the mind and of the soul were under the guardianship of the + Church. More than merely a spiritual mentor, it controlled education and + determined in large measure the course of intellectual life. Possessed of + vast wealth in lands and revenues, its monasteries and priories, its + hospitals and asylums, its residences of ecclesiastics, were the finest + buildings in every community, adorned with the masterpieces of sculptors + and painters. A village might boast of only a few squalid huts, yet there + in the "plaza," or central square, loomed up a massively imposing edifice + of worship, its towers pointing heavenward, the sign and symbol of + triumphant power. + </p> + <p> + The Church, in fact, was the greatest civilizing agency that Spain and + Portugal had at their disposal. It inculcated a reverence for the monarch + and his ministers and fostered a deep-rooted sentiment of conservatism + which made disloyalty and innovation almost sacrilegious. In the Spanish + colonies in particular the Church not only protected the natives against + the rapacity of many a white master but taught them the rudiments of the + Christian faith, as well as useful arts and trades. In remote places, + secluded so far as possible from contact with Europeans, missionary + pioneers gathered together groups of neophytes whom they rendered docile + and industrious, it is true, but whom they often deprived of initiative + and selfreliance and kept illiterate and superstitious. + </p> + <p> + Education was reserved commonly for members of the ruling class. As + imparted in the universities and schools, it savored strongly of + medievalism. Though some attention was devoted to the natural sciences, + experimental methods were not encouraged and found no place in lectures + and textbooks. Books, periodicals, and other publications came under + ecclesiastical inspection, and a vigilant censorship determined what was + fit for the public to read. + </p> + <p> + Supreme over all the colonial domains was the government of their + majesties, the monarchs of Spain and Portugal. A ministry and a council + managed the affairs of the inhabitants of America and guarded their + destinies in accordance with the theories of enlightened despotism then + prevailing in Europe. The Spanish dominions were divided into + viceroyalties and subdivided into captaincies general, presidencies, and + intendancies. Associated with the high officials who ruled them were + audiencias, or boards, which were at once judicial and administrative. + Below these individuals and bodies were a host of lesser functionaries + who, like their superiors, held their posts by appointment. In Brazil the + governor general bore the title of viceroy and carried on the + administration assisted by provincial captains, supreme courts, and local + officers. + </p> + <p> + This control was by no means so autocratic as it might seem. Portugal had + too many interests elsewhere, and was too feeble besides, to keep tight + rein over a territory so vast and a population so much inclined as the + Brazilian to form itself into provincial units, jealous of the central + authority. Spain, on its part, had always practised the good old Roman + rule of "divide and govern." Its policy was to hold the balance among + officials, civil and ecclesiastical, and inhabitants, white and colored. + It knew how strongly individualistic the Spaniard was and realized the + full force of the adage, "I obey, but I do not fulfill!" Legislatures and + other agencies of government directly representative of the people did not + exist in Spanish or Portuguese America. The Spanish cabildo, or town + council, however, afforded an opportunity for the expression of the + popular will and often proved intractable. Its membership was appointive, + elective, hereditary, and even purchasable, but the form did not affect + the substance. The Spanish Americans had an instinct for politics. "Here + all men govern," declared one of the viceroys; "the people have more part + in political discussions than in any other provinces in the world; a + council of war sits in every house." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. "OUR OLD KING OR NONE" + </h2> + <p> + The movement which led eventually to the emancipation of the colonies + differed from the local uprisings which occurred in various parts of South + America during the eighteenth century. Either the arbitrary conduct of + individual governors or excessive taxation had caused the earlier revolts. + To the final revolution foreign nations and foreign ideas gave the + necessary impulse. A few members of the intellectual class had read in + secret the writings of French and English philosophers. Others had + traveled abroad and came home to whisper to their countrymen what they had + seen and heard in lands more progressive than Spain and Portugal. The + commercial relations, both licit and illicit, which Great Britain had + maintained with several of the colonies had served to diffuse among them + some notions of what went on in the busy world outside. + </p> + <p> + By gaining its independence, the United States had set a practical example + of what might be done elsewhere in America. Translated into French, the + Declaration of Independence was read and commented upon by enthusiasts who + dreamed of the possibility of applying its principles in their own lands. + More powerful still were the ideas liberated by the French Revolution and + Napoleon. Borne across the ocean, the doctrines of "Liberty, Fraternity, + Equality" stirred the ardent-minded to thoughts of action, though the + Spanish and Portuguese Americans who schemed and plotted were the merest + handful. The seed they planted was slow to germinate among peoples who had + been taught to regard things foreign as outlandish and heretical. Many + years therefore elapsed before the ideas of the few became the convictions + of the masses, for the conservatism and loyalty of the common people were + unbelieveably steadfast. + </p> + <p> + Not Spanish and Portuguese America, but Santo Domingo, an island which had + been under French rule since 1795 and which was tenanted chiefly by + ignorant and brutalized negro slaves, was the scene of the first effectual + assertion of independence in the lands originally colonized by Spain. + Rising in revolt against their masters, the negroes had won complete + control under their remarkable commander, Toussaint L'Ouverture, when + Napoleon Bonaparte, then First Consul, decided to restore the old regime. + But the huge expedition which was sent to reduce the island ended in + absolute failure. After a ruthless racial warfare, characterized by + ferocity on both sides, the French retired. In 1804 the negro leaders + proclaimed the independence of the island as the "Republic of Haiti," + under a President who, appreciative of the example just set by Napoleon, + informed his followers that he too had assumed the august title of + "Emperor"! His immediate successor in African royalty was the notorious + Henri Christophe, who gathered about him a nobility garish in color and + taste—including their sable lordships, the "Duke of Marmalade" and + the "Count of Lemonade"; and who built the palace of "Sans Souci" and the + countryseats of "Queen's Delight" and "King's Beautiful View," about which + cluster tales of barbaric pleasure that rival the grim legends clinging to + the parapets and enshrouding the dungeons of his mountain fortress of "La + Ferriere." None of these black or mulatto potentates, however, could expel + French authority from the eastern part of Santo Domingo. That task was + taken in hand by the inhabitants themselves, and in 1809 they succeeded in + restoring the control of Spain. Meanwhile events which had been occurring + in South America prepared the way for the movement that was ultimately to + banish the flags of both Spain and Portugal from the continents of the New + World. As the one country had fallen more or less tinder the influence of + France, so the other had become practically dependent upon Great Britain. + Interested in the expansion of its commerce and viewing the outlying + possessions of peoples who submitted to French guidance as legitimate + objects for seizure, Great Britain in 1797 wrested Trinidad from the + feeble grip of Spain and thus acquired a strategic position very near + South America itself. Haiti, Trinidad, and Jamaica, in fact, all became + Centers of revolutionary agitation and havens of refuge for. Spanish + American radicals in the troublous years to follow. + </p> + <p> + Foremost among the early conspirators was the Venezuelan, Francisco de + Miranda, known to his fellow Americans of Spanish stock as the + "Precursor." Napoleon once remarked of him: "He is a Don Quixote, with + this difference—he is not crazy.... The man has sacred fire in his + soul." An officer in the armies of Spain and of revolutionary France and + later a resident of London, Miranda devoted thirty years of his + adventurous life to the cause of independence for his countrymen. With + officials of the British Government he labored long and zealously, + eliciting from them vague promises of armed support and some financial + aid. It was in London, also, that he organized a group of sympathizers + into the secret society called the "Grand Lodge of America." With it, or + with its branches in France and Spain, many of the leaders of the + subsequent revolution came to be identified. + </p> + <p> + In 1806, availing himself of the negligence of the United States and + having the connivance of the British authorities in Trinidad, Miranda + headed two expeditions to the coast of Venezuela. He had hoped that his + appearance would be the signal for a general uprising; instead, he was + treated with indifference. His countrymen seemed to regard him as a tool + of Great Britain, and no one felt disposed to accept the blessings of + liberty under that guise. Humiliated, but not despairing, Miranda returned + to London to await a happier day. + </p> + <p> + Two British expeditions which attempted to conquer the region about the + Rio de la Plata in 1806 and 1807 were also frustrated by this same + stubborn loyalty. When the Spanish viceroy fled, the inhabitants + themselves rallied to the defense of the country and drove out the + invaders. Thereupon the people of Buenos Aires, assembled in cabildo + abierto, or town meeting, deposed the viceroy and chose their victorious + leader in his stead until a successor could be regularly appointed. + </p> + <p> + Then, in 1808, fell the blow which was to shatter the bonds uniting Spain + to its continental dominions in America. The discord and corruption which + prevailed in that unfortunate country afforded Napoleon an opportunity to + oust its feeble king and his incompetent son, Ferdinand, and to place + Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. But the master of Europe underestimated + the fighting ability of Spaniards. Instead of humbly complying with his + mandate, they rose in arms against the usurper and created a central + junta, or revolutionary committee, to govern in the name of Ferdinand VII, + as their rightful ruler. + </p> + <p> + The news of this French aggression aroused in the colonies a spirit of + resistance as vehement as that in the mother country. Both Spaniards and + Creoles repudiated the "intruder king." Believing, as did their comrades + oversea, that Ferdinand was a helpless victim in the hands of Napoleon, + they recognized the revolutionary government and sent great sums of money + to Spain to aid in the struggle against the French. Envoys from Joseph + Bonaparte seeking an acknowledgment of his rule were angrily rejected and + were forced to leave. + </p> + <p> + The situation on both sides of the ocean was now an extraordinary one. + Just as the junta in Spain had no legal right to govern, so the officials + in the colonies, holding their posts by appointment from a deposed king, + had no legal authority, and the people would not allow them to accept new + commissions from a usurper. The Church, too, detesting Napoleon as the + heir of a revolution that had undermined the Catholic faith and regarding + him as a godless despot who had made the Pope a captive, refused to + recognize the French pretender. Until Ferdinand VII could be restored to + his throne, therefore, the colonists had to choose whether they would + carry on the administration under the guidance of the self-constituted + authorities in Spain, or should themselves create similar organizations in + each of the colonies to take charge of affairs. The former course was + favored by the official element and its supporters among the conservative + classes, the latter by the liberals, who felt that they had as much right + as the people of the mother country to choose the form of government best + suited to their interests. + </p> + <p> + Each party viewed the other with distrust. Opposition to the more + democratic procedure, it was felt, could mean nothing less than secret + submission to the pretensions of Joseph Bonaparte; whereas the + establishment in America of any organizations like those in Spain surely + indicated a spirit of disloyalty toward Ferdinand VII himself. Under + circumstances like these, when the junta and its successor, the council of + regency, refused to make substantial concessions to the colonies, both + parties were inevitably drifting toward independence. In the phrase of + Manuel Belgrano, one of the great leaders in the viceroyalty of La Plata, + "our old King or none" became the watchword that gradually shaped the + thoughts of Spanish Americans. + </p> + <p> + When, therefore, in 1810, the news came that the French army had overrun + Spain, democratic ideas so long cherished in secret and propagated so + industriously by Miranda and his followers at last found expression in a + series of uprisings in the four viceroyalties of La Plata, Peru, New + Granada, and New Spain. But in each of these viceroyalties the revolution + ran a different course. Sometimes it was the capital city that led off; + sometimes a provincial town; sometimes a group of individuals in the + country districts. Among the actual participants in the various movements + very little harmony was to be found. Here a particular leader claimed + obedience; there a board of self-chosen magistrates held sway; elsewhere a + town or province refused to acknowledge the central authority. To add to + these complications, in 1812, a revolutionary Cortes, or legislative body, + assembled at Cadiz, adopted for Spain and its dominions a constitution + providing for direct representation of the colonies in oversea + administration. Since arrangements of this sort contented many of the + Spanish Americans who had protested against existing abuses, they were + quite unwilling to press their grievances further. Given all these + evidences of division in activity and counsel, one does not find it + difficult to foresee the outcome. + </p> + <p> + On May 25, 1810, popular agitation at Buenos Aires forced the Spanish + viceroy of La Plata to resign. The central authority was thereupon vested + in an elected junta that was to govern in the name of Ferdinand VII. + Opposition broke out immediately. The northern and eastern parts of the + viceroyalty showed themselves quite unwilling to obey these upstarts. + Meantime, urged on by radicals who revived the Jacobin doctrines of + revolutionary France, the junta strove to suppress in rigorous fashion any + symptoms of disaffection; but it could do nothing to stem the tide of + separation in the rest of the viceroyalty—in Charcas (Bolivia), + Paraguay, and the Banda Oriental, or East Bank, of the Uruguay. + </p> + <p> + At Buenos Aires acute difference of opinion—about the extent to + which the movement should be carried and about the permanent form of + government to be adopted as well as the method of establishing it—produced + a series of political commotions little short of anarchy. Triumvirates + followed the junta into power; supreme directors alternated with + triumvirates; and constituent assemblies came and went. Under one + authority or another the name of the viceroyalty was changed to "United + Provinces of La Plata River"; a seal, a flag, and a coat of arms were + chosen; and numerous features of the Spanish regime were abolished, + including titles of nobility, the Inquisition, the slave trade, and + restrictions on the press. But so chaotic were the conditions within and + so disastrous the campaigns without, that eventually commissioners were + sent to Europe, bearing instructions to seek a king for the distracted + country. + </p> + <p> + When Charcas fell under the control of the viceroy of Peru, Paraguay set + up a regime for itself. At Asuncion, the capital, a revolutionary outbreak + in 1811 replaced the Spanish intendant by a triumvirate, of which the most + prominent member was Dr. Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia. A lawyer by + profession, familiar with the history of Rome, an admirer of France and + Napoleon, a misanthrope and a recluse, possessing a blind faith in himself + and actuated by a sense of implacable hatred for all who might venture to + thwart his will, this extraordinary personage speedily made himself master + of the country. A population composed chiefly of Indians, docile in + temperament and submissive for many years to the paternal rule of Jesuit + missionaries, could not fail to become pliant instruments in his hands. At + his direction, therefore, Paraguay declared itself independent of both + Spain and La Plata. This done, an obedient Congress elected Francia consul + of the republic and later invested him with the title of dictator. In the + Banda Oriental two distinct movements appeared. Montevideo, the capital, + long a center of royalist sympathies and for some years hostile to the + revolutionary government in Buenos Aires, was reunited with La Plata in + 1814. Elsewhere the people of the province followed the fortunes of Jose + Gervasio Artigas, an able and valiant cavalry officer, who roamed through + it at will, bidding defiance to any authority not his own. Most of the + former viceroyalty of La Plata had thus, to all intents and purposes, + thrown off the yoke of Spain. + </p> + <p> + Chile was the only other province that for a while gave promise of similar + action. Here again it was the capital city that took the lead. On receipt + of the news of the occurrences at Buenos Aires in May, 1810, the people of + Santiago forced the captain general to resign and, on the 18th of + September, replaced him by a junta of their own choosing. But neither this + body, nor its successors, nor even the Congress that assembled the + following year, could establish a permanent and effective government. + Nowhere in Spanish America, perhaps, did the lower classes count for so + little, and the upper class for so much, as in Chile. Though the great + landholders were disposed to favor a reasonable amount of local autonomy + for the country, they refused to heed the demands of the radicals for + complete independence and the establishment of a republic. Accordingly, in + proportion as their opponents resorted to measures of compulsion, the + gentry gradually withdrew their support and offered little resistance when + troops dispatched by the viceroy of Peru restored the Spanish regime in + 1814. The irreconcilable among the patriots fled over the Andes to the + western part of La Plata, where they found hospitable refuge. + </p> + <p> + But of all the Spanish dominions in South America none witnessed so + desperate a struggle for emancipation as the viceroyalty of New Granada. + Learning of the catastrophe that had befallen the mother country, the + leading citizens of Caracas, acting in conjunction with the cabildo, + deposed the captain general on April 19, 1810, and created a junta in his + stead. The example was quickly followed by most of the smaller divisions + of the province. Then when Miranda returned from England to head the + revolutionary movement, a Congress, on July 5, 1811, declared Venezuela + independent of Spain. Carried away, also, by the enthusiasm of the moment, + and forgetful of the utter unpreparedness of the country, the Congress + promulgated a federal constitution modeled on that of the United States, + which set forth all the approved doctrines of the rights of man. + </p> + <p> + Neither Miranda nor his youthful coadjutor, Simon Bolivar, soon to become + famous in the annals of Spanish American history, approved of this plunge + into democracy. Ardent as their patriotism was, they knew that the country + needed centralized control and not experiments in confederation or + theoretical liberty. They speedily found out, also, that they could not + count on the support of the people at large. Then, almost as if Nature + herself disapproved of the whole proceeding, a frightful earthquake in the + following year shook many a Venezuelan town into ruins. Everywhere the + royalists took heart. Dissensions broke out between Miranda and his + subordinates. Betrayed into the hands of his enemies, the old warrior + himself was sent away to die in a Spanish dungeon. And so the "earthquake" + republic collapsed. + </p> + <p> + But the rigorous measures adopted by the royalists to sustain their + triumph enabled Bolivar to renew the struggle in 1813. He entered upon a + campaign which was signalized by acts of barbarity on both sides. His + declaration of "war to the death" was answered in kind. Wholesale + slaughter of prisoners, indiscriminate pillage, and wanton destruction of + property spread terror and desolation throughout the country. Acclaimed + "Liberator of Venezuela" and made dictator by the people of Caracas, + Bolivar strove in vain to overcome the half-savage llaneros, or cowboys of + the plains, who despised the innovating aristocrats of the capital. Though + he won a few victories, he did not make the cause of independence popular, + and, realizing his failure, he retired into New Granada. + </p> + <p> + In this region an astounding series of revolutions and counter-revolutions + had taken place. Unmindful of pleas for cooperation, the Creole leaders in + town and district, from 1810 onward, seized control of affairs in a + fashion that betokened a speedy disintegration of the country. Though the + viceroy was deposed and a general Congress was summoned to meet at the + capital, Bogota, efforts at centralization encountered opposition in every + quarter. Only the royalists managed to preserve a semblance of unity. + Separate republics sprang into being and in 1813 declared their + independence of Spain. Presidents and congresses were pitted against one + another. Towns fought among themselves. Even parishes demanded local + autonomy. For a while the services of Bolivar were invoked to force + rebellious areas into obedience to the principle of confederation, but + with scant result. Unable to agree with his fellow officers and displaying + traits of moral weakness which at this time as on previous occasions + showed that he had not yet risen to a full sense of responsibility, the + Liberator renounced the task and fled to Jamaica. + </p> + <p> + The scene now shifts northward to the viceroyalty of New Spain. Unlike the + struggles already described, the uprisings that began in 1810 in central + Mexico were substantially revolts of Indians and half-castes against white + domination. On the 16th of September, a crowd of natives rose under the + leadership of Miguel Hidalgo, a parish priest of the village of Dolores. + Bearing on their banners the slogan, "Long live Ferdinand VII and down + with bad government," the undisciplined crowd, soon to number tens of + thousands, aroused such terror by their behavior that the whites were + compelled to unite in self-defense. It mattered not whether Hidalgo hoped + to establish a republic or simply to secure for his followers relief from + oppression: in either case the whites could expect only Indian domination. + Before the trained forces of the whites a horde of natives, so ignorant of + modern warfare that some of them tried to stop cannon balls by clapping + their straw hats over the mouths of the guns, could not stand their + ground. Hidalgo was captured and shot, but he was succeeded by Jose Maria + Morelos, also a priest. Reviving the old Aztec name for central Mexico, he + summoned a "Congress of Anahuac," which in 1813 asserted that dependence + on the throne of Spain was "forever broken and dissolved." Abler and more + humane than Hidalgo, he set up a revolutionary government that the + authorities of Mexico failed for a while to suppress. + </p> + <p> + In 1814, therefore, Spain still held the bulk of its dominions. Trinidad, + to be sure, had been lost to Great Britain, and both Louisiana and West + Florida to the United States. Royalist control, furthermore, had ceased in + parts of the viceroyalties of La Plata and New Granada. To regain Trinidad + and Louisiana was hopeless: but a wise policy conciliation or an + overwhelming display of armed force might yet restore Spanish rule where + it had been merely suspended. + </p> + <p> + Very different was the course of events in Brazil. Strangely enough, the + first impulse toward independence was given by the Portuguese royal + family. Terrified by the prospective invasion of the country by a French + army, late in 1807 the Prince Regent, the royal family, and a host of + Portuguese nobles and commoners took passage on British vessels and sailed + to Rio de Janeiro. Brazil thereupon became the seat of royal government + and immediately assumed an importance which it could never have attained + as a mere dependency. Acting under the advice of the British minister, the + Prince Regent threw open the ports of the colony to the ships of all + nations friendly to Portugal, gave his sanction to a variety of reforms + beneficial to commerce and industry, and even permitted a printing press + to be set up, though only for official purposes. From all these benevolent + activities Brazil derived great advantages. On the other hand, the Prince + Regent's aversion to popular education or anything that might savor of + democracy and the greed of his followers for place and distinction + alienated his colonial subjects. They could not fail to contrast autocracy + in Brazil with the liberal ideas that had made headway elsewhere in + Spanish America. As a consequence a spirit of unrest arose which boded ill + for the maintenance of Portuguese rule. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III "INDEPENDENCE OR DEATH" + </h2> + <p> + The restoration of Ferdinand VII to his throne in 1814 encouraged the + liberals of Spain, no less than the loyalists of Spanish America, to hope + that the "old King" would now grant a new dispensation. Freedom of + commerce and a fair measure of popular representation in government, it + was believed, would compensate both the mother country for the suffering + which it had undergone during the Peninsular War and the colonies for the + trials to which loyalty had been subjected. But Ferdinand VII was a + typical Bourbon. Nothing less than an absolute reestablishment of the + earlier regime would satisfy him. On both sides of the Atlantic, + therefore, the liberals were forced into opposition to the crown, although + they were so far apart that they could not cooperate with each other. + Independence was to be the fortune of the Spanish Americans, and a + continuance of despotism, for a while, the lot of the Spaniards. + </p> + <p> + As the region of the viceroyalty of La Plata had been the first to cast + off the authority of the home government, so it was the first to complete + its separation from Spain. Despite the fact that disorder was rampant + everywhere and that most of the local districts could not or would not + send deputies, a congress that assembled at Tucuman voted on July 9, 1816, + to declare the "United Provinces in South America" independent. + Comprehensive though the expression was, it applied only to the central + part of the former viceroyalty, and even there it was little more than an + aspiration. Mistrust of the authorities at Buenos Aires, insistence upon + provincial autonomy, failure to agree upon a particular kind of republican + government, and a lingering inclination to monarchy made progress toward + national unity impossible. In 1819, to be sure, a constitution was + adopted, providing for a centralized government, but in the country at + large it encountered too much resistance from those who favored a federal + government to become effective. + </p> + <p> + In the Banda Oriental, over most of which Artigas and his horsemen held + sway, chaotic conditions invited aggression from the direction of Brazil. + This East Bank of the Uruguay had long been disputed territory between + Spain and Portugal; and now its definite acquisition by the latter seemed + an easy undertaking. Instead, however, the task turned out to be a truly + formidable one. Montevideo, feebly defended by the forces of the + Government at Buenos Aires, soon capitulated, but four years elapsed + before the rest of the country could be subdued. Artigas fled to Paraguay, + where he fell into the clutches of Francia, never to escape. In 1821 the + Banda Oriental was annexed to Brazil as the Cisplatine Province. + </p> + <p> + Over Paraguay that grim and somber potentate, known as "The Supreme One"—El + Supremo—presided with iron hand. In 1817 Francia set up a despotism + unique in the annals of South America. Fearful lest contact with the outer + world might weaken his tenacious grip upon his subjects, whom he + terrorized into obedience, he barred approach to the country and suffered + no one to leave it. He organized and drilled an army obedient to his + will.. When he went forth by day, attended by an escort of cavalry, the + doors and windows of houses had to be kept closed and no one was allowed + on the streets. Night he spent till a late hour in reading and study, + changing his bedroom frequently to avoid assassination. Religious + functions that might disturb the public peace he forbade. Compelling the + bishop of Asuncion to resign on account of senile debility, Francia + himself assumed the episcopal office. Even intermarriage among the old + colonial families he prohibited, so as to reduce all to a common social + level. He attained his object. Paraguay became a quiet state, whatever + might be said of its neighbors! + </p> + <p> + Elsewhere in southern Spanish America a brilliant feat of arms brought to + the fore its most distinguished soldier. This was Jose de San Martin of La + Plata. Like Miranda, he had been an officer in the Spanish army and had + returned to his native land an ardent apostle of independence. Quick to + realize the fact that, so long as Chile remained under royalist control, + the possibility of an attack from that quarter was a constant menace to + the safety of the newly constituted republic, he conceived the bold plan + of organizing near the western frontier an army—composed partly of + Chilean refugees and partly of his own countrymen—with which he + proposed to cross the Andes and meet the enemy on his own ground. Among + these fugitives was the able and valiant Bernardo O'Higgins, son of an + Irish officer who had been viceroy of Peru. Cooperating with O'Higgins, + San Martin fixed his headquarters at Mendoza and began to gather and train + the four thousand men whom he judged needful for the enterprise. + </p> + <p> + By January, 1817, the "Army of the Andes" was ready. To cross the + mountains meant to transport men, horses, artillery, and stores to an + altitude of thirteen thousand feet, where the Uspallata Pass afforded an + outlet to Chilean soil. This pass was nearly a mile higher than the Great + St. Bernard in the Alps, the crossing of which gave Napoleon Bonaparte + such renown. On the 12th of February the hosts of San Martin hurled + themselves upon the royalists entrenched on the slopes of Chacabuco and + routed them utterly. The battle proved decisive not of the fortunes of + Chile alone but of those of all Spanish South America. As a viceroy of + Peru later confessed, "it marked the moment when the cause of Spain in the + Indies began to recede." + </p> + <p> + Named supreme director by the people of Santiago, O'Higgins fought + vigorously though ineffectually to drive out the royalists who, reinforced + from Peru, held the region south of the capital. That he failed did not + deter him from having a vote taken under military auspices, on the + strength of which, on February 12, 1818, he declared Chile an independent + nation, the date of the proclamation being changed to the 1st of January, + so as to make the inauguration of the new era coincident with the entry of + the new year. San Martin, meanwhile, had been collecting reinforcements + with which to strike the final blow. On the 5th of April, the Battle of + Maipo gave him the victory he desired. Except for a few isolated points to + the southward, the power of Spain had fallen. + </p> + <p> + Until the fall of Napoleon in 1815 it had been the native loyalists who + had supported the cause of the mother country in the Spanish dominions. + Henceforth, free from the menace of the European dictator, Spain could + look to her affairs in America, and during the next three years dispatched + twenty-five thousand men to bring the colonies to obedience. These + soldiers began their task in the northern part of South America, and there + they ended it—in failure. To this failure the defection of native + royalists contributed, for they were alienated not so much by the presence + of the Spanish troops as by the often merciless severity that marked their + conduct. The atrocities may have been provoked by the behavior of their + opponents; but, be this as it may, the patriots gained recruits after each + victory. + </p> + <p> + A Spanish army of more than ten thousand, under the command of Pablo + Morillo, arrived in Venezuela in April, 1815. He found the province + relatively tranquil and even disposed to welcome the full restoration of + royal government. Leaving a garrison sufficient for the purpose of + military occupation, Morillo sailed for Cartagena, the key to New Granada. + Besieged by land and sea, the inhabitants of the town maintained for + upwards of three months a resistance which, in its heroism, privation, and + sacrifice, recalled the memorable defense of Saragossa in the mother + country against the French seven years before. With Cartagena taken, + regulars and loyalists united to stamp out the rebellion elsewhere. At + Bogoth, in particular, the new Spanish viceroy installed by Morillo waged + a savage war on all suspected of aiding the patriot cause. He did not + spare even women, and one of his victims was a young heroine, Policarpa + Salavarrieta by name. Though for her execution three thousand soldiers + were detailed, the girl was unterrified by her doom and was earnestly + beseeching the loyalists among them to turn their arms against the enemies + of their country when a volley stretched her lifeless on the ground. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Bolivar had been fitting out, in Haiti and in the Dutch island + of Curacao, an expedition to take up anew the work of freeing Venezuela. + Hardly had the Liberator landed in May, 1816, when dissensions with his + fellow officers frustrated any prospect of success. Indeed they obliged + him to seek refuge once more in Haiti. Eventually, however, most of the + patriot leaders became convinced that, if they were to entertain a hope of + success, they must entrust their fortunes to Bolivar as supreme commander. + Their chances of success were increased furthermore by the support of the + llaneros who had been won over to the cause of independence. Under their + redoubtable chieftain, Jose Antonio Paez, these fierce and ruthless + horsemen performed many a feat of valor in the campaigns which followed. + </p> + <p> + Once again on Venezuelan soil, Bolivar determined to transfer his + operations to the eastern part of the country, which seemed to offer + better strategic advantages than the region about Caracas. But even here + the jealousy of his officers, the insubordination of the free lances, the + stubborn resistance of the loyalists—upheld by the wealthy and + conservative classes and the able generalship of Morillo, who had returned + from New Granada—made the situation of the Liberator all through + 1817 and 1818 extremely precarious. Happily for his fading fortunes, his + hands were strengthened from abroad. The United States had recognized the + belligerency of several of the revolutionary governments in South America + and had sent diplomatic agents to them. Great Britain had blocked every + attempt of Ferdinand VII to obtain help from the Holy Alliance in + reconquering his dominions. And Ferdinand had contributed to his own + undoing by failing to heed the urgent requests of Morillo for + reinforcements to fill his dwindling ranks. More decisive still were the + services of some five thousand British, Irish, French, and German + volunteers, who were often the mainstay of Bolivar and his lieutenants + during the later phases of the struggle, both in Venezuela and elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + For some time the Liberator had been evolving a plan of attack upon the + royalists in New Granada, similar to the offensive campaign which San + Martin had conducted in Chile. More than that, he had conceived the idea, + once independence had been attained, of uniting the western part of the + viceroyalty with Venezuela into a single republic. The latter plan he laid + down before a Congress which assembled at Angostura in February, 1819, and + which promptly chose him President of the republic and vested him with the + powers of dictator. In June, at the head of 2100 men, he started on his + perilous journey over the Andes. + </p> + <p> + Up through the passes and across bleak plateaus the little army struggled + till it reached the banks of the rivulet of Boyaca, in the very heart of + New Granada. Here, on the 7th of August, Bolivar inflicted on the royalist + forces a tremendous defeat that gave the deathblow to the domination of + Spain in northern South America. On his triumphal return to Angostura, the + Congress signalized the victory by declaring the whole of the viceroyalty + an independent state under the name of the "Republic of Colombia" and + chose the Liberator as its provisional President. Two years later, a + fundamental law it had adopted was ratified with certain changes by + another Congress assembled at Rosario de Cucuta, and Bolivar was made + permanent President. + </p> + <p> + Southward of Colombia lay the viceroyalty of Peru, the oldest, richest, + and most conservative of the larger Spanish dominions on the continent. + Intact, except for the loss of Chile, it had found territorial + compensation by stretching its power over the provinces of Quito and + Charcas, the one wrenched off from the former New Granada, the other torn + away from what had been La Plata. Predominantly royalist in sentiment, it + was like a huge wedge thrust in between the two independent areas. By thus + cutting off the patriots of the north from their comrades in the south, it + threatened both with destruction of their liberty. + </p> + <p> + Again fortune intervened from abroad, this time directly from Spain + itself. Ferdinand VII, who had gathered an army of twenty thousand men at + Cadiz, was ready to deliver a crushing blow at the colonies when in + January, 1890, a mutiny among the troops and revolution throughout the + country entirely frustrated the plan. But although that reactionary + monarch was compelled to accept the Constitution of 1819, the Spanish + liberals were unwilling to concede to their fellows in America anything + more substantial than representation in the Cortes. Independence they + would not tolerate. On the other hand, the example of the mother country + in arms against its King in the name of liberty could not fail to give + heart to the cause of liberation in the provinces oversea and to hasten + its achievement. + </p> + <p> + The first important efforts to profit by this situation were made by the + patriots in Chile. Both San Martin and O'Higgins had perceived that the + only effective way to eliminate the Peruvian wedge was to gain control of + its approaches by sea. The Chileans had already won some success in this + direction when the fiery and imperious Scotch sailor, Thomas Cochrane, + Earl of Dundonald, appeared on the scene and offered to organize a navy. + At length a squadron was put under his command. With upwards of four + thousand troops in charge of San Martin the expedition set sail for Peru + late in August, 1820. + </p> + <p> + While Cochrane busied himself in destroying the Spanish blockade, his + comrade in arms marched up to the very gates of Lima, the capital, and + everywhere aroused enthusiasm for emancipation. When negotiations, which + had been begun by the viceroy and continued by a special commissioner from + Spain, failed to swerve the patriot leader from his demand for a + recognition of independence, the royalists decided to evacuate the town + and to withdraw into the mountainous region of the interior. San Martin, + thereupon, entered the capital at the head of his army of liberation and + summoned the inhabitants to a town meeting at which they might determine + for themselves what action should be taken. The result was easily + foreseen. On July 28, 1821, Peru was declared independent, and a few days + later San Martin was invested with supreme command under the title of + "Protector." + </p> + <p> + But the triumph of the new Protector did not last long. For some reason he + failed to understand that the withdrawal of the royalists from the + neighborhood of the coast was merely a strategic retreat that made the + occupation of the capital a more or less empty performance. This blunder + and a variety of other mishaps proved destined to blight his military + career. Unfortunate in the choice of his subordinates and unable to retain + their confidence; accused of irresolution and even of cowardice; abandoned + by Cochrane, who sailed off to Chile and left the army stranded; incapable + of restraining his soldiers from indulgence in the pleasures of Lima; now + severe, now lax in an administration that alienated the sympathies of the + influential class, San Martin was indeed an unhappy figure. It soon became + clear that he must abandon all hope of ever conquering the citadel of + Spanish power in South America unless he could prevail upon Bolivar to + help him. + </p> + <p> + A junction of the forces of the two great leaders was perfectly feasible, + after the last important foothold of the Spaniards on the coast of + Venezuela had been broken by the Battle of Carabobo, on July 24, 1821. + Whether such a union would be made, however, depended upon two things: the + ultimate disposition of the province of Quito, lying between Colombia and + Peru, and the attitude which Bolivar and San Martin themselves should + assume toward each other. A revolution of the previous year at the seaport + town of Guayaquil in that province had installed an independent government + which besought the Liberator to sustain its existence. Prompt to avail + himself of so auspicious an opportunity of uniting this former division of + the viceroyalty of New Granada to his republic of Colombia, Bolivar + appointed Antonio Jose de Sucre, his ablest lieutenant and probably the + most efficient of all Spanish American soldiers of the time, to assume + charge of the campaign. On his arrival at Guayaquil, this officer found + the inhabitants at odds among themselves. Some, hearkening to the pleas of + an agent of San Martin, favored union with Peru; others, yielding to the + arguments of a representative of Bolivar, urged annexation to Colombia; + still others regarded absolute independence as most desirable. Under these + circumstances Sucre for a while made little headway against the royalists + concentrated in the mountainous parts of the country despite the partial + support he received from troops which were sent by the southern commander. + At length, on May 24, 1822, scaling the flanks of the volcano of + Pichincha, near the capital town of Quito itself, he delivered the blow + for freedom. Here Bolivar, who had fought his way overland amid tremendous + difficulties, joined him and started for Guayaquil, where he and San + Martin were to hold their memorable interview. + </p> + <p> + No characters in Spanish American history have called forth so much + controversy about their respective merits and demerits as these two heroes + of independence—Bolivar and San Martin. Even now it seems quite + impossible to obtain from the admirers of either an opinion that does full + justice to both; and foreigners who venture to pass judgment are almost + certain to provoke criticism from one set of partisans or the other. Both + Bolivar and San Martin were sons of country gentlemen, aristocratic by + lineage and devoted to the cause of independence. Bolivar was alert, + dauntless, brilliant, impetuous, vehemently patriotic, and yet often + capricious, domineering, vain, ostentatious, and disdainful of moral + considerations—a masterful man, fertile in intellect, fluent in + speech and with pen, an inspiring leader and one born to command in state + and army. Quite as earnest, equally courageous, and upholding in private + life a higher standard of morals, San Martin was relatively calm, + cautious, almost taciturn in manner, and slower in thought and action. He + was primarily a soldier, fitted to organize and conduct expeditions, + rather than, a man endowed with that supreme confidence in himself which + brings enthusiasm, affection, and loyalty in its train. + </p> + <p> + When San Martin arrived at Guayaquil, late in July, 1822, his hope of + annexing the province of Quito to Peru was rudely shattered by the news + that Bolivar had already declared it a part of Colombia. Though it was + outwardly cordial and even effusive, the meeting of the two men held out + no prospect of accord. In an interchange of views which lasted but a few + hours, mutual suspicion, jealousy, and resentment prevented their reaching + an effective understanding. The Protector, it would seem, thought the + Liberator actuated by a boundless ambition that would not endure + resistance. Bolivar fancied San Martin a crafty schemer plotting for his + own advancement. They failed to agree on the three fundamental points + essential to their further cooperation. Bolivar declined to give up the + province of Quito. He refused also to send an army into Peru unless he + could command it in person, and then he declined to undertake the + expedition on the ground that as President of Colombia he ought not to + leave the territory of the republic. Divining this pretext, San Martin + offered to serve under his orders—a feint that Bolivar parried by + protesting that he would not hear of any such self-denial on the part of a + brother officer. + </p> + <p> + Above all, the two men differed about the political form to be adopted for + the new independent states. Both of them realized that anything like + genuine democracies was quite impossible of attainment for many years to + come, and that strong administrations would be needful to tide the Spanish + Americans over from the political inexperience of colonial days and the + disorders of revolution to intelligent self-government, which could come + only after a practical acquaintance with public concerns on a large scale. + San Martin believed that a limited monarchy was the best form of + government under the circumstances. Bolivar held fast to the idea of a + centralized or unitary republic, in which actual power should be exercised + by a life president and an hereditary senate until the people, represented + in a lower house, should have gained a sufficient amount of political + experience. + </p> + <p> + When San Martin returned to Lima he found affairs in a worse state than + ever. The tyrannical conduct of the officer he had left in charge had + provoked an uprising that made his position insupportable. Conscious that + his mission had come to an end and certain that, unless he gave way, a + collision with Bolivar was inevitable, San Martin resolved to sacrifice + himself lest harm befall the common cause in which both had done such + yeoman service. Accordingly he resigned his power into the hands of a + constituent congress and left the country. But when he found that no + happier fortune awaited him in Chile and in his own native land, San + Martin decided to abandon Spanish America forever and go into selfimposed + exile. Broken in health and spirit, he took up his residence in France, a + recipient of bounty from a Spaniard who had once been his comrade in arms. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile in the Mexican part of the viceroyalty of New Spain the cry of + independence raised by Morelos and his bands of Indian followers had been + stifled by the capture and execution of the leader. But the cause of + independence was not dead even if its achievement was to be entrusted to + other hands. Eager to emulate the example of their brethren in South + America, small parties of Spaniards and Creoles fought to overturn the + despotic rule of Ferdinand VII, only to encounter defeat from the + royalists. Then came the Revolution of 1820 in the mother country. + Forthwith demands were heard for a recognition of the liberal regime. + Fearful of being displaced from power, the viceroy with the support of the + clergy and aristocracy ordered Agustin de Iturbide, a Creole officer who + had been an active royalist, to quell an insurrection in the southern part + of the country. + </p> + <p> + The choice of this soldier was unfortunate. Personally ambitious and + cherishing in secret the thought of independence, Iturbide, faithless to + his trust, entered into negotiations with the insurgents which culminated + February 24, 1821, in what was called the "Plan of Iguala." It contained + three main provisions, or "guarantees," as they were termed: the + maintenance of the Catholic religion to the exclusion of all others; the + establishment of a constitutional monarchy separate from Spain and ruled + by Ferdinand himself, or, if he declined the honor, by some other European + prince; and the union of Mexicans and Spaniards without distinction of + caste or privilege. A temporary government also, in the form of a junta + presided over by the viceroy, was to be created; and provision was made + for the organization of an "Army of the Three Guarantees." + </p> + <p> + Despite opposition from the royalists, the plan won increasing favor. + Powerless to thwart it and inclined besides to a policy of conciliation, + the new viceroy, Juan O'Donoju, agreed to ratify it on condition—in + obedience to a suggestion from Iturbide—that the parties concerned + should be at liberty, if they desired, to choose any one as emperor, + whether he were of a reigning family or not. Thereupon, on the 28th of + September, the provisional government installed at the city of Mexico + announced the consummation of an "enterprise rendered eternally memorable, + which a genius beyond all admiration and eulogy, love and glory of his + country, began at Iguala, prosecuted and carried into effect, overcoming + obstacles almost insuparable"—and declared the independence of a + "Mexican Empire." The act was followed by the appointment of a regency to + govern until the accession of Ferdinand VII, or some other personage, to + the imperial throne. Of this body Iturbide assumed the presidency, which + carried with it the powers of commander in chief and a salary of 120,000 + pesos, paid from the day on which the Plan of Iguala was signed. O'Donoju + contented himself with membership on the board and a salary of one-twelfth + that amount, until his speedy demise removed from the scene the last of + the Spanish viceroys in North America. + </p> + <p> + One step more was needed. Learning that the Cortes in Spain had rejected + the entire scheme, Iturbide allowed his soldiers to acclaim him emperor, + and an unwilling Congress saw itself obliged to ratify the choice. On July + 21, 1822, the destinies of the country were committed to the charge of + Agustin the First. + </p> + <p> + As in the area of Mexico proper, so in the Central American part of the + viceroyalty of New Spain, the Spanish Revolution of 1820 had unexpected + results. Here in the five little provinces composing the captaincy general + of Guatemala there was much unrest, but nothing of a serious nature + occurred until after news had been brought of the Plan of Iguala and its + immediate outcome. Thereupon a popular assembly met at the capital town of + Guatemala, and on September 15, 1821, declared the country an independent + state. This radical act accomplished, the patriot leaders were unable to + proceed further. Demands for the establishment of a federation, for a + recognition of local autonomy, for annexation to Mexico, were all heard, + and none, except the last, was answered. While the "Imperialists" and + "Republicans" were arguing it out, a message from Emperor Agustin + announced that he would not allow the new state to remain independent. On + submission of the matter to a vote of the cabildos, most of them approved + reunion with the northern neighbor. Salvador alone among the provinces + held out until troops from Mexico overcame its resistance. + </p> + <p> + On the continents of America, Spain had now lost nearly all its its + possessions. In 1822 the United States had already acquired East Florida + on its own account, led off in recognizing the independence of the several + republics. Only in Peru and Charcas the royalists still battled on behalf + of the mother country. In the West Indies, Santo Domingo followed the lead + of its sister colonies on the mainland by asserting in 1821 its + independence; but its brief independent life was snuffed out by the + negroes of Haiti, once more a republic, who spread their control over the + entire island. Cuba also felt the impulse of the times. But, apart from + the agitation of secret societies like the "Rays and Suns of Bolivar," + which was soon checked, the colony remained tranquil. + </p> + <p> + In Portuguese America the knowledge of what had occurred throughout the + Spanish dominions could not fail to awaken a desire for independence. The + Prince Regent was well aware of the discontent of the Brazilians, but he + thought to allay it by substantial concessions. In 1815 he proceeded to + elevate the colony to substantial equality with the mother country by + joining them under the title of "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and + the Algarves." The next year the Prince Regent himself became King under + the name of John IV. The flame of discontent, nevertheless, continued to + smolder. Republican outbreaks, though quelled without much difficulty, + recurred. Even the reforms which had been instituted by John himself while + Regent, and which had assured freer communication with the world at large, + only emphasized more and more the absurdity of permitting a feeble little + land like Portugal to retain its hold upon a region so extensive and + valuable as Brazil. + </p> + <p> + The events of 1820 in Portugal hastened the movement toward independence. + Fired by the success of their Spanish comrades, the Portuguese liberals + forthwith rose in revolt, demanded the establishment of a limited + monarchy, and insisted that the King return to his people. In similar + fashion, also, they drew up a constitution which provided for the + representation of Brazil by deputies in a future Cortes. Beyond this they + would concede no special privileges to the colony. Indeed their idea seems + to have been that, with the King once more in Lisbon, their own liberties + would be secure and those of Brazil would be reduced to what were + befitting a mere dependency. Yielding to the inevitable, the King decided + to return to Portugal, leaving the young Crown Prince to act as Regent in + the colony. A critical moment for the little country and its big dominion + oversea had indubitably arrived. John understood the trend of the times, + for on the eve of his departure he said to his son: "Pedro, if Brazil is + to separate itself from Portugal, as seems likely, you take the crown + yourself before any one else gets it!" + </p> + <p> + Pedro was liberal in sentiment, popular among the Brazilians, and + well-disposed toward the aspirations of the country for a larger measure + of freedom, and yet not blind to the interests of the dynasty of Braganza. + He readily listened to the urgent pleas of the leaders of the separatist + party against obeying the repressive mandaes of the Cortes. Laws which + abolished the central government of the colony and made the various + provinces individually subject to Portugal he declined to notice. With + equal promptness he refused to heed an order bidding him return to + Portugal immediately. To a delegation of prominent Brazilians he said + emphatically: "For the good of all and the general welfare of the nation, + I shall stay." More than that, in May, 1822, he accepted from the + municipality of Rio de Janeiro the title of "Perpetual and Constitutional + Defender of Brazil," and in a series of proclamations urged the people of + the country to begin the great work of emancipation by forcibly resisting, + if needful, any attempt at coercion. + </p> + <p> + Pedro now believed the moment had come to take the final step. While on a + journey through the province of Sao Paulo, he was overtaken on the 7th of + September, near a little stream called the Ypiranga, by messengers with + dispatches from Portugal. Finding that the Cortes had annulled his acts + and declared his ministers guilty of treason, Pedro forthwith proclaimed + Brazil an independent state. The "cry of Ypiranga" was echoed with + tremendous enthusiasm throughout the country. When Pedro appeared in the + theater at Rio de Janeiro, a few days later, wearing on his arm a ribbon + on which were inscribed the words "Independence or Death," he was given a + tumultuous ovation. On the first day of December the youthful monarch + assumed the title of Emperor, and Brazil thereupon took its place among + the nations of America. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. PLOUGHING THE SEA + </h2> + <p> + When the La Plata Congress at Tucuman took the decisive action that + severed the bond with Spain, it uttered a prophecy for all Spanish + America. To quote its language: "Vast and fertile regions, climates benign + and varied, abundant means of subsistence, treasures of gold and silver... + and fine productions of every sort will attract to our continent + innumerable thousands of immigrants, to whom we shall open a safe place of + refuge and extend a beneficent protection." More hopeful still were the + words of a spokesman for another independent country: "United, neither the + empire of the Assyrians, the Medes or the Persians, the Macedonian or the + Roman Empire, can ever be compared with this colossal republic." + </p> + <p> + Very different was the vision of Bolivar. While a refugee in Jamaica he + wrote: "We are a little human species; we possess a world apart... new in + almost all the arts and sciences, and yet old, after a fashion, in the + uses of civil society.... Neither Indians nor Europeans, we are a species + that lies midway .... Is it conceivable that a people recently freed of + its chains can launch itself into the sphere of liberty without shattering + its wings, like Icarus, and plunging into the abyss? Such a prodigy is + inconceivable, never beheld." Toward the close of his career he declared: + "The majority are mestizos, mulattoes, Indians, and negroes. An ignorant + people is a blunt instrument for its own destruction. To it liberty means + license, patriotism means disloyalty, and justice means vengeance." + "Independence," he exclaimed, "is the only good we have achieved, at the + cost of everything else." + </p> + <p> + Whether the abounding confidence of the prophecy or the anxious doubt of + the vision would come true, only the future could tell. In 1822, at all + events, optimism was the watchword and the total exclusion of Spain from + South America the goal of Bolivar and his lieutenants, as they started + southward to complete the work of emancipation which had been begun by San + Martin. + </p> + <p> + The patriots of Peru, indeed, had fallen into straits so desperate that an + appeal to the Liberator offered the only hope of salvation. While the + royalists under their able and vigilant leader, Jose Canterac, continued + to strengthen their grasp upon the interior of the country and to uphold + the power of the viceroy, the President chosen by the Congress had been + driven by the enemy from Lima. A number of the legislators in wrath + thereupon declared the President deposed. Not to be outdone, that + functionary on his part declared the Congress dissolved. The malcontents + immediately proceeded to elect a new chief magistrate, thus bringing two + Presidents into the field and inaugurating a spectacle destined to become + all too common in the subsequent annals of Spanish America. + </p> + <p> + When Bolivar arrived at Callao, the seaport of Lima, in September, 1823, + he acted with prompt vigor. He expelled one President, converted the other + into a passive instrument of his will, declined to promulgate a + constitution that the Congress had prepared, and, after obtaining from + that body an appointment to supreme command, dissolved the Congress + without further ado. Unfortunately none of these radical measures had any + perceptible effect upon the military situation. Though Bolivar gathered + together an army made up of Colombians, Peruvians, and remnants of San + Martin's force, many months elapsed before he could venture upon a serious + campaign. Then events in Spain played into his hands. The reaction that + had followed the restoration of Ferdinand VII to absolute power crossed + the ocean and split the royalists into opposing factions. Quick to seize + the chance thus afforded, Bolivar marched over the Andes to the plain of + Junin. There, on August 6, 1824, he repelled an onslaught by Canterac and + drove that leader back in headlong flight. Believing, however, that the + position he held was too perilous to risk an offensive, he entrusted the + military command to Sucre and returned to headquarters. + </p> + <p> + The royalists had now come to realize that only a supreme effort could + save them. They must overwhelm Sucre before reinforcements could reach + him, and to this end an army of upwards of ten thousand was assembled. On + the 9th of December it encountered Sucre and his six thousand soldiers in + the valley of Ayacucho, or "Corner of Death," where the patriot general + had entrenched his army with admirable skill. The result was a total + defeat for the royalists—the Waterloo of Spain in South America. The + battle thus won by ragged and hungry soldiers—whose countersign the + night before had been "bread and cheese"—threw off the yoke of the + mother country forever. The viceroy fell wounded into their hands and + Canterac surrendered. On receipt of the glorious news, the people of Lima + greeted Bolivar with wild enthusiasm. A Congress prolonged his + dictatorship amid adulations that bordered on the grotesque. + </p> + <p> + Eastward of Peru in the vast mountainous region of Charcas, on the very + heights of South America, the royalists still found a refuge. In January, + 1825, a patriot general at the town of La Paz undertook on his own + responsibility to declare the entire province independent, alike of Spain, + Peru, and the United Provinces of La Plata. This action was too + precipitous, not to say presumptuous, to suit Bolivar and Sucre. The + better to control the situation, the former went up to La Paz and the + latter to Chuquisaca, the capital, where a Congress was to assemble for + the purpose of imparting a more orderly turn to affairs. Under the + direction of the "Marshal of Ayacucho," as Sucre was now called, the + Congress issued on the 6th of August a formal declaration of independence. + In honor of the Liberator it christened the new republic "Bolivar"—later + Latinized into "Bolivia"—and conferred upon him the presidency so + long as he might choose to remain. In November, 1896, a new Congress which + had been summoned to draft a constitution accepted, with slight + modifications, an instrument that the Liberator himself had prepared. That + body also renamed the capital "Sucre" and chose the hero of Ayacucho as + President of the republic. + </p> + <p> + Now, the Liberator thought, was the opportune moment to impose upon his + territorial namesake a constitution embodying his ideas of a stable + government which would give Spanish Americans eventually the political + experience they needed. Providing for an autocracy represented by a life + President, it ran the gamut of aristocracy and democracy, all the way from + "censors" for life, who were to watch over the due enforcement of the + laws, down to senators and "tribunes" chosen by electors, who in turn were + to be named by a select citizenry. Whenever actually present in the + territory of the republic, the Liberator was to enjoy supreme command, in + case he wished to exercise it. + </p> + <p> + In 1826 Simon Bolivar stood at the zenith of his glory and power. No + adherents of the Spanish regime were left in South America to menace the + freedom of its independent states. In January a resistance kept up for + nine years by a handful of royalists lodged on the remote island of + Chiloe, off the southern coast of Chile, had been broken, and the garrison + at the fortress of Callao had laid down its arms after a valiant struggle. + Among Spanish Americans no one was comparable to the marvelous man who had + founded three great republics stretching from the Caribbean Sea to the + Tropic of Capricorn. Hailed as the "Liberator" and the "Terror of + Despots," he was also acclaimed by the people as the "Redeemer, the + First-Born Son of the New World!" National destinies were committed to his + charge, and equestrian statues were erected in his honor. In the popular + imagination he was ranked with Napoleon as a peerless conqueror, and with + Washington as the father of his country. That megalomania should have + seized the mind of the Liberator under circumstances like these is not + strange. + </p> + <p> + Ever a zealous advocate of large states, Bolivar was an equally ardent + partisan of confederation. As president of three republics—of + Colombia actually, and of its satellites, Peru and Bolivia, through his + lieutenants—he could afford now to carry out the plan that he had + long since cherished of assembling at the town of Panama, on Colombian + soil, an "august congress" representative of the independent countries of + America. Here, on the isthmus created by nature to join the continents, + the nations created by men should foregather and proclaim fraternal + accord. Presenting to the autocratic governments of Europe a solid front + of resistance to their pretensions as well as a visible symbol of unity in + sentiment, such a Congress by meeting periodically would also promote + friendship among the republics of the western hemisphere and supply a + convenient means of settling their disputes. + </p> + <p> + At this time the United States was regarded by its sister republics with + all the affection which gratitude for services rendered to the cause of + emancipation could evoke. Was it not itself a republic, its people a + democracy, its development astounding, and its future radiant with hope? + The pronouncement of President Monroe, in 1823, protesting against + interference on the part of European powers with the liberties of + independent America, afforded the clearest possible proof that the great + northern republic was a natural protector, guide, and friend whose advice + and cooperation ought to be invoked. The United States was accordingly + asked to take part in the assembly—not to concert military measures, + but simply to join its fellows to the southward in a solemn proclamation + of the Monroe Doctrine by America at large and to discuss means of + suppressing the slave trade. + </p> + <p> + The Congress that met at Panama, in June, 1826, afforded scant + encouragement to Bolivar's roseate hope of interAmerican solidarity. + Whether because of the difficulties of travel, or because of internal + dissensions, or because of the suspicion that the megalomania of the + Liberator had awakened in Spanish America, only the four continental + countries nearest the isthmus—Mexico, Central America, Colombia, and + Peru—were represented. The delegates, nevertheless, signed a compact + of "perpetual union, league, and confederation," provided for mutual + assistance to be rendered by the several nations in time of war, and + arranged to have the Areopagus of the Americas transferred to Mexico. None + of the acts of this Congress was ratified by the republics concerned, + except the agreement for union, which was adopted by Colombia. + </p> + <p> + Disheartening to Bolivar as this spectacle was, it proved merely the first + of a series of calamities which were to overshadow the later years of the + Liberator. His grandiose political structure began to crumble, for it was + built on the shifting sands of a fickle popularity. The more he urged a + general acceptance of the principles of his autocratic constitution, the + surer were his followers that he coveted royal honors. In December he + imposed his instrument upon Peru. Then he learned that a meeting in + Venezuela, presided over by Paez, had declared itself in favor of + separation from Colombia. Hardly had he left Peru to check this movement + when an uprising at Lima deposed his representative and led to the summons + of a Congress which, in June, 1827, restored the former constitution and + chose a new President. In Quito, also, the government of the unstable + dictator was overthrown. + </p> + <p> + Alarmed by symptoms of disaffection which also appeared in the western + part of the republic, Bolivar hurried to Bogota. There in the hope of + removing the growing antagonism, he offered his "irrevocable" resignation, + as he had done on more than one occasion before. Though the malcontents + declined to accept his withdrawal from office, they insisted upon his + calling a constitutional convention. Meeting at Ocana, in April, 1828, + that body proceeded to abolish the life tenure of the presidency, to limit + the powers of the executive, and to increase those of the legislature. + Bolivar managed to quell the opposition in dictatorial fashion; but his + prestige had by this time fallen so low that an attempt was made to + assassinate him. The severity with which he punished the conspirators + served only to diminish still more the popular confidence which he had + once enjoyed. Even in Bolivia his star of destiny had set. An outbreak of + Colombian troops at the capital forced the faithful Sucre to resign and + leave the country. The constitution was then modified to meet the demand + for a less autocratic government, and a new chief magistrate was + installed. + </p> + <p> + Desperately the Liberator strove to ward off the impending collapse. + Though he recovered possession of the division of Quito, a year of warfare + failed to win back Peru, and he was compelled to renounce all pretense of + governing it. Feeble in body and distracted in mind, he condemned bitterly + the machinations of his enemies. "There is no good faith in Colombia," he + exclaimed, "neither among men nor among nations. Treaties are paper; + constitutions, books; elections, combats; liberty, anarchy, and life + itself a torment." + </p> + <p> + But the hardest blow was yet to fall. Late in December, 1829, an assembly + at Caracas declared Venezuela a separate state. The great republic was + rent in twain, and even what was left soon split apart. In May, 1830, came + the final crash. The Congress at Bogota drafted a constitution, providing + for a separate republic to bear the old Spanish name of "New Granada," + accepted definitely the resignation of Bolivar, and granted him a pension. + Venezuela, his native land, set up a congress of its own and demanded that + he be exiled. The division of Quito declared itself independent, under the + name of the "Republic of the Equator" (Ecuador). Everywhere the artificial + handiwork of the Liberator lay in ruins. "America is ungovernable. Those + who have served in the revolution have ploughed the sea," was his + despairing cry. + </p> + <p> + Stricken to death, the fallen hero retired to an estate near Santa Marta. + Here, like his famous rival, San Martin, in France, he found hospitality + at the hands of a Spaniard. On December 17, 1830, the Liberator gave up + his troubled soul. + </p> + <p> + While Bolivar's great republic was falling apart, the United Provinces of + La Plata had lost practically all semblance of cohesion. So broad were + their notions of liberty that the several provinces maintained a + substantial independence of one another, while within each province the + caudillos, or partisan chieftains, fought among themselves. + </p> + <p> + Buenos Aires alone managed to preserve a measure of stability. This + comparative peace was due to the financial and commercial measures devised + by Bernardino Rivadavia, one of the most capable statesmen of the time, + and to the energetic manner in which disorder was suppressed by Juan + Manuel de Rosas, commander of the gaucho, or cowboy, militia. Thanks also + to the former leader, the provinces were induced in 1826 to join in + framing a constitution of a unitary character, which vested in the + administration at Buenos Aires the power of appointing the local governors + and of controlling foreign affairs. The name of the country was at the + same time changed to that of the "Argentine Confederation"(c)-a Latin + rendering of "La Plata." + </p> + <p> + No sooner had Rivadavia assumed the presidency under the new order of + things than dissension at home and warfare abroad threatened to destroy + all that he had accomplished. Ignoring the terms of the constitution, the + provinces had already begun to reject the supremacy of Buenos Aires, when + the outbreak of a struggle with Brazil forced the contending parties for a + while to unite in the face of the common enemy. As before, the object of + international dispute was the region of the Banda Oriental. The rule of + Brazil had not been oppressive, but the people of its Cisplatine Province, + attached by language and sympathy to their western neighbors, longed + nevertheless to be free of foreign control. In April, 1825, a band of + thirty-three refugees arrived from Buenos Aires and started a revolution + which spread throughout the country. Organizing a provisional government, + the insurgents proclaimed independence of Brazil and incorporation with + the United Provinces of La Plata. As soon as the authorities at Buenos + Aires had approved this action, war was inevitable. Though the Brazilians + were decisively beaten at the Battle of Ituzaingo, on February 20, 1827, + the struggle lasted until August 28, 1828, when mediation by Great Britain + led to the conclusion of a treaty at Rio de Janeiro, by which both Brazil + and the Argentine Confederation recognized the absolute independence of + the disputed province as the republic of Uruguay. + </p> + <p> + Instead of quieting the discord that prevailed among the Argentinos, these + victories only fomented trouble. The federalists had ousted Rivadavia and + discarded the constitution, but the federal idea for which they stood had + several meanings. To an inhabitant of Buenos Aires federalism meant + domination by the capital, not only over the province of the same name but + over the other provinces; whereas, to the people of the provinces, and + even to many of federalist faith in the province of Buenos Aires itself, + the term stood for the idea of a loose confederation in which each + provincial governor or chieftain should be practically supreme in his own + district, so long as he could maintain himself. The Unitaries were + opponents of both, except in so far as their insistence upon a centralized + form of government for the nation would necessarily lead to the location + of that government at Buenos Aires. This peculiar dual contest between the + town and the province of Buenos Aires, and of the other provinces against + either or both, persisted for the next sixty years. In 1829, however, a + prolonged lull set in, when Rosas, the gaucho leader, having won in + company with other caudillos a decisive triumph over the Unitaries, + entered the capital and took supreme command. + </p> + <p> + In Chile the course of events had assumed quite a different aspect. Here, + in 1818, a species of constitution had been adopted by popular vote in a + manner that appeared to show remarkable unanimity, for the books in which + the "ayes" and "noes" were to be recorded contained no entries in the + negative! What the records really prove is that O'Higgins, the Supreme + Director, enjoyed the confidence of the ruling class. In exercise of the + autocratic power entrusted to him, he now proceeded to introduce a variety + of administrative reforms of signal advantage to the moral and material + welfare of the country. But as the danger of conquest from any quarter + lessened, the demand for a more democratic organization grew louder, until + in 1822 it became so persistent that O'Higgins called a convention to + draft a new fundamental law. But its provisions suited neither himself nor + his opponents. Thereupon, realizing that his views of the political + capacity of the people resembled those of Bolivar and were no longer + applicable, and that his reforms had aroused too much hostility, the + Supreme Director resigned his post and retired to Peru. Thus another hero + of emancipation had met the ingratitude for which republics are notorious. + </p> + <p> + Political convulsions in the country followed the abdication of O'Higgins. + Not only had the spirit of the strife between Unitaries and Federalists + been communicated to Chile from the neighboring republic to the eastward, + but two other parties or factions, divided on still different lines, had + arisen. These were the Conservative and the Liberal, or Bigwigs + (pelucones) and Greenhorns (pipiolos), as the adherents of the one + derisively dubbed the partisans of the other. Although in the ups and + downs of the struggle two constitutions were adopted, neither sufficed to + quiet the agitation. Not until 1830, when the Liberals sustained an utter + defeat on the field of battle, did the country enter upon a period of + quiet progress along conservative lines. From that time onward it + presented a surprising contrast to its fellow republics, which were beset + with afflictions. + </p> + <p> + Far to the northward, the Empire of Mexico set up by Iturbide in 1822 was + doomed to a speedy fall. "Emperor by divine providence," that ambitious + adventurer inscribed on his coins, but his countrymen knew that the + bayonets of his soldiers were the actual mainstay of his pretentious + title. Neither his earlier career nor the size of his following was + sufficiently impressive to assure him popular support if the military prop + gave way. His lavish expenditures, furthermore, and his arbitrary + replacement of the Congress by a docile body which would authorize forced + loans at his command, steadily undermined his position. Apart from the + faults of Iturbide himself, the popular sentiment of a country bordering + immediately upon the United States could not fail to be colored by the + ideas and institutions of its great neighbor. So, too, the example of what + had been accomplished, in form at least, by their kinsmen elsewhere in + America was bound to wield a potent influence on the minds of the + Mexicans. As a result, their desire for a republic grew stronger from day + to day. + </p> + <p> + Iturbide, in fact, had not enjoyed his exalted rank five months when + Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, a young officer destined later to become a + conspicuous figure in Mexican history, started a revolt to replace the + "Empire" by a republic. Though he failed in his object, two of Iturbide's + generals joined the insurgents in demanding a restoration of the Congress—an + act which, as the hapless "Emperor" perceived, would amount to his + dethronement. Realizing his impotence, Iturbide summoned the Congress and + announced his abdication. But instead of recognizing this procedure, that + body declared his accession itself null and void; it agreed, however, to + grant him a pension if he would leave the country and reside in Italy. + With this disposition of his person Iturbide complied; but he soon wearied + of exile and persuaded himself that he would not lack supporters if he + tried to regain his former control in Mexico. This venture he decided to + make in complete ignorance of a decree ordering his summary execution if + he dared to set foot again on Mexican soil. He had hardly landed in July, + 1824, when he was seized and shot. + </p> + <p> + Since a constituent assembly had declared itself in favor of establishing + a federal form of republic patterned after that of the United States, the + promulgation of a constitution followed on October 4, 1824, and Guadalupe + Victoria, one of the leaders in the revolt against Iturbide, was chosen + President of the United Mexican States. Though considerable unrest + prevailed toward the close of his term, the new President managed to + retain his office for the allotted four years. In most respects, however, + the new order of things opened auspiciously. In November, 1825, the + surrender of the fortress of San Juan de Ulua, in the harbor of Vera Cruz, + banished the last remnant of Spanish power, and two years later the + suppression of plots for the restoration of Ferdinand VII, coupled with + the expulsion of a large number of Spaniards, helped to restore calm. + There were those even who dared to hope that the federal system would + operate as smoothly in Mexico as it had done in the United States. + </p> + <p> + But the political organization of a country so different from its northern + neighbor in population, traditions, and practices, could not rest merely + on a basis of imitation, even more or less modified. The artificiality of + the fabric became apparent enough as soon as ambitious individuals and + groups of malcontents concerted measures to mold it into a likeness of + reality. Two main political factions soon appeared. For the form they + assumed British and American influences were responsible. Adopting a kind + of Masonic organization, the Conservatives and Centralists called + themselves Escoceses (Scottish-Rite Men), whereas the Radicals and + Federalists took the name of Yorkinos (York-Rite Men). Whatever their + respective slogans and professions of political faith, they were little + more than personal followers of rival generals or politicians who yearned + to occupy the presidential chair. + </p> + <p> + Upon the downfall of Iturbide, the malcontents in Central America + bestirred themselves to throw off the Mexican yoke. On July 1,1823, a + Congress declared the region an independent republic under the name of the + "United Provinces of Central America." In November of the next year, + following the precedent established in Mexico, and obedient also to local + demand, the new republic issued a constitution, in accordance with which + the five little divisions of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and + Costa Rica were to become states of a federal union, each having the + privilege of choosing its own local authorities. Immediately Federalists + and Centralists, Radicals and Conservatives, all wished, it would seem, to + impose their particular viewpoint upon their fellows. The situation was + not unlike that in the Argentine Confederation. The efforts of Guatemala—the + province in which power had been concentrated under the colonial regime—to + assert supremacy over its fellow states, and their refusal to respect + either the federal bond or one another's rights made civil war inevitable. + The struggle which broke out among Guatemala, Salvador, and Honduras, + lasted until 1829, when Francisco Morazan, at the head of the "Allied + Army, Upholder of the Law," entered the capital of the republic and + assumed dictatorial power. + </p> + <p> + Of all the Hispanic nations, however, Brazil was easily the most stable. + Here the leaders, while clinging to independence, strove to avoid + dangerous innovations in government. Rather than create a political system + for which the country was not prepared, they established a constitutional + monarchy. But Brazil itself was too vast and its interior too difficult of + access to allow it to become all at once a unit, either in organization or + in spirit. The idea of national solidarity had as yet made scant progress. + The old rivalry which existed between the provinces of the north, + dominated by Bahia or Pernambuco, and those of the south, controlled by + Rio de Janeiro or Sao Paulo, still made itself felt. What the Empire + amounted to, therefore, was an agglomeration of provinces, held together + by the personal prestige of a young monarch. + </p> + <p> + Since the mother country still held parts of northern Brazil, the Emperor + entrusted the energetic Cochrane, who had performed such valiant service + for Chile and Peru, with the task of expelling the foreign soldiery. When + this had been accomplished and a republican outbreak in the same region + had been suppressed, the more difficult task of satisfying all parties by + a constitution had to be undertaken. There were partisans of monarchy and + advocates of republicanism, men of conservative and of liberal sympathies; + disagreements, also, between the Brazilians and the native Portuguese + residents were frequent. So far as possible Pedro desired to meet popular + desires, and yet without imposing too many limitations on the monarchy + itself. But in the assembly called to draft the constitution the liberal + members made a determined effort to introduce republican forms. Pedro + thereupon dissolved that body and in 1826 promulgated a constitution of + his own. + </p> + <p> + The popularity of the Emperor thereafter soon began to wane, partly + because of the scandalous character of his private life, and partly + because he declined to observe constitutional restrictions and chose his + ministers at will. His insistent war in Portugal to uphold the claims of + his daughter to the throne betrayed, or seemed to betray, dynastic + ambitions. His inability to hold Uruguay as a Brazilian province, and his + continued retention of foreign soldiers who had been employed in the + struggle with the Argentine Confederation, for the apparent purpose of + quelling possible insurrections in the future, bred much discontent. So + also did the restraints he laid upon the press, which had been infected by + the liberal movements in neighboring republics. When he failed to subdue + these outbreaks, his rule became all the more discredited. Thereupon, + menaced by a dangerous uprising at Rio de Janeiro in 1831, he abdicated + the throne in favor of his son, Pedro, then five years of age, and set + sail for Portugal. + </p> + <p> + Under the influence of Great Britain the small European mother country had + in 1825 recognized the independence of its big transatlantic dominion; but + it was not until 1836 that the Cortes of Spain authorized the Crown to + enter upon negotiations looking to the same action in regard to the eleven + republics which had sprung out of its colonial domain. Even then many + years elapsed before the mother country acknowledged the independence of + them all. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. THE AGE OF THE DICTATORS + </h2> + <p> + Independence without liberty and statehood without respect for law are + phrases which sum up the situation in Spanish America after the failure of + Bolivar's "great design." The outcome was a collection of crude republics, + racked by internal dissension and torn by mutual jealousy—patrias + bobas, or "foolish fatherlands," as one of their own writers has termed + them. + </p> + <p> + Now that the bond of unity once supplied by Spain had been broken, the + entire region which had been its continental domain in America dissolved + awhile into its elements. The Spanish language, the traditions and customs + of the dominant class, and a "republican" form of government, were + practically the sole ties which remained. Laws, to be sure, had been + enacted, providing for the immediate or gradual abolition of negro slavery + and for an improvement in the status of the Indian and half-caste; but the + bulk of the inhabitants, as in colonial times, remained outside of the + body politic and social. Though the so-called "constitutions" might confer + upon the colored inhabitants all the privileges and immunities of citizens + if they could read and write, and even a chance to hold office if they + could show possession of a sufficient income or of a professional title of + some sort, their usual inability to do either made their privileges + illusory. Their only share in public concerns lay in performing military + service at the behest of their superiors. Even where the language of the + constitutions did not exclude the colored inhabitants directly or + indirectly, practical authority was exercised by dictators who played the + autocrat, or by "liberators" who aimed at the enjoyment of that function + themselves. + </p> + <p> + Not all the dictators, however, were selfish tyrants, nor all the + liberators mere pretenders. Disturbed conditions bred by twenty years of + warfare, antique methods of industry, a backward commerce, inadequate + means of communication, and a population ignorant, superstitious, and + scant, made a strong ruler more or less indispensable. Whatever his + official designation, the dictator was the logical successor of the + Spanish viceroy or captain general, but without the sense of + responsibility or the legal restraint of either. These circumstances + account for that curious political phase in the development of the Spanish + American nations—the presidential despotism. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the men who denounced oppression, unscrupulousness, and + venality, and who in rhetorical pronunciamentos urged the "people" to + overthrow the dictators, were often actuated by motives of patriotism, + even though they based their declarations on assumptions and assertions, + rather than on principles and facts. Not infrequently a liberator of this + sort became "provisional president" until he himself, or some person of + his choice, could be elected "constitutional president"—two other + institutions more or less peculiar to Spanish America. + </p> + <p> + In an atmosphere of political theorizing mingled with ambition for + personal advancement, both leaders and followers were professed devotees + of constitutions. No people, it was thought, could maintain a real + republic and be a true democracy if they did not possess a written + constitution. The longer this was, the more precise its definition of + powers and liberties, the more authentic the republic and the more genuine + the democracy was thought to be. In some countries the notion was carried + still farther by an insistence upon frequent changes in the fundamental + law or in the actual form of government, not so much to meet imperative + needs as to satisfy a zest for experimentation or to suit the whims of + mercurial temperaments. The congresses, constituent assemblies, and the + like, which drew these instruments, were supposed to be faithful + reproductions of similar bodies abroad and to represent the popular will. + In fact, however, they were substantially colonial cabildos, enlarged into + the semblance of a legislature, intent upon local or personal concerns, + and lacking any national consciousness. In any case the members were apt + to be creatures of a republican despot or else delegates of politicians or + petty factions. + </p> + <p> + Assuming that the leaders had a fairly clear conception of what they + wanted, even if the mass of their adherents did not, it is possible to + aline the factions or parties somewhat as follows: on the one hand, the + unitary, the military, the clerical, the conservative, and the moderate; + on the other, the federalist, the civilian, the lay, the liberal, and the + radical. Interspersed among them were the advocates of a presidential or + congressional system like that of the United States, the upholders of a + parliamentary regime like that of European nations, and the supporters of + methods of government of a more experimental kind. Broadly speaking, the + line of cleavage was made by opinions, concerning the form of government + and by convictions regarding the relations of Church and State. These + opinions were mainly a product of revolutionary experience; these + convictions, on the other hand, were a bequest from colonial times. + </p> + <p> + The Unitaries wished to have a system of government modeled upon that of + France. They wanted the various provinces made into administrative + districts over which the national authority should exercise full sway. + Their direct opponents, the Federalists, resembled to some extent the + Antifederalists rather than the party bearing the former title in the + earlier history of the United States; but even here an exact analogy + fails. They did not seek to have the provinces enjoy local self-government + or to have perpetuated the traditions of a sort of municipal home rule + handed down from the colonial cabildos, so much as to secure the + recognition of a number of isolated villages or small towns as sovereign + states—which meant turning them over as fiefs to their local + chieftains. Federalism, therefore, was the Spanish American expression for + a feudalism upheld by military lordlets and their retainers. + </p> + <p> + Among the measures of reform introduced by one republic or another during + the revolutionary period, abolition of the Inquisition had been one of the + foremost; otherwise comparatively little was done to curb the influence of + the Church. Indeed the earlier constitutions regularly contained articles + declaring Roman Catholicism the sole legal faith as well as the religion + of the state, and safeguarding in other respects its prestige in the + community. Here was an institution, wealthy, proud, and influential, which + declined to yield its ancient prerogatives and privileges and to that end + relied upon the support of clericals and conservatives who disliked + innovations of a democratic sort and viewed askance the entry of + immigrants professing an alien faith. Opposed to the Church stood + governments verging on bankruptcy, desirous of exercising supreme control, + and dominated by individuals eager to put theories of democracy into + practice and to throw open the doors of the republic freely to newcomers + from other lands. In the opinion of these radicals the Church ought to be + deprived both of its property and of its monopoly of education. The one + should be turned over to the nation, to which it properly belonged, and + should be converted into public utilities; the other should be made + absolutely secular, in order to destroy clerical influence over the + youthful mind. In this program radicals and liberals concurred with + varying degrees of intensity, while the moderates strove to hold the + balance between them and their opponents. + </p> + <p> + Out of this complex situation civil commotions were bound to arise. + Occasionally these were real wars, but as a rule only skirmishes or + sporadic insurrections occurred. They were called "revolutions," not + because some great principle was actually at stake but because the term + had been popular ever since the struggle with Spain. As a designation for + movements aimed at securing rotation in office, and hence control of the + treasury, it was appropriate enough! At all events, whether serious or + farcical, the commotions often involved an expenditure in life and money + far beyond the value of the interests affected. Further, both the + prevalent disorder and the centralization of authority impelled the + educated and well-to-do classes to take up their residence at the seat of + government. Not a few of the uprisings were, in fact, protests on the part + of the neglected folk in the interior of the country against concentration + of population, wealth, intellect, and power in the Spanish American + capitals. + </p> + <p> + Among the towns of this sort was Buenos Aires. Here, in 1829, Rosas + inaugurated a career of rulership over the Argentine Confederation, + culminating in a despotism that made him the most extraordinary figure of + his time. Originally a stockfarmer and skilled in all the exercises of the + cowboy, he developed an unusual talent for administration. His keen + intelligence, supple statecraft, inflexibility of purpose, and vigor of + action, united to a shrewd understanding of human follies and passions, + gave to his personality a dominance that awed and to his word of command a + power that humbled. Over his fellow chieftains who held the provinces in + terrorized subjection, he won an ascendancy that insured compliance with + his will. The instincts of the multitude he flattered by his generous + simplicity, while he enlisted the support of the responsible class by + maintaining order in the countryside. The desire, also, of Buenos Aires to + be paramount over the other provinces had no small share in strengthening + his power. + </p> + <p> + Relatively honest in money matters, and a stickler for precision and + uniformity, Rosas sought to govern a nation in the rough-and-ready fashion + of the stock farm. A creature of his environment, no better and no worse + than his associates, but only more capable than they, and absolutely + convinced that pitiless autocracy was the sole means of creating a nation + out of chaotic fragments, this "Robespierre of South America" carried on + his despotic sway, regardless of the fury of opponents and the menace of + foreign intervention. + </p> + <p> + During the first three years of his control, however, except for the + rigorous suppression of unitary movements and the muzzling of the press, + few signs appeared of the "black night of Argentine history" which was + soon to close down on the land. Realizing that the auspicious moment had + not yet arrived for him to exercise the limitless power that he thought + needful, he declined an offer of reelection from the provincial + legislature, in the hope that, through a policy of conciliation, his + successor might fall a prey to the designs of the Unitaries. When this + happened, he secretly stirred up the provinces into a renewal of the + earlier disturbances, until the evidence became overwhelming that Rosas + alone could bring peace and progress out of turmoil and backwardness. + Reluctantly the legislature yielded him the power it knew he wanted. This + he would not accept until a "popular" vote of some 9000 to 4 confirmed the + choice. In 1835, accordingly, he became dictator for the first of four + successive terms of five years. + </p> + <p> + Then ensued, notably in Buenos Aires itself, a state of affairs at once + grotesque and frightful. Not content with hunting down and inflicting + every possible, outrage upon those suspected of sympathy with the + Unitaries, Rosas forbade them to display the light blue and white colors + of their party device and directed that red, the sign of Federalism, + should be displayed on all occasions. Pink he would not tolerate as being + too attenuated a shade and altogether too suggestive of political + trimming! A band of his followers, made up of ruffians, and called the + Mazorca, or "Ear of Corn," because of the resemblance of their close + fellowship to its adhering grains, broke into private houses, destroyed + everything light blue within reach, and maltreated the unfortunate + occupants at will. No man was safe also who did not give his face a + leonine aspect by wearing a mustache and sidewhiskers—emblems, the + one of "federalism," and the other of "independence." To possess a visage + bare of these hirsute adornments or a countenance too efflorescent in that + respect was, under a regime of tonsorial politics, to invite personal + disaster! Nothing apparently was too cringing or servile to show how + submissive the people were to the mastery of Rosas. Private vengeance and + defamation of the innocent did their sinister work unchecked. Even when + his arbitrary treatment of foreigners had compelled France for a while to + institute a blockade of Buenos Aires, the wily dictator utilized the + incident to turn patriotic resentment to his own advantage. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile matters in Uruguay had come to such a pass that Rosas saw an + opportunity to extend his control in that direction also. Placed between + Brazil and the Argentine Confederation and so often a bone of contention, + the little country was hardly free from the rule of the former state when + it came near falling under the domination of the latter. Only a few years + of relative tranquillity had elapsed when two parties sprang up in + Uruguay: the "Reds" (Colorados) and the "Whites" (Blancos). Of these, the + one was supposed to represent the liberal and the other the conservative + element. In fact, they were the followings of partisan chieftains, whose + struggles for the presidency during many years to come retarded the + advancement of a country to which nature had been generous. + </p> + <p> + When Fructuoso Rivera, the President up to 1835, thought of choosing some + one to be elected in constitutional fashion as his successor, he unwisely + singled out Manuel Oribe, one of the famous "Thirty-three" who had raised + the cry of independence a decade before. But instead of a henchman he + found a rival. Both of them straightway adopted the colors and bid for the + support of one of the local factions; and both appealed to the factions of + the Argentine Confederation for aid, Rivera to the Unitaries and Oribe to + the Federalists. In 1843, Oribe, at the head of an army of Blancos and + Federalists and with the moral support of Rosas, laid siege to Montevideo. + Defended by Colorados, Unitaries, and numerous foreigners, including + Giuseppe Garibaldi, the town held out valiantly for eight years—a + feat that earned for it the title of the "New Troy." Anxious to stop the + slaughter and destruction that were injuring their nationals, France, + Great Britain, and Brazil offered their mediation; but Rosas would have + none of it. What the antagonists did he cared little, so long as they + enfeebled the country and increased his chances of dominating it. At + length, in 1845, the two European powers established a blockade of + Argentine ports, which was not lifted until the dictator grudgingly agreed + to withdraw his troops from the neighboring republic. + </p> + <p> + More than any other single factor, this intervention of France and Great + Britain administered a blow to Rosas from which he could not recover. The + operations of their fleets and the resistance of Montevideo had lowered + the prestige of the dictator and had raised the hopes of the Unitaries + that a last desperate effort might shake off his hated control. In May, + 1851, Justo Jose de Urquiza, one of his most trusted lieutenants, declared + the independence of his own province and called upon the others to rise + against the tyrant. Enlisting the support of Brazil, Uruguay, and + Paraguay, he assembled a "great army of liberation," composed of about + twenty-five thousand men, at whose head he marched to meet the redoubtable + Rosas. On February 3,1852, at a spot near Buenos Aires, the man of might + who, like his contemporary Francia in Paraguay, had held the Argentine + Confederation in thralldom for so many years, went down to final defeat. + Embarking on a British warship he sailed for England, there to become a + quiet country gentleman in a land where gauchos and dictators were + unhonored. + </p> + <p> + In the meantime Paraguay, spared from such convulsion as racked its + neighbor on the east, dragged on its secluded existence of backwardness + and stagnation. Indians and half-castes vegetated in ignorance and + docility, and the handful of whites quaked in terror, while the inexorable + Francia tightened the reins of commercial and industrial restriction and + erected forts along the frontiers to keep out the pernicious foreigner. At + his death, in 1840, men and women wept at his funeral in fear perchance, + as one historian remarks, lest he come back to life; and the priest who + officiated at the service likened the departed dictator to Caesar and + Augustus! + </p> + <p> + Paraguay was destined, however, to fall under a despot far worse than + Francia when in 1862 Francisco Solano Lopez became President. The new + ruler was a man of considerable intelligence and education. While a + traveler in Europe he had seen much of its military organizations, and he + had also gained no slight acquaintance with the vices of its capital + cities. This acquired knowledge he joined to evil propensities until he + became a veritable monster of wickedness. Vain, arrogant, reckless, + absolutely devoid of scruple, swaggering in victory, dogged in defeat, + ferociously cruel at all times, he murdered his brothers and his best + friends; he executed, imprisoned, or banished any one whom he thought too + influential; he tortured his mother and sisters; and, like the French + Terrorists, he impaled his officers upon the unpleasant dilemma of winning + victories or losing their lives. Even members of the American legation + suffered torment at his hands, and the minister himself barely escaped + death. + </p> + <p> + Over his people, Lopez wielded a marvelous power, compounded of persuasive + eloquence and brute force. If the Paraguayans had obeyed their earlier + masters blindly, they were dumb before this new despot and deaf to other + than his word of command. To them he was the "Great Father," who talked to + them in their own tongue of Guarani, who was the personification of the + nation, the greatest ruler in the world, the invincible champion who + inspired them with a loathing and contempt for their enemies. Such were + the traits of a man and such the traits of a people who waged for six + years a warfare among the most extraordinary in human annals. + </p> + <p> + What prompted Lopez to embark on his career of international madness and + prosecute it with the rage of a demon is not entirely clear. A vision of + himself as the Napoleon of southern South America, who might cause Brazil, + Argentina, and Uruguay to cringe before his footstool, while he disposed + at will of their territory and fortunes, doubtless stirred his + imagination. So, too, the thought of his country, wedged in between two + huge neighbors and threatened with suffocation between their overlapping + folds, may well have suggested the wisdom of conquering overland a highway + to the sea. At all events, he assembled an army of upwards of ninety + thousand men, the greatest military array that Hispanic America had ever + seen. Though admirably drilled and disciplined, they were poorly armed, + mostly with flintlock muskets, and they were also deficient in artillery + except that of antiquated pattern. With this mighty force at his back, yet + knowing that the neighboring countries could eventually call into the + field armies much larger in size equipped with repeating rifles and + supplied with modern artillery, the "Jupiter of Paraguay" nevertheless + made ready to launch his thunderbolt. + </p> + <p> + The primary object at which he aimed was Uruguay. In this little state the + Colorados, upheld openly or secretly by Brazil and Argentina, were + conducting a "crusade of liberty" against the Blanco government at + Montevideo, which was favored by Paraguay. Neither of the two great powers + wished to see an alliance formed between Uruguay and Paraguay, lest when + united in this manner the smaller nations might become too strong to + tolerate further intervention in their affairs. For her part, Brazil had + motives for resentment arising out of boundary disputes with Paraguay and + Uruguay, as well as out of the inevitable injury to its nationals + inflicted by the commotions in the latter country; whereas Argentina + cherished grievances against Lopez for the audacity with which his troops + roamed through her provinces and the impudence with which his vessels, + plying on the lower Parana, ignored the customs regulations. Thus it + happened that obscure civil discords in one little republic exploded into + a terrific international struggle which shook South America to its + foundations. + </p> + <p> + In 1864, scorning the arts of diplomacy which he did not apparently + understand, Lopez sent down an order for the two big states to leave the + matter of Uruguayan politics to his impartial adjustment. At both Rio de + Janeiro and Buenos Aires a roar of laughter went up from the press at this + notion of an obscure chieftain of a band of Indians in the tropical + backwoods daring to poise the equilibrium of much more than half a + continent on his insolent hand. But the merriment soon subsided, as + Brazilians and Argentinos came to realize what their peril might be from a + huge army of skilled and valiant soldiers, a veritable horde of fighting + fanatics, drawn up in a compact little land, centrally located and + affording in other respects every kind of strategic advantage. + </p> + <p> + When Brazil invaded Uruguay and restored the Colorados to power, Lopez + demanded permission from Argentina to cross its frontier, for the purpose + of assailing his enemy from another quarter. When the permission was + denied, Lopez declared war on Argentina also. It was in every respect a + daring step, but Lopez knew that Argentina was not so well prepared as his + own state for a war of endurance. Uruguay then entered into an alliance in + 1865 with its two big "protectors." In accordance with its terms, the + allies agreed not to conclude peace until Lopez had been overthrown, heavy + indemnities had been exacted of Paraguay, its fortifications demolished, + its army disbanded, and the country forced to accept any boundaries that + the victors might see fit to impose. + </p> + <p> + Into the details of the campaigns in the frightful conflict that ensued it + is not necessary to enter. Although, in 1866, the allies had assembled an + army of some fifty thousand men, Lopez continued taking the offensive + until, as the number and determination of his adversaries increased, he + was compelled to retreat into his own country. Here he and his Indian + legions levied terrific toll upon the lives of their enemies who pressed + onward, up or down the rivers and through tropical swamps and forests. + Inch by inch he contested their entry upon Paraguayan soil. When the + able-bodied men gave out, old men, boys, women, and girls fought on with + stubborn fury, and died before they would surrender. The wounded escaped + if they could, or, cursing their captors, tore off their bandages and bled + to death. Disease wrought awful havoc in all the armies engaged; yet the + struggle continued until flesh and blood could endure no more. Flying + before his pursuers into the wilds of the north and frantically dragging + along with him masses of fugitive men, women, and children, whom he + remorselessly shot, or starved to death, or left to perish of exhaustion, + Lopez turned finally at bay, and, on March 1, 1870, was felled by the + lance of a cavalryman. He had sworn to die for his country and he did, + though his country might perish with him. + </p> + <p> + No land in modern times has ever reached a point so near annihilation as + Paraguay. Added to the utter ruin of its industries and the devastation of + its fields, dwellings, and towns, hundreds of thousands of men, women, and + children had perished. Indeed, the horrors that had befallen it might well + have led the allies to ask themselves whether it was worth while to + destroy a country in order to change its rulers. Five years before Lopez + came into power the population of Paraguay had been reckoned at something + between 800,000 and 1,400,000—so unreliable were census returns in + those days. In 1878 it was estimated at about 230,000, of whom women over + fifteen years of age outnumbered the men nearly four to one. Loose + polygamy was the inevitable consequence, and women became the + breadwinners. Even today in this country the excess of females over males + is very great. All in all, it is not strange that Paraguay should be + called the "Niobe among nations." + </p> + <p> + Unlike many nations of Spanish America in which a more or less + anticlerical regime was in the ascendant, Ecuador fell under a sort of + theocracy. Here appeared one of the strangest characters in a story + already full of extraordinary personages—Gabriel Garcia Moreno, who + became President of that republic in 1861. In some respects the + counterpart of Francia of Paraguay, in others both a medieval mystic and + an enlightened ruler of modern type, he was a man of remarkable intellect, + constructive ability, earnest patriotism, and disinterested zeal for + orderliness and progress. On his presidential sash were inscribed the + words: "My Power in the Constitution"; but is real power lay in himself + and in the system which he implanted. + </p> + <p> + Garcia Moreno had a varied career. He had been a student of chemistry and + other natural sciences. He had spent his youth in exile in Europe, where + he prepared himself for his subsequent career as a journalist and a + university professor. Through it all he had been an active participant in + public affairs. Grim of countenance, austere in bearing, violent of + temper, relentless in severity, he was a devoted believer in the Roman + Catholic faith and in this Church as the sole effective basis upon which a + state could be founded or social and political regeneration could be + assured. In order to render effective his concept of what a nation ought + to be, Garcia Moreno introduced and upheld in all rigidity an + administration the like of which had been known hardly anywhere since the + Middle Ages. He recalled the Jesuits, established schools of the "Brothers + of the Christian Doctrine," and made education a matter wholly under + ecclesiastical control. He forbade heretical worship, called the country + the "Republic of the Sacred Heart," and entered into a concordat with the + Pope under which the Church in Ecuador became more subject to the will of + the supreme pontiff than western Europe had been in the days of Innocent + III. + </p> + <p> + Liberals in and outside of Ecuador tried feebly to shake off this + masterful theocracy, for the friendship which Garcia Moreno displayed + toward the diplomatic representatives of the Catholic powers of Europe, + notably those of Spain and France, excited the neighboring republics. + Colombia, indeed, sent an army to liberate the "brother democrats of + Ecuador from the rule of Professor Garcia Moreno," but the mass of the + people stood loyally by their President. For this astounding obedience to + an administration apparently so unrelated to modern ideas, the + ecclesiastical domination was not solely or even chiefly responsible. In + more ways than one Garcia Moreno, the professor President, was a statesman + of vision and deed. He put down brigandage and lawlessness; reformed the + finances; erected hospitals; promoted education; and encouraged the study + of natural science. Even his salary he gave over to public improvements. + His successors in the presidential office found it impossible to govern + the country without Garcia Moreno. Elected for a third term to carry on + his curious policy of conservatism and reaction blended with modern + advancement, he fell by the hand of an assassin in 1875. But the system + which he had done so much to establish in Ecuador survived him for many + years. + </p> + <p> + Although Brazil did not escape the evils of insurrection which retarded + the growth of nearly all of its neighbors, none of its numerous commotions + shook the stability of the nation to a perilous degree. By 1850 all danger + of revolution had vanished. The country began to enter upon a career of + peace and progress under a regime which combined broadly the federal + organization of the United States with the form of a constitutional + monarchy. Brazil enjoyed one of the few enlightened despotisms in South + America. Adopting at the outset the parliamentary system, the Emperor + Pedro II chose his ministers from among the liberals or conservatives, as + one party or the other might possess a majority in the lower house of the + Congress. Though the legislative power of the nation was enjoyed almost + entirely by the planters and their associates who formed the dominant + social class, individual liberty was fully guaranteed, and even freedom of + conscience and of the press was allowed. Negro slavery, though tolerated, + was not expressly recognized. + </p> + <p> + Thanks to the political discretion and unusual personal qualities of "Dom + Pedro," his popularity became more and more marked as the years went on. A + patron of science and literature, a scholar rather than a ruler, a placid + and somewhat eccentric philosopher, careless of the trappings of state, he + devoted himself without stint to the public welfare. Shrewdly divining + that the monarchical system might not survive much longer, he kept his + realm pacified by a policy of conciliation. Pedro II even went so far as + to call himself the best republican in the Empire. He might have said, + with justice perhaps, that he was the best republican in the whole of + Hispanic America. What he really accomplished was the successful exercise + of a paternal autocracy of kindness and liberality over his subjects. + </p> + <p> + If more or less permanent dictators and occasional liberators were the + order of the day in most of the Spanish American republics, intermittent + dictators and liberators dashed across the stage in Mexico from 1829 well + beyond the middle of the century. The other countries could show numerous + instances in which the occupant of the chief magistracy held office to the + close of his constitutional term; but Mexico could not show a single one! + What Mexico furnished, instead, was a kaleidoscopic spectacle of + successive presidents or dictators, an unstable array of self-styled + "generals" without a presidential succession. There were no fewer than + fifty such transient rulers in thirty-two years, with anywhere from one to + six a year, with even the same incumbent twice in one year, or, in the + case of the repetitious Santa Anna, nine times in twenty years—in + spite of the fact that the constitutional term of office was four years. + This was a record that made the most turbulent South American states seem, + by comparison, lands of methodical regularity in the choice of their + national executive. And as if this instability in the chief magistracy + were not enough, the form of government in Mexico shifted violently from + federal to centralized, and back again to federal. Mad struggles raged + between partisan chieftains and their bands of Escoceses and Yorkinos, + crying out upon the "President" in power because of his undue influence + upon the choice of a successor, backing their respective candidates if + they lost, and waiting for a chance to oust them if they won. + </p> + <p> + This tumultuous epoch had scarcely begun when Spain in 1829 made a final + attempt to recover her lost dominion in Mexico. Local quarrels were + straightway dropped for two months until the invaders had surrendered. + Thereupon the great landholders, who disliked the prevailing Yorkino + regime for its democratic policies and for favoring the abolition of + slavery, rallied to the aid of a "general" who issued a manifesto + demanding an observance of the constitution and the laws! After Santa + Anna, who was playing the role of a Mexican Warwick, had disposed of this + aspirant, he switched blithely over to the Escoceses, reduced the federal + system almost to a nullity, and in 1836 marched away to conquer the + revolting Texans. But, instead, they conquered him and gained their + independence, so that his reward was exile. + </p> + <p> + Now the Escoceses were free to promulgate a new constitution, to abolish + the federal arrangement altogether, and to replace it by a strongly + centralized government under which the individual States became mere + administrative districts. Hardly had this radical change been effected + when in 1838 war broke out with France on account of the injuries which + its nationals, among whom were certain pastry cooks, had suffered during + the interminable commotions. Mexico was forced to pay a heavy indemnity; + and Santa Anna, who had returned to fight the invader, was unfortunate + enough to lose a leg in the struggle. This physical deprivation, however, + did not interfere with that doughty hero's zest for tilting with other + unquiet spirits who yearned to assure national regeneration by continuing + to elevate and depose "presidents." + </p> + <p> + Another swing of the political pendulum had restored the federal system + when again everything was overturned by the disastrous war with the United + States. Once more Santa Anna returned, this time, however, to joust in + vain with the "Yankee despoilers" who were destined to dismember Mexico + and to annex two-thirds of its territory. Again Santa Anna was banished—to + dream of a more favorable opportunity when he might become the savior of a + country which had fallen into bankruptcy and impotence. + </p> + <p> + His opportunity came in 1853, when conservatives and clericals indulged + the fatuous hope that he would both sustain their privileges and lift + Mexico out of its sore distress. Either their memories were short or else + distance had cast a halo about his figure. At all events, he returned from + exile and assumed, for the ninth and last time, a presidency which he + intended to be something more than a mere dictatorship. Scorning the + formality of a Congress, he had himself entitled "Most Serene Highness," + as indicative of his ambition to become a monarch in name as well as in + fact. + </p> + <p> + Royal or imperial designs had long since brought one military upstart to + grief. They were now to cut Santa Anna's residence in Mexico similarly + short. Eruptions of discontent broke out all over the country. Unable to + make them subside, Santa Anna fell back upon an expedient which recalls + practices elsewhere in Spanish America. He opened registries in which all + citizens might record "freely" their approval or disapproval of his + continuance in power. Though he obtained the huge majority of affirmative + votes to be expected in such cases, he found that these pen-and-ink + signatures were no more serviceable than his soldiers. Accordingly the + dictator of many a day, fallen from his former estate of highness, decided + to abandon his serenity also, and in 1854 fled the country—for its + good and his own. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. PERIL FROM ABROAD + </h2> + <p> + Apart from the spoliation of Mexico by the United States, the independence + of the Hispanic nations had not been menaced for more than thirty years. + Now comes a period in which the plight of their big northern neighbor, + rent in twain by civil war and powerless to enforce the spirit of the + Monroe Doctrine, caused two of the countries to become subject a while to + European control. One of these was the Dominican Republic. + </p> + <p> + In 1844 the Spanish-speaking population of the eastern part of the island + of Santo Domingo, writhing under the despotic yoke of Haiti, had seized a + favorable occasion to regain their freedom. But the magic word + "independence" could not give stability to the new state any more than it + had done in the case of its western foes. The Haitians had lapsed long + since into a condition resembling that of their African forefathers. They + reveled in the barbarities of Voodoo, a sort of snake worship, and they + groveled before "presidents" and "emperors" who rose and fell on the tide + of decaying civilization. The Dominicans unhappily were not much more + progressive. Revolutions alternated with invasions and counter-invasions + and effectually prevented enduring progress. + </p> + <p> + On several occasions the Dominicans had sought reannexation to Spain or + had craved the protection of France as a defense against continual menace + from their negro enemies and as a relief from domestic turmoil. But every + move in this direction failed because of a natural reluctance on the part + of Spain and France, which was heightened by a refusal of the United + States to permit what it regarded as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine. + In 1861, however, the outbreak of civil war in the United States appeared + to present a favorable opportunity to obtain protection from abroad. If + the Dominican Republic could not remain independent anyway, reunion with + the old mother country seemed altogether preferable to reconquest by + Haiti. The President, therefore, entered into negotiations with the + Spanish Governor and Captain General of Cuba, and then issued a + proclamation signed by himself and four of his ministers announcing that + by the "free and spontaneous will" of its citizens, who had conferred upon + him the power to do so, the nation recognized Queen Isabella II as its + lawful sovereign! Practically no protest was made by the Dominicans + against this loss of their independence. + </p> + <p> + Difficulties which should have been foreseen by Spain were quick to reveal + themselves. It fell to the exPresident, now a colonial governor and + captain general, to appoint a host of officials and, not unnaturally, he + named his own henchmen. By so doing he not only aroused the animosity of + the disappointed but stimulated that of the otherwise disaffected as well, + until both the aggrieved factions began to plot rebellion. Spain, too, + sent over a crowd of officials who could not adjust themselves to local + conditions. The failure of the mother country to allow the Dominicans + representation in the Spanish Cortes and its readiness to levy taxes + stirred up resentment that soon ended in revolution. Unable to check this + new trouble, and awed by the threatening attitude of the United States, + Spain decided to withdraw in 1865. The Dominicans thus were left with + their independence and a chance—which they promptly seized—to + renew their commotions. So serious did these disturbances become that in + 1869 the President of the reconstituted republic sought annexation to the + United States but without success. American efforts, on the other hand, + were equally futile to restore peace and order in the troubled country + until many years later. + </p> + <p> + The intervention of Spain in Santo Domingo and its subsequent withdrawal + could not fail to have disastrous consequences in its colony of Cuba, the + "Pearl of the Antilles" as it was proudly called. Here abundant crops of + sugar and tobacco had brought wealth and luxury, but not many immigrants + because of the havoc made by epidemics of yellow fever. Nearly a third of + the insular population was still composed of negro slaves, who could + hardly relish the thought that, while the mother country had tolerated the + suppression of the hateful institution in Santo Domingo, she still + maintained it in Cuba. A bureaucracy, also, prone to corruption owing to + the temptations of loose accounting at the custom house, governed in + routinary, if not in arbitrary, fashion. Under these circumstances dislike + for the suspicious and repressive administration of Spain grew apace, and + secret societies renewed their agitation for its overthrow. The symptoms + of unrest were aggravated by the forced retirement of Spain from Santo + Domingo. If the Dominicans had succeeded so well, it ought not to be + difficult for a prolonged rebellion to wear Spain out and compel it to + abandon Cuba also. At this critical moment news was brought of a Spanish + revolution across the seas. + </p> + <p> + Just as the plight of Spain in 1808, and again in 1820, had afforded a + favorable opportunity for its colonies on the continents of America to win + their independence, so now in 1868 the tidings that Queen Isabella had + been dethroned by a liberal uprising aroused the Cubans to action under + their devoted leader, Carlos Manuel de Cespedes. The insurrection had not + gained much headway, however, when the provisional government of the + mother country instructed a new Governor and Captain General—whose + name, Dulce (Sweet), had an auspicious sound—to open negotiations + with the insurgents and to hold out the hope of reforms. But the + royalists, now as formerly, would listen to no compromise. Organizing + themselves into bodies of volunteers, they drove Dulce out. He was + succeeded by one Caballero de Rodas (Knight of Rhodes) who lived up to his + name by trying to ride roughshod over the rebellious Cubans. Thus began + the Ten Years' War—a war of skirmishes and brief encounters, rarely + involving a decisive action, which drenched the soil of Cuba with blood + and laid waste its fields in a fury of destruction. + </p> + <p> + Among the radicals and liberals who tried to retain a fleeting control + over Mexico after the final departure of Santa Anna was the first genuine + statesman it had ever known in its history as a republic—Benito + Pablo Juarez, an Indian. At twelve years of age he could not read or write + or even speak Spanish. His employer, however, noted his intelligence and + had him educated. Becoming a lawyer, Juarez entered the political arena + and rose to prominence by dint of natural talent for leadership, an + indomitable perseverance, and a sturdy patriotism. A radical by + conviction, he felt that the salvation of Mexico could never be attained + until clericalism and militarism had been banished from its soil forever. + </p> + <p> + Under his influence a provisional government had already begun a policy of + lessening the privileges of the Church, when the conservative elements, + with a cry that religion was being attacked, rose up in arms again. This + movement repressed, a Congress proceeded in 1857 to issue a liberal + constitution which was destined to last for sixty years. It established + the federal system in a definite fashion, abolished special privileges, + both ecclesiastical and military, and organized the country on sound bases + worthy of a modern nation. Mexico seemed about to enter upon a rational + development. But the newly elected President, yielding to the + importunities of the clergy, abolished the constitution, dissolved the + legislature, and set up a dictatorship, in spite of the energetic protests + of Juarez, who had been chosen Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and + who, in accordance with the terms of the temporarily discarded instrument, + was authorized to assume the presidency should that office fall vacant. + The rule of the usurper was short-lived, however. Various improvised + "generals" of conservative stripe put themselves at the head of a movement + to "save country, religion, and the rights of the army," drove the + would-be dictator out, and restored the old regime. + </p> + <p> + Juarez now proclaimed himself acting President, as he was legally entitled + to do, and set up his government at Vera Cruz while one "provisional + president" followed another. Throughout this trying time Juarez defended + his position vigorously and rejected every offer of compromise. In 1859 he + promulgated his famous Reform Laws which nationalized ecclesiastical + property, secularized cemeteries, suppressed religious communities, + granted freedom of worship, and made marriage a civil contract. For + Mexico, however, as for other Spanish American countries, measures of the + sort were far too much in advance of their time to insure a ready + acceptance. Although Juarez obtained a great moral victory when his + government was recognized by the United States, he had to struggle two + years more before he could gain possession of the capital. Triumphant in + 1861, he carried his anticlerical program to the point of actually + expelling the Papal Nuncio and other ecclesiastics who refused to obey his + decrees. By so doing he leveled the way for the clericals, conservatives, + and the militarists to invite foreign intervention on behalf of their + desperate cause. But, even if they had not been guilty of behavior so + unpatriotic, the anger of the Pope over the treatment of his Church, the + wrath of Spain over the conduct of Juarez, who had expelled the Spanish + minister for siding with the ecclesiastics, the desire of Great Britain to + collect debts due to her subjects, and above all the imperialistic + ambitions of Napoleon III, who dreamt of converting the intellectual + influence of France in Hispanic America into a political ascendancy, would + probably have led to European occupation in any event, so long at least as + the United States was slit asunder and incapable of action. + </p> + <p> + Some years before, the Mexican Government under the clerical and + militarist regime had made a contract with a Swiss banker who for a + payment of $500,000 had received bonds worth more than fifteen times the + value of the loan. When, therefore, the Mexican Congress undertook to + defer payments on a foreign debt that included the proceeds of this + outrageous contract, the Governments of France, Great Britain, and Spain + decided to intervene. According to their agreement the three powers were + simply to hold the seaports of Mexico and collect the customs duties until + their pecuniary demands had been satisfied. Learning, however, that + Napoleon III had ulterior designs, Great Britain and Spain withdrew their + forces and left him to proceed with his scheme of conquest. After + capturing Puebla in May, 1863, a French army numbering some thirty + thousand men entered the capital and installed an assemblage of notables + belonging to the clerical and conservative groups. This body thereupon + proclaimed the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under an + emperor. The title was to be offered to Maximilian, Archduke of Austria. + In case he should not accept, the matter was to be referred to the + "benevolence of his majesty, the Emperor of the French," who might then + select some other Catholic prince. + </p> + <p> + On his arrival, a year later, the amiable and well-meaning Maximilian soon + discovered that, instead of being an "Emperor," he was actually little + more than a precarious chief of a faction sustained by the bayonets of a + foreign army. In the northern part of Mexico, Juarez, Porfirio Diaz,—later + to become the most renowned of presidential autocrats,—and other + patriot leaders, though hunted from place to place, held firmly to their + resolve never to bow to the yoke of the pretender. Nor could Maximilian be + sure of the loyalty of even his supposed adherents. Little by little the + unpleasant conviction intruded itself upon him that he must either + abdicate or crush all resistance in the hope that eventually time and good + will might win over the Mexicans. But do what they would, his foreign + legions could not catch the wary and stubborn Juarez and his guerrilla + lieutenants, who persistently wore down the forces of their enemies. Then + the financial situation became grave. Still more menacing was the attitude + of the United States now that its civil war was at an end. On May 31, + 1866, Maximilian received word that Napoleon III had decided to withdraw + the French troops. He then determined to abdicate, but he was restrained + by the unhappy Empress Carlotta, who hastened to Europe to plead his cause + with Napoleon. Meantime, as the French troops were withdrawn, Juarez + occupied the territory. + </p> + <p> + Feebly the "Emperor" strove to enlist the favor of his adversaries by a + number of liberal decrees; but their sole result was his abandonment by + many a lukewarm conservative. Inexorably the patriot armies closed around + him until in May, 1867, he was captured at Queretaro, where he had sought + refuge. Denied the privilege of leaving the country on a promise never to + return, he asked Escobedo, his captor, to treat him as a prisoner of war. + "That's my business," was the grim reply. On the pretext that Maximilian + had refused to recognize the competence of the military court chosen to + try him, Juarez gave the order to shoot him. On the 19th of June the + Austrian archduke paid for a fleeting glory with his life. Thus failed the + second attempt at erecting an empire in Mexico. For thirty-four years + diplomatic relations between that country and Austria-Hungary were + severed. The clerical-military combination had been overthrown, and the + Mexican people had rearmed their independence. As Juarez declared: "Peace + means respect for the rights of others." + </p> + <p> + Even if foreign dreams of empire in Mexico had vanished so abruptly, it + could hardly be expected that a land torn for many years by convulsions + could become suddenly tranquil. With Diaz and other aspirants to + presidential power, or with chieftains who aimed at setting up little + republics of their own in the several states, Juarez had to contend for + some time before he could establish a fair amount of order. Under his + successor, who also was a civilian, an era of effective reform began. In + 1873 amendments to the constitution declared Church and State absolutely + separate and provided for the abolition of peonage—a provision which + was more honored in, the breach than in the observance. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. GREATER STATES AND LESSER + </h2> + <p> + During the half century that had elapsed since 1826, the nations of + Hispanic America had passed through dark ages. Their evolution had always + been accompanied by growing pains and had at times been arrested + altogether or unduly hastened by harsh injections of radicalism. It was + not an orderly development through gradual modifications in the social and + economic structure, but rather a fitful progress now assisted and now + retarded by the arbitrary deeds of men of action, good and bad, who had + seized power. Dictators, however, steadily decreased in number and gave + place often to presidential autocrats who were continued in office by + constant reelection and who were imbued with modern ideas. In 1876 these + Hispanic nations stood on the threshold of a new era. Some were destined + to advance rapidly beyond it; others, to move slowly onward; and a few to + make little or no progress. + </p> + <p> + The most remarkable feature in the new era was the rise of four states—Mexico, + Brazil, Argentina, and Chile—to a position of eminence among their + fellows. Extent of territory, development of natural resources, the + character of the inhabitants and the increase of their numbers, and the + amount of popular intelligence and prosperity, all contributed to this + end. Each of the four nations belonged to a fairly well-defined historical + and geographical group in southern North America, and in eastern and + western South America, respectively. In the first group were Mexico, the + republics of Central America, and the island countries of the Caribbean; + in the second, Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay; and in the third, + Chile, Peru, and Bolivia. In a fourth group were Ecuador, Colombia, and + Venezuela. + </p> + <p> + When the President of Mexico proceeded, in 1876, to violate the + constitution by securing his reelection, the people were prepared by their + earlier experiences and by the rule of Juarez to defend their + constitutional rights. A widespread rebellion headed by Diaz broke out. In + the so-called "Plan of Tuxtepec" the revolutionists declared themselves in + favor of the principle of absolutely no reelection. Meantime the Chief + Justice of the Supreme Court handed down a decision that the action of the + Congress in sustaining the President was illegal, since in reality no + elections had been held because of the abstention of voters and the + seizure of the polls by revolutionists or government forces. "Above the + constitution, nothing; above the constitution, no one," he declared. But + as this assumption of a power of judgment on matters of purely political + concern was equally a violation of the constitution and concealed, + besides, an attempt to make the Chief Justice President, Diaz and his + followers drove both of the pretenders out. Then in 1876 he managed to + bring about his own election instead. + </p> + <p> + Porfirio Diaz was a soldier who had seen active service in nearly every + important campaign since the war with the United States. Often himself in + revolt against presidents, legal and illegal, Diaz was vastly more than an + ordinary partisan chieftain. Schooled by a long experience, he had come to + appreciate the fact that what Mexico required for its national development + was freedom from internal disorders and a fair chance for recuperation. + Justice, order, and prosperity, he felt, could be assured only by imposing + upon the country the heavy weight of an iron hand. Foreign capital must be + invested in Mexico and then protected; immigration must be encouraged, and + other material, moral, and intellectual aid of all sorts must be drawn + from abroad for the upbuilding of the nation. + </p> + <p> + To effect such a transformation in a land so tormented and impoverished as + Mexico—a country which, within the span of fifty-five years had + lived under two "emperors," and some thirty-six presidents, nine + "provisional presidents," ten dictators, twelve "regents," and five + "supreme councilors"—required indeed a masterful intelligence and a + masterful authority. Porfirio Diaz possessed and exercised both. He was, + in fact, just the man for the times. An able administrator, stern and + severe but just, rather reserved in manner and guarded in utterance, + shrewd in the selection of associates, and singularly successful in his + dealings with foreigners, he entered upon a "presidential reign" of + thirty-five years broken by but one intermission of four—which + brought Mexico out upon the highway to new national life. + </p> + <p> + Under the stable and efficient rulership of Diaz, "plans," + "pronunciamentos," "revolutions," and similar devices of professional + trouble makers, had short shrift. Whenever an uprising started, it was + promptly quelled, either by a well-disciplined army or by the rurales, a + mounted police made up to some extent of former bandits to whom the + President gave the choice of police service or of sharp punishment for + their crimes. Order, in fact, was not always maintained, nor was justice + always meted out, by recourse to judges and courts. Instead, a novel kind + of lynch law was invoked. The name it bore was the ley fuga, or "flight + law," in accordance with which malefactors or political suspects taken by + government agents from one locality to another, on the excuse of securing + readier justice, were given by their captors a pretended chance to escape + and were then shot while they ran! The only difference between this method + and others of the sort employed by Spanish American autocrats to enforce + obedience lay in its purpose. Of Diaz one might say what Bacon said of + King Henry VII: "He drew blood as physicians do, to save life rather than + to spill it." If need be, here and there, disorder and revolt were stamped + out by terrorism; but the Mexican people did not yield to authority from + terror but rather from a thorough loyalty to the new regime. + </p> + <p> + Among the numerous measures of material improvement which Diaz undertook + during his first term, the construction of railways was the most + important. The size of the country, its want of navigable rivers, and its + relatively small and widely scattered population, made imperative the + establishment of these means of communication. Despite the misgivings of + many intelligent Mexicans that the presence of foreign capital would + impair local independence in some way, Diaz laid the foundations of future + national prosperity by granting concessions to the Mexican Central and + National Mexican companies, which soon began construction. Under his + successor a national bank was created; and when Diaz was again elected he + readjusted the existing foreign debt and boldly contracted new debts + abroad. + </p> + <p> + At the close of his first term, in 1880, a surplus in the treasury was not + so great a novelty as the circumstance altogether unique in the political + annals of Mexico-that Diaz turned over the presidency in peaceful fashion + to his properly elected successor! He did so reluctantly, to be sure, but + he could not afford just yet to ignore his own avowed principle, which had + been made a part of the constitution shortly after his accession. Although + the confidence he reposed in that successor was not entirely justified, + the immense personal popularity of Diaz saved the prestige of the new + chief magistrate. Under his administration the constitution was amended in + such a way as to deprive the Chief Justice of the privilege of replacing + the President in case of a vacancy, thus eliminating that official from + politics. After his resumption of office, Diaz had the fundamental law + modified anew, so as to permit the reelection of a President for one term + only! For this change, inconsistent though it may seem, Diaz was not alone + responsible. Circumstances had changed, and the constitution had to change + with them. + </p> + <p> + Had the "United Provinces of Central America," as they came forth from + under the rule of Spain, seen fit to abstain from following in the + unsteady footsteps of Mexico up to the time of the accession of Diaz to + power, had they done nothing more than develop their natural wealth and + utilize their admirable geographical situation, they might have become + prosperous and kept their corporate name. As it was, their history for + upwards of forty years had little to record other than a momentary + cohesion and a subsequent lapse into five quarrelsome little republics—the + "Balkan States" of America. Among them Costa Rica had suffered least from + arbitrary management or internal commotion and showed the greatest signs + of advancement. + </p> + <p> + In Guatemala, however, there had arisen another Diaz, though a man quite + inferior in many respects to his northern counterpart. When Justo Rufino + Barrios became President of that republic in 1873 he was believed to have + conservative leanings. Ere long, however, he astounded his compatriots by + showing them that he was a thoroughgoing radical with methods of action to + correspond to his convictions. Not only did he keep the Jesuits out of the + country but he abolished monastic orders altogether and converted their + buildings to public use. He made marriage a civil contract and he + secularized the burying grounds. Education he encouraged by engaging the + services of foreign instructors, and he brought about a better observance + of the law by the promulgation of new codes. He also introduced railways + and telegraph lines. Since the manufacture of aniline dyes abroad had + diminished the demand for cochineal, Barrios decided to replace this + export by cultivating coffee. To this end, he distributed seeds among the + planters and furnished financial aid besides, with a promise to inspect + the fields in due season and see what had been accomplished. Finding that + in many cases the seeds had been thrown away and the money wasted in drink + and gambling, he ordered the guilty planters to be given fifty lashes, + with the assurance that on a second offense he would shoot them on sight. + Coffee planting in Guatemala was pursued thereafter with much alacrity! + </p> + <p> + Posts in the government service Barrios distributed quite impartially + among Conservatives and Democrats, deserving or otherwise, for he had them + both well under control. At his behest a permanent constitution was + promulgated in 1880. While he affected to dislike continual reelection, he + saw to it nevertheless that he himself should be the sole candidate who + was likely to win. + </p> + <p> + Barrios doubtless could have remained President of Guatemala for the term + of his natural life if he had not raised up the ghost of federation. All + the republics of Central America accepted his invitation in 1876 to send + delegates to his capital to discuss the project. But nothing was + accomplished because Barrios and the President of Salvador were soon at + loggerheads. Nine years later, feeling himself stronger, Barrios again + proposed federation. But the other republics had by this time learned too + much of the methods of the autocrat of Guatemala, even while they admired + his progressive policy, to relish the thought of a federation dominated by + Guatemala and its masterful President. Though he "persuaded" Honduras to + accept the plan, the three other republics preferred to unite in + self-defense, and in the ensuing struggle the quixotic Barrios was killed. + A few years later the project was revived and the constitution of a + "Republic of Central America" was agreed upon, when war between Guatemala + and Salvador again frustrated its execution. + </p> + <p> + In Brazil two great movements were by this time under way: the total + abolition of slavery and the establishment of a republic. Despite the + tenacious opposition of many of the planters, from about the year 1883 the + movement for emancipation made great headway. There was a growing + determination on the part of the majority of the inhabitants to remove the + blot that made the country an object of reproach among the civilized + states of the world. Provinces and towns, one after another, freed the + slaves within their borders. The imperial Government, on its part, + hastened the process by liberating its own slaves and by imposing upon + those still in bondage taxes higher than their market value; it fixed a + price for other slaves; it decreed that the older slaves should be set + free; and it increased the funds already appropriated to compensate owners + of slaves who should be emancipated. In 1887 the number of slaves had + fallen to about 720,000, worth legally about $650 each. A year later came + the final blow, when the Princess Regent assented to a measure which + abolished slavery outright and repealed all former acts relating to + slavery. So radical a proceeding wrought havoc in the coffee-growing + southern provinces in particular, from which the negroes now freed + migrated by tens of thousands to the northern provinces. Their places, + however, were taken by Italians and other Europeans who came to work the + plantations on a cooperative basis. All through the eighties, in fact, + immigrants from Italy poured into the temperate regions of southern + Brazil, to the number of nearly two hundred thousand, supplementing the + many thousands of Germans who had settled, chiefly in the province of Rio + Grande do Sul, thirty years before. + </p> + <p> + Apart from the industrial problem thus created by the abolition of + slavery, there seemed to be no serious political or economic questions + before the country. Ever since 1881, when a law providing for direct + elections was passed, the Liberals had been in full control. The old Dom + Pedro, who had endeared himself to his people, was as much liked and + respected as ever. But as he had grown feeble and almost blind, the + heiress to the throne, who had marked absolutist and clerical tendencies, + was disposed to take advantage of his infirmities. + </p> + <p> + For many years, on the other hand, doctrines opposed to the principle of + monarchy had been spread in zealous fashion by members of the military + class, notable among whom was Deodoro da Fonseca. And now some of the + planters longed to wreak vengeance on a ruler who had dared to thwart + their will by emancipating the slaves. Besides this persistent discontent, + radical republican newspapers continually stirred up fresh agitation. + Whatever the personal service rendered by the Emperor to the welfare of + the country, to them he represented a political system which deprived the + provinces of much of their local autonomy and the Brazilian people at + large of self-government. + </p> + <p> + But the chief reason for the momentous change which was about to take + place was the fact that the constitutional monarchy had really completed + its work as a transitional government. Under that regime Brazil had + reached a condition of stability and had attained a level of progress + which might well enable it to govern itself. During all this time the + influence of the Spanish American nations had been growing apace. Even if + they had fallen into many a political calamity, they were nevertheless + "republics," and to the South American this word had a magic sound. Above + all, there was the potent suggestion of the success of the United States + of North America, whose extension of its federal system over a vast + territory suggested what Brazil with its provinces might accomplish in the + southern continent. Hence the vast majority of intelligent Brazilians felt + that they had become self-reliant enough to establish a republic without + fear of lapsing into the unfortunate experiences of the other Hispanic + countries. + </p> + <p> + In 1889, when provision was made for a speedy abdication of the Emperor in + favor of his daughter, the republican newspapers declared that a scheme + was being concocted to exile the chief military agitators and to interfere + with any effort on the part of the army to prevent the accession of the + new ruler. Thereupon, on the 15th of November, the radicals at Rio de + Janeiro, aided by the garrison, broke out in open revolt. Proclaiming the + establishment of a federal republic under the name of the "United States + of Brazil," they deposed the imperial ministry, set up a provisional + government with Deodoro da Fonseca at its head, arranged for the election + of a constitutional convention, and bade Dom Pedro and his family leave + the country within twenty-four hours. + </p> + <p> + On the 17th of November, before daybreak, the summons was obeyed. Not a + soul appeared to bid the old Emperor farewell as he and his family boarded + the steamer that was to bear them to exile in Europe. Though seemingly an + act of heartlessness and ingratitude, the precaution was a wise one in + that it averted, possible conflict and bloodshed. For the second time in + its history, a fundamental change had been wrought in the political system + of the nation without a resort to war! The United States of Brazil + accordingly took its place peacefully among its fellow republics of the + New World. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Argentina, the great neighbor of Brazil to the southwest, had + been gaining territory and new resources. Since the definite adoption of a + federal constitution in 1853, this state had attained to a considerable + degree of national consciousness under the leadership of able presidents + such as Bartolome Mitre, the soldier and historian, and Domingo Faustino + Sarmiento, the publicist and promoter of popular education. One evidence + of this new nationalism was a widespread belief in the necessity of + territorial expansion. Knowing that Chile entertained designs upon + Patagonia, the Argentine Government forestalled any action by conducting a + war of practical extermination against the Indian tribes of that region + and by adding it to the national domain. The so-called "conquest of the + desert" in the far south of the continent opened to civilization a vast + habitable area of untold economic possibilities. + </p> + <p> + In the electoral campaign of 1880 the presidential candidates were Julio + Argentino Roca and the Governor of the province of Buenos Aires. The + former, an able officer skilled in both arms and politics, had on his side + the advantage of a reputation won in the struggle with the Patagonian + Indians, the approval of the national Government, and the support of most + of the provinces. Feeling certain of defeat at the polls, the partisans of + the latter candidate resorted to the timeworn expedient of a revolt. + Though the uprising lasted but twenty days, the diplomatic corps at the + capital proffered its mediation between the contestants, in order to avoid + any further bloodshed. The result was that the fractious Governor withdrew + his candidacy and a radical change was effected in the relations of Buenos + Aires, city and province, to the country at large. The city, together with + its environs, was converted into a federal district and became solely and + distinctively the national capital. Its public buildings, railways, and + telegraph service, as well as the provincial debt, were taken over by the + general Government. The seat of provincial authority was transferred to + the village of Ensenada, which thereupon was rechristened La Plata. + </p> + <p> + A veritable tide of wealth and general prosperity was now rolling over + Argentina. By 1885 its population had risen to upwards of 3,000,000. + Immigration increased to a point far beyond the wildest expectations. In + 1889 alone about 300,000 newcomers arrived and lent their aid in the + promotion of industry and commerce. Fields hitherto uncultivated or given + over to grazing now bore vast crops of wheat, maize, linseed, and sugar. + Large quantities of capital, chiefly from Great Britain, also poured into + the country. As a result, the price of land rose high, and feverish + speculation became the order of the day. Banks and other institutions of + credit were set up, colonizing schemes were devised, and railways were + laid out. To meet the demands of all these enterprises, the Government + borrowed immense sums from foreign capitalists and issued vast quantities + of paper money, with little regard for its ultimate redemption. Argentina + spent huge sums in prodigal fashion on all sorts of public improvements in + an effort to attract still more capital and immigration, and thus entered + upon a dangerous era of inflation. + </p> + <p> + Of the near neighbors of Argentina, Uruguay continued along the tortuous + path of alternate disturbance and progress, losing many of its inhabitants + to the greater states beyond, where they sought relative peace and + security; while Paraguay, on the other hand, enjoyed freedom from civil + strife, though weighed down with a war debt and untold millions in + indemnities exacted by Argentina and Brazil, which it could never hope to + pay. In consequence, this indebtedness was a useful club to brandish over + powerless Paraguay whenever that little country might venture to question + the right of either of its big neighbors to break the promise they had + made of keeping its territory intact. Argentina, however, consented in + 1878 to refer certain claims to the decision of the President of the + United States. When Paraguay won the arbitration, it showed its gratitude + by naming one of its localities Villa Hayes. As time went on, however, its + population increased and hid many of the scars of war. + </p> + <p> + On the western side of South America there broke out the struggle known as + the "War of the Pacific" between Chile, on the one side, and Peru and + Bolivia as allies on the other. In Peru unstable and corrupt governments + had contracted foreign loans under conditions that made their repayment + almost impossible and had spent the proceeds in so reckless and + extravagant a fashion as to bring the country to the verge of bankruptcy. + Bolivia, similarly governed, was still the scene of the orgies and + carnivals which had for some time characterized its unfortunate history. + One of its buffoon "presidents," moreover, had entered into boundary + agreements with both Chile and Brazil, under which the nation lost several + important areas and some of its territory on the Pacific. The boundaries + of Bolivia, indeed, were run almost everywhere on purely arbitrary lines + drawn with scant regard for the physical features of the country and with + many a frontier question left wholly unsettled. For some years Chilean + companies and speculators, aided by foreign capital mainly British in + origin, had been working deposits of nitrate of soda in the province of + Antofagasta, or "the desert of Atacama," a region along the coast to the + northward belonging to Bolivia, and also in the provinces of Tacna, Arica, + and Tarapaca, still farther to the northward, belonging to Peru. Because + boundary lines were not altogether clear and because the three countries + were all eager to exploit these deposits, controversies over this + debatable ground were sure to rise. For the privilege of developing + portions of this region, individuals and companies had obtained + concessions from the various governments concerned; elsewhere, industrial + free lances dug away without reference to such formalities. + </p> + <p> + It is quite likely that Chile, whose motto was "By Right or by Might," was + prepared to sustain the claims of its citizens by either alternative. At + all events, scenting a prospective conflict, Chile had devoted much + attention to the development of its naval and military establishment—a + state of affairs which did not escape the observation of its suspicious + neighbors. + </p> + <p> + The policy of Peru was determined partly by personal motives and partly by + reasons of state. In 1873 the President, lacking sufficient financial and + political support to keep himself in office, resolved upon the risky + expedient of arousing popular passion against Chile, in the hope that he + might thereby replenish the national treasury. Accordingly he proceeded to + pick a quarrel by ordering the deposits in Tarapaca to be expropriated + with scant respect for the concessions made to the Chilean miners. + Realizing, however, the possible consequences of such an action, he + entered into an alliance with Bolivia. This country thereupon proceeded to + levy an increased duty on the exportation of nitrates from the Atacama + region. Chile, already aware of the hostile combination which had been + formed, protested so vigorously that a year later Bolivia agreed to + withdraw the new regulations and to submit the dispute to arbitration. + </p> + <p> + Such were the relations of these three states in 1878, when Bolivia, + taking advantage of differences of opinion between Chile and Argentina + regarding the Patagonian region, reimposed its export duty, canceled the + Chilean concessions, and confiscated the nitrate deposits. Chile then + declared war in February, 1879, and within two months occupied the entire + coast of Bolivia up to the frontiers of Peru. On his part the President of + Bolivia was too much engrossed in the festivities connected with a + masquerade to bother about notifying the people that their land had been + invaded until several days after the event had occurred! + </p> + <p> + Misfortunes far worse than anything which had fallen to the lot of its + ally now awaited Peru, which first attempted an officious mediation and + then declared war on the 4th of April. Since Peru and Bolivia together had + a population double that of Chile, and since Peru possessed a much larger + army and navy than Chile, the allies counted confidently on victory. But + Peru's army of eight thousand—having within four hundred as many + officers as men, directed by no fewer than twenty-six generals, and + presided over by a civil government altogether inept—was no match + for an army less than a third of its size to be sure, but well drilled and + commanded, and with a stable, progressive, and efficient government at its + back. The Peruvian forces, lacking any substantial support from Bolivia, + crumpled under the terrific attacks of their adversaries. Efforts on the + part of the United States to mediate in the struggle were blocked by the + dogged refusal of Chile to abate its demands for annexation. Early in 1881 + its army entered Lima in triumph, and the war was over. + </p> + <p> + For a while the victors treated the Peruvians and their capital city + shamefully. The Chilean soldiers stripped the national library of its + contents, tore up the lamp-posts in the streets, carried away the benches + in the parks, and even shipped off the local menagerie to Santiago! What + they did not remove or destroy was disposed of by the rabble of Lima + itself. But in two years so utterly chaotic did the conditions in the + hapless country become that Chile at length had to set up a government in + order to conclude a peace. It was not until October 20, 1883, that the + treaty was signed at Lima and ratified later at Ancon. Peru was forced to + cede Tarapaca outright and to agree that Tacna and Arica should be held by + Chile for ten years. At the expiration of this period the inhabitants of + the two provinces were to be allowed to choose by vote the country to + which they would prefer to belong, and the nation that won the election + was to pay the loser 10,000,000 pesos. In April, 1884, Bolivia, also, + entered into an arrangement with Chile, according to which a portion of + its seacoast should be ceded absolutely and the remainder should be + occupied by Chile until a more definite understanding on the matter could + be reached. + </p> + <p> + Chile emerged from the war not only triumphant over its northern rivals + but dominant on the west coast of South America. Important developments in + Chilean national policy followed. To maintain its vantage and to guard + against reprisals, the victorious state had to keep in military readiness + on land and sea. It therefore looked to Prussia for a pattern for its army + and to Great Britain for a model for its navy. + </p> + <p> + Peru had suffered cruelly from the war. Its territorial losses deprived it + of an opportunity to satisfy its foreign creditors through a grant of + concessions. The public treasury, too, was empty, and many a private + fortune had melted away. Not until a military hand stronger than its + competitors managed to secure a firm grip on affairs did Peru begin once + more its toilsome journey toward material betterment. + </p> + <p> + Bolivia, on its part, had emerged from the struggle practically a + landlocked country. Though bereft of access to the sea except by + permission of its neighbors, it had, however, not endured anything like + the calamities of its ally. In 1880 it had adopted a permanent + constitution and it now entered upon a course of slow and relatively + peaceful progress. + </p> + <p> + In the republics to the northward struggles between clericals and radicals + caused sharp, abrupt alternations in government. In Ecuador the hostility + between clericals and radicals was all the more bitter because of the + rivalry of the two chief towns, Guayaquil the seaport and Quito the + capital, each of which sheltered a faction. No sooner therefore had Garcia + Moreno fallen than the radicals of Guayaquil rose up against the clericals + at Quito. Once in power, they hunted their enemies down until order under + a dictator could be restored. The military President who assumed power in + 1876 was too radical to suit the clericals and too clerical to suit the + radicals. Accordingly his opponents decided to make the contest + three-cornered by fighting the dictator and one another. When the + President had been forced out, a conservative took charge until parties of + bushwhackers and mutinous soldiers were able to install a military leader, + whose retention of power was brief. In 1888 another conservative, who had + been absent from the country when elected and who was an adept in law and + diplomacy, managed to win sufficient support from all three factions to + retain office for the constitutional period. + </p> + <p> + In Colombia a financial crisis had been approaching ever since the price + of coffee, cocoa, and other Colombian products had fallen in the European + markets. This decrease had caused a serious diminution in the export trade + and had forced gold and silver practically out of circulation. At the same + time the various "states" were increasing their powers at the expense of + the federal Government, and the country was rent by factions. In order to + give the republic a thoroughly centralized administration which would + restore financial confidence and bring back the influence of the Church as + a social and political factor, a genuine revolution, which was started in + 1876, eventually put an end to both radicalism and states' rights. At the + outset Rafael Nunez, the unitary and clerical candidate and a lawyer by + profession, was beaten on the field, but at a subsequent election he + obtained the requisite number of votes and, in 1880, assumed the + presidency. That the loser in war should become the victor in peace showed + the futility of bloodshed in such revolutions. + </p> + <p> + Not until Nunez came into office again did he feel himself strong enough + to uproot altogether the radicalism and disunion which had flourished + since 1860. Ignoring the national Legislature, he called a Congress of his + own, which in 1886 framed a constitution that converted the "sovereign + states" into "departments," or mere administrative districts, to be ruled + as the national Government saw fit. Further, the presidential term was + lengthened from two years to six, and the name of the country was changed, + finally, to "Republic of Colombia." Two years later the power of the + Church was strengthened by a concordat with the Pope. + </p> + <p> + Venezuela on its part had undergone changes no less marked. A liberal + constitution promulgated in 1864 had provided for the reorganization of + the country on a federal basis. The name chosen for the republic was + "United States of Venezuela." More than that, it had anticipated Mexico + and Guatemala in being the first of the Hispanic nations to witness the + establishment of a presidential autocracy of the continuous and + enlightened type. + </p> + <p> + Antonio Guzman Blanco was the man who imposed upon Venezuela for about + nineteen years a regime of obedience to law, and, to some extent, of + modern ideas of administration such as the country had never known before. + A person of much versatility, he had studied medicine and law before he + became a soldier and a politician. Later he displayed another kind of + versatility by letting henchmen hold the presidential office while he + remained the power behind the throne. Endowed with a masterful will and a + pronounced taste for minute supervision, he had exactly the ability + necessary to rule Venezuela wisely and well. + </p> + <p> + Amid considerable opposition he began, in 1870, the first of his three + periods of administration—the Septennium, as it was termed. The + "sovereign" states he governed through "sovereign" officials of his own + selection. He stopped the plundering of farms and the dragging of laborers + off to military service. He established in Venezuela an excellent monetary + system. Great sums were expended in the erection of public and private + buildings and in the embellishment of Caracas. European capital and + immigration were encouraged to venture into a country hitherto so torn by + chronic disorder as to deprive both labor and property of all guarantees. + Roads, railways, and telegraph lines were constructed. The ministers of + the Church were rendered submissive to the civil power. Primary education + became alike free and compulsory. As the phrase went, Guzman Blanco + "taught Venezuela to read." At the end of his term of office he went into + voluntary retirement. + </p> + <p> + In 1879 Guzman Blanco put himself at the head of a movement which he + called a "revolution of replevin"—which meant, presumably, that he + was opposed to presidential "continuism," and in favor of republican + institutions! Although a constitution promulgated in 1881 fixed the chief + magistrate's term of office at two years, the success which Guzman Blanco + had attained enabled him to control affairs for five years—the + Quinquennium, as it was called. Thereupon he procured his appointment to a + diplomatic post in Europe; but the popular demand for his presence was too + strong for him to remain away. In 1886 he was elected by acclamation. He + held office two years more and then, finding that his influence had waned, + he left Venezuela for good. Whatever his faults in other respects, Guzman + Blanco—be it said to his credit—tried to destroy the pest of + periodical revolutions in his country. Thanks to his vigorous suppression + of these uprisings, some years of at least comparative security were made + possible. More than any other President the nation had ever had, he was + entitled to the distinction of having been a benefactor, if not altogether + a regenerator, of his native land. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. "ON THE MARGIN OF INTERNATIONAL LIFE" + </h2> + <p> + During the period from 1889 to 1907 two incidents revealed the standing + that the republics of Hispanic America had now acquired in the world at + large. In 1889 at Washington, and later in their own capital cities, they + met with the United States in council. In 1899, and again in 1907, they + joined their great northern neighbor and the nations of Europe and Asia at + The Hague for deliberation on mutual concerns, and they were admitted to + an international fellowship and cooperation far beyond a mere recognition + of their independence and a formal interchange of diplomats and consuls. + </p> + <p> + Since attempts of the Hispanic countries themselves to realize the aims of + Bolivar in calling the Congress at Panama had failed, the United States + now undertook to call into existence a sort of inter-American Congress. + Instead of being merely a supporter, the great republic of the north had + resolved to become the director of the movement for greater solidarity in + thought and action. By linking up the concerns of the Hispanic nations + with its own destinies it would assert not so much its position as + guardian of the Monroe Doctrine as its headship, if not its actual + dominance, in the New World, and would so widen the bounds of its + political and commercial influence—a tendency known as + "imperialism." Such was the way, at least, in which the Hispanic republics + came to view the action of the "Colossus of the North" in inviting them to + participate in an assemblage meeting more or less periodically and termed + officially the "International Conference of American States," and + popularly the "Pan-American Conference." + </p> + <p> + Whether the mistrust the smaller countries felt at the outset was lessened + in any degree by the attendance of their delegates at the sessions of this + conference remains open to question. Although these representatives, in + common with their colleagues from the United States, assented to a variety + of conventions and passed a much larger number of resolutions, their + acquiescence seemed due to a desire to gratify their powerful associate, + rather than to a belief in the possible utility of such measures. The + experience of the earlier gatherings had demonstrated that political + issues would have to be excluded from consideration. Propositions, for + example, such as that to extend the basic idea of the Monroe Doctrine into + a sort of self-denying ordinance, under which all the nations of America + should agree to abstain thereafter from acquiring any part of one + another's territory by conquest, and to adopt, also, the principle of + compulsory arbitration, proved impossible of acceptance. Accordingly, from + that time onward the matters treated by the Conference dealt for the most + part with innocuous, though often praiseworthy, projects for bringing the + United States and its sister republics into closer commercial, industrial, + and intellectual relations. + </p> + <p> + The gathering itself, on the other hand, became to a large extent a + fiesta, a festive occasion for the display of social amenities. Much as + the Hispanic Americans missed their favorite topic of politics, they found + consolation in entertaining the distinguished foreign visitors with the + genial courtesy and generous hospitality for which they are famous. As one + of their periodicals later expressed it, since a discussion of politics + was tabooed, it were better to devote the sessions of the Conference to + talking about music and lyric poetry! At all events, as far as the outcome + was concerned, their national legislatures ratified comparatively few of + the conventions. + </p> + <p> + Among the Hispanic nations of America only Mexico took part in the First + Conference at The Hague. Practically all of them were represented at the + second. The appearance of their delegates at these august assemblages of + the powers of earth was viewed for a while with mixed feelings. The + attitude of the Great Powers towards them resembled that of parents of the + old regime: children at the international table should be "seen and not + heard." As a matter of fact, the Hispanic Americans were both seen and + heard—especially the latter! They were able to show the Europeans + that, even if they did happen to come from relatively weak states, they + possessed a skillful intelligence, a breadth of knowledge, a capacity for + expression, and a consciousness of national character, which would not + allow them simply to play "Man Friday" to an international Crusoe. The + president of the second conference, indeed, confessed that they had been a + "revelation" to him. + </p> + <p> + Hence, as time went on, the progress and possibilities of the republics of + Hispanic America came to be appreciated more and more by the world at + large. Gradually people began to realize that the countries south of the + United States were not merely an indistinguishable block on the map, to be + referred to vaguely as "Central and South America" or as "Latin America." + The reading public at least knew that these countries were quite different + from one another, both in achievements and in prospects. + </p> + <p> + Yet the fact remains that, despite their active part in these American and + European conferences, the Hispanic countries of the New World did not + receive the recognition which they felt was their due. Their national + associates in the European gatherings were disinclined to admit that the + possession of independence and sovereignty entitled them to equal + representation on international council boards. To a greater or less + degree, therefore, they continued to stay in the borderland where no one + either affirmed or denied their individuality. To quote the phrase of an + Hispanic American, they stood "on the margin of international life." How + far they might pass beyond it into the full privileges of recognition and + association on equal terms, would depend upon the readiness with which + they could atone for the errors or recover from the misfortunes of the + past, and upon their power to attain stability, prosperity, strength, and + responsibility. + </p> + <p> + Certain of the Hispanic republics, however, were not allowed to remain + alone on their side of "the margin of international life." Though nothing + so extreme as the earlier French intervention took place, foreign nations + were not at all averse to crossing over the marginal line and teaching + them what a failure to comply with international obligations meant. The + period from 1889 to 1907, therefore, is characterized also by interference + on the part of European powers, and by interposition on the part of the + United States, in the affairs of countries in and around the Caribbean + Sea. Because of the action taken by the United States two more republics—Cuba + and Panama—came into being, thus increasing the number of political + offshoots from Spain in America to eighteen. Another result of this + interposition was the creation of what were substantially American + protectorates. Here the United States did not deprive the countries + concerned of their independence and sovereignty, but subjected them to a + kind of guardianship or tutelage, so far as it thought needful to insure + stability, solvency, health, and welfare in general. Foremost in the + northern group of Hispanic nations, Mexico, under the guidance of Diaz, + marched steadily onward. Peace, order, and law; an increasing population; + internal wealth and well-being; a flourishing industry and commerce; + suitable care for things mental as well as material; the respect and + confidence of foreigners—these were blessings which the country had + hitherto never beheld. The Mexicans, once in anarchy and enmity created by + militarists and clericals, came to know one another in friendship, and + arrived at something like a national consciousness. + </p> + <p> + In 1889 there was held the first conference on educational problems which + the republic had ever had. Three years later a mining code was drawn up + which made ownership inviolable on payment of lawful dues, removed + uncertainties of operation, and stimulated the industry in a remarkable + fashion. Far less beneficial in the long run was a law enacted in 1894. + Instead of granting a legal title to lands held by prescriptive rights + through an occupation of many years, it made such property part of the + public domain, which might be acquired, like a mining claim, by any one + who could secure a grant of it from the Government. Though hailed at the + time as a piece of constructive legislation, its unfortunate effect was to + enable large landowners who wished to increase their possessions to oust + poor cultivators of the soil from their humble holdings. On the other + hand, under the statesmanlike management of Jose Yves Limantour, the + Minister of Finance, the monetary situation at home and abroad was + strengthened beyond measure, and banking interests were promoted + accordingly. Further, an act abolishing the alcabala, a vexatious internal + revenue tax, gave a great stimulus to freedom of commerce throughout the + country. In order to insure a continuance of the new regime, the + constitution was altered in three important respects. The amendment of + 1890 restored the original clause of 1857, which permitted indefinite + reelection to the presidency; that of 1896 established a presidential + succession in case of a vacancy, beginning with the Minister of Foreign + Affairs; and that of 1904 lengthened the term of the chief magistrate from + four years to six and created the office of Vice President. + </p> + <p> + In Central America two republics, Guatemala and Costa Rica, set an + excellent example both because they were free from internal commotions and + because they refrained from interference in the affairs of their + neighbors. The contrast between these two quiet little nations, under + their lawyer Presidents, and the bellicose but equally small Nicaragua, + Honduras, and Salvador, under their chieftains, military and juristic, was + quite remarkable. Nevertheless another attempt at confederation was made. + In 1895 the ruler of Honduras, declaring that reunion was a "primordial + necessity," invited his fellow potentates of Nicaragua and Salvador to + unite in creating the "Greater Republic of Central America" and asked + Guatemala and Costa Rica to join. Delegates actually appeared from all + five republics, attended fiestas, gave expression to pious wishes, and + went home! Later still, in 1902, the respective Presidents signed a + "convention of peace and obligatory arbitration" as a means of adjusting + perpetual disagreements about politics and boundaries; but nothing was + done to carry these ideas into effect. + </p> + <p> + The personage mainly responsible for these failures was Jose Santos + Zelaya, one of the most arrant military lordlets and meddlers that Central + America had produced in a long time. Since 1893 he had been dictator of + Nicaragua, a country not only entangled in continuous wrangles among its + towns and factions, but bowed under an enormous burden of debt created by + excessive emissions of paper money and by the contraction of more or less + scandalous foreign loans. Quite undisturbed by the financial situation, + Zelaya promptly silenced local bickerings and devoted his energies to + altering the constitution for his presidential benefit and to making + trouble for his neighbors. Nor did he refrain from displays of arbitrary + conduct that were sure to provoke foreign intervention. Great Britain, for + example, on two occasions exacted reparation at the cannon's mouth for ill + treatment of its citizens. + </p> + <p> + Zelaya waxed wroth at the spectacle of Guatemala, once so active in + revolutionary arts but now quietly minding its own business. In 1906, + therefore, along with parties of Hondurans, Salvadoreans, and disaffected + Guatemalans, he began an invasion of that country and continued operations + with decreasing success until, the United States and Mexico offering their + mediation, peace was signed aboard an American cruiser. Then, when Costa + Rica invited the other republics to discuss confederation within its calm + frontiers, Zelaya preferred his own particular occupation to any such + procedure. Accordingly, displeased with a recent boundary decision, he + started along with Salvador to fight Honduras. Once more the United States + and Mexico tendered their good offices, and again a Central American + conflict was closed aboard an American warship. About the only real + achievement of Zelaya was the signing of a treaty by which Great Britain + recognized the complete sovereignty of Nicaragua over the Mosquito + Indians, whose buzzing for a larger amount of freedom and more tribute had + been disturbing unduly the "repose" of that small nation! + </p> + <p> + To the eastward the new republic of Cuba was about to be born. Here a + promise of adequate representation in the Spanish Cortes and of a local + legislature had failed to satisfy the aspirations of many of its + inhabitants. The discontent was aggravated by lax and corrupt methods of + administration as well as by financial difficulties. Swarms of Spanish + officials enjoyed large salaries without performing duties of equivalent + value. Not a few of them had come over to enrich themselves at public + expense and under conditions altogether scandalous. On Cuba, furthermore, + was saddled the debt incurred by the Ten Years' War, while the island + continued to be a lucrative market for Spanish goods without obtaining + from Spain a corresponding advantage for its own products. + </p> + <p> + As the insistence upon a removal of these abuses and upon a grant of + genuine self-government became steadily more clamorous, three political + groups appeared. The Constitutional Unionists, or "Austrianizers," as they + were dubbed because of their avowed loyalty to the royal house of + Bourbon-Hapsburg, were made up of the Spanish and conservative elements + and represented the large economic interests and the Church. The Liberals, + or "Autonomists," desired such reforms in the administration as would + assure the exercise of self-government and yet preserve the bond with the + mother country. On the other hand, the Radicals, or "Nationalists"—the + party of "Cuba Free"—would be satisfied with nothing short of + absolute independence. All these differences of opinion were sharpened by + the activities of a sensational press. + </p> + <p> + From about 1890 onward the movement toward independence gathered + tremendous strength, especially when the Cubans found popular sentiment in + the United States so favorable to it. Excitement rose still higher when + the Spanish Government proposed to bestow a larger measure of autonomy. + When, however, the Cortes decided upon less liberal arrangements, the + Autonomists declared that they had been deceived, and the Nationalists + denounced the utter unreliability of Spanish promises. Even if the + concessions had been generous, the result probably would have been the + same, for by this time the plot to set Cuba free had become so widespread, + both in the island itself and among the refugees in the United States, + that the inevitable struggle could not have been deferred. + </p> + <p> + In 1895 the revolution broke out. The whites, headed by Maximo Gomez, and + the negroes and mulattoes by their chieftain, Antonio Maceo, both of whom + had done valiant service in the earlier war, started upon a campaign of + deliberate terrorism. This time they were resolved to win at any cost. + Spurning every offer of conciliation, they burned, ravaged, and laid + waste, spread desolation along their pathway, and reduced thousands to + abject poverty and want. + </p> + <p> + Then the Spanish Government came to the conclusion that nothing but the + most rigorous sort of reprisals would check the excesses of the rebels. In + 1896 it commissioned Valeriano Weyler, an officer who personified + ferocity, to put down the rebellion. If the insurgents had fancied that + the conciliatory spirit hitherto displayed by the Spaniards was due to + irresolution or weakness, they found that these were not the qualities of + their new opponent. Weyler, instead of trying to suppress the rebellion by + hurrying detachments of troops first to one spot and then to another in + pursuit of enemies accustomed to guerrilla tactics, determined to stamp it + out province by province. To this end he planted his army firmly in one + particular area, prohibited the planting or harvesting of crops there, and + ordered the inhabitants to assemble in camps which they were not permitted + to leave on any pretext whatever. This was his policy of + "reconcentration." Deficient food supply, lack of sanitary precautions, + and absence of moral safeguards made conditions of life in these camps + appalling. Death was a welcome relief. Reconcentration, combined with + executions and deportations, could have but one result—the + "pacification" of Cuba by converting it into a desert. + </p> + <p> + Not in the United States alone but in Spain itself the story of these + drastic measures kindled popular indignation to such an extent that, in + 1897, the Government was forced to recall the ferocious Weyler and to send + over a new Governor and Captain General, with instructions to abandon the + worst features of his predecessor's policy and to establish a complete + system of autonomy in both Cuba and Porto Rico. Feeling assured, however, + that an ally was at hand who would soon make their independence certain, + the Cuban patriots flatly rejected these overtures. In their expectations + they were not mistaken. By its armed intervention, in the following year + the United States acquired Porto Rico for itself and compelled Spain to + withdraw from Cuba. * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See "The Path of Empire", by Carl Russell Fish (in "The + Chronicles of America"). +</pre> + <p> + The island then became a republic, subject only to such limitations on its + freedom of action as its big guardian might see fit to impose. Not only + was Cuba placed under American rule from 1899 to 1902, but it had to + insert in the Constitution of 1901 certain clauses that could not fail to + be galling to Cuban pride. Among them two were of special significance. + One imposed limitations on the financial powers of the Government of the + new nation, and the other authorized the United States, at its discretion, + to intervene in Cuban affairs for the purpose of maintaining public order. + The Cubans, it would seem, had exchanged a dependence on Spain for a + restricted independence measured by the will of a country infinitely + stronger. + </p> + <p> + Cuba began its life as a republic in 1902, under a government for which a + form both unitary and federal had been provided. Tomas Estrada Palma, the + first President and long the head of the Cuban junta in the United States, + showed himself disposed from the outset to continue the beneficial reforms + in administration which had been introduced under American rule. Prudent + and conciliatory in temperament, he tried to dispel as best he could the + bitter recollections of the war and to repair its ravages. In this policy + he was upheld by the conservative class, or Moderates. Their opponents, + the Liberals, dominated by men of radical tendencies, were eager to assert + the right, to which they thought Cuba entitled as an independent sovereign + nation, to make possible mistakes and correct them without having the + United States forever holding the ferule of the schoolmaster over it. They + were well aware, however, that they were not at liberty to have their + country pass through the tempestuous experience which had been the lot of + so many Hispanic republics. They could vent a natural anger and + disappointment, nevertheless, on the President and his supporters. Rather + than continue to be governed by Cubans not to their liking, they were + willing to bring about a renewal of American rule. In this respect the + wishes of the Radicals were soon gratified. Hardly had Estrada Palma, in + 1906, assumed office for a second time, when parties of malcontents, + declaring that he had secured his reelection by fraudulent means, rose up + in arms and demanded that he annul the vote and hold a fair election. The + President accepted the challenge and waged a futile conflict, and again + the United States intervened. Upon the resignation of Estrada Palma, an + American Governor was again installed, and Cuba was told in unmistakable + fashion that the next intervention might be permanent. + </p> + <p> + Less drastic but quite as effectual a method of assuring order and + regularity in administration was the action taken by the United States in + another Caribbean island. A little country like the Dominican Republic, in + which few Presidents managed to retain their offices for terms fixed by + changeable constitutions, could not resist the temptation to rid itself of + a ruler who had held power for nearly a quarter of a century. After he had + been disposed of by assassination in 1899, the government of his successor + undertook to repudiate a depreciated paper currency by ordering the + customs duties to be paid in specie; and it also tried to prevent the + consul of an aggrieved foreign nation from attaching certain revenues as + security for the payment of the arrears of an indemnity. Thereupon, in + 1905, the President of the United States entered into an arrangement with + the Dominican Government whereby, in return for a pledge from the former + country to guarantee the territorial integrity of the republic and an + agreement to adjust all of its external obligations of a pecuniary sort, + American officials were to take charge of the custom house send apportion + the receipts from that source in such a manner as to satisfy domestic + needs and pay foreign creditors. * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See "The Path of Empire", by Carl Russell Fish (in "The + Chronicles of America"). +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. THE REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA + </h2> + <p> + Even so huge and conservative a country as Brazil could not start out upon + the pathway of republican freedom without some unrest; but the political + experience gained under a regime of limited monarchy had a steadying + effect. Besides, the Revolution of 1889 had been effected by a combination + of army officers and civilian enthusiasts who knew that the provinces were + ready for a radical change in the form of government, but who were wise + enough to make haste slowly. If a motto could mean anything, the adoption + of the positivist device, "Order and Progress," displayed on the national + flag seemed a happy augury. + </p> + <p> + The constitution promulgated in 1891 set up a federal union broadly + similar to that of the United States, except that the powers of the + general Government were somewhat more restricted. Qualifications for the + suffrage were directly fixed in the fundamental law itself, but the + educational tests imposed excluded the great bulk of the population from + the right to vote. In the constitution, also, Church and State were + declared absolutely separate, and civil marriage was prescribed. + </p> + <p> + Well adapted as the constitution was to the particular needs of Brazil, + the Government erected under it had to contend awhile with political + disturbances. Though conflicts occurred between the president and the + Congress, between the federal authority and the States, and between the + civil administration and naval and military officials, none were so + constant, so prolonged, or so disastrous as in the Spanish American + republics. Even when elected by the connivance of government officials, + the chief magistrate governed in accordance with republican forms. + Presidential power, in fact, was restrained both by the huge size of the + country and by the spirit of local autonomy upheld by the States. + </p> + <p> + Ever since the war with Paraguay the financial credit of Brazil had been + impaired. The chronic deficit in the treasury had been further increased + by a serious lowering in the rate of exchange, which was due to an + excessive issue of paper money. In order to save the nation from + bankruptcy Manoel Ferraz de Campos Salles, a distinguished jurist, was + commissioned to effect an adjustment with the British creditors. As a + result of his negotiations a "funding loan" was obtained, in return for + which an equivalent amount in paper money was to be turned over for + cancellation at a fixed rate of exchange. Under this arrangement + depreciation ceased for awhile and the financial outlook became brighter. + </p> + <p> + The election of Campos Salles to the presidency in 1898, as a reward for + his success, was accompanied by the rise of definite political parties. + Among them the Radicals or Progressists favored a policy of centralization + under military auspices and exhibited certain antiforeign tendencies. The + Moderates or Republicans, on the contrary, with Campos Salles as their + candidate, declared for the existing constitution and advocated a gradual + adoption of such reforms as reason and time might suggest. When the latter + party won the election, confidence in the stability of Brazil returned. + </p> + <p> + As if Uruguay had not already suffered enough from internal discords, two + more serious conflicts demonstrated once again that this little country, + in which political power had been held substantially by one party alone + since 1865, could not hope for permanent peace until either the excluded + and apparently irreconcilable party had been finally and utterly crushed, + or, far better still, until the two factions could manage to agree upon + some satisfactory arrangement for rotation in office. The struggle of 1897 + ended in the assassination of the president and in a division of the + republic into two practically separate areas, one ruled by the Colorados + at Montevideo, the other by the Blancos. A renewal of civil war in 1904 + seemed altogether preferable to an indefinite continuance of this dualism + in government, even at the risk of friction with Argentina, which was + charged with not having observed strict neutrality. This second struggle + came to a close with the death of the insurgent leader; but it cost the + lives of thousands and did irreparable damage to the commerce and industry + of the country. + </p> + <p> + Uruguay then enjoyed a respite from party upheavals until 1910, when Jose + Batlle, the able, resolute, and radical-minded head of the Colorados, + announced that he would be a candidate for the presidency. As he had held + the office before and had never ceased to wield a strong personal + influence over the administration of his successor, the Blancos decided + that now was the time to attempt once more to oust their opponents from + the control which they had monopolized for half a century. Accusing the + Government of an unconstitutional centralization of power in the + executive, of preventing free elections, and of crippling the pastoral + industries of the country, they started a revolt, which ran a brief + course. Batlle proved himself equal to the situation and quickly + suppressed the insurrection. Though he did make a wide use of his + authority, the President refrained from indulging in political persecution + and allowed the press all the liberty it desired in so far as was + consistent with the law. It was under his direction that Uruguay entered + upon a remarkable series of experiments in the nationalization of business + enterprises. Further, more or less at the suggestion of Battle, a new + constitution was ratified by popular vote in 1917. It provided for a + division of the executive power between the President and a National + Council of Administration, forbade the election of administrative and + military officials to the Congress, granted to that body a considerable + increase of power, and enlarged the facilities for local self-government. + In addition, it established the principle of minority representation and + of secrecy of the ballot, permitted the Congress to extend the right of + suffrage to women, and dissolved the union between Church and State. If + the terms of the new instrument are faithfully observed, the old struggle + between Blancos and Colorados will have been brought definitely to a + close. + </p> + <p> + Paraguay lapsed after 1898 into the earlier sins of Spanish America. Upon + a comparatively placid presidential regime followed a series of barrack + uprisings or attacks by Congress on the executive. The constitution became + a farce. No longer, to be sure, an abode of Arcadian seclusion as in + colonial times, or a sort of territorial cobweb from the center of which a + spiderlike Francia hung motionless or darted upon his hapless prey, or + even a battle ground on which fanatical warriors might fight and die at + the behest of a savage Lopez, Paraguay now took on the aspect of an arena + in which petty political gamecocks might try out their spurs. Happily, the + opposing parties spent their energies in high words and vehement gestures + rather than in blows and bloodshed. The credit of the country sank lower + and lower until its paper money stood at a discount of several hundred per + cent compared with gold. + </p> + <p> + European bankers had begun to view the financial future of Argentina also + with great alarm. In 1890 the mad careering of private speculation and + public expenditure along the roseate pathway of limitless credit reached a + veritable "crisis of progress." A frightful panic ensued. Paper money fell + to less than a quarter of its former value in gold. Many a firm became + bankrupt, and many a fortune shriveled. As is usual in such cases, the + Government had to shoulder the blame. A four-day revolution broke out in + Buenos Aires, and the President became the scapegoat; but the panic went + on, nevertheless, until gold stood at nearly five to one. Most of the + banks suspended payment; the national debt underwent a huge increase; and + immigration practically ceased. + </p> + <p> + By 1895, however, the country had more or less resumed its normal + condition. A new census showed that the population had risen to four + million, about a sixth of whom resided in the capital. The importance + which agriculture had attained was attested by the establishment of a + separate ministry in the presidential cabinet. Industry, too, made such + rapid strides at this time that organized labor began to take a hand in + politics. The short-lived "revolution" of 1905, for example, was not + primarily the work of politicians but of strikers organized into a + workingmen's federation. For three months civil guarantees were suspended, + and by a so-called "law of residence," enacted some years before and now + put into effect, the Government was authorized to expel summarily any + foreigner guilty of fomenting strikes or of disturbing public order in any + other fashion. + </p> + <p> + Political agitation soon assumed a new form. Since the Autonomist-National + party had been in control for thirty years or more, it seemed to the + Civic-Nationalists, now known as Republicans, to the Autonomists proper, + and to various other factions, that they ought to do something to break + the hold of that powerful organization. Accordingly in 1906 the President, + supported by a coalition of these factions, started what was termed an + "upward-downward revolution"—in other words, a series of + interventions by which local governors and members of legislatures + suspected of Autonomist-National leanings were to be replaced by + individuals who enjoyed the confidence of the Administration. Pretexts for + such action were not hard to find under the terms of the constitution; but + their political interests suffered so much in the effort that the + promoters had to abandon it. + </p> + <p> + Owing to persistent obstruction on the part of Congress, which took the + form of a refusal either to sanction his appointments or to approve the + budget, the President suspended the sessions of that body in 1908 and + decreed a continuance of the estimates for the preceding year. The + antagonism between the chief executive and the legislature became so + violent that, if his opponents had not been split up into factions, civil + war might have ensued in Argentina. + </p> + <p> + To remedy a situation made worse by the absence—usual in most of the + Hispanic republics—of a secret ballot and by the refusal of + political malcontents to take part in elections, voting was made both + obligatory and secret in 1911, and the principle of minority + representation was introduced. Legislation of this sort was designed to + check bribery and intimidation and to enable the radical-minded to do + their duty at the polls. Its effect was shown five years later, when the + secret ballot was used substantially for the first time. The radicals won + both the presidency and a majority in the Congress. + </p> + <p> + One of the secrets of the prosperity of Argentina, as of Brazil, in recent + years has been its abstention from warlike ventures beyond its borders and + its endeavor to adjust boundary conflicts by arbitration. Even when its + attitude toward its huge neighbor had become embittered in consequence of + a boundary decision rendered by the President of the United States in + 1895, it abated none of its enthusiasm for the principle of a peaceful + settlement of international disputes. Four years later, in a treaty with + Uruguay, the so-called "Argentine Formula" appeared. To quote its + language: "The contracting parties agree to submit to arbitration all + questions of any nature which may arise between them, provided they do not + affect provisions of the constitution of either state, and cannot be + adjusted by direct negotiation." This Formula was soon put to the test in + a serious dispute with Chile. + </p> + <p> + In the Treaty of 1881, in partitioning Patagonia, the crest of the Andes + had been assumed to be the true continental watershed between the Atlantic + and the Pacific and hence was made the boundary line between Argentina and + Chile. The entire Atlantic coast was to belong to Argentina, the Pacific + coast to Chile; the island of Tierra del Fuego was to be divided between + them. At the same time the Strait of Magellan was declared a neutral + waterway, open to the ships of all nations. Ere long, however, it was + ascertained that the crest of the Andes did not actually coincide with the + continental divide. Thereupon Argentina insisted that the boundary line + should be made to run along the crest, while Chile demanded that it be + traced along the watershed. Since the mountainous area concerned was of + little value, the question at bottom was simply one of power and prestige + between rival states. + </p> + <p> + As the dispute waxed warmer, a noisy press and populace clamored for war. + The Governments of the two nations spent large sums in increasing their + armaments; and Argentina, in imitation of its western neighbor, made + military service compulsory. But, as the conviction gradually spread that + a struggle would leave the victor as prostrate as the vanquished, wiser + counsels prevailed. In 1899, accordingly, the matter was referred to the + King of Great Britain for decision. Though the award was a compromise, + Chile was the actual gainer in territory. + </p> + <p> + By their treaties of 1902 both republics declared their intention to + uphold the principle of arbitration and to refrain from interfering in + each other's affairs along their respective coasts. They also agreed upon + a limitation of armaments—the sole example on record of a + realization of the purpose of the First Hague Conference. To commemorate + still further their international accord, in 1904 they erected on the + summit of the Uspallata Pass, over which San Martin had crossed with his + army of liberation in 1817, a bronze statue of Christ the Redeemer. There, + amid the snow-capped peaks of the giant Andes, one may read inscribed upon + the pedestal: "Sooner shall these mountains crumble to dust than + Argentinos and Chileans break the peace which at the feet of Christ the + Redeemer they have sworn to maintain!" Nor has the peace been broken. + </p> + <p> + Though hostilities with Argentina had thus been averted, Chile had + experienced within its own frontiers the most serious revolution it had + known in sixty years. The struggle was not one of partisan chieftains or + political groups but a genuine contest to determine which of two theories + of government should prevail—the presidential or the parliamentary, + a presidential autocracy with the spread of real democracy or a + congressional oligarchy based on the existing order. The sincerity and + public spirit of both contestants helped to lend dignity to the conflict. + </p> + <p> + Jose Manuel Balmaceda, a man of marked ability, who became President in + 1886, had devoted much of his political life to urging an enlargement of + the executive power, a greater freedom to municipalities in the management + of their local affairs, and a broadening of the suffrage. He had even + advocated a separation of Church and State. Most of these proposals so + conservative a land as Chile was not prepared to accept. Though civil + marriage was authorized and ecclesiastical influence was lessened in other + respects, the Church stood firm. During his administration Balmaceda + introduced many reforms, both material and educational. He gave a great + impetus to the construction of public works, enhanced the national credit + by a favorable conversion of the public debt, fostered immigration, and + devoted especial attention to the establishment of secondary schools. + Excellent as the administration of Balmaceda had been in other respects, + he nevertheless failed to combine the liberal factions into a party + willing to support the plans of reform which he had steadily favored. The + parliamentary system made Cabinets altogether unstable, as political + groups in the lower house of the Congress alternately cohered and fell + apart. This defect, Balmaceda thought, should be corrected by making the + members of his official family independent of the legislative branch. The + Council of State, a somewhat anomalous body placed between the President + and Cabinet on the one side and the Congress on the other, was an + additional obstruction to a smooth-running administration. For it he would + substitute a tribunal charged with the duty of resolving conflicts between + the two chief branches of government. Balmaceda believed, also, that + greater liberty should be given to the press and that existing taxes + should be altered as rarely as possible. On its side, the Congress felt + that the President was trying to establish a dictatorship and to replace + the unitary system by a federal union, the probable weakness of which + would enable him to retain his power more securely. + </p> + <p> + Toward the close of his term in January, 1891, when the Liberals declined + to support his candidate for the presidency, Balmaceda, furious at the + opposition which he had encountered, took matters into his own hands. + Since the Congress refused to pass the appropriation bills, he declared + that body dissolved and proceeded to levy the taxes by decree. To this + arbitrary and altogether unconstitutional performance the Congress + retorted by declaring the President deposed. Civil war broke out + forthwith, and a strange spectacle presented itself. The two chief cities, + Santiago and Valparaiso, and most of the army backed Balmaceda, whereas + the country districts, especially in the north, and practically all the + navy upheld the Congress. + </p> + <p> + These were, indeed, dark days for Chile. During a struggle of about eight + months the nation suffered more than it had done in years of warfare with + Peru and Bolivia. Though the bulk of the army stood by Balmaceda, the + Congress was able to raise and organize a much stronger fighting force + under a Prussian drillmaster. The tide of battle turned; Santiago and + Valparaiso capitulated; and the presidential cause was lost. Balmaceda, + who had taken refuge in the Argentina legation, committed suicide. But the + Balmacedists, who were included in a general amnesty, still maintained + themselves as a party to advocate in a peaceful fashion the principles of + their fallen leader. + </p> + <p> + Chile had its reputation for stability well tested in 1910 when the + executive changed four times without the slightest political disturbance. + According to the constitution, the officer who takes the place of the + President in case of the latter's death or disability, though vested with + full authority, has the title of Vice President only. It so happened that + after the death of the President two members of the Cabinet in succession + held the vice presidency, and they were followed by the chief magistrate, + who was duly elected and installed at the close of the year. In 1915, for + the first time since their leader had committed suicide, one of the + followers of Balmaceda was chosen President—by a strange coalition + of Liberal-Democrats, or Balmacedists, Conservatives, and Nationalists, + over the candidate of the Radicals, Liberals, and Democrats. The + maintenance of the parliamentary system, however, continued to produce + frequent alterations in the personnel of the Cabinet. + </p> + <p> + In its foreign relations, apart from the adjustment reached with + Argentina, Chile managed to settle the difficulties with Bolivia arising + out of the War of the Pacific. By the terms of treaties concluded in 1895 + and 1905, the region tentatively transferred by the armistice of 1884 was + ceded outright to Chile in return for a seaport and a narrow right of way + to it through the former Peruvian province of Tarapaca. With Peru, Chile + was not so fortunate. Though the tension over the ultimate disposal of the + Tacna and Arica question was somewhat reduced, it was far from being + removed. Chile absolutely refused to submit the matter to arbitration, on + the ground that such a procedure could not properly be applied to a + question arising out of a war that had taken place so many years before. + Chile did not wish to give the region up, lest by so doing it might expose + Tarapaca to a possible attack from Peru. The investment of large amounts + of foreign capital in the exploitation of the deposits of nitrate of soda + had made that province economically very valuable, and the export tax + levied on the product was the chief source of the national revenue. These + were all potent reasons why Chile wanted to keep its hold on Tacna and + Arica. Besides, possession was nine points in the law! + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the original plan of having the question decided by a + vote of the inhabitants of the provinces concerned was not carried into + effect, partly because both claimants cherished a conviction that + whichever lost the election would deny its validity, and partly because + they could not agree upon the precise method of holding it. Chile + suggested that the international commission which was selected to take + charge of the plebiscite, and which was composed of a Chilean, a Peruvian, + and a neutral, should be presided over by the Chilean member as + representative of the country actually in possession, whereas Peru + insisted that the neutral should act as chairman. Chile proposed also that + Chileans, Peruvians, and foreigners resident in the area six months before + the date of the elections should vote, provided that they had the right to + do so under the terms of the constitutions of both states. Peru, on its + part, objected to the length of residence, and wished to limit carefully + the number of Chilean voters, to exclude foreigners altogether from the + election, and to disregard qualifications for the suffrage which required + an ability to read and write. Both countries, moreover, appeared to have a + lurking suspicion that in any event the other would try to secure a + majority at the polls by supplying a requisite number of voters drawn from + their respective citizenry who were not ordinarily resident in Tacna and + Arica! Unable to overcome the deadlock, Chile and Peru agreed in 1913 to + postpone the settlement for twenty years longer. At the expiration of this + period, when Chile would have held the provinces for half a century, the + question should be finally adjusted on bases mutually satisfactory. + Officially amicable relations were then restored. + </p> + <p> + While the political situation in Bolivia remained stable, so much could + not be said of that in Peru and Ecuador. If the troubles in the former + were more or less military, a persistence of the conflict between + clericals and radicals characterized the commotions in the latter, because + of certain liberal provisions in the Constitution of 1907. Peru, on the + other hand, in 1915 guaranteed its people the enjoyment of religious + liberty. + </p> + <p> + Next to the Tacna and Arica question, the dubious boundaries of Ecuador + constituted the most serious international problem in South America. The + so-called Oriente region, lying east of the Andes and claimed by Peru, + Brazil, and Colombia, appeared differently on different maps, according as + one claimant nation or another set forth its own case. Had all three been + satisfied, nothing would have been left of Ecuador but the strip between + the Andes and the Pacific coast, including the cities of Quito and + Guayaquil. The Ecuadorians, therefore, were bitterly sensitive on the + subject. + </p> + <p> + Protracted negotiations over the boundaries became alike tedious and + listless. But the moment that the respective diplomats had agreed upon + some knotty point, the Congress of one litigant or another was almost sure + to reject the decision and start the controversy all over again. Even + reference of the matter to the arbitral judgment of European monarchs + produced, so far as Ecuador and Peru were concerned, riotous attacks upon + the Peruvian legation and consulates, charges and countercharges of + invasion of each other's territory, and the suspension of diplomatic + relations. Though the United States, Argentina, and Brazil had interposed + to ward off an armed conflict between the two republics and, in 1911, had + urged that the dispute be submitted to the Hague Tribunal, nothing would + induce Ecuador to comply. + </p> + <p> + Colombia was even more unfortunate than its southern neighbor, for in + addition to political convulsions it suffered financial disaster and an + actual deprivation of territory. Struggles among factions, official + influence at the elections, dictatorships, and fighting between the + departments and the national Government plunged the country, in 1899, into + the worst civil war it had known for many a day. Paper money, issued in + unlimited amounts and given a forced circulation, made the distress still + more acute. Then came the hardest blow of all. Since 1830 Panama, as + province or state, had tried many times to secede from Colombia. In 1903 + the opportunity it sought became altogether favorable. The parent nation, + just beginning to recover from the disasters of civil strife, would + probably be unable to prevent a new attempt at withdrawal. The people of + Panama, of course, knew how eager the United States was to acquire the + region of the proposed Canal Zone, since it had failed to win it by + negotiation with Colombia. Accordingly, if they were to start a + "revolution," they had reason to believe that it would not lack support—or + at least, connivance—from that quarter. + </p> + <p> + On the 3d of November the projected "revolution" occurred, on schedule + time, and the United States recognized the independence of the "Republic + of Panama" three days later! In return for a guarantee of independence, + however, the United States stipulated, in the convention concluded on the + 18th of November, that, besides authority to enforce sanitary regulations + in the Canal Zone, it should also have the right of intervention to + maintain order in the republic itself. More than once, indeed, after + Panama adopted its constitution in 1904, elections threatened to become + tumultuous; whereupon the United States saw to it that they passed off + quietly. + </p> + <p> + Having no wish to flout their huge neighbor to the northward, the Hispanic + nations at large hastened to acknowledge the independence of the new + republic, despite the indignation that prevailed in press and public over + what was regarded as an act of despoilment. In view of the resentful + attitude of Colombia and mindful also of the opinion of many Americans + that a gross injustice had been committed, the United States eventually + offered terms of settlement. It agreed to express regret for the ill + feeling between the two countries which had arisen out of the Panama + incident, provided that such expression were made mutual; and, as a + species of indemnity, it agreed to pay for canal rights to be acquired in + Colombian territory and for the lease of certain islands as naval + stations. But neither the terms nor the amount of the compensation proved + acceptable. Instead, Colombia urged that the whole matter be referred to + the judgment of the tribunal at The Hague. + </p> + <p> + Alluding to the use made of the liberties won in the struggle for + emancipation from Spain by the native land of Miranda, Bolivar, and Sucre, + on the part of the country which had been in the vanguard of the fight for + freedom from a foreign yoke, a writer of Venezuela once declared that it + had not elected legally a single President; had not put democratic ideas + or institutions into practice; had lived wholly under dictatorships; had + neglected public instruction; and had set up a large number of oppressive + commercial monopolies, including the navigation of rivers, the coastwise + trade, the pearl fisheries, and the sale of tobacco, salt, sugar, liquor, + matches, explosives, butter, grease, cement, shoes, meat, and flour. + Exaggerated as the indictment is and applicable also, though in less + degree, to some of the other backward countries of Hispanic America, it + contains unfortunately a large measure of truth. Indeed, so far as + Venezuela itself is concerned, this critic might have added that every + time a "restorer," "regenerator," or "liberator" succumbed there, the old + craze for federalism again broke out and menaced the nation with piecemeal + destruction. Obedient, furthermore, to the whims of a presidential despot, + Venezuela perpetrated more outrages on foreigners and created more + international friction after 1899 than any other land in Spanish America + had ever done. + </p> + <p> + While the formidable Guzman Blanco was still alive, the various Presidents + acted cautiously. No sooner had he passed away than disorder broke out + afresh. Since a new dictator thought he needed a longer term of office and + divers other administrative advantages, a constitution incorporating them + was framed and published in the due and customary manner. This had hardly + gone into operation when, in 1895, a contest arose with Great Britain + about the boundaries between Venezuela and British Guiana. Under pressure + from the United States, however, the matter was referred to arbitration, + and Venezuela came out substantially the loser. + </p> + <p> + In 1899 there appeared on the scene a personage compared with whom Zelaya + was the merest novice in the art of making trouble. This was Cipriano + Castro, the greatest international nuisance of the early twentieth + century. A rude, arrogant, fearless, energetic, capricious mountaineer and + cattleman, he regarded foreigners no less than his own countryfolk, it + would seem, as objects for his particular scorn, displeasure, + exploitation, or amusement, as the case might be. He was greatly angered + by the way in which foreigners in dispute with local officials avoided a + resort to Venezuelan courts and—still worse—rejected their + decisions and appealed instead to their diplomatic representatives for + protection. He declared such a procedure to be an affront to the national + dignity. Yet foreigners were usually correct in arming that judges + appointed by an arbitrary President were little more than figureheads, + incapable of dispensing justice, even were they so inclined. + </p> + <p> + Jealous not only of his personal prestige but of what he imagined, or + pretended to imagine, were the rights of a small nation, Castro tried + throughout to portray the situation in such a light as to induce the other + Hispanic republics also to view foreign interference as a dire peril to + their own independence and sovereignty; and he further endeavored to + involve the United States in a struggle with European powers as a means + possibly of testing the efficacy of the Monroe Doctrine or of laying bare + before the world the evil nature of American imperialistic designs. + </p> + <p> + By the year 1901, in which Venezuela adopted another constitution, the + revolutionary disturbances had materially diminished the revenues from the + customs. Furthermore Castro's regulations exacting military service of all + males between fourteen and sixty years of age had filled the prisons to + overflowing. Many foreigners who had suffered in consequence resorted to + measures of self-defense—among them representatives of certain + American and British asphalt companies which were working concessions + granted by Castro's predecessors. Though familiar with what commonly + happens to those who handle pitch, they had not scrupled to aid some of + Castro's enemies. Castro forthwith imposed on them enormous fines which + amounted practically to a confiscation of their rights. + </p> + <p> + While the United States and Great Britain were expostulating over this + behavior of the despot, France broke off diplomatic relations with + Venezuela because of Castro's refusal either to pay or to submit to + arbitration certain claims which had originated in previous revolutions. + Germany, aggrieved in similar fashion, contemplated a seizure of the + customs until its demands for redress were satisfied. And then came Italy + with like causes of complaint. As if these complications were not + sufficient, Venezuela came to blows with Colombia. + </p> + <p> + As the foreign pressure on Castro steadily increased, Luis Maria Drago, + the Argentine Minister of Foreign Affairs, formulated in 1902 the doctrine + with which his name has been associated. It stated in substance that force + should never be employed between nations for the collection of contractual + debts. Encouraged by this apparent token of support from a sister + republic, Castro defied his array of foreign adversaries more vigorously + than ever, declaring that he might find it needful to invade the United + States, by way of New Orleans, to teach it the lesson it deserved! But + when he attempted, in the following year, to close the ports of Venezuela + as a means of bringing his native antagonists to terms, Great Britain, + Germany, and Italy seized his warships, blockaded the coast, and bombarded + some of his forts. Thereupon the United States interposed with a + suggestion that the dispute be laid before the Hague Tribunal. Although + Castro yielded, he did not fail to have a clause inserted in a new + "constitution" requiring foreigners who might wish to enter the republic + to show certificates of good character from the Governments of their + respective countries. + </p> + <p> + These incidents gave much food for thought to Castro as well as to his + soberer compatriots. The European powers had displayed an apparent + willingness to have the United States, if it chose to do so, assume the + role of a New World policeman and financial guarantor. Were it to assume + these duties, backward republics in the Caribbean and its vicinity were + likely to have their affairs, internal as well as external, supervised by + the big nation in order to ward off European intervention. At this moment, + indeed, the United States was intervening in Panama. The prospect aroused + in many Hispanic countries the fear of a "Yankee peril" greater even than + that emanating from Europe. Instead of being a kindly and disinterested + protector of small neighbors, the "Colossus of the North" appeared rather + to resemble a political and commercial ogre bent upon swallowing them to + satisfy "manifest destiny." + </p> + <p> + Having succeeded in putting around his head an aureole of local + popularity, Castro in 1905 picked a new set of partially justified + quarrels with the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy, Colombia, + and even with the Netherlands, arising out of the depredations of + revolutionists; but an armed menace from the United States induced him to + desist from his plans. He contented himself accordingly with issuing a + decree of amnesty for all political offenders except the leaders. When + "reelected," he carried his magnanimity so far as to resign awhile in + favor of the Vice President, stating that, if his retirement were to bring + peace and concord, he would make it permanent. But as he saw to it that + his temporary withdrawal should not have this happy result, he came back + again to his firmer position a few months later. + </p> + <p> + Venting his wrath upon the Netherlands because its minister had reported + to his Government an outbreak of cholera at La Guaira, the chief seaport + of Venezuela, the dictator laid an embargo on Dutch commerce, seized its + ships, and denounced the Dutch for their alleged failure to check + filibustering from their islands off the coast. When the minister + protested, Castro expelled him. Thereupon the Netherlands instituted a + blockade of the Venezuelan ports. What might have happened if Castro had + remained much longer in charge, may be guessed. Toward the close of 1908, + however, he departed for Europe to undergo a course of medical treatment. + Hardly had he left Venezuelan shores when Juan Vicente Gomez, the able, + astute, and vigorous Vice President, managed to secure his own election to + the presidency and an immediate recognition from foreign states. Under his + direction all of the international tangles of Venezuela were straightened + out. + </p> + <p> + In 1914 the country adopted its eleventh constitution and thereby + lengthened the presidential term to seven years, shortened that of members + of the lower house of the Congress to four, determined definitely the + number of States in the union, altered the apportionment of their + congressional representation, and enlarged the powers of the federal + Government—or, rather, those of its executive branch! In 1914 Gomez + resigned office in favor of the Vice President, and secured an appointment + instead as commander in chief of the army. This procedure was promptly + denounced as a trick to evade the constitutional prohibition of two + consecutive terms. A year later he was unanimously elected President, + though he never formally took the oath of office. + </p> + <p> + Whatever may be thought of the political ways and means of this new Guzmin + Blanco to maintain himself as a power behind or on the presidential + throne, Gomez gave Venezuela an administration of a sort very different + from that of his immediate predecessor. He suppressed various government + monopolies, removed other obstacles to the material advancement of the + country, and reduced the national debt. He did much also to improve the + sanitary conditions at La Guaira, and he promoted education, especially + the teaching of foreign languages. + </p> + <p> + Gomez nevertheless had to keep a watchful eye on the partisans of Castro, + who broke out in revolt whenever they had an opportunity. The United + States, Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Denmark, Cuba, and + Colombia eyed the movements of the ex-dictator nervously, as European + powers long ago were wont to do in the case of a certain Man of Destiny, + and barred him out of both their possessions and Venezuela itself. + International patience, never Job-like, had been too sorely vexed to + permit his return. Nevertheless, after the manner of the ancient + persecutor of the Biblical martyr, Castro did not refrain from going to + and fro in the earth. In fact he still "walketh about" seeking to recover + his hold upon Venezuela! + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. MEXICO IN REVOLUTION + </h2> + <p> + When, in 1910, like several of its sister republics, Mexico celebrated the + centennial anniversary of its independence, the era of peace and progress + inaugurated by Porfirio Diaz seemed likely to last indefinitely, for he + was entering upon his eighth term as President. Brilliant as his career + had been, however, and greatly as Mexico had prospered under his rigid + rule, a sullen discontent had been brewing. The country that had had but + one continuous President in twenty-six years was destined to have some + fourteen chief magistrates in less than a quarter of that time, and to + surpass all its previous records for rapidity in presidential succession, + by having one executive who is said to have held office for precisely + fifty-six minutes! + </p> + <p> + It has often been asserted that the reason for the downfall of Diaz and + the lapse of Mexico into the unhappy conditions of a half century earlier + was that he had grown too old to keep a firm grip on the situation. It has + also been declared that his insistence upon reelection and upon the + elevation of his own personal candidate to the vice presidency, as a + successor in case of his retirement, occasioned his overthrow. The truth + of the matter is that these circumstances were only incidental to his + downfall; the real causes of revolution lay deeprooted in the history of + these twenty-six years. The most significant feature of the revolt was its + civilian character. A widespread public opinion had been created; a + national consciousness had been awakened which was intolerant of abuses + and determined upon their removal at any cost; and this public opinion and + national consciousness were products of general education, which had + brought to the fore a number of intelligent men eager to participate in + public affairs and yet barred out because of their unwillingness to + support the existing regime. + </p> + <p> + Some one has remarked, and rightly, that Diaz in his zeal for the material + advancement of Mexico, mistook the tangible wealth of the country for its + welfare. Desirable and even necessary as that material progress was, it + produced only a one-sided prosperity. Diaz was singularly deaf to the just + complaints of the people of the laboring classes, who, as manufacturing + and other industrial enterprises developed, were resolved to better their + conditions. In the country at large the discontent was still stronger. + Throughout many of the rural districts general advancement had been + retarded because of the holding of huge areas of fertile land by a + comparatively few rich families, who did little to improve it and were + content with small returns from the labor of throngs of unskilled native + cultivators. Wretchedly paid and housed, and toiling long hours, the + workers lived like the serfs of medieval days or as their own ancestors + did in colonial times. Ignorant, poverty-stricken, liable at any moment to + be dispossessed of the tiny patch of ground on which they raised a few + hills of corn or beans, most of them were naturally a simple, peaceful + folk who, in spite of their misfortunes, might have gone on indefinitely + with their drudgery in a hopeless apathetic fashion, unless their latent + savage instincts happened to be aroused by drink and the prospect of + plunder. On the other hand, the intelligent among them, knowing that in + some of the northern States of the republic wages were higher and + treatment fairer, felt a sense of wrong which, like that of the laboring + class in the towns, was all the more dangerous because it was not allowed + to find expression. + </p> + <p> + Diaz thought that what Mexico required above everything else was the + development of industrial efficiency and financial strength, assured by a + maintenance of absolute order. Though disposed to do justice in individual + cases, he would tolerate no class movements of any kind. Labor unions, + strikes, and other efforts at lightening the burden of the workers he + regarded as seditious and deserving of severe punishment. In order to + attract capital from abroad as the best means of exploiting the vast + resources of the country, he was willing to go to any length, it would + seem, in guaranteeing protection. Small wonder, therefore, that the people + who shared in none of the immediate advantages from that source should + have muttered that Mexico was the "mother of foreigners and the stepmother + of Mexicans." And, since so much of the capital came from the United + States, the antiforeign sentiment singled Americans out for its particular + dislike. + </p> + <p> + If Diaz appeared unable to appreciate the significance of the educational + and industrial awakening, he was no less oblivious of the political + outcome. He knew, of course, that the Mexican constitution made impossible + demands upon the political capacity of the people. He was himself mainly + of Indian blood and he believed that he understood the temperament and + limitations of most Mexicans. Knowing how tenaciously they clung to + political notions, he believed that it was safer and wiser to forego, at + least for a time, real popular government and to concentrate power in the + hands of a strong man who could maintain order. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly, backed by his political adherents, known as cientificos + (doctrinaires), some of whom had acquired a sinister ascendancy over him, + and also by the Church, the landed proprietors, and the foreign + capitalists, Diaz centered the entire administration more and more in + himself. Elections became mere farces. Not only the federal officials + themselves but the state governors, the members of the state legislatures, + and all others in authority during the later years of his rule owed their + selection primarily to him and held their positions only if personally + loyal to him. Confident of his support and certain that protests against + misgovernment would be regarded by the President as seditious, many of + them abused their power at will. Notable among them were the local + officials, called jefes politicos, whose control of the police force + enabled them to indulge in practices of intimidation and extortion which + ultimately became unendurable. + </p> + <p> + Though symptoms of popular wrath against the Diaz regime, or diazpotism as + the Mexicans termed it, were apparent as early as 1908, it was not until + January, 1911, that the actual revolution came. It was headed by Francisco + I. Madero, a member of a wealthy and distinguished family of landed + proprietors in one of the northern States. What the revolutionists + demanded in substance was the retirement of the President, Vice President, + and Cabinet; a return to the principle of no reelection to the chief + magistracy; a guarantee of fair elections at all times; the choice of + capable, honest, and impartial judges, jefes politicos, and other + officials; and, in particular, a series of agrarian and industrial reforms + which would break up the great estates, create peasant proprietorships, + and better the conditions of the working classes. Disposed at first to + treat the insurrection lightly, Diaz soon found that he had underestimated + its strength. Grants of some of the demands and promises of reform were + met with a dogged insistence upon his own resignation. Then, as the + rebellion spread to the southward, the masterful old man realized that his + thirty-one years of rule were at an end. On the 25th of May, therefore, he + gave up his power and sailed for Europe. + </p> + <p> + Madero was chosen President five months later, but the revolution soon + passed beyond his control. He was a sincere idealist, if not something of + a visionary, actuated by humane and kindly sentiments, but he lacked + resoluteness and the art of managing men. He was too prolific, also, of + promises which he must have known he could not keep. Yielding to family + influence, he let his followers get out of hand. Ambitious chieftains and + groups of Radicals blocked and thwarted him at every turn. When he could + find no means of carrying out his program without wholesale confiscation + and the disruption of business interests, he was accused of abandoning his + duty. One officer after another deserted him and turned rebel. Brigandage + and insurrection swept over the country and threatened to involve it in + ugly complications with the United States and European powers. At length, + in February, 1913, came the blow that put an end to all of Madero's + efforts and aspirations. A military uprising in the city of Mexico made + him prisoner, forced him to resign, and set up a provisional government + under the dictatorship of Victoriano Huerta, one of his chief lieutenants. + Two weeks later both Madero and the Vice President were assassinated while + on their way supposedly to a place of safety. + </p> + <p> + Huerta was a rough soldier of Indian origin, possessed of unusual force of + character and strength of will, ruthless, cunning, and in bearing + alternately dignified and vulgar. A scientifico in political faith, he was + disposed to restore the Diaz regime, so far as an application of + shrewdness and force could make it possible. But from the outset he found + an obstacle confronting him that he could not surmount. Though + acknowledged by European countries and by many of the Hispanic republics, + he could not win recognition from the United States, either as provisional + President or as a candidate for regular election to the office. Whether + personally responsible for the murder of Madero or not, he was not + regarded by the American Government as entitled to recognition, on the + ground that he was not the choice of the Mexican people. In its refusal to + recognize an administration set up merely by brute force, the United + States was upheld by Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Cuba. The elimination + of Huerta became the chief feature for a while of its Mexican policy. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the followers of Madero and the pronounced Radicals had found a + new northern leader in the person of Venustiano Carranza. They called + themselves Constitutionalists, as indicative of their purpose to + reestablish the constitution and to choose a successor to Madero in a + constitutional manner. What they really desired was those radical changes + along social, industrial, and political lines, which Madero had championed + in theory. They sought to introduce a species of socialistic regime that + would provide the Mexicans with an opportunity for self-regeneration. + While Diaz had believed in economic progress supported by the great landed + proprietors, the moral influence of the Church, and the application of + foreign capital, the Constitutionalists, personified in Carranza, were + convinced that these agencies, if left free and undisturbed to work their + will, would ruin Mexico. Though not exactly antiforeign in their attitude, + they wished to curb the power of the foreigner; they would accept his aid + whenever desirable for the economic development of the country, but they + would not submit to his virtual control of public affairs. In any case + they would tolerate no interference by the United States. Compromise with + the Huerta regime, therefore, was impossible. Huerta, the "strong man" of + the Diaz type, must go. On this point, at least, the Constitutionalists + were in thorough agreement with the United States. + </p> + <p> + A variety of international complications ensued. Both Huertistas and + Carranzistas perpetrated outrages on foreigners, which evoked sharp + protests and threats from the United States and European powers. While + careful not to recognize his opponents officially, the American Government + resorted to all kinds of means to oust the dictator. An embargo was laid + on the export of arms and munitions; all efforts to procure financial help + from abroad were balked. The power of Huerta was waning perceptibly and + that of the Constitutionalists was increasing when an incident that + occurred in April, 1914, at Tampico brought matters to a climax. A number + of American sailors who had gone ashore to obtain supplies were arrested + and temporarily detained. The United States demanded that the American + flag be saluted as reparation for the insult. Upon the refusal of Huerta + to comply, the United States sent a naval expedition to occupy Vera Cruz. + </p> + <p> + Both Carranza and Huerta regarded this move as equivalent to an act of + war. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile then offered their mediation. But the + conference arranged for this purpose at Niagara Falls, Canada, had before + it a task altogether impossible of accomplishment. Though Carranza was + willing to have the Constitutionalists represented, if the discussion + related solely to the immediate issue between the United States and + Huerta, he declined to extend the scope of the conference so as to admit + the right of the United States to interfere in the internal affairs of + Mexico. The conference accomplished nothing so far as the immediate issue + was concerned. The dictator did not make reparation for the "affronts and + indignities" he had committed; but his day was over. The advance of the + Constitutionalists southward compelled him in July to abandon the capital + and leave the country. Four months later the American forces were + withdrawn from Vera Cruz. The "A B C" Conference, however barren it was of + direct results, helped to allay suspicions of the United States in + Hispanic America and brought appreciably nearer a "concert of the western + world." + </p> + <p> + While far from exercising full control throughout Mexico, the "first + chief" of the Constitutionalists was easily the dominant figure in the + situation. At home a ranchman, in public affairs a statesman of + considerable ability, knowing how to insist and yet how to temporize, + Carranza carried on a struggle, both in arms and in diplomacy, which + singled him out as a remarkable character. Shrewdly aware of the + advantageous circumstances afforded him by the war in Europe, he turned + them to account with a degree of skill that blocked every attempt at + defeat or compromise. No matter how serious the opposition to him in + Mexico itself, how menacing the attitude of the United States, or how + persuasive the conciliatory disposition of Hispanic American nations, he + clung stubbornly and tenaciously to his program. + </p> + <p> + Even after Huerta had been eliminated, Carranza's position was not + assured, for Francisco, or "Pancho," Villa, a chieftain whose personal + qualities resembled those of the fallen dictator, was equally determined + to eliminate him. For a brief moment, indeed, peace reigned. Under an + alleged agreement between them, a convention of Constitutionalist officers + was to choose a provisional President, who should be ineligible as a + candidate for the permanent presidency at the regular elections. When + Carranza assumed both of these positions, Villa declared his act a + violation of their understanding and insisted upon his retirement. + Inasmuch as the convention was dominated by Villa, the "first chief" + decided to ignore its election of a provisional President. + </p> + <p> + The struggle between the Conventionalists headed by Villa and the + Constitutionalists under Carranza plunged Mexico into worse discord and + misery than ever. Indeed it became a sort of three-cornered contest. The + third party was Emiliano Zapata, an Indian bandit, nominally a supporter + of Villa but actually favorable to neither of the rivals. Operating near + the capital, he plundered Conventionalists and Constitutionalists with + equal impartiality, and as a diversion occasionally occupied the city + itself. These circumstances gave force to the saying that Mexico was a + "land where peace breaks out once in a while!" + </p> + <p> + Early in 1915 Carranza proceeded to issue a number of radical decrees that + exasperated foreigners almost beyond endurance. Rather than resort to + extreme measures again, however, the United States invoked the cooperation + of the Hispanic republics and proposed a conference to devise some + solution of the Mexican problem. To give the proposed conference a wider + representation, it invited not only the "A B C" powers, but Bolivia, + Uruguay, and Guatemala to participate. Meeting at Washington in August, + the mediators encountered the same difficulty which had confronted their + predecessors at Niagara Falls. Though the other chieftains assented, + Carranza, now certain of success, declined to heed any proposal of + conciliation. Characterizing efforts of the kind as an unwarranted + interference in the internal affairs of a sister nation, he warned the + Hispanic republics against setting up so dangerous a precedent. In reply + Argentina stated that the conference obeyed a "lofty inspiration of + Pan-American solidarity, and, instead of finding any cause for alarm, the + Mexican people should see in it a proof of their friendly consideration + that her fate evokes in us, and calls forth our good wishes for her + pacification and development." However, as the only apparent escape from + more watchful waiting or from armed intervention on the part of the United + States, in October the seven Governments decided to accept the facts as + they stood, and accordingly recognized Carranza as the de facto ruler of + Mexico. + </p> + <p> + Enraged at this favor shown to his rival, Villa determined deliberately to + provoke American intervention by a murderous raid on a town in New Mexico + in March, 1916. When the United States dispatched an expedition to avenge + the outrage, Carranza protested energetically against its violation of + Mexican territory and demanded its withdrawal. Several clashes, in fact, + occurred between American soldiers and Carranzistas. Neither the + expedition itself, however, nor diplomatic efforts to find some method of + cooperation which would prevent constant trouble along the frontier served + any useful purpose, since Villa apparently could not be captured and + Carranza refused to yield to diplomatic persuasion. Carranza then proposed + that a joint commission be appointed to settle these vexed questions. Even + this device proved wholly unsatisfactory. The Mexicans would not concede + the right of the United States to send an armed expedition into their + country at any time, and the Americans refused to accept limitations on + the kind of troops that they might employ or on the zone of their + operations. In January, 1917, the joint commission was dissolved and the + American soldiers were withdrawn. Again the "first chief" had won! + </p> + <p> + On the 5th of February a convention assembled at Queretaro promulgated a + constitution embodying substantially all of the radical program that + Carranza had anticipated in his decrees. Besides providing for an + elaborate improvement in the condition of the laboring classes and for + such a division of great estates as might satisfy their particular needs, + the new constitution imposed drastic restrictions upon foreigners and + religious bodies. Under its terms, foreigners could not acquire industrial + concessions unless they waived their treaty rights and consented to regard + themselves for the purpose as Mexican citizens. In all such cases + preference was to be shown Mexicans over foreigners. Ecclesiastical + corporations were forbidden to own real property. No primary school and no + charitable institution could be conducted by any religious mission or + denomination, and religious publications must refrain from commenting on + public affairs. The presidential term was reduced from six years to four; + reelection was prohibited; and the office of Vice President was abolished. + </p> + <p> + When, on the 1st of May, Venustiano Carranza was chosen President, Mexico + had its first constitutional executive in four years. After a cruel and + obstinately intolerant struggle that had occasioned indescribable + suffering from disease and starvation, as well as the usual slaughter and + destruction incident to war, the country began to enjoy once more a + measure of peace. Financial exhaustion, however, had to be overcome before + recuperation was possible. Industrial progress had become almost + paralyzed; vast quantities of depreciated paper money had to be withdrawn + from circulation; and an enormous array of claims for the loss of foreign + life and property had rolled up. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. THE REPUBLICS OF THE CARIBBEAN + </h2> + <p> + The course of events in certain of the republics in and around the + Caribbean Sea warned the Hispanic nations that independence was a relative + condition and that it might vary in direct ratio with nearness to the + United States. After 1906 this powerful northern neighbor showed an + unmistakable tendency to extend its influence in various ways. Here fiscal + and police control was established; there official recognition was + withheld from a President who had secured office by unconstitutional + methods. Nonrecognition promised to be an effective way of maintaining a + regime of law and order, as the United States understood those terms. + Assurances from the United States of the full political equality of all + republics, big or little, in the western hemisphere did not always carry + conviction to Spanish American ears. The smaller countries in and around + the Caribbean Sea, at least, seemed likely to become virtually American + protectorates. + </p> + <p> + Like their Hispanic neighbor on the north, the little republics of Central + America were also scenes of political disturbance. None of them except + Panama escaped revolutionary uprisings, though the loss of life and + property was insignificant. On the other hand, in these early years of the + century the five countries north of Panama made substantial progress + toward federation. As a South American writer has expressed it, their + previous efforts in that direction "amid sumptuous festivals, banquets and + other solemn public acts" at which they "intoned in lyric accents daily + hymns for the imperishable reunion of the isthmian republics," had been as + illusory as they were frequent. Despite the mediation of the United States + and Mexico in 1906, while the latter was still ruled by Diaz, the struggle + in which Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, and Salvador had been engaged was + soon renewed between the first two belligerents. Since diplomatic + interposition no longer availed, American marines were landed in + Nicaragua, and the bumptious Zelaya was induced to have his country meet + its neighbors in a conference at Washington. Under the auspices of the + United States and Mexico, in December, 1907, representatives of the five + republics signed a series of conventions providing for peace and + cooperation. An arbitral court of justice, to be erected in Costa Rica and + composed of one judge from each nation, was to decide all matters of + dispute which could not be adjusted through ordinary diplomatic means. + Here, also, an institute for the training of Central American teachers was + to be established. Annual conferences were to discuss, and an office in + Guatemala was to record, measures designed to secure uniformity in + financial, commercial, industrial, sanitary, and educational regulations. + Honduras, the storm center of weakness, was to be neutralized. None of the + States was thereafter to recognize in any of them a government which had + been set up in an illegal fashion. A "Constitutional Act of Central + American Fraternity," moreover, was adopted on behalf of peace, harmony, + and progress. Toward a realization of the several objects of the + conference, the Presidents of the five republics were to invite their + colleagues of the United States and Mexico, whenever needful, to appoint + representatives, to "lend their good offices in a purely friendly way." + </p> + <p> + Though most of these agencies were promptly put into operation, the + results were not altogether satisfactory. Some discords, to be sure, were + removed by treaties settling boundary questions and providing for + reciprocal trade advantages; but it is doubtful whether the arrangements + devised at Washington would have worked at all if the United States had + not kept the little countries under a certain amount of observation. What + the Central Americans apparently preferred was to be left alone, some of + them to mind their own business, others to mind their neighbor's affairs. + </p> + <p> + Of all the Central American countries Honduras was, perhaps, the one most + afflicted with pecuniary misfortunes. In 1909 its foreign debt, along with + arrears of interest unpaid for thirty-seven years, was estimated at + upwards of $110,000,000. Of this amount a large part consisted of loans + obtained from foreign capitalists, at more or less extortionate rates, for + the construction of a short railway, of which less than half had been + built. That revolutions should be rather chronic in a land where so much + money could be squandered and where the temperaments of Presidents and + ex-Presidents were so bellicose, was natural enough. When the United + States could not induce the warring rivals to abide by fair elections, it + sent a force of marines to overawe them and gave warning that further + disturbances would not be allowed. + </p> + <p> + In Nicaragua the conditions were similar. Here Zelaya, restive under the + limitations set by the conference at Washington, yearned to become the + "strong man" of Central America, who would teach the Yankees to stop their + meddling. But his downfall was imminent. In 1909, as the result of his + execution of two American soldiers of fortune who had taken part in a + recent insurrection, the United States resolved to tolerate Zelaya no + longer. Openly recognizing the insurgents, it forced the dictator out of + the country. Three years later, when a President-elect started to assume + office before the legally appointed time, a force of American marines at + the capital convinced him that such a procedure was undesirable. The + "corrupt and barbarous" conditions prevailing in Zelaya's time, he was + informed, could not be tolerated. The United States, in fact, notified all + parties in Nicaragua that, under the terms of the Washington conventions, + it had a "moral mandate to exert its influence for the preservation of the + general peace of Central America." Since those agreements had vested no + one with authority to enforce them, such an interpretation of their + language, aimed apparently at all disturbances, foreign as well as + domestic, was rather elastic! At all events, after 1912, when a new + constitution was adopted, the country became relatively quiet and somewhat + progressive. Whenever a political flurry did take place, American marines + were employed to preserve the peace. Many citizens, therefore, declined to + vote, on the ground that the moral and material support thus furnished by + the great nation to the northward rendered it futile for them to assume + political responsibilities. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile negotiations began which were ultimately to make Nicaragua a + fiscal protectorate of the United States. American officials were chosen + to act as financial advisers and collectors of customs, and favorable + arrangements were concluded with American bankers regarding the monetary + situation; but it was not until 1916 that a treaty covering this situation + was ratified. According to its provisions, in return for a stipulated sum + to be expended under American direction, Nicaragua was to grant to the + United States the exclusive privilege of constructing a canal through the + territory of the republic and to lease to it the Corn Islands and a part + of Fonseca Bay, on the Pacific coast, for use as naval stations. The + prospect of American intervention alarmed the neighboring republics. + Asserting that the treaty infringed upon their respective boundaries, + Costa Rica, and Salvador brought suit against Nicaragua before the Central + American Court. With the exception of the Nicaraguan representative, the + judges upheld the contention of the plaintiffs that the defendant had no + right to make any such concessions without previous consultation with + Costa Rica, Salvador, and Honduras, since all three alike were affected by + them. The Court observed, however, that it could not declare the treaty + void because the United States, one of the parties concerned, was not + subject to its jurisdiction. Nicaragua declined to accept the decision; + and the United States, the country responsible for the existence of the + Court and presumably interested in helping to enforce its judgment, + allowed it to go out of existence in 1918 on the expiration of its + ten-year term. + </p> + <p> + The economic situation of Costa Rica brought about a state of affairs + wholly unusual in Central American politics. The President, Alfredo + Gonzalez, wished to reform the system of taxation so that a fairer share + of the public burdens should fall on the great landholders who, like most + of their brethren in the Hispanic countries, were practically exempt. This + project, coupled with the fact that certain American citizens seeking an + oil concession had undermined the power of the President by wholesale + bribery, induced the Minister of War, in 1917, to start a revolt against + him. Rather than shed the blood of his fellow citizens for mere personal + advantages, Gonzalez sustained the good reputation of Costa Rica for + freedom from civil commotions by quietly leaving the country and going to + the United States to present his case. In consequence, the American + Government declined to recognize the de facto ruler. + </p> + <p> + Police and fiscal supervision by the United States has characterized the + recent history of Panama. Not only has a proposed increase in the customs + duties been disallowed, but more than once the unrest attending + presidential elections has required the calming presence of American + officials. As a means of forestalling outbreaks, particularly in view of + the cosmopolitan population resident on the Isthmus, the republic enacted + a law in 1914 which forbade foreigners to mix in local politics and + authorized the expulsion of naturalized citizens who attacked the + Government through the press or otherwise. With the approval of the United + States, Panama entered into an agreement with American financiers + providing for the creation of a national bank, one-fourth of the directors + of which should be named by the Government of the republic. + </p> + <p> + The second period of American rule in Cuba lasted till 1909. Control of + the Government was then formally transferred to Jose Miguel Gomez, the + President who had been chosen by the Liberals at the elections held in the + previous year; but the United States did not cease to watch over its chief + Caribbean ward. A bitter controversy soon developed in the Cuban Congress + over measures to forbid the further purchase of land by aliens, and to + insure that a certain percentage of the public offices should be held by + colored citizens. Though both projects were defeated, they revealed a + strong antiforeign sentiment and much dissatisfaction on the part of the + negro population. It was clear also that Gomez, intended to oust all + conservatives from office, for an obedient Congress passed a bill + suspending the civil service rules. + </p> + <p> + The partisanship of Gomez, and his supporters, together with the constant + interference of military veterans in political affairs, provoked numerous + outbreaks, which led the United States, in 1912, to warn Cuba that it + might again be compelled to intervene. Eventually, when a negro + insurrection in the eastern part of the island menaced the safety of + foreigners, American marines were landed. Another instance of intervention + was the objection by the United States to an employers' liability law that + would have given a monopoly of the insurance business to a Cuban company + to the detriment of American firms. + </p> + <p> + After the election of Mario Menocal, the Conservative candidate, to the + presidency in 1912, another occasion for intervention presented itself. An + amnesty bill, originally drafted for the purpose of freeing the colored + insurgents and other offenders, was amended so as to empower the retiring + President to grant pardon before trial to persons whom his successor + wished to prosecute for wholesale corruption in financial transactions. + Before the bill passed, however, notice was sent from Washington that, + since the American Government had the authority to supervise the finances + of the republic, Gomez would better veto the bill, and this he accordingly + did. + </p> + <p> + A sharp struggle arose when it became known that Menocal would be a + candidate for reelection. The Liberal majority in the Congress passed a + bill requiring that a President who sought to succeed himself should + resign two months before the elections. When Menocal vetoed this measure, + his opponents demanded that the United States supervise the elections. As + the result of the elections was doubtful, Gomez and his followers resorted + in 1917 to the usual insurrection; whereupon the American Government + warned the rebels that it would not recognize their claims if they won by + force. Active aid from that quarter, as well as the capture of the + insurgent leader, caused the movement to collapse after the electoral + college had decided in favor of Menocal. + </p> + <p> + In the Dominican Republic disturbances were frequent, notwithstanding the + fact that American officials were in charge of the customhouses and by + their presence were expected to exert a quieting influence. Even the + adoption, in 1908, of a new constitution which provided for the + prolongation of the presidential term to six years and for the abolition + of the office of Vice President—two stabilizing devices quite common + in Hispanic countries where personal ambition is prone to be a source of + political trouble—did not help much to restore order. The + assassination of the President and the persistence of age-long quarrels + with Haiti over boundaries made matters worse. Thereupon, in 1913, the + United States served formal notice on the rebellious parties that it would + not only refuse to recognize any Government set up by force but would + withhold any share in the receipts from the customs. As this procedure did + not prevent a revolutionary leader from demanding half a million dollars + as a financial sedative for his political nerves and from creating more + trouble when the President failed to dispense it, the heavy hand of an + American naval force administered another kind of specific, until + commissioners from Porto Rico could arrive to superintend the selection of + a new chief magistrate. Notwithstanding the protest of the Dominican + Government, the "fairest and freest" elections ever known in the country + were held under the direction of those officials—as a "body of + friendly observers"! + </p> + <p> + However amicable this arrangement seemed, it did not smother the flames of + discord. In 1916, when an American naval commander suggested that a + rebellious Minister of War leave the capital, he agreed to do so if the + "fairest and freest" of chosen Presidents would resign. Even after both of + them had complied with the suggestions, the individuals who assumed their + respective offices were soon at loggerheads. Accordingly the United States + placed the republic under military rule, until a President could be + elected who might be able to retain his post without too much "friendly + observation" from Washington, and a Minister of War could be appointed who + would refrain from making war on the President! Then the organization of a + new party to combat the previous inordinate display of personalities in + politics created some hope that the republic would accomplish its own + redemption. + </p> + <p> + Only because of its relation to the wars of emancipation and to the + Dominican Republic, need the negro state of Haiti, occupying the western + part of the Caribbean island, be mentioned in connection with the story of + the Hispanic nations. Suffice it to say that the fact that their color was + different and that they spoke a variant of French instead of Spanish did + not prevent the inhabitants of this state from offering a far worse + spectacle of political and financial demoralization than did their + neighbors to the eastward. Perpetual commotions and repeated interventions + by American and European naval forces on behalf of the foreign residents, + eventually made it imperative for the United States to take direct charge + of the republic. In 1916, by a convention which placed the finances under + American control, created a native constabulary under American officers, + and imposed a number of other restraints, the United States converted + Haiti into what is practically a protectorate. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. PAN-AMERICANISM AND THE GREAT WAR + </h2> + <p> + While the Hispanic republics were entering upon the second century of + their independent life, the idea of a certain community of interests + between themselves and the United States began to assume a fairly definite + form. Though emphasized by American statesmen and publicists in + particular, the new point of view was not generally understood or + appreciated by the people of either this country or its fellow nations to + the southward. It seemed, nevertheless, to promise an effective + cooperation in spirit and action between them and came therefore to be + called "Pan-Americanism." + </p> + <p> + This sentiment of inter-American solidarity sprang from several sources. + The periodical conferences of the United States and its sister republics + gave occasion for an interchange of official courtesies and expressions of + good feeling. Doubtless, also, the presence of delegates from the Hispanic + countries at the international gatherings at The Hague served to acquaint + the world at large with the stability, strength, wealth, and culture of + their respective lands. Individual Americans took an active interest in + their fellows of Hispanic stock and found their interest reciprocated. + Motives of business or pleasure and a desire to obtain personal knowledge + about one another led to visits and countervisits that became steadily + more frequent. Societies were created to encourage the friendship and + acquaintance thus formed. Scientific congresses were held and institutes + were founded in which both the United States and Hispanic America were + represented. Books, articles, and newspaper accounts about one another's + countries were published in increasing volume. Educational institutions + devoted a constantly growing attention to inter-American affairs. + Individuals and commissions were dispatched by the Hispanic nations and + the United States to study one another's conditions and to confer about + matters of mutual concern. Secretaries of State, Ministers of Foreign + Affairs, and other distinguished personages interchanged visits. Above + all, the common dangers and responsibilities falling upon the Americas at + large as a consequence of the European war seemed likely to bring the + several nations into a harmony of feeling and relationship to which they + had never before attained. + </p> + <p> + Pan-Americanism, however, was destined to remain largely a generous ideal. + The action of the United States in extending its direct influence over the + small republics in and around the Caribbean aroused the suspicion and + alarm of Hispanic Americans, who still feared imperialistic designs on the + part of that country now more than ever the Colossus of the North. "The + art of oratory among the Yankees," declared a South American critic, "is + lavish with a fraternal idealism; but strong wills enforce their + imperialistic ambitions." Impassioned speakers and writers adjured the + ghost of Hispanic confederation to rise and confront the new northern + peril. They even advocated an appeal to Great Britain, Germany, or Japan, + and they urged closer economic, social, and intellectual relations with + the countries of Europe. + </p> + <p> + It was while the United States was thus widening the sphere of its + influence in the Caribbean that the "A B C" powers—Argentina, + Brazil, and Chile—reached an understanding which was in a sense a + measure of self-defense. For some years cordial relations had existed + among these three nations which had grown so remarkably in strength and + prestige. It was felt that by united action they might set up in the New + World the European principle of a balance of power, assume the leadership + in Hispanic America, and serve in some degree as a counterpoise to the + United States. Nevertheless they were disposed to cooperate with their + northern neighbor in the peaceable adjustment of conflicts in which other + Hispanic countries were concerned, provided that the mediation carried on + by such a "concert of the western world" did not include actual + intervention in the internal affairs of the countries involved. + </p> + <p> + With this attitude of the public mind, it is not strange that the Hispanic + republics at large should have been inclined to look with scant favor upon + proposals made by the United States, in 1916, to render the spirit of + Pan-Americanism more precise in its operation. The proposals in substance + were these: that all the nations of America "mutually agree to guarantee + the territorial integrity" of one another; to "maintain a republican form + of government"; to prohibit the "exportation of arms to any but the + legally constituted governments"; and to adopt laws of neutrality which + would make it "impossible to filibustering expeditions to threaten or + carry on revolutions in neighboring republics." These proposals appear to + have received no formal approval beyond what is signified by the + diplomatic expression "in principle." Considering the disparity in + strength, wealth, and prestige between the northern country and its + southern fellows, suggestions of the sort could be made practicable only + by letting the United States do whatever it might think needful to + accomplish the objects which it sought. Obviously the Hispanic nations, + singly or collectively, would hardly venture to take any such action + within the borders of the United States itself, if, for example, it failed + to maintain what, in their opinion, was "a republican form of government." + A full acceptance of the plan accordingly would have amounted to a + recognition of American overlordship, and this they were naturally not + disposed to admit. + </p> + <p> + The common perils and duties confronting the Americas as a result of the + Great War, however, made close cooperation between the Hispanic republics + and the United States up to a certain point indispensable. Toward that + transatlantic struggle the attitude of all the nations of the New World at + the outset was substantially the same. Though strongly sympathetic on the + whole with the "Allies" and notably with France, the southern countries + nevertheless declared their neutrality. More than that, they tried to + convert neutrality into a Pan-American policy, instead of regarding it as + an official attitude to be adopted by the republics separately. Thus when + the conflict overseas began to injure the rights of neutrals, Argentina + and other nations urged that the countries of the New World jointly agree + to declare that direct maritime commerce between American lands should be + considered as "inter-American coastwise trade," and that the merchant + ships engaged in it, whatever the flag under which they sailed, should be + looked upon as neutral. Though the South American countries failed to + enlist the support of their northern neighbor in this bold departure from + international precedent, they found some compensation for their + disappointment in the closer commercial and financial relations which they + established with the United States. + </p> + <p> + Because of the dependence of the Hispanic nations, and especially those of + the southern group, on the intimacy of their economic ties with the + belligerents overseas, they suffered from the ravages of the struggle more + perhaps than other lands outside of Europe. Negotiations for prospective + loans were dropped. Industries were suspended, work on public improvements + was checked, and commerce brought almost to a standstill. As the revenues + fell off and ready money became scarce, drastic measures had to be devised + to meet the financial strain. For the protection of credit, bank holidays + were declared, stock exchanges were closed, moratoria were set up in + nearly all the countries, taxes and duties were increased, radical + reductions in expenditure were undertaken, and in a few cases large + quantities of paper money were issued. + </p> + <p> + With the European market thus wholly or partially cut off, the Hispanic + republics were forced to supply the consequent shortage with manufactured + articles and other goods from the United States and to send thither their + raw materials in exchange. To their northern neighbor they had to turn + also for pecuniary aid. A Pan-American financial conference was held at + Washington in 1915, and an international high commission was appointed to + carry its recommendations into effect. Gradually most of the Hispanic + countries came to show a favorable trade balance. Then, as the war drew + into its fourth year, several of them even began to enjoy great + prosperity. That Pan-Americanism had not meant much more than cooperation + for economic ends seemed evident when, on April 6, 1917, the United States + declared war on Germany. Instead of following spontaneously in the wake of + their great northern neighbor, the Hispanic republics were divided by + conflicting currents of opinion and hesitated as to their proper course of + procedure. While a majority of them expressed approval of what the United + States had done, and while Uruguay for its part asserted that "no American + country, which in defense of its own rights should find itself in a state + of war with nations of other continents, would be treated as a + belligerent," Mexico veered almost to the other extreme by proposing that + the republics of America agree to lay an embargo on the shipment of + munitions to the warring powers. + </p> + <p> + As a matter of fact, only seven out of the nineteen Hispanic nations saw + fit to imitate the example set by their northern neighbor and to declare + war on Germany. These were Cuba—in view of its "duty toward the + United States," Panama, Guatemala, Brazil, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa + Rica. Since the Dominican Republic at the time was under American military + control, it was not in a position to choose its course. Four countries + Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Uruguay—broke off diplomatic relations + with Germany. The other seven republics—Mexico, Salvador, Colombia, + Venezuela, Chile, Argentina, and Paraguay—continued their formal + neutrality. In spite of a disclosure made by the United States of + insulting and threatening utterances on the part of the German charge + d'affaires in Argentina, which led to popular outbreaks at the capital and + induced the national Congress to declare in favor of a severance of + diplomatic relations with that functionary's Government, the President of + the republic stood firm in his resolution to maintain neutrality. If + Pan-Americanism had ever involved the idea of political cooperation among + the nations of the New World, it broke down just when it might have served + the greatest of purposes. Even the "A B C" combination itself had + apparently been shattered. + </p> + <p> + A century and more had now passed since the Spanish and Portuguese peoples + of the New World had achieved their independence. Eighteen political + children of various sizes and stages of advancement, or backwardness, were + born of Spain in America, and one acknowledged the maternity of Portugal. + Big Brazil has always maintained the happiest relations with the little + mother in Europe, who still watches with pride the growth of her strapping + youngster. Between Spain and her descendants, however, animosity endured + for many years after they had thrown off the parental yoke. Yet of late, + much has been done on both sides to render the relationship cordial. The + graceful act of Spain in sending the much-beloved Infanta Isabel to + represent her in Argentina and Chile at the celebration of the centennial + anniversary of their cry for independence, and to wish them Godspeed on + their onward journey, was typical of the yearning of the mother country + for her children overseas, despite the lapse of years and political ties. + So, too, her ablest men of intellect have striven nobly and with marked + success to revive among them a sense of filial affection and gratitude for + all that Spain contributed to mold the mind and heart of her kindred in + distant lands. On their part, the Hispanic Americans have come to a + clearer consciousness of the fact that on the continents of the New World + there are two distinct types of civilization, with all that each connotes + of differences in race, psychology, tradition, language, and custom—their + own, and that represented by the United States. Appreciative though the + southern countries are of their northern neighbor, they cling nevertheless + to their heritage from Spain and Portugal in whatever seems conducive to + the maintenance of their own ideals of life and thought. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0014" id="link2H_4_0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + </h2> + <p> + For anything like a detailed study of the history of the Hispanic nations + of America, obviously one must consult works written in Spanish and + Portuguese. There are many important books, also, in French and German; + but, with few exceptions, the recommendations for the general reader will + be limited to accounts in English. + </p> + <p> + A very useful outline and guide to recent literature on the subject is W. + W. Pierson, Jr., "A Syllabus of Latin-American History" (Chapel Hill, + North Carolina, 1917). A brief introduction to the history and present + aspects of Hispanic American civilization is W. R. Shepherd, "Latin + America" (New York, 1914). The best general accounts of the Spanish and + Portuguese colonial systems will be found in Charles de Lannoy and Herman + van der Linden, "Histoire de L'Expansion Coloniale des Peuples Europeans: + Portugal et Espagne" (Brussels and Paris, 1907), and Kurt Simon, "Spanien + and Portugal als See and Kolonialmdchte" (Hamburg, 1913). For the Spanish + colonial regime alone, E. G. Bourne, "Spain in America" (New York, 1904) + is excellent. The situation in southern South America toward the close of + Spanish rule is well described in Bernard Moses, "South America on the Eve + of Emancipation" (New York, 1908). Among contemporary accounts of that + period, Alexander von Humboldt and Aime Bonpland, "Personal Narrative of + Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America", 3 vols. (London, 1881); + Alexander von Humboldt, "Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain", 4 + vols. (London,1811-1822); and F. R. J. de Pons, "Travels in South + America", 2 vols. (London, 1807), are authoritative, even if not always + easy to read. + </p> + <p> + On the wars of independence, see the scholarly treatise by W. S. + Robertson, "Rise of the Spanish-American Republics as Told in the Lives of + their Liberators" (New York, 1918); Bartolome Mitre, "The Emancipation of + South America" (London, 1893)—a condensed translation of the + author's "Historia de San Martin", and wholly favorable to that patriot; + and F. L. Petre, "Simon Bolivar" (London, 1910)—impartial at the + expense of the imagination. Among the numerous contemporary accounts, the + following will be found serviceable: W. D. Robinson, "Memoirs of the + Mexican Revolution" (Philadelphia, 1890); J. R. Poinsett, "Notes on + Mexico" (London, 1825); H. M. Brackenridge, "Voyage to South America," 2 + vols. (London, 1820); W. B. Stevenson, "Historical and Descriptive + Narrative of Twenty Years' Residence in South America", 3 vols. (London, + 1895); J. Miller, "Memoirs of General Miller in the Service of the + Republic of Peru", 2 vols. (London, 1828); H. L. V. Ducoudray Holstein, + "Memoirs of Simon Bolivar", 2 vols. (London, 1830), and John Armitage, + "History of Brazil", 2 vols. (London, 1836). + </p> + <p> + The best books on the history of the republics as a whole since the + attainment of independence, and written from an Hispanic American + viewpoint, are F. Garcia Calderon, "Latin America, its Rise and Progress" + (New York, 1913), and M. de Oliveira Lima, "The Evolution of Brazil + Compared with that of Spanish and Anglo-Saxon America" (Stanford + University, California, 1914). The countries of Central America are dealt + with by W. H. Koebel, "Central America" (New York, 1917), and of South + America by T. C. Dawson, "The South American Republics", 2 vols. (New + York, 1903-1904), and C. E. Akers, "History of South America" (London, + 1912), though in a manner that often confuses rather than enlightens. + </p> + <p> + Among the histories and descriptions of individual countries, arranged in + alphabetical order, the following are probably the most useful to the + general reader: W. A. Hirst, "Argentina" (New York, 1910); Paul Walle, + "Bolivia" (New York, 1914); Pierre Denis, "Brazil" (New York, 1911); G. F. + S. Elliot, "Chile" (New York, 1907); P. J. Eder, "Colombia" (New York, + 1913); J. B. Calvo, "The Republic of Costa Rica" (Chicago, 1890); A. G. + Robinson, "Cuba, Old and New" (New York, 1915); Otto Schoenrich, "Santo + Domingo" (New York, 1918); C. R. Enock, "Ecuador" (New York, 1914); C. R. + Enock, "Mexico" (New York, 1909); W. H. Koebel, "Paraguay" (New York, + 1917); C. R. Enock, "Peru" (New York, 1910); W. H. Koebel, "Uruguay" (New + York, 1911), and L. V. Dalton, "Venezuela" (New York, 1912). Of these, the + books by Robinson and Eder, on Cuba and Colombia, respectively, are the + most readable and reliable. + </p> + <p> + For additional bibliographical references see "South America" and the + articles on individual countries in "The Encyclopaedia Britannica", 11th + edition, and in Marrion Wilcox and G. E. Rines, "Encyclopedia of Latin + America" (New York, 1917). + </p> + <p> + Of contemporary or later works descriptive of the life and times of + eminent characters in the history of the Hispanic American republics since + 1830, a few may be taken as representative. Rosas: J. A. King, + "Twenty-four Years in the Argentine Republic" (London, 1846), and Woodbine + Parish, "Buenos Ayres and the Provinces of the Rio de la Plata" (London, + 1850). Francia: J. R. Rengger, "Reign of Dr. Joseph Gaspard Roderick [!] + de Francia in Paraguay" (London, 1827); J. P. and W. P. Robertson, + "Letters on South America", 3 vols. (London, 1843), and E. L. White, "El + Supremo", a novel (New York, 1916). Santa Anna: Waddy Thompson, + "Recollections of Mexico" (New York, 1846), and F. E. Ingles, Calderon de + la Barca, "Life in Mexico" (London, 1859.). Juarez: U. R. Burke, "Life of + Benito Juarez" (London, 1894). Solano Lopez: T. J. Hutchinson, "Parana; + with Incidents of the Paraguayan War and South American Recollections" + (London, 1868); George Thompson, "The War in Paraguay" (London, 1869); R. + F. Burton, "Letters from the Battle-fields of Paraguay" (London, 1870), + and C. A. Washburn, "The History of Paraguay", 2 vols. (Boston, 1871). + Pedro II: J. C. Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, "Brazil and the Brazilians" + (Boston, 1879), and Frank Bennett, "Forty Years in Brazil"(London, 1914). + Garcia Moreno: Frederick Hassaurek, "Four Years among Spanish + Americans"(New York, 1867). Guzman Blanco: C. D. Dance, "Recollections of + Four Years in Venezuela" (London, 1876). Diaz: James Creelman, "Diaz, + Master of Mexico" (New York, 1911). Balmaceda: M. H. Hervey, "Dark Days in + Chile" (London, 1891-1890. Carranza: L. Gutierrez de Lara and Edgcumb + Pinchon, "The Mexican People: their Struggle for Freedom" (New York, + 1914). + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Hispanic Nations of the New World, by +William R. Shepherd + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISPANIC NATIONS *** + +***** This file should be named 3042-h.htm or 3042-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/4/3042/ + +Produced by The James J. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Hispanic Nations of the New World + Volume 50 in The Chronicles Of America Series + +Author: William R. Shepherd + +Editor: Allen Johnson + +Posting Date: February 1, 2009 [EBook #3042] +Release Date: January, 2002 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISPANIC NATIONS *** + + + + +Produced by The James J. Kelly Library Of St. Gregory's +University, Dianne Bean, Joseph Buersmeyer, and Alev Akman + + + + + + +THE HISPANIC NATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD, + +A CHRONICLE OF OUR SOUTHERN NEIGHBORS + +By William R. Shepherd + +New Haven: Yale University Press + +Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Co. + +London: Humphrey Milford + +Oxford University Press + +1919 + + + +CONTENTS + + I. THE HERITAGE FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL + + II. "OUR OLD KING OR NONE" + + III. "INDEPENDENCE OR DEATH" + + IV. PLOUGHING THE SEA + + V. THE AGE OF THE DICTATORS + + VI. PERIL FROM ABROAD + + VII. GREATER STATES AND LESSER + + VIII. "ON THE MARGIN OF INTERNATIONAL LIFE" + + IX. THE REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA + + X. MEXICO IN REVOLUTION + + XI. THE REPUBLICS OF THE CARIBBEAN + + XII. PAN-AMERICANISM AND THE GREAT WAR + + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + + + + +THE HISPANIC NATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD + + + + +CHAPTER I. THE HERITAGE FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL + +At the time of the American Revolution most of the New World still +belonged to Spain and Portugal, whose captains and conquerors had +been the first to come to its shores. Spain had the lion's share, but +Portugal held Brazil, in itself a vast land of unsuspected resources. +No empire mankind had ever yet known rivaled in size the illimitable +domains of Spain and Portugal in the New World; and none displayed such +remarkable contrasts in land and people. Boundless plains and forests, +swamps and deserts, mighty mountain chains, torrential streams and +majestic rivers, marked the surface of the country. This vast territory +stretched from the temperate prairies west of the Mississippi down to +the steaming lowlands of Central America, then up through tablelands in +the southern continent to high plateaus, miles above sea level, where +the sun blazed and the cold, dry air was hard to breathe, and then +higher still to the lofty peaks of the Andes, clad in eternal snow or +pouring fire and smoke from their summits in the clouds, and thence to +the lower temperate valleys, grassy pampas, and undulating hills of the +far south. + +Scattered over these vast colonial domains in the Western World were +somewhere between 12,000,000 and 19,000,000 people subject to Spain, and +perhaps 3,000,000, to Portugal; the great majority of them were Indians +and negroes, the latter predominating in the lands bordering on the +Caribbean Sea and along the shores of Brazil. Possibly one-fourth of +the inhabitants came of European stock, including not only Spaniards and +their descendants but also the folk who spoke English in the Floridas +and French in Louisiana. + +During the centuries which had elapsed since the entry of the Spaniards +and Portuguese into these regions an extraordinary fusion of races had +taken place. White, red, and black had mingled to such an extent that +the bulk of the settled population became half-caste. Only in the more +temperate regions of the far north and south, where the aborigines were +comparatively few or had disappeared altogether, did the whites remain +racially distinct. Socially the Indian and the negro counted for little. +They constituted the laboring class on whom all the burdens fell and for +whom advantages in the body politic were scant. Legally the Indian under +Spanish rule stood on a footing of equality with his white fellows, +and many a gifted native came to be reckoned a force in the community, +though his social position remained a subordinate one. Most of the +negroes were slaves and were more kindly treated by the Spaniards than +by the Portuguese. + +Though divided among themselves, the Europeans were everywhere +politically dominant. The Spaniard was always an individualist. Besides, +he often brought from the Old World petty provincial traditions which +were intensified in the New. The inhabitants of towns, many of which had +been founded quite independently of one another, knew little about their +remote neighbors and often were quite willing to convert their ignorance +into prejudice: The dweller in the uplands and the resident on the coast +were wont to view each other with disfavor. The one was thought heavy +and stupid, the other frivolous and lazy. Native Spaniards regarded the +Creoles, or American born, as persons who had degenerated more or less +by their contact with the aborigines and the wilderness. For their part, +the Creoles looked upon the Spaniards as upstarts and intruders, whose +sole claim to consideration lay in the privileges dispensed them by the +home government. In testimony of this attitude they coined for their +oversea kindred numerous nicknames which were more expressive than +complimentary. While the Creoles held most of the wealth and of the +lower offices, the Spaniards enjoyed the perquisites and emoluments of +the higher posts. + +Though objects of disdain to both these masters, the Indians generally +preferred the Spaniard to the Creole. The Spaniard represented a distant +authority interested in the welfare of its humbler subjects and came +less into actual daily contact with the natives. While it would hardly +be correct to say that the Spaniard was viewed as a protector and the +Creole as an oppressor, yet the aborigines unconsciously made some +such hazy distinction if indeed they did not view all Europeans with +suspicion and dislike. In Brazil the relation of classes was much the +same, except that here the native element was much less conspicuous as a +social factor. + +These distinctions were all the more accentuated by the absence both +of other European peoples and of a definite middle class of any race. +Everywhere in the areas tenanted originally by Spaniards and Portuguese +the European of alien stock was unwelcome, even though he obtained a +grudging permission from the home governments to remain a colonist. In +Brazil, owing to the close commercial connections between Great Britain +and Portugal, foreigners were not so rigidly excluded as in Spanish +America. The Spaniard was unwilling that lands so rich in natural +treasures should be thrown open to exploitation by others, even if the +newcomer professed the Catholic faith. The heretic was denied admission +as a matter of course. Had the foreigner been allowed to enter, the risk +of such exploitation doubtless would have been increased, but a middle +class might have arisen to weld the the discordant factions into a +society which had common desires and aspirations. With the development +of commerce and industry, with the growth of activities which bring +men into touch with each other in everyday affairs, something like a +solidarity of sentiment might have been awakened. In its absence the +only bond among the dominant whites was their sense of superiority to +the colored masses beneath them. + +Manual labor and trade had never attracted the Spaniards and the +Portuguese. The army, the church, and the law were the three callings +that offered the greatest opportunity for distinction. Agriculture, +grazing, and mining they did not disdain, provided that superintendence +and not actual work was the main requisite. The economic organization +which the Spaniards and Portuguese established in America was naturally +a more or less faithful reproduction of that to which they had +been accustomed at home. Agriculture and grazing became the chief +occupations. Domestic animals and many kinds of plants brought from +Europe throve wonderfully in their new home. Huge estates were the rule; +small farms, the exception. On the ranches and plantations vast droves +of cattle, sheep, and horses were raised, as well as immense crops. +Mining, once so much in vogue, had become an occupation of secondary +importance. + +On their estates the planter, the ranchman, and the mine owner lived +like feudal overlords, waited upon by Indian and negro peasants who also +tilled the fields, tended the droves, and dug the earth for precious +metals and stones. Originally the natives had been forced to work under +conditions approximating actual servitude, but gradually the harsher +features of this system had given way to a mode of service closely +resembling peonage. Paid a pitifully small wage, provided with a hut of +reeds or sundried mud and a tiny patch of soil on which to grow a +few hills of the corn and beans that were his usual nourishment, the +ordinary Indian or half-caste laborer was scarcely more than a beast of +burden, a creature in whom civic virtues of a high order were not likely +to develop. If he betook himself to the town his possible usefulness +lessened in proportion as he fell into drunken or dissolute habits, or +lapsed into a state of lazy and vacuous dreaminess, enlivened only by +chatter or the rolling of a cigarette. On the other hand, when employed +in a capacity where native talent might be tested, he often revealed a +power of action which, if properly guided, could be turned to excellent +account. As a cowboy, for example, he became a capital horseman, brave, +alert, skillful, and daring. + +Commerce with Portugal and Spain was long confined to yearly fairs and +occasional trading fleets that plied between fixed points. But when +liberal decrees threw open numerous ports in the mother countries +to traffic and the several colonies were given also the privilege of +exchanging their products among themselves, the volume of exports +and imports increased and gave an impetus to activity which brought a +notable release from the torpor and vegetation characterizing earlier +days. Yet, even so, communication was difficult and irregular. By sea +the distances were great and the vessels slow. Overland the natural +obstacles to transportation were so numerous and the methods of +conveyance so cumbersome and expensive that the people of one province +were practically strangers to their neighbors. + +Matters of the mind and of the soul were under the guardianship of the +Church. More than merely a spiritual mentor, it controlled education and +determined in large measure the course of intellectual life. Possessed +of vast wealth in lands and revenues, its monasteries and priories, its +hospitals and asylums, its residences of ecclesiastics, were the finest +buildings in every community, adorned with the masterpieces of sculptors +and painters. A village might boast of only a few squalid huts, yet +there in the "plaza," or central square, loomed up a massively imposing +edifice of worship, its towers pointing heavenward, the sign and symbol +of triumphant power. + +The Church, in fact, was the greatest civilizing agency that Spain +and Portugal had at their disposal. It inculcated a reverence for +the monarch and his ministers and fostered a deep-rooted sentiment of +conservatism which made disloyalty and innovation almost sacrilegious. +In the Spanish colonies in particular the Church not only protected the +natives against the rapacity of many a white master but taught them the +rudiments of the Christian faith, as well as useful arts and trades. In +remote places, secluded so far as possible from contact with Europeans, +missionary pioneers gathered together groups of neophytes whom they +rendered docile and industrious, it is true, but whom they often +deprived of initiative and selfreliance and kept illiterate and +superstitious. + +Education was reserved commonly for members of the ruling class. +As imparted in the universities and schools, it savored strongly of +medievalism. Though some attention was devoted to the natural sciences, +experimental methods were not encouraged and found no place in lectures +and textbooks. Books, periodicals, and other publications came under +ecclesiastical inspection, and a vigilant censorship determined what was +fit for the public to read. + +Supreme over all the colonial domains was the government of their +majesties, the monarchs of Spain and Portugal. A ministry and a council +managed the affairs of the inhabitants of America and guarded their +destinies in accordance with the theories of enlightened despotism +then prevailing in Europe. The Spanish dominions were divided into +viceroyalties and subdivided into captaincies general, presidencies, +and intendancies. Associated with the high officials who ruled them were +audiencias, or boards, which were at once judicial and administrative. +Below these individuals and bodies were a host of lesser functionaries +who, like their superiors, held their posts by appointment. In Brazil +the governor general bore the title of viceroy and carried on the +administration assisted by provincial captains, supreme courts, and +local officers. + +This control was by no means so autocratic as it might seem. Portugal +had too many interests elsewhere, and was too feeble besides, to keep +tight rein over a territory so vast and a population so much inclined +as the Brazilian to form itself into provincial units, jealous of the +central authority. Spain, on its part, had always practised the good old +Roman rule of "divide and govern." Its policy was to hold the balance +among officials, civil and ecclesiastical, and inhabitants, white and +colored. It knew how strongly individualistic the Spaniard was and +realized the full force of the adage, "I obey, but I do not fulfill!" +Legislatures and other agencies of government directly representative of +the people did not exist in Spanish or Portuguese America. The Spanish +cabildo, or town council, however, afforded an opportunity for the +expression of the popular will and often proved intractable. Its +membership was appointive, elective, hereditary, and even purchasable, +but the form did not affect the substance. The Spanish Americans had +an instinct for politics. "Here all men govern," declared one of the +viceroys; "the people have more part in political discussions than in +any other provinces in the world; a council of war sits in every house." + + + +CHAPTER II. "OUR OLD KING OR NONE" + +The movement which led eventually to the emancipation of the colonies +differed from the local uprisings which occurred in various parts +of South America during the eighteenth century. Either the arbitrary +conduct of individual governors or excessive taxation had caused the +earlier revolts. To the final revolution foreign nations and foreign +ideas gave the necessary impulse. A few members of the intellectual +class had read in secret the writings of French and English +philosophers. Others had traveled abroad and came home to whisper to +their countrymen what they had seen and heard in lands more progressive +than Spain and Portugal. The commercial relations, both licit and +illicit, which Great Britain had maintained with several of the colonies +had served to diffuse among them some notions of what went on in the +busy world outside. + +By gaining its independence, the United States had set a practical +example of what might be done elsewhere in America. Translated into +French, the Declaration of Independence was read and commented upon by +enthusiasts who dreamed of the possibility of applying its principles +in their own lands. More powerful still were the ideas liberated by the +French Revolution and Napoleon. Borne across the ocean, the doctrines of +"Liberty, Fraternity, Equality" stirred the ardent-minded to thoughts +of action, though the Spanish and Portuguese Americans who schemed +and plotted were the merest handful. The seed they planted was slow to +germinate among peoples who had been taught to regard things foreign as +outlandish and heretical. Many years therefore elapsed before the ideas +of the few became the convictions of the masses, for the conservatism +and loyalty of the common people were unbelieveably steadfast. + +Not Spanish and Portuguese America, but Santo Domingo, an island which +had been under French rule since 1795 and which was tenanted chiefly +by ignorant and brutalized negro slaves, was the scene of the first +effectual assertion of independence in the lands originally colonized +by Spain. Rising in revolt against their masters, the negroes had +won complete control under their remarkable commander, Toussaint +L'Ouverture, when Napoleon Bonaparte, then First Consul, decided to +restore the old regime. But the huge expedition which was sent to reduce +the island ended in absolute failure. After a ruthless racial warfare, +characterized by ferocity on both sides, the French retired. In 1804 the +negro leaders proclaimed the independence of the island as the "Republic +of Haiti," under a President who, appreciative of the example just set +by Napoleon, informed his followers that he too had assumed the august +title of "Emperor"! His immediate successor in African royalty was the +notorious Henri Christophe, who gathered about him a nobility garish +in color and taste--including their sable lordships, the "Duke of +Marmalade" and the "Count of Lemonade"; and who built the palace of +"Sans Souci" and the countryseats of "Queen's Delight" and "King's +Beautiful View," about which cluster tales of barbaric pleasure that +rival the grim legends clinging to the parapets and enshrouding the +dungeons of his mountain fortress of "La Ferriere." None of these black +or mulatto potentates, however, could expel French authority from +the eastern part of Santo Domingo. That task was taken in hand by the +inhabitants themselves, and in 1809 they succeeded in restoring the +control of Spain. Meanwhile events which had been occurring in South +America prepared the way for the movement that was ultimately to banish +the flags of both Spain and Portugal from the continents of the New +World. As the one country had fallen more or less tinder the influence +of France, so the other had become practically dependent upon Great +Britain. Interested in the expansion of its commerce and viewing the +outlying possessions of peoples who submitted to French guidance as +legitimate objects for seizure, Great Britain in 1797 wrested Trinidad +from the feeble grip of Spain and thus acquired a strategic position +very near South America itself. Haiti, Trinidad, and Jamaica, in fact, +all became Centers of revolutionary agitation and havens of refuge for. +Spanish American radicals in the troublous years to follow. + +Foremost among the early conspirators was the Venezuelan, Francisco +de Miranda, known to his fellow Americans of Spanish stock as the +"Precursor." Napoleon once remarked of him: "He is a Don Quixote, with +this difference--he is not crazy.... The man has sacred fire in his +soul." An officer in the armies of Spain and of revolutionary France +and later a resident of London, Miranda devoted thirty years of his +adventurous life to the cause of independence for his countrymen. With +officials of the British Government he labored long and zealously, +eliciting from them vague promises of armed support and some financial +aid. It was in London, also, that he organized a group of sympathizers +into the secret society called the "Grand Lodge of America." With it, +or with its branches in France and Spain, many of the leaders of the +subsequent revolution came to be identified. + +In 1806, availing himself of the negligence of the United States and +having the connivance of the British authorities in Trinidad, Miranda +headed two expeditions to the coast of Venezuela. He had hoped that his +appearance would be the signal for a general uprising; instead, he was +treated with indifference. His countrymen seemed to regard him as a tool +of Great Britain, and no one felt disposed to accept the blessings +of liberty under that guise. Humiliated, but not despairing, Miranda +returned to London to await a happier day. + +Two British expeditions which attempted to conquer the region about +the Rio de la Plata in 1806 and 1807 were also frustrated by this +same stubborn loyalty. When the Spanish viceroy fled, the inhabitants +themselves rallied to the defense of the country and drove out the +invaders. Thereupon the people of Buenos Aires, assembled in cabildo +abierto, or town meeting, deposed the viceroy and chose their victorious +leader in his stead until a successor could be regularly appointed. + +Then, in 1808, fell the blow which was to shatter the bonds uniting +Spain to its continental dominions in America. The discord and +corruption which prevailed in that unfortunate country afforded +Napoleon an opportunity to oust its feeble king and his incompetent son, +Ferdinand, and to place Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. But the master +of Europe underestimated the fighting ability of Spaniards. Instead of +humbly complying with his mandate, they rose in arms against the usurper +and created a central junta, or revolutionary committee, to govern in +the name of Ferdinand VII, as their rightful ruler. + +The news of this French aggression aroused in the colonies a spirit of +resistance as vehement as that in the mother country. Both Spaniards and +Creoles repudiated the "intruder king." Believing, as did their comrades +oversea, that Ferdinand was a helpless victim in the hands of Napoleon, +they recognized the revolutionary government and sent great sums of +money to Spain to aid in the struggle against the French. Envoys from +Joseph Bonaparte seeking an acknowledgment of his rule were angrily +rejected and were forced to leave. + +The situation on both sides of the ocean was now an extraordinary +one. Just as the junta in Spain had no legal right to govern, so the +officials in the colonies, holding their posts by appointment from a +deposed king, had no legal authority, and the people would not allow +them to accept new commissions from a usurper. The Church, too, +detesting Napoleon as the heir of a revolution that had undermined the +Catholic faith and regarding him as a godless despot who had made +the Pope a captive, refused to recognize the French pretender. Until +Ferdinand VII could be restored to his throne, therefore, the colonists +had to choose whether they would carry on the administration under +the guidance of the self-constituted authorities in Spain, or should +themselves create similar organizations in each of the colonies to take +charge of affairs. The former course was favored by the official element +and its supporters among the conservative classes, the latter by the +liberals, who felt that they had as much right as the people of the +mother country to choose the form of government best suited to their +interests. + +Each party viewed the other with distrust. Opposition to the more +democratic procedure, it was felt, could mean nothing less than +secret submission to the pretensions of Joseph Bonaparte; whereas the +establishment in America of any organizations like those in Spain surely +indicated a spirit of disloyalty toward Ferdinand VII himself. Under +circumstances like these, when the junta and its successor, the council +of regency, refused to make substantial concessions to the colonies, +both parties were inevitably drifting toward independence. In the phrase +of Manuel Belgrano, one of the great leaders in the viceroyalty of La +Plata, "our old King or none" became the watchword that gradually shaped +the thoughts of Spanish Americans. + +When, therefore, in 1810, the news came that the French army had overrun +Spain, democratic ideas so long cherished in secret and propagated so +industriously by Miranda and his followers at last found expression in +a series of uprisings in the four viceroyalties of La Plata, Peru, +New Granada, and New Spain. But in each of these viceroyalties the +revolution ran a different course. Sometimes it was the capital +city that led off; sometimes a provincial town; sometimes a group of +individuals in the country districts. Among the actual participants +in the various movements very little harmony was to be found. Here +a particular leader claimed obedience; there a board of self-chosen +magistrates held sway; elsewhere a town or province refused to +acknowledge the central authority. To add to these complications, in +1812, a revolutionary Cortes, or legislative body, assembled at Cadiz, +adopted for Spain and its dominions a constitution providing for +direct representation of the colonies in oversea administration. Since +arrangements of this sort contented many of the Spanish Americans who +had protested against existing abuses, they were quite unwilling to +press their grievances further. Given all these evidences of division +in activity and counsel, one does not find it difficult to foresee the +outcome. + +On May 25, 1810, popular agitation at Buenos Aires forced the Spanish +viceroy of La Plata to resign. The central authority was thereupon +vested in an elected junta that was to govern in the name of Ferdinand +VII. Opposition broke out immediately. The northern and eastern parts +of the viceroyalty showed themselves quite unwilling to obey these +upstarts. Meantime, urged on by radicals who revived the Jacobin +doctrines of revolutionary France, the junta strove to suppress in +rigorous fashion any symptoms of disaffection; but it could do nothing +to stem the tide of separation in the rest of the viceroyalty--in +Charcas (Bolivia), Paraguay, and the Banda Oriental, or East Bank, of +the Uruguay. + +At Buenos Aires acute difference of opinion--about the extent to +which the movement should be carried and about the permanent form +of government to be adopted as well as the method of establishing +it--produced a series of political commotions little short of anarchy. +Triumvirates followed the junta into power; supreme directors alternated +with triumvirates; and constituent assemblies came and went. Under one +authority or another the name of the viceroyalty was changed to "United +Provinces of La Plata River"; a seal, a flag, and a coat of arms were +chosen; and numerous features of the Spanish regime were abolished, +including titles of nobility, the Inquisition, the slave trade, and +restrictions on the press. But so chaotic were the conditions within and +so disastrous the campaigns without, that eventually commissioners were +sent to Europe, bearing instructions to seek a king for the distracted +country. + +When Charcas fell under the control of the viceroy of Peru, Paraguay +set up a regime for itself. At Asuncion, the capital, a revolutionary +outbreak in 1811 replaced the Spanish intendant by a triumvirate, +of which the most prominent member was Dr. Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de +Francia. A lawyer by profession, familiar with the history of Rome, an +admirer of France and Napoleon, a misanthrope and a recluse, possessing +a blind faith in himself and actuated by a sense of implacable hatred +for all who might venture to thwart his will, this extraordinary +personage speedily made himself master of the country. A population +composed chiefly of Indians, docile in temperament and submissive for +many years to the paternal rule of Jesuit missionaries, could not fail +to become pliant instruments in his hands. At his direction, therefore, +Paraguay declared itself independent of both Spain and La Plata. This +done, an obedient Congress elected Francia consul of the republic and +later invested him with the title of dictator. In the Banda Oriental two +distinct movements appeared. Montevideo, the capital, long a center +of royalist sympathies and for some years hostile to the revolutionary +government in Buenos Aires, was reunited with La Plata in 1814. +Elsewhere the people of the province followed the fortunes of Jose +Gervasio Artigas, an able and valiant cavalry officer, who roamed +through it at will, bidding defiance to any authority not his own. +Most of the former viceroyalty of La Plata had thus, to all intents and +purposes, thrown off the yoke of Spain. + +Chile was the only other province that for a while gave promise of +similar action. Here again it was the capital city that took the lead. +On receipt of the news of the occurrences at Buenos Aires in May, 1810, +the people of Santiago forced the captain general to resign and, on the +18th of September, replaced him by a junta of their own choosing. +But neither this body, nor its successors, nor even the Congress that +assembled the following year, could establish a permanent and effective +government. Nowhere in Spanish America, perhaps, did the lower classes +count for so little, and the upper class for so much, as in Chile. +Though the great landholders were disposed to favor a reasonable amount +of local autonomy for the country, they refused to heed the demands +of the radicals for complete independence and the establishment of a +republic. Accordingly, in proportion as their opponents resorted to +measures of compulsion, the gentry gradually withdrew their support and +offered little resistance when troops dispatched by the viceroy of +Peru restored the Spanish regime in 1814. The irreconcilable among the +patriots fled over the Andes to the western part of La Plata, where they +found hospitable refuge. + +But of all the Spanish dominions in South America none witnessed so +desperate a struggle for emancipation as the viceroyalty of New Granada. +Learning of the catastrophe that had befallen the mother country, the +leading citizens of Caracas, acting in conjunction with the cabildo, +deposed the captain general on April 19, 1810, and created a junta +in his stead. The example was quickly followed by most of the smaller +divisions of the province. Then when Miranda returned from England to +head the revolutionary movement, a Congress, on July 5, 1811, declared +Venezuela independent of Spain. Carried away, also, by the enthusiasm +of the moment, and forgetful of the utter unpreparedness of the country, +the Congress promulgated a federal constitution modeled on that of the +United States, which set forth all the approved doctrines of the rights +of man. + +Neither Miranda nor his youthful coadjutor, Simon Bolivar, soon to +become famous in the annals of Spanish American history, approved of +this plunge into democracy. Ardent as their patriotism was, they knew +that the country needed centralized control and not experiments in +confederation or theoretical liberty. They speedily found out, also, +that they could not count on the support of the people at large. Then, +almost as if Nature herself disapproved of the whole proceeding, a +frightful earthquake in the following year shook many a Venezuelan town +into ruins. Everywhere the royalists took heart. Dissensions broke out +between Miranda and his subordinates. Betrayed into the hands of his +enemies, the old warrior himself was sent away to die in a Spanish +dungeon. And so the "earthquake" republic collapsed. + +But the rigorous measures adopted by the royalists to sustain their +triumph enabled Bolivar to renew the struggle in 1813. He entered upon +a campaign which was signalized by acts of barbarity on both sides. +His declaration of "war to the death" was answered in kind. Wholesale +slaughter of prisoners, indiscriminate pillage, and wanton destruction +of property spread terror and desolation throughout the country. +Acclaimed "Liberator of Venezuela" and made dictator by the people of +Caracas, Bolivar strove in vain to overcome the half-savage llaneros, +or cowboys of the plains, who despised the innovating aristocrats of +the capital. Though he won a few victories, he did not make the cause +of independence popular, and, realizing his failure, he retired into New +Granada. + +In this region an astounding series of revolutions and +counter-revolutions had taken place. Unmindful of pleas for cooperation, +the Creole leaders in town and district, from 1810 onward, seized +control of affairs in a fashion that betokened a speedy disintegration +of the country. Though the viceroy was deposed and a general Congress +was summoned to meet at the capital, Bogota, efforts at centralization +encountered opposition in every quarter. Only the royalists managed to +preserve a semblance of unity. Separate republics sprang into being and +in 1813 declared their independence of Spain. Presidents and congresses +were pitted against one another. Towns fought among themselves. Even +parishes demanded local autonomy. For a while the services of Bolivar +were invoked to force rebellious areas into obedience to the principle +of confederation, but with scant result. Unable to agree with his fellow +officers and displaying traits of moral weakness which at this time as +on previous occasions showed that he had not yet risen to a full sense +of responsibility, the Liberator renounced the task and fled to Jamaica. + +The scene now shifts northward to the viceroyalty of New Spain. Unlike +the struggles already described, the uprisings that began in 1810 in +central Mexico were substantially revolts of Indians and half-castes +against white domination. On the 16th of September, a crowd of natives +rose under the leadership of Miguel Hidalgo, a parish priest of the +village of Dolores. Bearing on their banners the slogan, "Long live +Ferdinand VII and down with bad government," the undisciplined crowd, +soon to number tens of thousands, aroused such terror by their behavior +that the whites were compelled to unite in self-defense. It mattered not +whether Hidalgo hoped to establish a republic or simply to secure for +his followers relief from oppression: in either case the whites could +expect only Indian domination. Before the trained forces of the whites a +horde of natives, so ignorant of modern warfare that some of them tried +to stop cannon balls by clapping their straw hats over the mouths of the +guns, could not stand their ground. Hidalgo was captured and shot, but +he was succeeded by Jose Maria Morelos, also a priest. Reviving the +old Aztec name for central Mexico, he summoned a "Congress of Anahuac," +which in 1813 asserted that dependence on the throne of Spain was +"forever broken and dissolved." Abler and more humane than Hidalgo, he +set up a revolutionary government that the authorities of Mexico failed +for a while to suppress. + +In 1814, therefore, Spain still held the bulk of its dominions. +Trinidad, to be sure, had been lost to Great Britain, and both Louisiana +and West Florida to the United States. Royalist control, furthermore, +had ceased in parts of the viceroyalties of La Plata and New Granada. +To regain Trinidad and Louisiana was hopeless: but a wise policy +conciliation or an overwhelming display of armed force might yet restore +Spanish rule where it had been merely suspended. + +Very different was the course of events in Brazil. Strangely enough, +the first impulse toward independence was given by the Portuguese royal +family. Terrified by the prospective invasion of the country by a French +army, late in 1807 the Prince Regent, the royal family, and a host of +Portuguese nobles and commoners took passage on British vessels and +sailed to Rio de Janeiro. Brazil thereupon became the seat of royal +government and immediately assumed an importance which it could never +have attained as a mere dependency. Acting under the advice of the +British minister, the Prince Regent threw open the ports of the colony +to the ships of all nations friendly to Portugal, gave his sanction to +a variety of reforms beneficial to commerce and industry, and even +permitted a printing press to be set up, though only for official +purposes. From all these benevolent activities Brazil derived great +advantages. On the other hand, the Prince Regent's aversion to popular +education or anything that might savor of democracy and the greed of +his followers for place and distinction alienated his colonial subjects. +They could not fail to contrast autocracy in Brazil with the liberal +ideas that had made headway elsewhere in Spanish America. As a +consequence a spirit of unrest arose which boded ill for the maintenance +of Portuguese rule. + + + +CHAPTER III "INDEPENDENCE OR DEATH" + +The restoration of Ferdinand VII to his throne in 1814 encouraged the +liberals of Spain, no less than the loyalists of Spanish America, to +hope that the "old King" would now grant a new dispensation. Freedom of +commerce and a fair measure of popular representation in government, it +was believed, would compensate both the mother country for the suffering +which it had undergone during the Peninsular War and the colonies for +the trials to which loyalty had been subjected. But Ferdinand VII was +a typical Bourbon. Nothing less than an absolute reestablishment of +the earlier regime would satisfy him. On both sides of the Atlantic, +therefore, the liberals were forced into opposition to the crown, +although they were so far apart that they could not cooperate with each +other. Independence was to be the fortune of the Spanish Americans, and +a continuance of despotism, for a while, the lot of the Spaniards. + +As the region of the viceroyalty of La Plata had been the first to +cast off the authority of the home government, so it was the first to +complete its separation from Spain. Despite the fact that disorder was +rampant everywhere and that most of the local districts could not or +would not send deputies, a congress that assembled at Tucuman voted +on July 9, 1816, to declare the "United Provinces in South America" +independent. Comprehensive though the expression was, it applied only to +the central part of the former viceroyalty, and even there it was little +more than an aspiration. Mistrust of the authorities at Buenos Aires, +insistence upon provincial autonomy, failure to agree upon a particular +kind of republican government, and a lingering inclination to monarchy +made progress toward national unity impossible. In 1819, to be sure, a +constitution was adopted, providing for a centralized government, but in +the country at large it encountered too much resistance from those who +favored a federal government to become effective. + +In the Banda Oriental, over most of which Artigas and his horsemen +held sway, chaotic conditions invited aggression from the direction of +Brazil. This East Bank of the Uruguay had long been disputed territory +between Spain and Portugal; and now its definite acquisition by the +latter seemed an easy undertaking. Instead, however, the task turned out +to be a truly formidable one. Montevideo, feebly defended by the forces +of the Government at Buenos Aires, soon capitulated, but four years +elapsed before the rest of the country could be subdued. Artigas fled to +Paraguay, where he fell into the clutches of Francia, never to escape. +In 1821 the Banda Oriental was annexed to Brazil as the Cisplatine +Province. + +Over Paraguay that grim and somber potentate, known as "The Supreme +One"--El Supremo--presided with iron hand. In 1817 Francia set up a +despotism unique in the annals of South America. Fearful lest contact +with the outer world might weaken his tenacious grip upon his subjects, +whom he terrorized into obedience, he barred approach to the country and +suffered no one to leave it. He organized and drilled an army obedient +to his will.. When he went forth by day, attended by an escort of +cavalry, the doors and windows of houses had to be kept closed and +no one was allowed on the streets. Night he spent till a late hour +in reading and study, changing his bedroom frequently to avoid +assassination. Religious functions that might disturb the public peace +he forbade. Compelling the bishop of Asuncion to resign on account of +senile debility, Francia himself assumed the episcopal office. Even +intermarriage among the old colonial families he prohibited, so as to +reduce all to a common social level. He attained his object. Paraguay +became a quiet state, whatever might be said of its neighbors! + +Elsewhere in southern Spanish America a brilliant feat of arms brought +to the fore its most distinguished soldier. This was Jose de San Martin +of La Plata. Like Miranda, he had been an officer in the Spanish army +and had returned to his native land an ardent apostle of independence. +Quick to realize the fact that, so long as Chile remained under royalist +control, the possibility of an attack from that quarter was a constant +menace to the safety of the newly constituted republic, he conceived +the bold plan of organizing near the western frontier an army--composed +partly of Chilean refugees and partly of his own countrymen--with which +he proposed to cross the Andes and meet the enemy on his own ground. +Among these fugitives was the able and valiant Bernardo O'Higgins, +son of an Irish officer who had been viceroy of Peru. Cooperating with +O'Higgins, San Martin fixed his headquarters at Mendoza and began to +gather and train the four thousand men whom he judged needful for the +enterprise. + +By January, 1817, the "Army of the Andes" was ready. To cross the +mountains meant to transport men, horses, artillery, and stores to an +altitude of thirteen thousand feet, where the Uspallata Pass afforded +an outlet to Chilean soil. This pass was nearly a mile higher than +the Great St. Bernard in the Alps, the crossing of which gave Napoleon +Bonaparte such renown. On the 12th of February the hosts of San Martin +hurled themselves upon the royalists entrenched on the slopes of +Chacabuco and routed them utterly. The battle proved decisive not of the +fortunes of Chile alone but of those of all Spanish South America. As a +viceroy of Peru later confessed, "it marked the moment when the cause of +Spain in the Indies began to recede." + +Named supreme director by the people of Santiago, O'Higgins fought +vigorously though ineffectually to drive out the royalists who, +reinforced from Peru, held the region south of the capital. That +he failed did not deter him from having a vote taken under military +auspices, on the strength of which, on February 12, 1818, he declared +Chile an independent nation, the date of the proclamation being changed +to the 1st of January, so as to make the inauguration of the new era +coincident with the entry of the new year. San Martin, meanwhile, had +been collecting reinforcements with which to strike the final blow. On +the 5th of April, the Battle of Maipo gave him the victory he desired. +Except for a few isolated points to the southward, the power of Spain +had fallen. + +Until the fall of Napoleon in 1815 it had been the native loyalists who +had supported the cause of the mother country in the Spanish dominions. +Henceforth, free from the menace of the European dictator, Spain +could look to her affairs in America, and during the next three years +dispatched twenty-five thousand men to bring the colonies to obedience. +These soldiers began their task in the northern part of South America, +and there they ended it--in failure. To this failure the defection of +native royalists contributed, for they were alienated not so much by the +presence of the Spanish troops as by the often merciless severity that +marked their conduct. The atrocities may have been provoked by the +behavior of their opponents; but, be this as it may, the patriots gained +recruits after each victory. + +A Spanish army of more than ten thousand, under the command of Pablo +Morillo, arrived in Venezuela in April, 1815. He found the province +relatively tranquil and even disposed to welcome the full restoration +of royal government. Leaving a garrison sufficient for the purpose +of military occupation, Morillo sailed for Cartagena, the key to +New Granada. Besieged by land and sea, the inhabitants of the town +maintained for upwards of three months a resistance which, in its +heroism, privation, and sacrifice, recalled the memorable defense of +Saragossa in the mother country against the French seven years before. +With Cartagena taken, regulars and loyalists united to stamp out the +rebellion elsewhere. At Bogoth, in particular, the new Spanish viceroy +installed by Morillo waged a savage war on all suspected of aiding the +patriot cause. He did not spare even women, and one of his victims was a +young heroine, Policarpa Salavarrieta by name. Though for her execution +three thousand soldiers were detailed, the girl was unterrified by her +doom and was earnestly beseeching the loyalists among them to turn their +arms against the enemies of their country when a volley stretched her +lifeless on the ground. + +Meanwhile Bolivar had been fitting out, in Haiti and in the Dutch island +of Curacao, an expedition to take up anew the work of freeing Venezuela. +Hardly had the Liberator landed in May, 1816, when dissensions with his +fellow officers frustrated any prospect of success. Indeed they obliged +him to seek refuge once more in Haiti. Eventually, however, most of the +patriot leaders became convinced that, if they were to entertain a +hope of success, they must entrust their fortunes to Bolivar as supreme +commander. Their chances of success were increased furthermore by +the support of the llaneros who had been won over to the cause of +independence. Under their redoubtable chieftain, Jose Antonio Paez, +these fierce and ruthless horsemen performed many a feat of valor in the +campaigns which followed. + +Once again on Venezuelan soil, Bolivar determined to transfer his +operations to the eastern part of the country, which seemed to offer +better strategic advantages than the region about Caracas. But even here +the jealousy of his officers, the insubordination of the free lances, +the stubborn resistance of the loyalists--upheld by the wealthy and +conservative classes and the able generalship of Morillo, who had +returned from New Granada--made the situation of the Liberator all +through 1817 and 1818 extremely precarious. Happily for his fading +fortunes, his hands were strengthened from abroad. The United States had +recognized the belligerency of several of the revolutionary governments +in South America and had sent diplomatic agents to them. Great Britain +had blocked every attempt of Ferdinand VII to obtain help from the Holy +Alliance in reconquering his dominions. And Ferdinand had contributed +to his own undoing by failing to heed the urgent requests of Morillo for +reinforcements to fill his dwindling ranks. More decisive still were +the services of some five thousand British, Irish, French, and German +volunteers, who were often the mainstay of Bolivar and his lieutenants +during the later phases of the struggle, both in Venezuela and +elsewhere. + +For some time the Liberator had been evolving a plan of attack upon the +royalists in New Granada, similar to the offensive campaign which San +Martin had conducted in Chile. More than that, he had conceived the +idea, once independence had been attained, of uniting the western part +of the viceroyalty with Venezuela into a single republic. The latter +plan he laid down before a Congress which assembled at Angostura in +February, 1819, and which promptly chose him President of the republic +and vested him with the powers of dictator. In June, at the head of 2100 +men, he started on his perilous journey over the Andes. + +Up through the passes and across bleak plateaus the little army +struggled till it reached the banks of the rivulet of Boyaca, in the +very heart of New Granada. Here, on the 7th of August, Bolivar inflicted +on the royalist forces a tremendous defeat that gave the deathblow to +the domination of Spain in northern South America. On his triumphal +return to Angostura, the Congress signalized the victory by declaring +the whole of the viceroyalty an independent state under the name of +the "Republic of Colombia" and chose the Liberator as its provisional +President. Two years later, a fundamental law it had adopted was +ratified with certain changes by another Congress assembled at Rosario +de Cucuta, and Bolivar was made permanent President. + +Southward of Colombia lay the viceroyalty of Peru, the oldest, richest, +and most conservative of the larger Spanish dominions on the continent. +Intact, except for the loss of Chile, it had found territorial +compensation by stretching its power over the provinces of Quito and +Charcas, the one wrenched off from the former New Granada, the other +torn away from what had been La Plata. Predominantly royalist +in sentiment, it was like a huge wedge thrust in between the two +independent areas. By thus cutting off the patriots of the north from +their comrades in the south, it threatened both with destruction of +their liberty. + +Again fortune intervened from abroad, this time directly from Spain +itself. Ferdinand VII, who had gathered an army of twenty thousand men +at Cadiz, was ready to deliver a crushing blow at the colonies when in +January, 1890, a mutiny among the troops and revolution throughout the +country entirely frustrated the plan. But although that reactionary +monarch was compelled to accept the Constitution of 1819, the Spanish +liberals were unwilling to concede to their fellows in America anything +more substantial than representation in the Cortes. Independence they +would not tolerate. On the other hand, the example of the mother country +in arms against its King in the name of liberty could not fail to give +heart to the cause of liberation in the provinces oversea and to hasten +its achievement. + +The first important efforts to profit by this situation were made by the +patriots in Chile. Both San Martin and O'Higgins had perceived that the +only effective way to eliminate the Peruvian wedge was to gain control +of its approaches by sea. The Chileans had already won some success +in this direction when the fiery and imperious Scotch sailor, Thomas +Cochrane, Earl of Dundonald, appeared on the scene and offered to +organize a navy. At length a squadron was put under his command. With +upwards of four thousand troops in charge of San Martin the expedition +set sail for Peru late in August, 1820. + +While Cochrane busied himself in destroying the Spanish blockade, his +comrade in arms marched up to the very gates of Lima, the capital, and +everywhere aroused enthusiasm for emancipation. When negotiations, which +had been begun by the viceroy and continued by a special commissioner +from Spain, failed to swerve the patriot leader from his demand for a +recognition of independence, the royalists decided to evacuate the town +and to withdraw into the mountainous region of the interior. San Martin, +thereupon, entered the capital at the head of his army of liberation and +summoned the inhabitants to a town meeting at which they might determine +for themselves what action should be taken. The result was easily +foreseen. On July 28, 1821, Peru was declared independent, and a few +days later San Martin was invested with supreme command under the title +of "Protector." + +But the triumph of the new Protector did not last long. For some reason +he failed to understand that the withdrawal of the royalists from the +neighborhood of the coast was merely a strategic retreat that made the +occupation of the capital a more or less empty performance. This blunder +and a variety of other mishaps proved destined to blight his military +career. Unfortunate in the choice of his subordinates and unable to +retain their confidence; accused of irresolution and even of cowardice; +abandoned by Cochrane, who sailed off to Chile and left the army +stranded; incapable of restraining his soldiers from indulgence in +the pleasures of Lima; now severe, now lax in an administration that +alienated the sympathies of the influential class, San Martin was indeed +an unhappy figure. It soon became clear that he must abandon all hope of +ever conquering the citadel of Spanish power in South America unless he +could prevail upon Bolivar to help him. + +A junction of the forces of the two great leaders was perfectly +feasible, after the last important foothold of the Spaniards on the +coast of Venezuela had been broken by the Battle of Carabobo, on July +24, 1821. Whether such a union would be made, however, depended upon two +things: the ultimate disposition of the province of Quito, lying +between Colombia and Peru, and the attitude which Bolivar and San Martin +themselves should assume toward each other. A revolution of the previous +year at the seaport town of Guayaquil in that province had installed +an independent government which besought the Liberator to sustain its +existence. Prompt to avail himself of so auspicious an opportunity of +uniting this former division of the viceroyalty of New Granada to his +republic of Colombia, Bolivar appointed Antonio Jose de Sucre, his +ablest lieutenant and probably the most efficient of all Spanish +American soldiers of the time, to assume charge of the campaign. On his +arrival at Guayaquil, this officer found the inhabitants at odds among +themselves. Some, hearkening to the pleas of an agent of San Martin, +favored union with Peru; others, yielding to the arguments of a +representative of Bolivar, urged annexation to Colombia; still +others regarded absolute independence as most desirable. Under these +circumstances Sucre for a while made little headway against the +royalists concentrated in the mountainous parts of the country despite +the partial support he received from troops which were sent by the +southern commander. At length, on May 24, 1822, scaling the flanks of +the volcano of Pichincha, near the capital town of Quito itself, he +delivered the blow for freedom. Here Bolivar, who had fought his way +overland amid tremendous difficulties, joined him and started for +Guayaquil, where he and San Martin were to hold their memorable +interview. + +No characters in Spanish American history have called forth so much +controversy about their respective merits and demerits as these two +heroes of independence--Bolivar and San Martin. Even now it seems quite +impossible to obtain from the admirers of either an opinion that does +full justice to both; and foreigners who venture to pass judgment are +almost certain to provoke criticism from one set of partisans or the +other. Both Bolivar and San Martin were sons of country gentlemen, +aristocratic by lineage and devoted to the cause of independence. +Bolivar was alert, dauntless, brilliant, impetuous, vehemently +patriotic, and yet often capricious, domineering, vain, ostentatious, +and disdainful of moral considerations--a masterful man, fertile in +intellect, fluent in speech and with pen, an inspiring leader and one +born to command in state and army. Quite as earnest, equally courageous, +and upholding in private life a higher standard of morals, San Martin +was relatively calm, cautious, almost taciturn in manner, and slower in +thought and action. He was primarily a soldier, fitted to organize +and conduct expeditions, rather than, a man endowed with that supreme +confidence in himself which brings enthusiasm, affection, and loyalty in +its train. + +When San Martin arrived at Guayaquil, late in July, 1822, his hope of +annexing the province of Quito to Peru was rudely shattered by the news +that Bolivar had already declared it a part of Colombia. Though it was +outwardly cordial and even effusive, the meeting of the two men held out +no prospect of accord. In an interchange of views which lasted but a +few hours, mutual suspicion, jealousy, and resentment prevented their +reaching an effective understanding. The Protector, it would seem, +thought the Liberator actuated by a boundless ambition that would not +endure resistance. Bolivar fancied San Martin a crafty schemer plotting +for his own advancement. They failed to agree on the three fundamental +points essential to their further cooperation. Bolivar declined to give +up the province of Quito. He refused also to send an army into Peru +unless he could command it in person, and then he declined to undertake +the expedition on the ground that as President of Colombia he ought +not to leave the territory of the republic. Divining this pretext, San +Martin offered to serve under his orders--a feint that Bolivar parried +by protesting that he would not hear of any such self-denial on the part +of a brother officer. + +Above all, the two men differed about the political form to be adopted +for the new independent states. Both of them realized that anything like +genuine democracies was quite impossible of attainment for many years +to come, and that strong administrations would be needful to tide the +Spanish Americans over from the political inexperience of colonial days +and the disorders of revolution to intelligent self-government, which +could come only after a practical acquaintance with public concerns on +a large scale. San Martin believed that a limited monarchy was the best +form of government under the circumstances. Bolivar held fast to the +idea of a centralized or unitary republic, in which actual power should +be exercised by a life president and an hereditary senate until the +people, represented in a lower house, should have gained a sufficient +amount of political experience. + +When San Martin returned to Lima he found affairs in a worse state than +ever. The tyrannical conduct of the officer he had left in charge had +provoked an uprising that made his position insupportable. Conscious +that his mission had come to an end and certain that, unless he gave +way, a collision with Bolivar was inevitable, San Martin resolved to +sacrifice himself lest harm befall the common cause in which both had +done such yeoman service. Accordingly he resigned his power into the +hands of a constituent congress and left the country. But when he found +that no happier fortune awaited him in Chile and in his own native +land, San Martin decided to abandon Spanish America forever and go into +selfimposed exile. Broken in health and spirit, he took up his residence +in France, a recipient of bounty from a Spaniard who had once been his +comrade in arms. + +Meanwhile in the Mexican part of the viceroyalty of New Spain the cry +of independence raised by Morelos and his bands of Indian followers had +been stifled by the capture and execution of the leader. But the cause +of independence was not dead even if its achievement was to be entrusted +to other hands. Eager to emulate the example of their brethren in South +America, small parties of Spaniards and Creoles fought to overturn +the despotic rule of Ferdinand VII, only to encounter defeat from the +royalists. Then came the Revolution of 1820 in the mother country. +Forthwith demands were heard for a recognition of the liberal regime. +Fearful of being displaced from power, the viceroy with the support of +the clergy and aristocracy ordered Agustin de Iturbide, a Creole +officer who had been an active royalist, to quell an insurrection in the +southern part of the country. + +The choice of this soldier was unfortunate. Personally ambitious and +cherishing in secret the thought of independence, Iturbide, faithless +to his trust, entered into negotiations with the insurgents which +culminated February 24, 1821, in what was called the "Plan of Iguala." +It contained three main provisions, or "guarantees," as they were +termed: the maintenance of the Catholic religion to the exclusion of +all others; the establishment of a constitutional monarchy separate from +Spain and ruled by Ferdinand himself, or, if he declined the honor, +by some other European prince; and the union of Mexicans and Spaniards +without distinction of caste or privilege. A temporary government also, +in the form of a junta presided over by the viceroy, was to be created; +and provision was made for the organization of an "Army of the Three +Guarantees." + +Despite opposition from the royalists, the plan won increasing favor. +Powerless to thwart it and inclined besides to a policy of conciliation, +the new viceroy, Juan O'Donoju, agreed to ratify it on condition--in +obedience to a suggestion from Iturbide--that the parties concerned +should be at liberty, if they desired, to choose any one as emperor, +whether he were of a reigning family or not. Thereupon, on the 28th of +September, the provisional government installed at the city of Mexico +announced the consummation of an "enterprise rendered eternally +memorable, which a genius beyond all admiration and eulogy, love and +glory of his country, began at Iguala, prosecuted and carried into +effect, overcoming obstacles almost insuparable"--and declared the +independence of a "Mexican Empire." The act was followed by the +appointment of a regency to govern until the accession of Ferdinand VII, +or some other personage, to the imperial throne. Of this body Iturbide +assumed the presidency, which carried with it the powers of commander in +chief and a salary of 120,000 pesos, paid from the day on which the Plan +of Iguala was signed. O'Donoju contented himself with membership on the +board and a salary of one-twelfth that amount, until his speedy demise +removed from the scene the last of the Spanish viceroys in North +America. + +One step more was needed. Learning that the Cortes in Spain had rejected +the entire scheme, Iturbide allowed his soldiers to acclaim him emperor, +and an unwilling Congress saw itself obliged to ratify the choice. On +July 21, 1822, the destinies of the country were committed to the charge +of Agustin the First. + +As in the area of Mexico proper, so in the Central American part of the +viceroyalty of New Spain, the Spanish Revolution of 1820 had unexpected +results. Here in the five little provinces composing the captaincy +general of Guatemala there was much unrest, but nothing of a serious +nature occurred until after news had been brought of the Plan of Iguala +and its immediate outcome. Thereupon a popular assembly met at the +capital town of Guatemala, and on September 15, 1821, declared the +country an independent state. This radical act accomplished, the patriot +leaders were unable to proceed further. Demands for the establishment +of a federation, for a recognition of local autonomy, for annexation to +Mexico, were all heard, and none, except the last, was answered. While +the "Imperialists" and "Republicans" were arguing it out, a message +from Emperor Agustin announced that he would not allow the new state +to remain independent. On submission of the matter to a vote of the +cabildos, most of them approved reunion with the northern neighbor. +Salvador alone among the provinces held out until troops from Mexico +overcame its resistance. + +On the continents of America, Spain had now lost nearly all its its +possessions. In 1822 the United States had already acquired East Florida +on its own account, led off in recognizing the independence of the +several republics. Only in Peru and Charcas the royalists still battled +on behalf of the mother country. In the West Indies, Santo Domingo +followed the lead of its sister colonies on the mainland by asserting in +1821 its independence; but its brief independent life was snuffed out +by the negroes of Haiti, once more a republic, who spread their control +over the entire island. Cuba also felt the impulse of the times. But, +apart from the agitation of secret societies like the "Rays and Suns of +Bolivar," which was soon checked, the colony remained tranquil. + +In Portuguese America the knowledge of what had occurred throughout the +Spanish dominions could not fail to awaken a desire for independence. +The Prince Regent was well aware of the discontent of the Brazilians, +but he thought to allay it by substantial concessions. In 1815 he +proceeded to elevate the colony to substantial equality with the mother +country by joining them under the title of "United Kingdom of Portugal, +Brazil, and the Algarves." The next year the Prince Regent himself +became King under the name of John IV. The flame of discontent, +nevertheless, continued to smolder. Republican outbreaks, though quelled +without much difficulty, recurred. Even the reforms which had been +instituted by John himself while Regent, and which had assured freer +communication with the world at large, only emphasized more and more the +absurdity of permitting a feeble little land like Portugal to retain its +hold upon a region so extensive and valuable as Brazil. + +The events of 1820 in Portugal hastened the movement toward +independence. Fired by the success of their Spanish comrades, the +Portuguese liberals forthwith rose in revolt, demanded the establishment +of a limited monarchy, and insisted that the King return to his people. +In similar fashion, also, they drew up a constitution which provided for +the representation of Brazil by deputies in a future Cortes. Beyond this +they would concede no special privileges to the colony. Indeed their +idea seems to have been that, with the King once more in Lisbon, their +own liberties would be secure and those of Brazil would be reduced to +what were befitting a mere dependency. Yielding to the inevitable, the +King decided to return to Portugal, leaving the young Crown Prince to +act as Regent in the colony. A critical moment for the little country +and its big dominion oversea had indubitably arrived. John understood +the trend of the times, for on the eve of his departure he said to his +son: "Pedro, if Brazil is to separate itself from Portugal, as seems +likely, you take the crown yourself before any one else gets it!" + +Pedro was liberal in sentiment, popular among the Brazilians, and +well-disposed toward the aspirations of the country for a larger +measure of freedom, and yet not blind to the interests of the dynasty of +Braganza. He readily listened to the urgent pleas of the leaders of the +separatist party against obeying the repressive mandaes of the Cortes. +Laws which abolished the central government of the colony and made +the various provinces individually subject to Portugal he declined to +notice. With equal promptness he refused to heed an order bidding him +return to Portugal immediately. To a delegation of prominent Brazilians +he said emphatically: "For the good of all and the general welfare of +the nation, I shall stay." More than that, in May, 1822, he accepted +from the municipality of Rio de Janeiro the title of "Perpetual and +Constitutional Defender of Brazil," and in a series of proclamations +urged the people of the country to begin the great work of emancipation +by forcibly resisting, if needful, any attempt at coercion. + +Pedro now believed the moment had come to take the final step. While on +a journey through the province of Sao Paulo, he was overtaken on the 7th +of September, near a little stream called the Ypiranga, by messengers +with dispatches from Portugal. Finding that the Cortes had annulled +his acts and declared his ministers guilty of treason, Pedro forthwith +proclaimed Brazil an independent state. The "cry of Ypiranga" was echoed +with tremendous enthusiasm throughout the country. When Pedro appeared +in the theater at Rio de Janeiro, a few days later, wearing on his arm a +ribbon on which were inscribed the words "Independence or Death," he was +given a tumultuous ovation. On the first day of December the youthful +monarch assumed the title of Emperor, and Brazil thereupon took its +place among the nations of America. + + + +CHAPTER IV. PLOUGHING THE SEA + +When the La Plata Congress at Tucuman took the decisive action that +severed the bond with Spain, it uttered a prophecy for all Spanish +America. To quote its language: "Vast and fertile regions, climates +benign and varied, abundant means of subsistence, treasures of gold +and silver... and fine productions of every sort will attract to our +continent innumerable thousands of immigrants, to whom we shall open a +safe place of refuge and extend a beneficent protection." More hopeful +still were the words of a spokesman for another independent country: +"United, neither the empire of the Assyrians, the Medes or the Persians, +the Macedonian or the Roman Empire, can ever be compared with this +colossal republic." + +Very different was the vision of Bolivar. While a refugee in Jamaica he +wrote: "We are a little human species; we possess a world apart... new +in almost all the arts and sciences, and yet old, after a fashion, in +the uses of civil society.... Neither Indians nor Europeans, we are a +species that lies midway .... Is it conceivable that a people recently +freed of its chains can launch itself into the sphere of liberty without +shattering its wings, like Icarus, and plunging into the abyss? Such a +prodigy is inconceivable, never beheld." Toward the close of his +career he declared: "The majority are mestizos, mulattoes, Indians, +and negroes. An ignorant people is a blunt instrument for its own +destruction. To it liberty means license, patriotism means disloyalty, +and justice means vengeance." "Independence," he exclaimed, "is the only +good we have achieved, at the cost of everything else." + +Whether the abounding confidence of the prophecy or the anxious doubt of +the vision would come true, only the future could tell. In 1822, at all +events, optimism was the watchword and the total exclusion of Spain from +South America the goal of Bolivar and his lieutenants, as they started +southward to complete the work of emancipation which had been begun by +San Martin. + +The patriots of Peru, indeed, had fallen into straits so desperate that +an appeal to the Liberator offered the only hope of salvation. While the +royalists under their able and vigilant leader, Jose Canterac, continued +to strengthen their grasp upon the interior of the country and to uphold +the power of the viceroy, the President chosen by the Congress had been +driven by the enemy from Lima. A number of the legislators in wrath +thereupon declared the President deposed. Not to be outdone, that +functionary on his part declared the Congress dissolved. The malcontents +immediately proceeded to elect a new chief magistrate, thus bringing +two Presidents into the field and inaugurating a spectacle destined to +become all too common in the subsequent annals of Spanish America. + +When Bolivar arrived at Callao, the seaport of Lima, in September, 1823, +he acted with prompt vigor. He expelled one President, converted the +other into a passive instrument of his will, declined to promulgate a +constitution that the Congress had prepared, and, after obtaining from +that body an appointment to supreme command, dissolved the Congress +without further ado. Unfortunately none of these radical measures had +any perceptible effect upon the military situation. Though Bolivar +gathered together an army made up of Colombians, Peruvians, and remnants +of San Martin's force, many months elapsed before he could venture upon +a serious campaign. Then events in Spain played into his hands. The +reaction that had followed the restoration of Ferdinand VII to absolute +power crossed the ocean and split the royalists into opposing factions. +Quick to seize the chance thus afforded, Bolivar marched over the +Andes to the plain of Junin. There, on August 6, 1824, he repelled an +onslaught by Canterac and drove that leader back in headlong flight. +Believing, however, that the position he held was too perilous to risk +an offensive, he entrusted the military command to Sucre and returned to +headquarters. + +The royalists had now come to realize that only a supreme effort could +save them. They must overwhelm Sucre before reinforcements could reach +him, and to this end an army of upwards of ten thousand was assembled. +On the 9th of December it encountered Sucre and his six thousand +soldiers in the valley of Ayacucho, or "Corner of Death," where the +patriot general had entrenched his army with admirable skill. The result +was a total defeat for the royalists--the Waterloo of Spain in South +America. The battle thus won by ragged and hungry soldiers--whose +countersign the night before had been "bread and cheese"--threw off the +yoke of the mother country forever. The viceroy fell wounded into their +hands and Canterac surrendered. On receipt of the glorious news, +the people of Lima greeted Bolivar with wild enthusiasm. A Congress +prolonged his dictatorship amid adulations that bordered on the +grotesque. + +Eastward of Peru in the vast mountainous region of Charcas, on the +very heights of South America, the royalists still found a refuge. In +January, 1825, a patriot general at the town of La Paz undertook on his +own responsibility to declare the entire province independent, alike of +Spain, Peru, and the United Provinces of La Plata. This action was too +precipitous, not to say presumptuous, to suit Bolivar and Sucre. The +better to control the situation, the former went up to La Paz and the +latter to Chuquisaca, the capital, where a Congress was to assemble +for the purpose of imparting a more orderly turn to affairs. Under the +direction of the "Marshal of Ayacucho," as Sucre was now called, +the Congress issued on the 6th of August a formal declaration of +independence. In honor of the Liberator it christened the new republic +"Bolivar"--later Latinized into "Bolivia"--and conferred upon him the +presidency so long as he might choose to remain. In November, 1896, a +new Congress which had been summoned to draft a constitution accepted, +with slight modifications, an instrument that the Liberator himself had +prepared. That body also renamed the capital "Sucre" and chose the hero +of Ayacucho as President of the republic. + +Now, the Liberator thought, was the opportune moment to impose upon +his territorial namesake a constitution embodying his ideas of a stable +government which would give Spanish Americans eventually the political +experience they needed. Providing for an autocracy represented by a life +President, it ran the gamut of aristocracy and democracy, all the way +from "censors" for life, who were to watch over the due enforcement of +the laws, down to senators and "tribunes" chosen by electors, who in +turn were to be named by a select citizenry. Whenever actually present +in the territory of the republic, the Liberator was to enjoy supreme +command, in case he wished to exercise it. + +In 1826 Simon Bolivar stood at the zenith of his glory and power. No +adherents of the Spanish regime were left in South America to menace the +freedom of its independent states. In January a resistance kept up for +nine years by a handful of royalists lodged on the remote island of +Chiloe, off the southern coast of Chile, had been broken, and the +garrison at the fortress of Callao had laid down its arms after a +valiant struggle. Among Spanish Americans no one was comparable to the +marvelous man who had founded three great republics stretching from the +Caribbean Sea to the Tropic of Capricorn. Hailed as the "Liberator" +and the "Terror of Despots," he was also acclaimed by the people as the +"Redeemer, the First-Born Son of the New World!" National destinies +were committed to his charge, and equestrian statues were erected in +his honor. In the popular imagination he was ranked with Napoleon as a +peerless conqueror, and with Washington as the father of his country. +That megalomania should have seized the mind of the Liberator under +circumstances like these is not strange. + +Ever a zealous advocate of large states, Bolivar was an equally ardent +partisan of confederation. As president of three republics--of +Colombia actually, and of its satellites, Peru and Bolivia, through his +lieutenants--he could afford now to carry out the plan that he had long +since cherished of assembling at the town of Panama, on Colombian soil, +an "august congress" representative of the independent countries of +America. Here, on the isthmus created by nature to join the continents, +the nations created by men should foregather and proclaim fraternal +accord. Presenting to the autocratic governments of Europe a solid front +of resistance to their pretensions as well as a visible symbol of unity +in sentiment, such a Congress by meeting periodically would also promote +friendship among the republics of the western hemisphere and supply a +convenient means of settling their disputes. + +At this time the United States was regarded by its sister republics with +all the affection which gratitude for services rendered to the cause +of emancipation could evoke. Was it not itself a republic, its people a +democracy, its development astounding, and its future radiant with +hope? The pronouncement of President Monroe, in 1823, protesting against +interference on the part of European powers with the liberties of +independent America, afforded the clearest possible proof that the +great northern republic was a natural protector, guide, and friend +whose advice and cooperation ought to be invoked. The United States was +accordingly asked to take part in the assembly--not to concert military +measures, but simply to join its fellows to the southward in a solemn +proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine by America at large and to discuss +means of suppressing the slave trade. + +The Congress that met at Panama, in June, 1826, afforded scant +encouragement to Bolivar's roseate hope of interAmerican solidarity. +Whether because of the difficulties of travel, or because of internal +dissensions, or because of the suspicion that the megalomania of the +Liberator had awakened in Spanish America, only the four continental +countries nearest the isthmus--Mexico, Central America, Colombia, and +Peru--were represented. The delegates, nevertheless, signed a compact +of "perpetual union, league, and confederation," provided for mutual +assistance to be rendered by the several nations in time of war, and +arranged to have the Areopagus of the Americas transferred to Mexico. +None of the acts of this Congress was ratified by the republics +concerned, except the agreement for union, which was adopted by +Colombia. + +Disheartening to Bolivar as this spectacle was, it proved merely the +first of a series of calamities which were to overshadow the later years +of the Liberator. His grandiose political structure began to crumble, +for it was built on the shifting sands of a fickle popularity. The +more he urged a general acceptance of the principles of his autocratic +constitution, the surer were his followers that he coveted royal honors. +In December he imposed his instrument upon Peru. Then he learned that +a meeting in Venezuela, presided over by Paez, had declared itself in +favor of separation from Colombia. Hardly had he left Peru to check this +movement when an uprising at Lima deposed his representative and led +to the summons of a Congress which, in June, 1827, restored the former +constitution and chose a new President. In Quito, also, the government +of the unstable dictator was overthrown. + +Alarmed by symptoms of disaffection which also appeared in the western +part of the republic, Bolivar hurried to Bogota. There in the hope +of removing the growing antagonism, he offered his "irrevocable" +resignation, as he had done on more than one occasion before. Though the +malcontents declined to accept his withdrawal from office, they insisted +upon his calling a constitutional convention. Meeting at Ocana, in +April, 1828, that body proceeded to abolish the life tenure of the +presidency, to limit the powers of the executive, and to increase +those of the legislature. Bolivar managed to quell the opposition in +dictatorial fashion; but his prestige had by this time fallen so low +that an attempt was made to assassinate him. The severity with which he +punished the conspirators served only to diminish still more the popular +confidence which he had once enjoyed. Even in Bolivia his star of +destiny had set. An outbreak of Colombian troops at the capital forced +the faithful Sucre to resign and leave the country. The constitution was +then modified to meet the demand for a less autocratic government, and a +new chief magistrate was installed. + +Desperately the Liberator strove to ward off the impending collapse. +Though he recovered possession of the division of Quito, a year of +warfare failed to win back Peru, and he was compelled to renounce all +pretense of governing it. Feeble in body and distracted in mind, he +condemned bitterly the machinations of his enemies. "There is no good +faith in Colombia," he exclaimed, "neither among men nor among nations. +Treaties are paper; constitutions, books; elections, combats; liberty, +anarchy, and life itself a torment." + +But the hardest blow was yet to fall. Late in December, 1829, an +assembly at Caracas declared Venezuela a separate state. The great +republic was rent in twain, and even what was left soon split apart. +In May, 1830, came the final crash. The Congress at Bogota drafted a +constitution, providing for a separate republic to bear the old Spanish +name of "New Granada," accepted definitely the resignation of Bolivar, +and granted him a pension. Venezuela, his native land, set up a congress +of its own and demanded that he be exiled. The division of Quito +declared itself independent, under the name of the "Republic of the +Equator" (Ecuador). Everywhere the artificial handiwork of the Liberator +lay in ruins. "America is ungovernable. Those who have served in the +revolution have ploughed the sea," was his despairing cry. + +Stricken to death, the fallen hero retired to an estate near Santa +Marta. Here, like his famous rival, San Martin, in France, he found +hospitality at the hands of a Spaniard. On December 17, 1830, the +Liberator gave up his troubled soul. + +While Bolivar's great republic was falling apart, the United Provinces +of La Plata had lost practically all semblance of cohesion. So broad +were their notions of liberty that the several provinces maintained a +substantial independence of one another, while within each province the +caudillos, or partisan chieftains, fought among themselves. + +Buenos Aires alone managed to preserve a measure of stability. This +comparative peace was due to the financial and commercial measures +devised by Bernardino Rivadavia, one of the most capable statesmen of +the time, and to the energetic manner in which disorder was suppressed +by Juan Manuel de Rosas, commander of the gaucho, or cowboy, militia. +Thanks also to the former leader, the provinces were induced in 1826 to +join in framing a constitution of a unitary character, which vested in +the administration at Buenos Aires the power of appointing the local +governors and of controlling foreign affairs. The name of the +country was at the same time changed to that of the "Argentine +Confederation"(c)-a Latin rendering of "La Plata." + +No sooner had Rivadavia assumed the presidency under the new order of +things than dissension at home and warfare abroad threatened to destroy +all that he had accomplished. Ignoring the terms of the constitution, +the provinces had already begun to reject the supremacy of Buenos +Aires, when the outbreak of a struggle with Brazil forced the contending +parties for a while to unite in the face of the common enemy. As +before, the object of international dispute was the region of the Banda +Oriental. The rule of Brazil had not been oppressive, but the people +of its Cisplatine Province, attached by language and sympathy to their +western neighbors, longed nevertheless to be free of foreign control. In +April, 1825, a band of thirty-three refugees arrived from Buenos Aires +and started a revolution which spread throughout the country. Organizing +a provisional government, the insurgents proclaimed independence of +Brazil and incorporation with the United Provinces of La Plata. As soon +as the authorities at Buenos Aires had approved this action, war was +inevitable. Though the Brazilians were decisively beaten at the Battle +of Ituzaingo, on February 20, 1827, the struggle lasted until August 28, +1828, when mediation by Great Britain led to the conclusion of a treaty +at Rio de Janeiro, by which both Brazil and the Argentine Confederation +recognized the absolute independence of the disputed province as the +republic of Uruguay. + +Instead of quieting the discord that prevailed among the Argentinos, +these victories only fomented trouble. The federalists had ousted +Rivadavia and discarded the constitution, but the federal idea for +which they stood had several meanings. To an inhabitant of Buenos Aires +federalism meant domination by the capital, not only over the province +of the same name but over the other provinces; whereas, to the people of +the provinces, and even to many of federalist faith in the province +of Buenos Aires itself, the term stood for the idea of a loose +confederation in which each provincial governor or chieftain should be +practically supreme in his own district, so long as he could maintain +himself. The Unitaries were opponents of both, except in so far as their +insistence upon a centralized form of government for the nation would +necessarily lead to the location of that government at Buenos Aires. +This peculiar dual contest between the town and the province of Buenos +Aires, and of the other provinces against either or both, persisted for +the next sixty years. In 1829, however, a prolonged lull set in, when +Rosas, the gaucho leader, having won in company with other caudillos +a decisive triumph over the Unitaries, entered the capital and took +supreme command. + +In Chile the course of events had assumed quite a different aspect. +Here, in 1818, a species of constitution had been adopted by popular +vote in a manner that appeared to show remarkable unanimity, for the +books in which the "ayes" and "noes" were to be recorded contained +no entries in the negative! What the records really prove is that +O'Higgins, the Supreme Director, enjoyed the confidence of the ruling +class. In exercise of the autocratic power entrusted to him, he now +proceeded to introduce a variety of administrative reforms of signal +advantage to the moral and material welfare of the country. But as the +danger of conquest from any quarter lessened, the demand for a more +democratic organization grew louder, until in 1822 it became so +persistent that O'Higgins called a convention to draft a new fundamental +law. But its provisions suited neither himself nor his opponents. +Thereupon, realizing that his views of the political capacity of the +people resembled those of Bolivar and were no longer applicable, and +that his reforms had aroused too much hostility, the Supreme Director +resigned his post and retired to Peru. Thus another hero of emancipation +had met the ingratitude for which republics are notorious. + +Political convulsions in the country followed the abdication of +O'Higgins. Not only had the spirit of the strife between Unitaries and +Federalists been communicated to Chile from the neighboring republic +to the eastward, but two other parties or factions, divided on still +different lines, had arisen. These were the Conservative and the +Liberal, or Bigwigs (pelucones) and Greenhorns (pipiolos), as the +adherents of the one derisively dubbed the partisans of the other. +Although in the ups and downs of the struggle two constitutions were +adopted, neither sufficed to quiet the agitation. Not until 1830, when +the Liberals sustained an utter defeat on the field of battle, did the +country enter upon a period of quiet progress along conservative lines. +From that time onward it presented a surprising contrast to its fellow +republics, which were beset with afflictions. + +Far to the northward, the Empire of Mexico set up by Iturbide in 1822 +was doomed to a speedy fall. "Emperor by divine providence," that +ambitious adventurer inscribed on his coins, but his countrymen knew +that the bayonets of his soldiers were the actual mainstay of his +pretentious title. Neither his earlier career nor the size of his +following was sufficiently impressive to assure him popular support if +the military prop gave way. His lavish expenditures, furthermore, and +his arbitrary replacement of the Congress by a docile body which would +authorize forced loans at his command, steadily undermined his position. +Apart from the faults of Iturbide himself, the popular sentiment of a +country bordering immediately upon the United States could not fail to +be colored by the ideas and institutions of its great neighbor. So, too, +the example of what had been accomplished, in form at least, by their +kinsmen elsewhere in America was bound to wield a potent influence on +the minds of the Mexicans. As a result, their desire for a republic grew +stronger from day to day. + +Iturbide, in fact, had not enjoyed his exalted rank five months when +Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, a young officer destined later to become a +conspicuous figure in Mexican history, started a revolt to replace +the "Empire" by a republic. Though he failed in his object, two of +Iturbide's generals joined the insurgents in demanding a restoration of +the Congress--an act which, as the hapless "Emperor" perceived, would +amount to his dethronement. Realizing his impotence, Iturbide summoned +the Congress and announced his abdication. But instead of recognizing +this procedure, that body declared his accession itself null and void; +it agreed, however, to grant him a pension if he would leave the country +and reside in Italy. With this disposition of his person Iturbide +complied; but he soon wearied of exile and persuaded himself that he +would not lack supporters if he tried to regain his former control +in Mexico. This venture he decided to make in complete ignorance of a +decree ordering his summary execution if he dared to set foot again on +Mexican soil. He had hardly landed in July, 1824, when he was seized and +shot. + +Since a constituent assembly had declared itself in favor of +establishing a federal form of republic patterned after that of the +United States, the promulgation of a constitution followed on October 4, +1824, and Guadalupe Victoria, one of the leaders in the revolt against +Iturbide, was chosen President of the United Mexican States. Though +considerable unrest prevailed toward the close of his term, the new +President managed to retain his office for the allotted four years. In +most respects, however, the new order of things opened auspiciously. In +November, 1825, the surrender of the fortress of San Juan de Ulua, in +the harbor of Vera Cruz, banished the last remnant of Spanish power, +and two years later the suppression of plots for the restoration +of Ferdinand VII, coupled with the expulsion of a large number of +Spaniards, helped to restore calm. There were those even who dared to +hope that the federal system would operate as smoothly in Mexico as it +had done in the United States. + +But the political organization of a country so different from its +northern neighbor in population, traditions, and practices, could not +rest merely on a basis of imitation, even more or less modified. The +artificiality of the fabric became apparent enough as soon as ambitious +individuals and groups of malcontents concerted measures to mold it into +a likeness of reality. Two main political factions soon appeared. For +the form they assumed British and American influences were responsible. +Adopting a kind of Masonic organization, the Conservatives and +Centralists called themselves Escoceses (Scottish-Rite Men), whereas +the Radicals and Federalists took the name of Yorkinos (York-Rite Men). +Whatever their respective slogans and professions of political faith, +they were little more than personal followers of rival generals or +politicians who yearned to occupy the presidential chair. + +Upon the downfall of Iturbide, the malcontents in Central America +bestirred themselves to throw off the Mexican yoke. On July 1,1823, a +Congress declared the region an independent republic under the name of +the "United Provinces of Central America." In November of the next year, +following the precedent established in Mexico, and obedient also to +local demand, the new republic issued a constitution, in accordance +with which the five little divisions of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, +Nicaragua, and Costa Rica were to become states of a federal union, each +having the privilege of choosing its own local authorities. Immediately +Federalists and Centralists, Radicals and Conservatives, all wished, it +would seem, to impose their particular viewpoint upon their fellows. +The situation was not unlike that in the Argentine Confederation. The +efforts of Guatemala--the province in which power had been concentrated +under the colonial regime--to assert supremacy over its fellow states, +and their refusal to respect either the federal bond or one another's +rights made civil war inevitable. The struggle which broke out among +Guatemala, Salvador, and Honduras, lasted until 1829, when Francisco +Morazan, at the head of the "Allied Army, Upholder of the Law," entered +the capital of the republic and assumed dictatorial power. + +Of all the Hispanic nations, however, Brazil was easily the most stable. +Here the leaders, while clinging to independence, strove to avoid +dangerous innovations in government. Rather than create a political +system for which the country was not prepared, they established a +constitutional monarchy. But Brazil itself was too vast and its interior +too difficult of access to allow it to become all at once a unit, either +in organization or in spirit. The idea of national solidarity had as yet +made scant progress. The old rivalry which existed between the provinces +of the north, dominated by Bahia or Pernambuco, and those of the south, +controlled by Rio de Janeiro or Sao Paulo, still made itself felt. What +the Empire amounted to, therefore, was an agglomeration of provinces, +held together by the personal prestige of a young monarch. + +Since the mother country still held parts of northern Brazil, the +Emperor entrusted the energetic Cochrane, who had performed such valiant +service for Chile and Peru, with the task of expelling the foreign +soldiery. When this had been accomplished and a republican outbreak +in the same region had been suppressed, the more difficult task of +satisfying all parties by a constitution had to be undertaken. There +were partisans of monarchy and advocates of republicanism, men of +conservative and of liberal sympathies; disagreements, also, between the +Brazilians and the native Portuguese residents were frequent. So far as +possible Pedro desired to meet popular desires, and yet without imposing +too many limitations on the monarchy itself. But in the assembly called +to draft the constitution the liberal members made a determined effort +to introduce republican forms. Pedro thereupon dissolved that body and +in 1826 promulgated a constitution of his own. + +The popularity of the Emperor thereafter soon began to wane, partly +because of the scandalous character of his private life, and partly +because he declined to observe constitutional restrictions and chose his +ministers at will. His insistent war in Portugal to uphold the claims +of his daughter to the throne betrayed, or seemed to betray, dynastic +ambitions. His inability to hold Uruguay as a Brazilian province, and +his continued retention of foreign soldiers who had been employed in the +struggle with the Argentine Confederation, for the apparent purpose of +quelling possible insurrections in the future, bred much discontent. So +also did the restraints he laid upon the press, which had been infected +by the liberal movements in neighboring republics. When he failed +to subdue these outbreaks, his rule became all the more discredited. +Thereupon, menaced by a dangerous uprising at Rio de Janeiro in 1831, he +abdicated the throne in favor of his son, Pedro, then five years of age, +and set sail for Portugal. + +Under the influence of Great Britain the small European mother country +had in 1825 recognized the independence of its big transatlantic +dominion; but it was not until 1836 that the Cortes of Spain authorized +the Crown to enter upon negotiations looking to the same action in +regard to the eleven republics which had sprung out of its colonial +domain. Even then many years elapsed before the mother country +acknowledged the independence of them all. + + + +CHAPTER V. THE AGE OF THE DICTATORS + +Independence without liberty and statehood without respect for law are +phrases which sum up the situation in Spanish America after the failure +of Bolivar's "great design." The outcome was a collection of +crude republics, racked by internal dissension and torn by mutual +jealousy--patrias bobas, or "foolish fatherlands," as one of their own +writers has termed them. + +Now that the bond of unity once supplied by Spain had been broken, the +entire region which had been its continental domain in America dissolved +awhile into its elements. The Spanish language, the traditions and +customs of the dominant class, and a "republican" form of government, +were practically the sole ties which remained. Laws, to be sure, had +been enacted, providing for the immediate or gradual abolition of +negro slavery and for an improvement in the status of the Indian and +half-caste; but the bulk of the inhabitants, as in colonial times, +remained outside of the body politic and social. Though the so-called +"constitutions" might confer upon the colored inhabitants all the +privileges and immunities of citizens if they could read and write, +and even a chance to hold office if they could show possession of a +sufficient income or of a professional title of some sort, their usual +inability to do either made their privileges illusory. Their only share +in public concerns lay in performing military service at the behest of +their superiors. Even where the language of the constitutions did +not exclude the colored inhabitants directly or indirectly, practical +authority was exercised by dictators who played the autocrat, or by +"liberators" who aimed at the enjoyment of that function themselves. + +Not all the dictators, however, were selfish tyrants, nor all the +liberators mere pretenders. Disturbed conditions bred by twenty years +of warfare, antique methods of industry, a backward commerce, inadequate +means of communication, and a population ignorant, superstitious, and +scant, made a strong ruler more or less indispensable. Whatever his +official designation, the dictator was the logical successor of +the Spanish viceroy or captain general, but without the sense of +responsibility or the legal restraint of either. These circumstances +account for that curious political phase in the development of the +Spanish American nations--the presidential despotism. + +On the other hand, the men who denounced oppression, unscrupulousness, +and venality, and who in rhetorical pronunciamentos urged the +"people" to overthrow the dictators, were often actuated by motives of +patriotism, even though they based their declarations on assumptions +and assertions, rather than on principles and facts. Not infrequently a +liberator of this sort became "provisional president" until he +himself, or some person of his choice, could be elected "constitutional +president"--two other institutions more or less peculiar to Spanish +America. + +In an atmosphere of political theorizing mingled with ambition for +personal advancement, both leaders and followers were professed devotees +of constitutions. No people, it was thought, could maintain a real +republic and be a true democracy if they did not possess a written +constitution. The longer this was, the more precise its definition +of powers and liberties, the more authentic the republic and the more +genuine the democracy was thought to be. In some countries the notion +was carried still farther by an insistence upon frequent changes in the +fundamental law or in the actual form of government, not so much to meet +imperative needs as to satisfy a zest for experimentation or to suit the +whims of mercurial temperaments. The congresses, constituent assemblies, +and the like, which drew these instruments, were supposed to be faithful +reproductions of similar bodies abroad and to represent the popular +will. In fact, however, they were substantially colonial cabildos, +enlarged into the semblance of a legislature, intent upon local or +personal concerns, and lacking any national consciousness. In any case +the members were apt to be creatures of a republican despot or else +delegates of politicians or petty factions. + +Assuming that the leaders had a fairly clear conception of what they +wanted, even if the mass of their adherents did not, it is possible to +aline the factions or parties somewhat as follows: on the one hand, the +unitary, the military, the clerical, the conservative, and the moderate; +on the other, the federalist, the civilian, the lay, the liberal, and the +radical. Interspersed among them were the advocates of a presidential or +congressional system like that of the United States, the upholders of a +parliamentary regime like that of European nations, and the supporters +of methods of government of a more experimental kind. Broadly speaking, +the line of cleavage was made by opinions, concerning the form of +government and by convictions regarding the relations of Church and +State. These opinions were mainly a product of revolutionary experience; +these convictions, on the other hand, were a bequest from colonial +times. + +The Unitaries wished to have a system of government modeled upon that +of France. They wanted the various provinces made into administrative +districts over which the national authority should exercise full sway. +Their direct opponents, the Federalists, resembled to some extent the +Antifederalists rather than the party bearing the former title in the +earlier history of the United States; but even here an exact +analogy fails. They did not seek to have the provinces enjoy local +self-government or to have perpetuated the traditions of a sort of +municipal home rule handed down from the colonial cabildos, so much +as to secure the recognition of a number of isolated villages or small +towns as sovereign states--which meant turning them over as fiefs to +their local chieftains. Federalism, therefore, was the Spanish American +expression for a feudalism upheld by military lordlets and their +retainers. + +Among the measures of reform introduced by one republic or another +during the revolutionary period, abolition of the Inquisition had been +one of the foremost; otherwise comparatively little was done to curb +the influence of the Church. Indeed the earlier constitutions regularly +contained articles declaring Roman Catholicism the sole legal faith as +well as the religion of the state, and safeguarding in other respects +its prestige in the community. Here was an institution, wealthy, proud, +and influential, which declined to yield its ancient prerogatives and +privileges and to that end relied upon the support of clericals and +conservatives who disliked innovations of a democratic sort and viewed +askance the entry of immigrants professing an alien faith. Opposed +to the Church stood governments verging on bankruptcy, desirous of +exercising supreme control, and dominated by individuals eager to put +theories of democracy into practice and to throw open the doors of the +republic freely to newcomers from other lands. In the opinion of these +radicals the Church ought to be deprived both of its property and of its +monopoly of education. The one should be turned over to the nation, +to which it properly belonged, and should be converted into public +utilities; the other should be made absolutely secular, in order to +destroy clerical influence over the youthful mind. In this program +radicals and liberals concurred with varying degrees of intensity, +while the moderates strove to hold the balance between them and their +opponents. + +Out of this complex situation civil commotions were bound to arise. +Occasionally these were real wars, but as a rule only skirmishes or +sporadic insurrections occurred. They were called "revolutions," not +because some great principle was actually at stake but because the term +had been popular ever since the struggle with Spain. As a designation +for movements aimed at securing rotation in office, and hence control of +the treasury, it was appropriate enough! At all events, whether serious +or farcical, the commotions often involved an expenditure in life and +money far beyond the value of the interests affected. Further, both +the prevalent disorder and the centralization of authority impelled the +educated and well-to-do classes to take up their residence at the seat +of government. Not a few of the uprisings were, in fact, protests on +the part of the neglected folk in the interior of the country against +concentration of population, wealth, intellect, and power in the Spanish +American capitals. + +Among the towns of this sort was Buenos Aires. Here, in 1829, Rosas +inaugurated a career of rulership over the Argentine Confederation, +culminating in a despotism that made him the most extraordinary figure +of his time. Originally a stockfarmer and skilled in all the exercises +of the cowboy, he developed an unusual talent for administration. His +keen intelligence, supple statecraft, inflexibility of purpose, and +vigor of action, united to a shrewd understanding of human follies and +passions, gave to his personality a dominance that awed and to his word +of command a power that humbled. Over his fellow chieftains who held the +provinces in terrorized subjection, he won an ascendancy that insured +compliance with his will. The instincts of the multitude he flattered +by his generous simplicity, while he enlisted the support of the +responsible class by maintaining order in the countryside. The desire, +also, of Buenos Aires to be paramount over the other provinces had no +small share in strengthening his power. + +Relatively honest in money matters, and a stickler for precision and +uniformity, Rosas sought to govern a nation in the rough-and-ready +fashion of the stock farm. A creature of his environment, no better +and no worse than his associates, but only more capable than they, +and absolutely convinced that pitiless autocracy was the sole means of +creating a nation out of chaotic fragments, this "Robespierre of +South America" carried on his despotic sway, regardless of the fury of +opponents and the menace of foreign intervention. + +During the first three years of his control, however, except for the +rigorous suppression of unitary movements and the muzzling of the press, +few signs appeared of the "black night of Argentine history" which was +soon to close down on the land. Realizing that the auspicious moment had +not yet arrived for him to exercise the limitless power that he +thought needful, he declined an offer of reelection from the provincial +legislature, in the hope that, through a policy of conciliation, his +successor might fall a prey to the designs of the Unitaries. When this +happened, he secretly stirred up the provinces into a renewal of the +earlier disturbances, until the evidence became overwhelming that Rosas +alone could bring peace and progress out of turmoil and backwardness. +Reluctantly the legislature yielded him the power it knew he wanted. +This he would not accept until a "popular" vote of some 9000 to 4 +confirmed the choice. In 1835, accordingly, he became dictator for the +first of four successive terms of five years. + +Then ensued, notably in Buenos Aires itself, a state of affairs at once +grotesque and frightful. Not content with hunting down and inflicting +every possible, outrage upon those suspected of sympathy with the +Unitaries, Rosas forbade them to display the light blue and white colors +of their party device and directed that red, the sign of Federalism, +should be displayed on all occasions. Pink he would not tolerate as +being too attenuated a shade and altogether too suggestive of political +trimming! A band of his followers, made up of ruffians, and called the +Mazorca, or "Ear of Corn," because of the resemblance of their close +fellowship to its adhering grains, broke into private houses, destroyed +everything light blue within reach, and maltreated the unfortunate +occupants at will. No man was safe also who did not give his face a +leonine aspect by wearing a mustache and sidewhiskers--emblems, the one +of "federalism," and the other of "independence." To possess a visage +bare of these hirsute adornments or a countenance too efflorescent +in that respect was, under a regime of tonsorial politics, to invite +personal disaster! Nothing apparently was too cringing or servile to +show how submissive the people were to the mastery of Rosas. Private +vengeance and defamation of the innocent did their sinister work +unchecked. Even when his arbitrary treatment of foreigners had compelled +France for a while to institute a blockade of Buenos Aires, the wily +dictator utilized the incident to turn patriotic resentment to his own +advantage. + +Meanwhile matters in Uruguay had come to such a pass that Rosas saw an +opportunity to extend his control in that direction also. Placed +between Brazil and the Argentine Confederation and so often a bone of +contention, the little country was hardly free from the rule of the +former state when it came near falling under the domination of the +latter. Only a few years of relative tranquillity had elapsed when two +parties sprang up in Uruguay: the "Reds" (Colorados) and the "Whites" +(Blancos). Of these, the one was supposed to represent the liberal and +the other the conservative element. In fact, they were the followings +of partisan chieftains, whose struggles for the presidency during many +years to come retarded the advancement of a country to which nature had +been generous. + +When Fructuoso Rivera, the President up to 1835, thought of choosing +some one to be elected in constitutional fashion as his successor, he +unwisely singled out Manuel Oribe, one of the famous "Thirty-three" who +had raised the cry of independence a decade before. But instead of a +henchman he found a rival. Both of them straightway adopted the colors +and bid for the support of one of the local factions; and both appealed +to the factions of the Argentine Confederation for aid, Rivera to the +Unitaries and Oribe to the Federalists. In 1843, Oribe, at the head of +an army of Blancos and Federalists and with the moral support of Rosas, +laid siege to Montevideo. Defended by Colorados, Unitaries, and numerous +foreigners, including Giuseppe Garibaldi, the town held out valiantly +for eight years--a feat that earned for it the title of the "New Troy." +Anxious to stop the slaughter and destruction that were injuring their +nationals, France, Great Britain, and Brazil offered their mediation; +but Rosas would have none of it. What the antagonists did he cared +little, so long as they enfeebled the country and increased his +chances of dominating it. At length, in 1845, the two European powers +established a blockade of Argentine ports, which was not lifted +until the dictator grudgingly agreed to withdraw his troops from the +neighboring republic. + +More than any other single factor, this intervention of France and Great +Britain administered a blow to Rosas from which he could not recover. +The operations of their fleets and the resistance of Montevideo had +lowered the prestige of the dictator and had raised the hopes of +the Unitaries that a last desperate effort might shake off his hated +control. In May, 1851, Justo Jose de Urquiza, one of his most trusted +lieutenants, declared the independence of his own province and called +upon the others to rise against the tyrant. Enlisting the support +of Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay, he assembled a "great army of +liberation," composed of about twenty-five thousand men, at whose head +he marched to meet the redoubtable Rosas. On February 3,1852, at a spot +near Buenos Aires, the man of might who, like his contemporary Francia +in Paraguay, had held the Argentine Confederation in thralldom for so +many years, went down to final defeat. Embarking on a British warship he +sailed for England, there to become a quiet country gentleman in a land +where gauchos and dictators were unhonored. + +In the meantime Paraguay, spared from such convulsion as racked its +neighbor on the east, dragged on its secluded existence of backwardness +and stagnation. Indians and half-castes vegetated in ignorance and +docility, and the handful of whites quaked in terror, while the +inexorable Francia tightened the reins of commercial and industrial +restriction and erected forts along the frontiers to keep out the +pernicious foreigner. At his death, in 1840, men and women wept at his +funeral in fear perchance, as one historian remarks, lest he come +back to life; and the priest who officiated at the service likened the +departed dictator to Caesar and Augustus! + +Paraguay was destined, however, to fall under a despot far worse than +Francia when in 1862 Francisco Solano Lopez became President. The new +ruler was a man of considerable intelligence and education. While a +traveler in Europe he had seen much of its military organizations, and +he had also gained no slight acquaintance with the vices of its capital +cities. This acquired knowledge he joined to evil propensities until +he became a veritable monster of wickedness. Vain, arrogant, reckless, +absolutely devoid of scruple, swaggering in victory, dogged in defeat, +ferociously cruel at all times, he murdered his brothers and his best +friends; he executed, imprisoned, or banished any one whom he thought +too influential; he tortured his mother and sisters; and, like the +French Terrorists, he impaled his officers upon the unpleasant dilemma +of winning victories or losing their lives. Even members of the American +legation suffered torment at his hands, and the minister himself barely +escaped death. + +Over his people, Lopez wielded a marvelous power, compounded of +persuasive eloquence and brute force. If the Paraguayans had obeyed +their earlier masters blindly, they were dumb before this new despot +and deaf to other than his word of command. To them he was the "Great +Father," who talked to them in their own tongue of Guarani, who was +the personification of the nation, the greatest ruler in the world, the +invincible champion who inspired them with a loathing and contempt for +their enemies. Such were the traits of a man and such the traits of a +people who waged for six years a warfare among the most extraordinary in +human annals. + +What prompted Lopez to embark on his career of international madness and +prosecute it with the rage of a demon is not entirely clear. A vision +of himself as the Napoleon of southern South America, who might cause +Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay to cringe before his footstool, while he +disposed at will of their territory and fortunes, doubtless stirred his +imagination. So, too, the thought of his country, wedged in between two +huge neighbors and threatened with suffocation between their overlapping +folds, may well have suggested the wisdom of conquering overland a +highway to the sea. At all events, he assembled an army of upwards of +ninety thousand men, the greatest military array that Hispanic America +had ever seen. Though admirably drilled and disciplined, they were +poorly armed, mostly with flintlock muskets, and they were also +deficient in artillery except that of antiquated pattern. With this +mighty force at his back, yet knowing that the neighboring countries +could eventually call into the field armies much larger in size equipped +with repeating rifles and supplied with modern artillery, the "Jupiter +of Paraguay" nevertheless made ready to launch his thunderbolt. + +The primary object at which he aimed was Uruguay. In this little state +the Colorados, upheld openly or secretly by Brazil and Argentina, were +conducting a "crusade of liberty" against the Blanco government at +Montevideo, which was favored by Paraguay. Neither of the two great +powers wished to see an alliance formed between Uruguay and Paraguay, +lest when united in this manner the smaller nations might become too +strong to tolerate further intervention in their affairs. For her part, +Brazil had motives for resentment arising out of boundary disputes with +Paraguay and Uruguay, as well as out of the inevitable injury to its +nationals inflicted by the commotions in the latter country; whereas +Argentina cherished grievances against Lopez for the audacity with which +his troops roamed through her provinces and the impudence with which his +vessels, plying on the lower Parana, ignored the customs regulations. +Thus it happened that obscure civil discords in one little republic +exploded into a terrific international struggle which shook South +America to its foundations. + +In 1864, scorning the arts of diplomacy which he did not apparently +understand, Lopez sent down an order for the two big states to leave the +matter of Uruguayan politics to his impartial adjustment. At both Rio +de Janeiro and Buenos Aires a roar of laughter went up from the press at +this notion of an obscure chieftain of a band of Indians in the tropical +backwoods daring to poise the equilibrium of much more than half a +continent on his insolent hand. But the merriment soon subsided, as +Brazilians and Argentinos came to realize what their peril might be +from a huge army of skilled and valiant soldiers, a veritable horde of +fighting fanatics, drawn up in a compact little land, centrally located +and affording in other respects every kind of strategic advantage. + +When Brazil invaded Uruguay and restored the Colorados to power, Lopez +demanded permission from Argentina to cross its frontier, for the +purpose of assailing his enemy from another quarter. When the permission +was denied, Lopez declared war on Argentina also. It was in every +respect a daring step, but Lopez knew that Argentina was not so well +prepared as his own state for a war of endurance. Uruguay then entered +into an alliance in 1865 with its two big "protectors." In accordance +with its terms, the allies agreed not to conclude peace until Lopez had +been overthrown, heavy indemnities had been exacted of Paraguay, its +fortifications demolished, its army disbanded, and the country forced to +accept any boundaries that the victors might see fit to impose. + +Into the details of the campaigns in the frightful conflict that +ensued it is not necessary to enter. Although, in 1866, the allies had +assembled an army of some fifty thousand men, Lopez continued taking +the offensive until, as the number and determination of his adversaries +increased, he was compelled to retreat into his own country. Here he and +his Indian legions levied terrific toll upon the lives of their enemies +who pressed onward, up or down the rivers and through tropical swamps +and forests. Inch by inch he contested their entry upon Paraguayan +soil. When the able-bodied men gave out, old men, boys, women, and girls +fought on with stubborn fury, and died before they would surrender. The +wounded escaped if they could, or, cursing their captors, tore off +their bandages and bled to death. Disease wrought awful havoc in all the +armies engaged; yet the struggle continued until flesh and blood could +endure no more. Flying before his pursuers into the wilds of the north +and frantically dragging along with him masses of fugitive men, women, +and children, whom he remorselessly shot, or starved to death, or left +to perish of exhaustion, Lopez turned finally at bay, and, on March 1, +1870, was felled by the lance of a cavalryman. He had sworn to die for +his country and he did, though his country might perish with him. + +No land in modern times has ever reached a point so near annihilation as +Paraguay. Added to the utter ruin of its industries and the devastation +of its fields, dwellings, and towns, hundreds of thousands of men, +women, and children had perished. Indeed, the horrors that had befallen +it might well have led the allies to ask themselves whether it was worth +while to destroy a country in order to change its rulers. Five years +before Lopez came into power the population of Paraguay had been +reckoned at something between 800,000 and 1,400,000--so unreliable were +census returns in those days. In 1878 it was estimated at about 230,000, +of whom women over fifteen years of age outnumbered the men nearly four +to one. Loose polygamy was the inevitable consequence, and women became +the breadwinners. Even today in this country the excess of females over +males is very great. All in all, it is not strange that Paraguay should +be called the "Niobe among nations." + +Unlike many nations of Spanish America in which a more or less +anticlerical regime was in the ascendant, Ecuador fell under a sort +of theocracy. Here appeared one of the strangest characters in a story +already full of extraordinary personages--Gabriel Garcia Moreno, +who became President of that republic in 1861. In some respects the +counterpart of Francia of Paraguay, in others both a medieval mystic +and an enlightened ruler of modern type, he was a man of remarkable +intellect, constructive ability, earnest patriotism, and disinterested +zeal for orderliness and progress. On his presidential sash were +inscribed the words: "My Power in the Constitution"; but is real power +lay in himself and in the system which he implanted. + +Garcia Moreno had a varied career. He had been a student of chemistry +and other natural sciences. He had spent his youth in exile in Europe, +where he prepared himself for his subsequent career as a journalist and +a university professor. Through it all he had been an active participant +in public affairs. Grim of countenance, austere in bearing, violent of +temper, relentless in severity, he was a devoted believer in the Roman +Catholic faith and in this Church as the sole effective basis upon which +a state could be founded or social and political regeneration could be +assured. In order to render effective his concept of what a nation +ought to be, Garcia Moreno introduced and upheld in all rigidity an +administration the like of which had been known hardly anywhere since +the Middle Ages. He recalled the Jesuits, established schools of the +"Brothers of the Christian Doctrine," and made education a matter wholly +under ecclesiastical control. He forbade heretical worship, called the +country the "Republic of the Sacred Heart," and entered into a concordat +with the Pope under which the Church in Ecuador became more subject to +the will of the supreme pontiff than western Europe had been in the days +of Innocent III. + +Liberals in and outside of Ecuador tried feebly to shake off this +masterful theocracy, for the friendship which Garcia Moreno displayed +toward the diplomatic representatives of the Catholic powers of Europe, +notably those of Spain and France, excited the neighboring republics. +Colombia, indeed, sent an army to liberate the "brother democrats of +Ecuador from the rule of Professor Garcia Moreno," but the mass of the +people stood loyally by their President. For this astounding obedience +to an administration apparently so unrelated to modern ideas, the +ecclesiastical domination was not solely or even chiefly responsible. +In more ways than one Garcia Moreno, the professor President, was a +statesman of vision and deed. He put down brigandage and lawlessness; +reformed the finances; erected hospitals; promoted education; and +encouraged the study of natural science. Even his salary he gave over to +public improvements. His successors in the presidential office found it +impossible to govern the country without Garcia Moreno. Elected for a +third term to carry on his curious policy of conservatism and reaction +blended with modern advancement, he fell by the hand of an assassin in +1875. But the system which he had done so much to establish in Ecuador +survived him for many years. + +Although Brazil did not escape the evils of insurrection which retarded +the growth of nearly all of its neighbors, none of its numerous +commotions shook the stability of the nation to a perilous degree. By +1850 all danger of revolution had vanished. The country began to enter +upon a career of peace and progress under a regime which combined +broadly the federal organization of the United States with the form of +a constitutional monarchy. Brazil enjoyed one of the few enlightened +despotisms in South America. Adopting at the outset the parliamentary +system, the Emperor Pedro II chose his ministers from among the liberals +or conservatives, as one party or the other might possess a majority +in the lower house of the Congress. Though the legislative power of the +nation was enjoyed almost entirely by the planters and their associates +who formed the dominant social class, individual liberty was fully +guaranteed, and even freedom of conscience and of the press was allowed. +Negro slavery, though tolerated, was not expressly recognized. + +Thanks to the political discretion and unusual personal qualities of +"Dom Pedro," his popularity became more and more marked as the years +went on. A patron of science and literature, a scholar rather than a +ruler, a placid and somewhat eccentric philosopher, careless of the +trappings of state, he devoted himself without stint to the public +welfare. Shrewdly divining that the monarchical system might not survive +much longer, he kept his realm pacified by a policy of conciliation. +Pedro II even went so far as to call himself the best republican in the +Empire. He might have said, with justice perhaps, that he was the best +republican in the whole of Hispanic America. What he really accomplished +was the successful exercise of a paternal autocracy of kindness and +liberality over his subjects. + +If more or less permanent dictators and occasional liberators were the +order of the day in most of the Spanish American republics, intermittent +dictators and liberators dashed across the stage in Mexico from 1829 +well beyond the middle of the century. The other countries could show +numerous instances in which the occupant of the chief magistracy held +office to the close of his constitutional term; but Mexico could not +show a single one! What Mexico furnished, instead, was a kaleidoscopic +spectacle of successive presidents or dictators, an unstable array of +self-styled "generals" without a presidential succession. There were +no fewer than fifty such transient rulers in thirty-two years, with +anywhere from one to six a year, with even the same incumbent twice in +one year, or, in the case of the repetitious Santa Anna, nine times +in twenty years--in spite of the fact that the constitutional term of +office was four years. This was a record that made the most turbulent +South American states seem, by comparison, lands of methodical +regularity in the choice of their national executive. And as if this +instability in the chief magistracy were not enough, the form of +government in Mexico shifted violently from federal to centralized, and +back again to federal. Mad struggles raged between partisan chieftains +and their bands of Escoceses and Yorkinos, crying out upon the +"President" in power because of his undue influence upon the choice of a +successor, backing their respective candidates if they lost, and waiting +for a chance to oust them if they won. + +This tumultuous epoch had scarcely begun when Spain in 1829 made a final +attempt to recover her lost dominion in Mexico. Local quarrels were +straightway dropped for two months until the invaders had surrendered. +Thereupon the great landholders, who disliked the prevailing Yorkino +regime for its democratic policies and for favoring the abolition +of slavery, rallied to the aid of a "general" who issued a manifesto +demanding an observance of the constitution and the laws! After Santa +Anna, who was playing the role of a Mexican Warwick, had disposed of +this aspirant, he switched blithely over to the Escoceses, reduced the +federal system almost to a nullity, and in 1836 marched away to conquer +the revolting Texans. But, instead, they conquered him and gained their +independence, so that his reward was exile. + +Now the Escoceses were free to promulgate a new constitution, to abolish +the federal arrangement altogether, and to replace it by a strongly +centralized government under which the individual States became mere +administrative districts. Hardly had this radical change been effected +when in 1838 war broke out with France on account of the injuries which +its nationals, among whom were certain pastry cooks, had suffered during +the interminable commotions. Mexico was forced to pay a heavy indemnity; +and Santa Anna, who had returned to fight the invader, was unfortunate +enough to lose a leg in the struggle. This physical deprivation, +however, did not interfere with that doughty hero's zest for tilting +with other unquiet spirits who yearned to assure national regeneration +by continuing to elevate and depose "presidents." + +Another swing of the political pendulum had restored the federal system +when again everything was overturned by the disastrous war with the +United States. Once more Santa Anna returned, this time, however, +to joust in vain with the "Yankee despoilers" who were destined to +dismember Mexico and to annex two-thirds of its territory. Again Santa +Anna was banished--to dream of a more favorable opportunity when he +might become the savior of a country which had fallen into bankruptcy +and impotence. + +His opportunity came in 1853, when conservatives and clericals indulged +the fatuous hope that he would both sustain their privileges and lift +Mexico out of its sore distress. Either their memories were short +or else distance had cast a halo about his figure. At all events, +he returned from exile and assumed, for the ninth and last time, +a presidency which he intended to be something more than a mere +dictatorship. Scorning the formality of a Congress, he had himself +entitled "Most Serene Highness," as indicative of his ambition to become +a monarch in name as well as in fact. + +Royal or imperial designs had long since brought one military upstart to +grief. They were now to cut Santa Anna's residence in Mexico similarly +short. Eruptions of discontent broke out all over the country. Unable to +make them subside, Santa Anna fell back upon an expedient which recalls +practices elsewhere in Spanish America. He opened registries in which +all citizens might record "freely" their approval or disapproval of +his continuance in power. Though he obtained the huge majority of +affirmative votes to be expected in such cases, he found that these +pen-and-ink signatures were no more serviceable than his soldiers. +Accordingly the dictator of many a day, fallen from his former estate +of highness, decided to abandon his serenity also, and in 1854 fled the +country--for its good and his own. + + + +CHAPTER VI. PERIL FROM ABROAD + +Apart from the spoliation of Mexico by the United States, the +independence of the Hispanic nations had not been menaced for more +than thirty years. Now comes a period in which the plight of their big +northern neighbor, rent in twain by civil war and powerless to enforce +the spirit of the Monroe Doctrine, caused two of the countries to become +subject a while to European control. One of these was the Dominican +Republic. + +In 1844 the Spanish-speaking population of the eastern part of the +island of Santo Domingo, writhing under the despotic yoke of Haiti, had +seized a favorable occasion to regain their freedom. But the magic word +"independence" could not give stability to the new state any more than +it had done in the case of its western foes. The Haitians had +lapsed long since into a condition resembling that of their African +forefathers. They reveled in the barbarities of Voodoo, a sort of snake +worship, and they groveled before "presidents" and "emperors" who rose +and fell on the tide of decaying civilization. The Dominicans unhappily +were not much more progressive. Revolutions alternated with invasions +and counter-invasions and effectually prevented enduring progress. + +On several occasions the Dominicans had sought reannexation to Spain +or had craved the protection of France as a defense against continual +menace from their negro enemies and as a relief from domestic turmoil. +But every move in this direction failed because of a natural reluctance +on the part of Spain and France, which was heightened by a refusal +of the United States to permit what it regarded as a violation of the +Monroe Doctrine. In 1861, however, the outbreak of civil war in the +United States appeared to present a favorable opportunity to obtain +protection from abroad. If the Dominican Republic could not remain +independent anyway, reunion with the old mother country seemed +altogether preferable to reconquest by Haiti. The President, therefore, +entered into negotiations with the Spanish Governor and Captain General +of Cuba, and then issued a proclamation signed by himself and four of +his ministers announcing that by the "free and spontaneous will" of +its citizens, who had conferred upon him the power to do so, the nation +recognized Queen Isabella II as its lawful sovereign! Practically +no protest was made by the Dominicans against this loss of their +independence. + +Difficulties which should have been foreseen by Spain were quick to +reveal themselves. It fell to the exPresident, now a colonial +governor and captain general, to appoint a host of officials and, not +unnaturally, he named his own henchmen. By so doing he not only aroused +the animosity of the disappointed but stimulated that of the otherwise +disaffected as well, until both the aggrieved factions began to plot +rebellion. Spain, too, sent over a crowd of officials who could not +adjust themselves to local conditions. The failure of the mother country +to allow the Dominicans representation in the Spanish Cortes and +its readiness to levy taxes stirred up resentment that soon ended +in revolution. Unable to check this new trouble, and awed by the +threatening attitude of the United States, Spain decided to withdraw +in 1865. The Dominicans thus were left with their independence and +a chance--which they promptly seized--to renew their commotions. So +serious did these disturbances become that in 1869 the President of +the reconstituted republic sought annexation to the United States but +without success. American efforts, on the other hand, were equally +futile to restore peace and order in the troubled country until many +years later. + +The intervention of Spain in Santo Domingo and its subsequent withdrawal +could not fail to have disastrous consequences in its colony of Cuba, +the "Pearl of the Antilles" as it was proudly called. Here abundant +crops of sugar and tobacco had brought wealth and luxury, but not many +immigrants because of the havoc made by epidemics of yellow fever. +Nearly a third of the insular population was still composed of negro +slaves, who could hardly relish the thought that, while the mother +country had tolerated the suppression of the hateful institution in +Santo Domingo, she still maintained it in Cuba. A bureaucracy, also, +prone to corruption owing to the temptations of loose accounting at the +custom house, governed in routinary, if not in arbitrary, fashion. +Under these circumstances dislike for the suspicious and repressive +administration of Spain grew apace, and secret societies renewed their +agitation for its overthrow. The symptoms of unrest were aggravated by +the forced retirement of Spain from Santo Domingo. If the Dominicans +had succeeded so well, it ought not to be difficult for a prolonged +rebellion to wear Spain out and compel it to abandon Cuba also. At this +critical moment news was brought of a Spanish revolution across the +seas. + +Just as the plight of Spain in 1808, and again in 1820, had afforded a +favorable opportunity for its colonies on the continents of America to +win their independence, so now in 1868 the tidings that Queen Isabella +had been dethroned by a liberal uprising aroused the Cubans to action +under their devoted leader, Carlos Manuel de Cespedes. The insurrection +had not gained much headway, however, when the provisional government of +the mother country instructed a new Governor and Captain General--whose +name, Dulce (Sweet), had an auspicious sound--to open negotiations with +the insurgents and to hold out the hope of reforms. But the royalists, +now as formerly, would listen to no compromise. Organizing themselves +into bodies of volunteers, they drove Dulce out. He was succeeded by one +Caballero de Rodas (Knight of Rhodes) who lived up to his name by trying +to ride roughshod over the rebellious Cubans. Thus began the Ten Years' +War--a war of skirmishes and brief encounters, rarely involving a +decisive action, which drenched the soil of Cuba with blood and laid +waste its fields in a fury of destruction. + +Among the radicals and liberals who tried to retain a fleeting control +over Mexico after the final departure of Santa Anna was the first +genuine statesman it had ever known in its history as a republic--Benito +Pablo Juarez, an Indian. At twelve years of age he could not read +or write or even speak Spanish. His employer, however, noted his +intelligence and had him educated. Becoming a lawyer, Juarez entered +the political arena and rose to prominence by dint of natural talent +for leadership, an indomitable perseverance, and a sturdy patriotism. A +radical by conviction, he felt that the salvation of Mexico could never +be attained until clericalism and militarism had been banished from its +soil forever. + +Under his influence a provisional government had already begun a +policy of lessening the privileges of the Church, when the conservative +elements, with a cry that religion was being attacked, rose up in arms +again. This movement repressed, a Congress proceeded in 1857 to issue +a liberal constitution which was destined to last for sixty years. It +established the federal system in a definite fashion, abolished special +privileges, both ecclesiastical and military, and organized the country +on sound bases worthy of a modern nation. Mexico seemed about to enter +upon a rational development. But the newly elected President, yielding +to the importunities of the clergy, abolished the constitution, +dissolved the legislature, and set up a dictatorship, in spite of the +energetic protests of Juarez, who had been chosen Chief Justice of the +Supreme Court, and who, in accordance with the terms of the temporarily +discarded instrument, was authorized to assume the presidency should +that office fall vacant. The rule of the usurper was short-lived, +however. Various improvised "generals" of conservative stripe put +themselves at the head of a movement to "save country, religion, and the +rights of the army," drove the would-be dictator out, and restored the +old regime. + +Juarez now proclaimed himself acting President, as he was legally +entitled to do, and set up his government at Vera Cruz while one +"provisional president" followed another. Throughout this trying time +Juarez defended his position vigorously and rejected every offer +of compromise. In 1859 he promulgated his famous Reform Laws which +nationalized ecclesiastical property, secularized cemeteries, suppressed +religious communities, granted freedom of worship, and made marriage +a civil contract. For Mexico, however, as for other Spanish American +countries, measures of the sort were far too much in advance of their +time to insure a ready acceptance. Although Juarez obtained a great +moral victory when his government was recognized by the United States, +he had to struggle two years more before he could gain possession of the +capital. Triumphant in 1861, he carried his anticlerical program to the +point of actually expelling the Papal Nuncio and other ecclesiastics +who refused to obey his decrees. By so doing he leveled the way for +the clericals, conservatives, and the militarists to invite foreign +intervention on behalf of their desperate cause. But, even if they had +not been guilty of behavior so unpatriotic, the anger of the Pope over +the treatment of his Church, the wrath of Spain over the conduct of +Juarez, who had expelled the Spanish minister for siding with the +ecclesiastics, the desire of Great Britain to collect debts due to her +subjects, and above all the imperialistic ambitions of Napoleon III, who +dreamt of converting the intellectual influence of France in Hispanic +America into a political ascendancy, would probably have led to European +occupation in any event, so long at least as the United States was slit +asunder and incapable of action. + +Some years before, the Mexican Government under the clerical and +militarist regime had made a contract with a Swiss banker who for a +payment of $500,000 had received bonds worth more than fifteen times the +value of the loan. When, therefore, the Mexican Congress undertook to +defer payments on a foreign debt that included the proceeds of this +outrageous contract, the Governments of France, Great Britain, and Spain +decided to intervene. According to their agreement the three powers were +simply to hold the seaports of Mexico and collect the customs duties +until their pecuniary demands had been satisfied. Learning, however, +that Napoleon III had ulterior designs, Great Britain and Spain withdrew +their forces and left him to proceed with his scheme of conquest. After +capturing Puebla in May, 1863, a French army numbering some thirty +thousand men entered the capital and installed an assemblage of notables +belonging to the clerical and conservative groups. This body thereupon +proclaimed the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under an +emperor. The title was to be offered to Maximilian, Archduke of Austria. +In case he should not accept, the matter was to be referred to the +"benevolence of his majesty, the Emperor of the French," who might then +select some other Catholic prince. + +On his arrival, a year later, the amiable and well-meaning Maximilian +soon discovered that, instead of being an "Emperor," he was actually +little more than a precarious chief of a faction sustained by the +bayonets of a foreign army. In the northern part of Mexico, Juarez, +Porfirio Diaz,--later to become the most renowned of presidential +autocrats,--and other patriot leaders, though hunted from place to +place, held firmly to their resolve never to bow to the yoke of the +pretender. Nor could Maximilian be sure of the loyalty of even his +supposed adherents. Little by little the unpleasant conviction intruded +itself upon him that he must either abdicate or crush all resistance in +the hope that eventually time and good will might win over the Mexicans. +But do what they would, his foreign legions could not catch the wary +and stubborn Juarez and his guerrilla lieutenants, who persistently wore +down the forces of their enemies. Then the financial situation became +grave. Still more menacing was the attitude of the United States now +that its civil war was at an end. On May 31, 1866, Maximilian received +word that Napoleon III had decided to withdraw the French troops. +He then determined to abdicate, but he was restrained by the unhappy +Empress Carlotta, who hastened to Europe to plead his cause with +Napoleon. Meantime, as the French troops were withdrawn, Juarez occupied +the territory. + +Feebly the "Emperor" strove to enlist the favor of his adversaries by a +number of liberal decrees; but their sole result was his abandonment +by many a lukewarm conservative. Inexorably the patriot armies closed +around him until in May, 1867, he was captured at Queretaro, where he +had sought refuge. Denied the privilege of leaving the country on a +promise never to return, he asked Escobedo, his captor, to treat him +as a prisoner of war. "That's my business," was the grim reply. On the +pretext that Maximilian had refused to recognize the competence of the +military court chosen to try him, Juarez gave the order to shoot him. +On the 19th of June the Austrian archduke paid for a fleeting glory +with his life. Thus failed the second attempt at erecting an empire in +Mexico. For thirty-four years diplomatic relations between that country +and Austria-Hungary were severed. The clerical-military combination had +been overthrown, and the Mexican people had rearmed their independence. +As Juarez declared: "Peace means respect for the rights of others." + +Even if foreign dreams of empire in Mexico had vanished so abruptly, it +could hardly be expected that a land torn for many years by convulsions +could become suddenly tranquil. With Diaz and other aspirants to +presidential power, or with chieftains who aimed at setting up little +republics of their own in the several states, Juarez had to contend for +some time before he could establish a fair amount of order. Under his +successor, who also was a civilian, an era of effective reform began. In +1873 amendments to the constitution declared Church and State absolutely +separate and provided for the abolition of peonage--a provision which +was more honored in, the breach than in the observance. + + + +CHAPTER VII. GREATER STATES AND LESSER + +During the half century that had elapsed since 1826, the nations of +Hispanic America had passed through dark ages. Their evolution had +always been accompanied by growing pains and had at times been arrested +altogether or unduly hastened by harsh injections of radicalism. It was +not an orderly development through gradual modifications in the social +and economic structure, but rather a fitful progress now assisted and +now retarded by the arbitrary deeds of men of action, good and bad, who +had seized power. Dictators, however, steadily decreased in number and +gave place often to presidential autocrats who were continued in office +by constant reelection and who were imbued with modern ideas. In 1876 +these Hispanic nations stood on the threshold of a new era. Some were +destined to advance rapidly beyond it; others, to move slowly onward; +and a few to make little or no progress. + +The most remarkable feature in the new era was the rise of four +states--Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile--to a position of eminence +among their fellows. Extent of territory, development of natural +resources, the character of the inhabitants and the increase of their +numbers, and the amount of popular intelligence and prosperity, all +contributed to this end. Each of the four nations belonged to a fairly +well-defined historical and geographical group in southern North +America, and in eastern and western South America, respectively. In +the first group were Mexico, the republics of Central America, and the +island countries of the Caribbean; in the second, Brazil, Argentina, +Uruguay, and Paraguay; and in the third, Chile, Peru, and Bolivia. In a +fourth group were Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. + +When the President of Mexico proceeded, in 1876, to violate the +constitution by securing his reelection, the people were prepared by +their earlier experiences and by the rule of Juarez to defend their +constitutional rights. A widespread rebellion headed by Diaz broke +out. In the so-called "Plan of Tuxtepec" the revolutionists declared +themselves in favor of the principle of absolutely no reelection. +Meantime the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court handed down a decision +that the action of the Congress in sustaining the President was illegal, +since in reality no elections had been held because of the abstention +of voters and the seizure of the polls by revolutionists or government +forces. "Above the constitution, nothing; above the constitution, no +one," he declared. But as this assumption of a power of judgment on +matters of purely political concern was equally a violation of the +constitution and concealed, besides, an attempt to make the Chief +Justice President, Diaz and his followers drove both of the pretenders +out. Then in 1876 he managed to bring about his own election instead. + +Porfirio Diaz was a soldier who had seen active service in nearly every +important campaign since the war with the United States. Often himself +in revolt against presidents, legal and illegal, Diaz was vastly more +than an ordinary partisan chieftain. Schooled by a long experience, +he had come to appreciate the fact that what Mexico required for its +national development was freedom from internal disorders and a fair +chance for recuperation. Justice, order, and prosperity, he felt, could +be assured only by imposing upon the country the heavy weight of an iron +hand. Foreign capital must be invested in Mexico and then protected; +immigration must be encouraged, and other material, moral, and +intellectual aid of all sorts must be drawn from abroad for the +upbuilding of the nation. + +To effect such a transformation in a land so tormented and impoverished +as Mexico--a country which, within the span of fifty-five years had +lived under two "emperors," and some thirty-six presidents, nine +"provisional presidents," ten dictators, twelve "regents," and five +"supreme councilors"--required indeed a masterful intelligence and a +masterful authority. Porfirio Diaz possessed and exercised both. He was, +in fact, just the man for the times. An able administrator, stern and +severe but just, rather reserved in manner and guarded in utterance, +shrewd in the selection of associates, and singularly successful in +his dealings with foreigners, he entered upon a "presidential reign" of +thirty-five years broken by but one intermission of four--which brought +Mexico out upon the highway to new national life. + +Under the stable and efficient rulership of Diaz, "plans," +"pronunciamentos," "revolutions," and similar devices of professional +trouble makers, had short shrift. Whenever an uprising started, it was +promptly quelled, either by a well-disciplined army or by the rurales, +a mounted police made up to some extent of former bandits to whom the +President gave the choice of police service or of sharp punishment for +their crimes. Order, in fact, was not always maintained, nor was justice +always meted out, by recourse to judges and courts. Instead, a novel +kind of lynch law was invoked. The name it bore was the ley fuga, or +"flight law," in accordance with which malefactors or political suspects +taken by government agents from one locality to another, on the excuse +of securing readier justice, were given by their captors a pretended +chance to escape and were then shot while they ran! The only difference +between this method and others of the sort employed by Spanish American +autocrats to enforce obedience lay in its purpose. Of Diaz one might say +what Bacon said of King Henry VII: "He drew blood as physicians do, to +save life rather than to spill it." If need be, here and there, disorder +and revolt were stamped out by terrorism; but the Mexican people did not +yield to authority from terror but rather from a thorough loyalty to the +new regime. + +Among the numerous measures of material improvement which Diaz undertook +during his first term, the construction of railways was the most +important. The size of the country, its want of navigable rivers, and +its relatively small and widely scattered population, made imperative +the establishment of these means of communication. Despite the +misgivings of many intelligent Mexicans that the presence of foreign +capital would impair local independence in some way, Diaz laid the +foundations of future national prosperity by granting concessions to +the Mexican Central and National Mexican companies, which soon began +construction. Under his successor a national bank was created; and +when Diaz was again elected he readjusted the existing foreign debt and +boldly contracted new debts abroad. + +At the close of his first term, in 1880, a surplus in the treasury was +not so great a novelty as the circumstance altogether unique in the +political annals of Mexico-that Diaz turned over the presidency +in peaceful fashion to his properly elected successor! He did so +reluctantly, to be sure, but he could not afford just yet to ignore his +own avowed principle, which had been made a part of the constitution +shortly after his accession. Although the confidence he reposed in that +successor was not entirely justified, the immense personal popularity +of Diaz saved the prestige of the new chief magistrate. Under his +administration the constitution was amended in such a way as to deprive +the Chief Justice of the privilege of replacing the President in case +of a vacancy, thus eliminating that official from politics. After his +resumption of office, Diaz had the fundamental law modified anew, so +as to permit the reelection of a President for one term only! For this +change, inconsistent though it may seem, Diaz was not alone responsible. +Circumstances had changed, and the constitution had to change with them. + +Had the "United Provinces of Central America," as they came forth from +under the rule of Spain, seen fit to abstain from following in the +unsteady footsteps of Mexico up to the time of the accession of Diaz to +power, had they done nothing more than develop their natural wealth and +utilize their admirable geographical situation, they might have become +prosperous and kept their corporate name. As it was, their history +for upwards of forty years had little to record other than a +momentary cohesion and a subsequent lapse into five quarrelsome little +republics--the "Balkan States" of America. Among them Costa Rica had +suffered least from arbitrary management or internal commotion and +showed the greatest signs of advancement. + +In Guatemala, however, there had arisen another Diaz, though a man quite +inferior in many respects to his northern counterpart. When Justo Rufino +Barrios became President of that republic in 1873 he was believed +to have conservative leanings. Ere long, however, he astounded his +compatriots by showing them that he was a thoroughgoing radical with +methods of action to correspond to his convictions. Not only did he +keep the Jesuits out of the country but he abolished monastic orders +altogether and converted their buildings to public use. He made marriage +a civil contract and he secularized the burying grounds. Education +he encouraged by engaging the services of foreign instructors, and he +brought about a better observance of the law by the promulgation of +new codes. He also introduced railways and telegraph lines. Since +the manufacture of aniline dyes abroad had diminished the demand for +cochineal, Barrios decided to replace this export by cultivating coffee. +To this end, he distributed seeds among the planters and furnished +financial aid besides, with a promise to inspect the fields in due +season and see what had been accomplished. Finding that in many cases +the seeds had been thrown away and the money wasted in drink and +gambling, he ordered the guilty planters to be given fifty lashes, with +the assurance that on a second offense he would shoot them on sight. +Coffee planting in Guatemala was pursued thereafter with much alacrity! + +Posts in the government service Barrios distributed quite impartially +among Conservatives and Democrats, deserving or otherwise, for he had +them both well under control. At his behest a permanent constitution was +promulgated in 1880. While he affected to dislike continual reelection, +he saw to it nevertheless that he himself should be the sole candidate +who was likely to win. + +Barrios doubtless could have remained President of Guatemala for +the term of his natural life if he had not raised up the ghost of +federation. All the republics of Central America accepted his invitation +in 1876 to send delegates to his capital to discuss the project. But +nothing was accomplished because Barrios and the President of Salvador +were soon at loggerheads. Nine years later, feeling himself stronger, +Barrios again proposed federation. But the other republics had by this +time learned too much of the methods of the autocrat of Guatemala, even +while they admired his progressive policy, to relish the thought of a +federation dominated by Guatemala and its masterful President. Though +he "persuaded" Honduras to accept the plan, the three other republics +preferred to unite in self-defense, and in the ensuing struggle the +quixotic Barrios was killed. A few years later the project was revived +and the constitution of a "Republic of Central America" was agreed upon, +when war between Guatemala and Salvador again frustrated its execution. + +In Brazil two great movements were by this time under way: the total +abolition of slavery and the establishment of a republic. Despite the +tenacious opposition of many of the planters, from about the year 1883 +the movement for emancipation made great headway. There was a growing +determination on the part of the majority of the inhabitants to remove +the blot that made the country an object of reproach among the civilized +states of the world. Provinces and towns, one after another, freed +the slaves within their borders. The imperial Government, on its part, +hastened the process by liberating its own slaves and by imposing upon +those still in bondage taxes higher than their market value; it fixed a +price for other slaves; it decreed that the older slaves should be set +free; and it increased the funds already appropriated to compensate +owners of slaves who should be emancipated. In 1887 the number of slaves +had fallen to about 720,000, worth legally about $650 each. A year later +came the final blow, when the Princess Regent assented to a measure +which abolished slavery outright and repealed all former acts relating +to slavery. So radical a proceeding wrought havoc in the coffee-growing +southern provinces in particular, from which the negroes now freed +migrated by tens of thousands to the northern provinces. Their places, +however, were taken by Italians and other Europeans who came to work the +plantations on a cooperative basis. All through the eighties, in fact, +immigrants from Italy poured into the temperate regions of southern +Brazil, to the number of nearly two hundred thousand, supplementing the +many thousands of Germans who had settled, chiefly in the province of +Rio Grande do Sul, thirty years before. + +Apart from the industrial problem thus created by the abolition of +slavery, there seemed to be no serious political or economic questions +before the country. Ever since 1881, when a law providing for direct +elections was passed, the Liberals had been in full control. The old +Dom Pedro, who had endeared himself to his people, was as much liked +and respected as ever. But as he had grown feeble and almost blind, +the heiress to the throne, who had marked absolutist and clerical +tendencies, was disposed to take advantage of his infirmities. + +For many years, on the other hand, doctrines opposed to the principle of +monarchy had been spread in zealous fashion by members of the military +class, notable among whom was Deodoro da Fonseca. And now some of the +planters longed to wreak vengeance on a ruler who had dared to +thwart their will by emancipating the slaves. Besides this persistent +discontent, radical republican newspapers continually stirred up fresh +agitation. Whatever the personal service rendered by the Emperor to the +welfare of the country, to them he represented a political system which +deprived the provinces of much of their local autonomy and the Brazilian +people at large of self-government. + +But the chief reason for the momentous change which was about to take +place was the fact that the constitutional monarchy had really completed +its work as a transitional government. Under that regime Brazil had +reached a condition of stability and had attained a level of progress +which might well enable it to govern itself. During all this time the +influence of the Spanish American nations had been growing apace. +Even if they had fallen into many a political calamity, they were +nevertheless "republics," and to the South American this word had a +magic sound. Above all, there was the potent suggestion of the success +of the United States of North America, whose extension of its federal +system over a vast territory suggested what Brazil with its provinces +might accomplish in the southern continent. Hence the vast majority of +intelligent Brazilians felt that they had become self-reliant enough +to establish a republic without fear of lapsing into the unfortunate +experiences of the other Hispanic countries. + +In 1889, when provision was made for a speedy abdication of the Emperor +in favor of his daughter, the republican newspapers declared that a +scheme was being concocted to exile the chief military agitators and +to interfere with any effort on the part of the army to prevent the +accession of the new ruler. Thereupon, on the 15th of November, the +radicals at Rio de Janeiro, aided by the garrison, broke out in open +revolt. Proclaiming the establishment of a federal republic under +the name of the "United States of Brazil," they deposed the imperial +ministry, set up a provisional government with Deodoro da Fonseca at its +head, arranged for the election of a constitutional convention, and bade +Dom Pedro and his family leave the country within twenty-four hours. + +On the 17th of November, before daybreak, the summons was obeyed. Not +a soul appeared to bid the old Emperor farewell as he and his family +boarded the steamer that was to bear them to exile in Europe. Though +seemingly an act of heartlessness and ingratitude, the precaution was +a wise one in that it averted, possible conflict and bloodshed. For the +second time in its history, a fundamental change had been wrought in +the political system of the nation without a resort to war! The United +States of Brazil accordingly took its place peacefully among its fellow +republics of the New World. + +Meanwhile Argentina, the great neighbor of Brazil to the southwest, had +been gaining territory and new resources. Since the definite adoption +of a federal constitution in 1853, this state had attained to a +considerable degree of national consciousness under the leadership of +able presidents such as Bartolome Mitre, the soldier and historian, +and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, the publicist and promoter of popular +education. One evidence of this new nationalism was a widespread +belief in the necessity of territorial expansion. Knowing that Chile +entertained designs upon Patagonia, the Argentine Government forestalled +any action by conducting a war of practical extermination against the +Indian tribes of that region and by adding it to the national domain. +The so-called "conquest of the desert" in the far south of the continent +opened to civilization a vast habitable area of untold economic +possibilities. + +In the electoral campaign of 1880 the presidential candidates were Julio +Argentino Roca and the Governor of the province of Buenos Aires. The +former, an able officer skilled in both arms and politics, had on +his side the advantage of a reputation won in the struggle with the +Patagonian Indians, the approval of the national Government, and the +support of most of the provinces. Feeling certain of defeat at the +polls, the partisans of the latter candidate resorted to the timeworn +expedient of a revolt. Though the uprising lasted but twenty days, the +diplomatic corps at the capital proffered its mediation between the +contestants, in order to avoid any further bloodshed. The result was +that the fractious Governor withdrew his candidacy and a radical change +was effected in the relations of Buenos Aires, city and province, to the +country at large. The city, together with its environs, was converted +into a federal district and became solely and distinctively the national +capital. Its public buildings, railways, and telegraph service, as well +as the provincial debt, were taken over by the general Government. The +seat of provincial authority was transferred to the village of Ensenada, +which thereupon was rechristened La Plata. + +A veritable tide of wealth and general prosperity was now rolling over +Argentina. By 1885 its population had risen to upwards of 3,000,000. +Immigration increased to a point far beyond the wildest expectations. +In 1889 alone about 300,000 newcomers arrived and lent their aid in +the promotion of industry and commerce. Fields hitherto uncultivated or +given over to grazing now bore vast crops of wheat, maize, linseed, and +sugar. Large quantities of capital, chiefly from Great Britain, also +poured into the country. As a result, the price of land rose high, +and feverish speculation became the order of the day. Banks and other +institutions of credit were set up, colonizing schemes were devised, and +railways were laid out. To meet the demands of all these enterprises, +the Government borrowed immense sums from foreign capitalists and issued +vast quantities of paper money, with little regard for its ultimate +redemption. Argentina spent huge sums in prodigal fashion on all sorts +of public improvements in an effort to attract still more capital and +immigration, and thus entered upon a dangerous era of inflation. + +Of the near neighbors of Argentina, Uruguay continued along the +tortuous path of alternate disturbance and progress, losing many of its +inhabitants to the greater states beyond, where they sought relative +peace and security; while Paraguay, on the other hand, enjoyed freedom +from civil strife, though weighed down with a war debt and untold +millions in indemnities exacted by Argentina and Brazil, which it could +never hope to pay. In consequence, this indebtedness was a useful club +to brandish over powerless Paraguay whenever that little country might +venture to question the right of either of its big neighbors to break +the promise they had made of keeping its territory intact. Argentina, +however, consented in 1878 to refer certain claims to the decision of +the President of the United States. When Paraguay won the arbitration, +it showed its gratitude by naming one of its localities Villa Hayes. +As time went on, however, its population increased and hid many of the +scars of war. + +On the western side of South America there broke out the struggle known +as the "War of the Pacific" between Chile, on the one side, and Peru and +Bolivia as allies on the other. In Peru unstable and corrupt governments +had contracted foreign loans under conditions that made their repayment +almost impossible and had spent the proceeds in so reckless and +extravagant a fashion as to bring the country to the verge of +bankruptcy. Bolivia, similarly governed, was still the scene of +the orgies and carnivals which had for some time characterized its +unfortunate history. One of its buffoon "presidents," moreover, had +entered into boundary agreements with both Chile and Brazil, under which +the nation lost several important areas and some of its territory on the +Pacific. The boundaries of Bolivia, indeed, were run almost everywhere +on purely arbitrary lines drawn with scant regard for the physical +features of the country and with many a frontier question left wholly +unsettled. For some years Chilean companies and speculators, aided by +foreign capital mainly British in origin, had been working deposits +of nitrate of soda in the province of Antofagasta, or "the desert +of Atacama," a region along the coast to the northward belonging to +Bolivia, and also in the provinces of Tacna, Arica, and Tarapaca, still +farther to the northward, belonging to Peru. Because boundary lines were +not altogether clear and because the three countries were all eager to +exploit these deposits, controversies over this debatable ground were +sure to rise. For the privilege of developing portions of this region, +individuals and companies had obtained concessions from the various +governments concerned; elsewhere, industrial free lances dug away +without reference to such formalities. + +It is quite likely that Chile, whose motto was "By Right or by +Might," was prepared to sustain the claims of its citizens by either +alternative. At all events, scenting a prospective conflict, Chile had +devoted much attention to the development of its naval and military +establishment--a state of affairs which did not escape the observation +of its suspicious neighbors. + +The policy of Peru was determined partly by personal motives and partly +by reasons of state. In 1873 the President, lacking sufficient financial +and political support to keep himself in office, resolved upon the risky +expedient of arousing popular passion against Chile, in the hope that he +might thereby replenish the national treasury. Accordingly he +proceeded to pick a quarrel by ordering the deposits in Tarapaca to be +expropriated with scant respect for the concessions made to the Chilean +miners. Realizing, however, the possible consequences of such an +action, he entered into an alliance with Bolivia. This country thereupon +proceeded to levy an increased duty on the exportation of nitrates from +the Atacama region. Chile, already aware of the hostile combination +which had been formed, protested so vigorously that a year later Bolivia +agreed to withdraw the new regulations and to submit the dispute to +arbitration. + +Such were the relations of these three states in 1878, when Bolivia, +taking advantage of differences of opinion between Chile and Argentina +regarding the Patagonian region, reimposed its export duty, canceled the +Chilean concessions, and confiscated the nitrate deposits. Chile then +declared war in February, 1879, and within two months occupied the +entire coast of Bolivia up to the frontiers of Peru. On his part the +President of Bolivia was too much engrossed in the festivities connected +with a masquerade to bother about notifying the people that their land +had been invaded until several days after the event had occurred! + +Misfortunes far worse than anything which had fallen to the lot of its +ally now awaited Peru, which first attempted an officious mediation and +then declared war on the 4th of April. Since Peru and Bolivia together +had a population double that of Chile, and since Peru possessed a much +larger army and navy than Chile, the allies counted confidently on +victory. But Peru's army of eight thousand--having within four hundred +as many officers as men, directed by no fewer than twenty-six generals, +and presided over by a civil government altogether inept--was no match +for an army less than a third of its size to be sure, but well drilled +and commanded, and with a stable, progressive, and efficient government +at its back. The Peruvian forces, lacking any substantial support from +Bolivia, crumpled under the terrific attacks of their adversaries. +Efforts on the part of the United States to mediate in the struggle +were blocked by the dogged refusal of Chile to abate its demands for +annexation. Early in 1881 its army entered Lima in triumph, and the war +was over. + +For a while the victors treated the Peruvians and their capital city +shamefully. The Chilean soldiers stripped the national library of +its contents, tore up the lamp-posts in the streets, carried away +the benches in the parks, and even shipped off the local menagerie to +Santiago! What they did not remove or destroy was disposed of by the +rabble of Lima itself. But in two years so utterly chaotic did the +conditions in the hapless country become that Chile at length had to set +up a government in order to conclude a peace. It was not until October +20, 1883, that the treaty was signed at Lima and ratified later at +Ancon. Peru was forced to cede Tarapaca outright and to agree that Tacna +and Arica should be held by Chile for ten years. At the expiration of +this period the inhabitants of the two provinces were to be allowed to +choose by vote the country to which they would prefer to belong, and the +nation that won the election was to pay the loser 10,000,000 pesos. +In April, 1884, Bolivia, also, entered into an arrangement with Chile, +according to which a portion of its seacoast should be ceded absolutely +and the remainder should be occupied by Chile until a more definite +understanding on the matter could be reached. + +Chile emerged from the war not only triumphant over its northern rivals +but dominant on the west coast of South America. Important developments +in Chilean national policy followed. To maintain its vantage and to +guard against reprisals, the victorious state had to keep in military +readiness on land and sea. It therefore looked to Prussia for a pattern +for its army and to Great Britain for a model for its navy. + +Peru had suffered cruelly from the war. Its territorial losses deprived +it of an opportunity to satisfy its foreign creditors through a grant +of concessions. The public treasury, too, was empty, and many a private +fortune had melted away. Not until a military hand stronger than its +competitors managed to secure a firm grip on affairs did Peru begin once +more its toilsome journey toward material betterment. + +Bolivia, on its part, had emerged from the struggle practically a +landlocked country. Though bereft of access to the sea except by +permission of its neighbors, it had, however, not endured anything +like the calamities of its ally. In 1880 it had adopted a permanent +constitution and it now entered upon a course of slow and relatively +peaceful progress. + +In the republics to the northward struggles between clericals and +radicals caused sharp, abrupt alternations in government. In Ecuador the +hostility between clericals and radicals was all the more bitter because +of the rivalry of the two chief towns, Guayaquil the seaport and Quito +the capital, each of which sheltered a faction. No sooner therefore had +Garcia Moreno fallen than the radicals of Guayaquil rose up against the +clericals at Quito. Once in power, they hunted their enemies down until +order under a dictator could be restored. The military President who +assumed power in 1876 was too radical to suit the clericals and too +clerical to suit the radicals. Accordingly his opponents decided to make +the contest three-cornered by fighting the dictator and one another. +When the President had been forced out, a conservative took charge until +parties of bushwhackers and mutinous soldiers were able to install a +military leader, whose retention of power was brief. In 1888 another +conservative, who had been absent from the country when elected and who +was an adept in law and diplomacy, managed to win sufficient support +from all three factions to retain office for the constitutional period. + +In Colombia a financial crisis had been approaching ever since the +price of coffee, cocoa, and other Colombian products had fallen in the +European markets. This decrease had caused a serious diminution in +the export trade and had forced gold and silver practically out of +circulation. At the same time the various "states" were increasing their +powers at the expense of the federal Government, and the country was +rent by factions. In order to give the republic a thoroughly centralized +administration which would restore financial confidence and bring back +the influence of the Church as a social and political factor, a genuine +revolution, which was started in 1876, eventually put an end to both +radicalism and states' rights. At the outset Rafael Nunez, the unitary +and clerical candidate and a lawyer by profession, was beaten on the +field, but at a subsequent election he obtained the requisite number of +votes and, in 1880, assumed the presidency. That the loser in war should +become the victor in peace showed the futility of bloodshed in such +revolutions. + +Not until Nunez came into office again did he feel himself strong enough +to uproot altogether the radicalism and disunion which had flourished +since 1860. Ignoring the national Legislature, he called a Congress +of his own, which in 1886 framed a constitution that converted the +"sovereign states" into "departments," or mere administrative +districts, to be ruled as the national Government saw fit. Further, the +presidential term was lengthened from two years to six, and the name of +the country was changed, finally, to "Republic of Colombia." Two years +later the power of the Church was strengthened by a concordat with the +Pope. + +Venezuela on its part had undergone changes no less marked. A liberal +constitution promulgated in 1864 had provided for the reorganization +of the country on a federal basis. The name chosen for the republic was +"United States of Venezuela." More than that, it had anticipated Mexico +and Guatemala in being the first of the Hispanic nations to witness +the establishment of a presidential autocracy of the continuous and +enlightened type. + +Antonio Guzman Blanco was the man who imposed upon Venezuela for about +nineteen years a regime of obedience to law, and, to some extent, of +modern ideas of administration such as the country had never known +before. A person of much versatility, he had studied medicine and law +before he became a soldier and a politician. Later he displayed another +kind of versatility by letting henchmen hold the presidential office +while he remained the power behind the throne. Endowed with a masterful +will and a pronounced taste for minute supervision, he had exactly the +ability necessary to rule Venezuela wisely and well. + +Amid considerable opposition he began, in 1870, the first of his +three periods of administration--the Septennium, as it was termed. The +"sovereign" states he governed through "sovereign" officials of his +own selection. He stopped the plundering of farms and the dragging +of laborers off to military service. He established in Venezuela an +excellent monetary system. Great sums were expended in the erection +of public and private buildings and in the embellishment of Caracas. +European capital and immigration were encouraged to venture into a +country hitherto so torn by chronic disorder as to deprive both labor +and property of all guarantees. Roads, railways, and telegraph lines +were constructed. The ministers of the Church were rendered submissive +to the civil power. Primary education became alike free and compulsory. +As the phrase went, Guzman Blanco "taught Venezuela to read." At the end +of his term of office he went into voluntary retirement. + +In 1879 Guzman Blanco put himself at the head of a movement which he +called a "revolution of replevin"--which meant, presumably, that he +was opposed to presidential "continuism," and in favor of republican +institutions! Although a constitution promulgated in 1881 fixed the +chief magistrate's term of office at two years, the success which Guzman +Blanco had attained enabled him to control affairs for five years--the +Quinquennium, as it was called. Thereupon he procured his appointment to +a diplomatic post in Europe; but the popular demand for his presence +was too strong for him to remain away. In 1886 he was elected by +acclamation. He held office two years more and then, finding that his +influence had waned, he left Venezuela for good. Whatever his faults +in other respects, Guzman Blanco--be it said to his credit--tried to +destroy the pest of periodical revolutions in his country. Thanks to +his vigorous suppression of these uprisings, some years of at least +comparative security were made possible. More than any other President +the nation had ever had, he was entitled to the distinction of having +been a benefactor, if not altogether a regenerator, of his native land. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. "ON THE MARGIN OF INTERNATIONAL LIFE" + +During the period from 1889 to 1907 two incidents revealed the standing +that the republics of Hispanic America had now acquired in the world +at large. In 1889 at Washington, and later in their own capital cities, +they met with the United States in council. In 1899, and again in 1907, +they joined their great northern neighbor and the nations of Europe and +Asia at The Hague for deliberation on mutual concerns, and they were +admitted to an international fellowship and cooperation far beyond +a mere recognition of their independence and a formal interchange of +diplomats and consuls. + +Since attempts of the Hispanic countries themselves to realize the aims +of Bolivar in calling the Congress at Panama had failed, the United +States now undertook to call into existence a sort of inter-American +Congress. Instead of being merely a supporter, the great republic of the +north had resolved to become the director of the movement for greater +solidarity in thought and action. By linking up the concerns of the +Hispanic nations with its own destinies it would assert not so much its +position as guardian of the Monroe Doctrine as its headship, if not its +actual dominance, in the New World, and would so widen the bounds of its +political and commercial influence--a tendency known as "imperialism." +Such was the way, at least, in which the Hispanic republics came to +view the action of the "Colossus of the North" in inviting them to +participate in an assemblage meeting more or less periodically and +termed officially the "International Conference of American States," and +popularly the "Pan-American Conference." + +Whether the mistrust the smaller countries felt at the outset was +lessened in any degree by the attendance of their delegates at the +sessions of this conference remains open to question. Although these +representatives, in common with their colleagues from the United States, +assented to a variety of conventions and passed a much larger number of +resolutions, their acquiescence seemed due to a desire to gratify their +powerful associate, rather than to a belief in the possible utility of +such measures. The experience of the earlier gatherings had demonstrated +that political issues would have to be excluded from consideration. +Propositions, for example, such as that to extend the basic idea of the +Monroe Doctrine into a sort of self-denying ordinance, under which all +the nations of America should agree to abstain thereafter from acquiring +any part of one another's territory by conquest, and to adopt, also, the +principle of compulsory arbitration, proved impossible of acceptance. +Accordingly, from that time onward the matters treated by the Conference +dealt for the most part with innocuous, though often praiseworthy, +projects for bringing the United States and its sister republics into +closer commercial, industrial, and intellectual relations. + +The gathering itself, on the other hand, became to a large extent a +fiesta, a festive occasion for the display of social amenities. Much +as the Hispanic Americans missed their favorite topic of politics, they +found consolation in entertaining the distinguished foreign visitors +with the genial courtesy and generous hospitality for which they +are famous. As one of their periodicals later expressed it, since +a discussion of politics was tabooed, it were better to devote the +sessions of the Conference to talking about music and lyric poetry! +At all events, as far as the outcome was concerned, their national +legislatures ratified comparatively few of the conventions. + +Among the Hispanic nations of America only Mexico took part in the First +Conference at The Hague. Practically all of them were represented at the +second. The appearance of their delegates at these august assemblages +of the powers of earth was viewed for a while with mixed feelings. The +attitude of the Great Powers towards them resembled that of parents of +the old regime: children at the international table should be "seen and +not heard." As a matter of fact, the Hispanic Americans were both seen +and heard--especially the latter! They were able to show the Europeans +that, even if they did happen to come from relatively weak states, they +possessed a skillful intelligence, a breadth of knowledge, a capacity +for expression, and a consciousness of national character, which would +not allow them simply to play "Man Friday" to an international Crusoe. +The president of the second conference, indeed, confessed that they had +been a "revelation" to him. + +Hence, as time went on, the progress and possibilities of the republics +of Hispanic America came to be appreciated more and more by the world at +large. Gradually people began to realize that the countries south of the +United States were not merely an indistinguishable block on the map, +to be referred to vaguely as "Central and South America" or as "Latin +America." The reading public at least knew that these countries were +quite different from one another, both in achievements and in prospects. + +Yet the fact remains that, despite their active part in these American +and European conferences, the Hispanic countries of the New World +did not receive the recognition which they felt was their due. Their +national associates in the European gatherings were disinclined to admit +that the possession of independence and sovereignty entitled them to +equal representation on international council boards. To a greater or +less degree, therefore, they continued to stay in the borderland where +no one either affirmed or denied their individuality. To quote +the phrase of an Hispanic American, they stood "on the margin of +international life." How far they might pass beyond it into the full +privileges of recognition and association on equal terms, would depend +upon the readiness with which they could atone for the errors or +recover from the misfortunes of the past, and upon their power to attain +stability, prosperity, strength, and responsibility. + +Certain of the Hispanic republics, however, were not allowed to remain +alone on their side of "the margin of international life." Though +nothing so extreme as the earlier French intervention took place, +foreign nations were not at all averse to crossing over the marginal +line and teaching them what a failure to comply with international +obligations meant. The period from 1889 to 1907, therefore, is +characterized also by interference on the part of European powers, and +by interposition on the part of the United States, in the affairs of +countries in and around the Caribbean Sea. Because of the action taken +by the United States two more republics--Cuba and Panama--came into +being, thus increasing the number of political offshoots from Spain +in America to eighteen. Another result of this interposition was the +creation of what were substantially American protectorates. Here +the United States did not deprive the countries concerned of their +independence and sovereignty, but subjected them to a kind of +guardianship or tutelage, so far as it thought needful to insure +stability, solvency, health, and welfare in general. Foremost in the +northern group of Hispanic nations, Mexico, under the guidance of +Diaz, marched steadily onward. Peace, order, and law; an increasing +population; internal wealth and well-being; a flourishing industry +and commerce; suitable care for things mental as well as material; the +respect and confidence of foreigners--these were blessings which the +country had hitherto never beheld. The Mexicans, once in anarchy and +enmity created by militarists and clericals, came to know one another in +friendship, and arrived at something like a national consciousness. + +In 1889 there was held the first conference on educational problems +which the republic had ever had. Three years later a mining code was +drawn up which made ownership inviolable on payment of lawful dues, +removed uncertainties of operation, and stimulated the industry in +a remarkable fashion. Far less beneficial in the long run was a law +enacted in 1894. Instead of granting a legal title to lands held by +prescriptive rights through an occupation of many years, it made such +property part of the public domain, which might be acquired, like +a mining claim, by any one who could secure a grant of it from the +Government. Though hailed at the time as a piece of constructive +legislation, its unfortunate effect was to enable large landowners who +wished to increase their possessions to oust poor cultivators of +the soil from their humble holdings. On the other hand, under the +statesmanlike management of Jose Yves Limantour, the Minister of +Finance, the monetary situation at home and abroad was strengthened +beyond measure, and banking interests were promoted accordingly. +Further, an act abolishing the alcabala, a vexatious internal revenue +tax, gave a great stimulus to freedom of commerce throughout the +country. In order to insure a continuance of the new regime, the +constitution was altered in three important respects. The amendment of +1890 restored the original clause of 1857, which permitted indefinite +reelection to the presidency; that of 1896 established a presidential +succession in case of a vacancy, beginning with the Minister of Foreign +Affairs; and that of 1904 lengthened the term of the chief magistrate +from four years to six and created the office of Vice President. + +In Central America two republics, Guatemala and Costa Rica, set an +excellent example both because they were free from internal commotions +and because they refrained from interference in the affairs of their +neighbors. The contrast between these two quiet little nations, under +their lawyer Presidents, and the bellicose but equally small Nicaragua, +Honduras, and Salvador, under their chieftains, military and juristic, +was quite remarkable. Nevertheless another attempt at confederation +was made. In 1895 the ruler of Honduras, declaring that reunion was a +"primordial necessity," invited his fellow potentates of Nicaragua and +Salvador to unite in creating the "Greater Republic of Central America" +and asked Guatemala and Costa Rica to join. Delegates actually appeared +from all five republics, attended fiestas, gave expression to pious +wishes, and went home! Later still, in 1902, the respective Presidents +signed a "convention of peace and obligatory arbitration" as a means +of adjusting perpetual disagreements about politics and boundaries; but +nothing was done to carry these ideas into effect. + +The personage mainly responsible for these failures was Jose Santos +Zelaya, one of the most arrant military lordlets and meddlers that +Central America had produced in a long time. Since 1893 he had been +dictator of Nicaragua, a country not only entangled in continuous +wrangles among its towns and factions, but bowed under an enormous +burden of debt created by excessive emissions of paper money and by the +contraction of more or less scandalous foreign loans. Quite undisturbed +by the financial situation, Zelaya promptly silenced local bickerings +and devoted his energies to altering the constitution for his +presidential benefit and to making trouble for his neighbors. Nor did +he refrain from displays of arbitrary conduct that were sure to provoke +foreign intervention. Great Britain, for example, on two occasions +exacted reparation at the cannon's mouth for ill treatment of its +citizens. + +Zelaya waxed wroth at the spectacle of Guatemala, once so active in +revolutionary arts but now quietly minding its own business. In +1906, therefore, along with parties of Hondurans, Salvadoreans, and +disaffected Guatemalans, he began an invasion of that country and +continued operations with decreasing success until, the United States +and Mexico offering their mediation, peace was signed aboard an American +cruiser. Then, when Costa Rica invited the other republics to discuss +confederation within its calm frontiers, Zelaya preferred his own +particular occupation to any such procedure. Accordingly, displeased +with a recent boundary decision, he started along with Salvador to fight +Honduras. Once more the United States and Mexico tendered their good +offices, and again a Central American conflict was closed aboard an +American warship. About the only real achievement of Zelaya was the +signing of a treaty by which Great Britain recognized the complete +sovereignty of Nicaragua over the Mosquito Indians, whose buzzing for a +larger amount of freedom and more tribute had been disturbing unduly the +"repose" of that small nation! + +To the eastward the new republic of Cuba was about to be born. Here a +promise of adequate representation in the Spanish Cortes and of a +local legislature had failed to satisfy the aspirations of many of its +inhabitants. The discontent was aggravated by lax and corrupt methods of +administration as well as by financial difficulties. Swarms of Spanish +officials enjoyed large salaries without performing duties of equivalent +value. Not a few of them had come over to enrich themselves at +public expense and under conditions altogether scandalous. On Cuba, +furthermore, was saddled the debt incurred by the Ten Years' War, while +the island continued to be a lucrative market for Spanish goods without +obtaining from Spain a corresponding advantage for its own products. + +As the insistence upon a removal of these abuses and upon a grant of +genuine self-government became steadily more clamorous, three political +groups appeared. The Constitutional Unionists, or "Austrianizers," as +they were dubbed because of their avowed loyalty to the royal house of +Bourbon-Hapsburg, were made up of the Spanish and conservative elements +and represented the large economic interests and the Church. The +Liberals, or "Autonomists," desired such reforms in the administration +as would assure the exercise of self-government and yet preserve the +bond with the mother country. On the other hand, the Radicals, or +"Nationalists"--the party of "Cuba Free"--would be satisfied with +nothing short of absolute independence. All these differences of opinion +were sharpened by the activities of a sensational press. + +From about 1890 onward the movement toward independence gathered +tremendous strength, especially when the Cubans found popular sentiment +in the United States so favorable to it. Excitement rose still higher +when the Spanish Government proposed to bestow a larger measure +of autonomy. When, however, the Cortes decided upon less liberal +arrangements, the Autonomists declared that they had been deceived, and +the Nationalists denounced the utter unreliability of Spanish promises. +Even if the concessions had been generous, the result probably would +have been the same, for by this time the plot to set Cuba free had +become so widespread, both in the island itself and among the refugees +in the United States, that the inevitable struggle could not have been +deferred. + +In 1895 the revolution broke out. The whites, headed by Maximo Gomez, +and the negroes and mulattoes by their chieftain, Antonio Maceo, both +of whom had done valiant service in the earlier war, started upon a +campaign of deliberate terrorism. This time they were resolved to win +at any cost. Spurning every offer of conciliation, they burned, ravaged, +and laid waste, spread desolation along their pathway, and reduced +thousands to abject poverty and want. + +Then the Spanish Government came to the conclusion that nothing but the +most rigorous sort of reprisals would check the excesses of the rebels. +In 1896 it commissioned Valeriano Weyler, an officer who personified +ferocity, to put down the rebellion. If the insurgents had fancied that +the conciliatory spirit hitherto displayed by the Spaniards was due to +irresolution or weakness, they found that these were not the qualities +of their new opponent. Weyler, instead of trying to suppress the +rebellion by hurrying detachments of troops first to one spot and +then to another in pursuit of enemies accustomed to guerrilla tactics, +determined to stamp it out province by province. To this end he planted +his army firmly in one particular area, prohibited the planting or +harvesting of crops there, and ordered the inhabitants to assemble in +camps which they were not permitted to leave on any pretext whatever. +This was his policy of "reconcentration." Deficient food supply, lack of +sanitary precautions, and absence of moral safeguards made conditions +of life in these camps appalling. Death was a welcome relief. +Reconcentration, combined with executions and deportations, could have +but one result--the "pacification" of Cuba by converting it into a +desert. + +Not in the United States alone but in Spain itself the story of these +drastic measures kindled popular indignation to such an extent that, in +1897, the Government was forced to recall the ferocious Weyler and +to send over a new Governor and Captain General, with instructions to +abandon the worst features of his predecessor's policy and to establish +a complete system of autonomy in both Cuba and Porto Rico. Feeling +assured, however, that an ally was at hand who would soon make +their independence certain, the Cuban patriots flatly rejected these +overtures. In their expectations they were not mistaken. By its armed +intervention, in the following year the United States acquired Porto +Rico for itself and compelled Spain to withdraw from Cuba. * + + * See "The Path of Empire", by Carl Russell Fish (in "The + Chronicles of America"). + +The island then became a republic, subject only to such limitations on +its freedom of action as its big guardian might see fit to impose. Not +only was Cuba placed under American rule from 1899 to 1902, but it had +to insert in the Constitution of 1901 certain clauses that could not +fail to be galling to Cuban pride. Among them two were of special +significance. One imposed limitations on the financial powers of the +Government of the new nation, and the other authorized the United +States, at its discretion, to intervene in Cuban affairs for the purpose +of maintaining public order. The Cubans, it would seem, had exchanged a +dependence on Spain for a restricted independence measured by the will +of a country infinitely stronger. + +Cuba began its life as a republic in 1902, under a government for which +a form both unitary and federal had been provided. Tomas Estrada Palma, +the first President and long the head of the Cuban junta in the +United States, showed himself disposed from the outset to continue the +beneficial reforms in administration which had been introduced under +American rule. Prudent and conciliatory in temperament, he tried to +dispel as best he could the bitter recollections of the war and to +repair its ravages. In this policy he was upheld by the conservative +class, or Moderates. Their opponents, the Liberals, dominated by men +of radical tendencies, were eager to assert the right, to which they +thought Cuba entitled as an independent sovereign nation, to make +possible mistakes and correct them without having the United States +forever holding the ferule of the schoolmaster over it. They were well +aware, however, that they were not at liberty to have their country pass +through the tempestuous experience which had been the lot of so many +Hispanic republics. They could vent a natural anger and disappointment, +nevertheless, on the President and his supporters. Rather than continue +to be governed by Cubans not to their liking, they were willing to bring +about a renewal of American rule. In this respect the wishes of the +Radicals were soon gratified. Hardly had Estrada Palma, in 1906, assumed +office for a second time, when parties of malcontents, declaring that +he had secured his reelection by fraudulent means, rose up in arms and +demanded that he annul the vote and hold a fair election. The President +accepted the challenge and waged a futile conflict, and again the United +States intervened. Upon the resignation of Estrada Palma, an American +Governor was again installed, and Cuba was told in unmistakable fashion +that the next intervention might be permanent. + +Less drastic but quite as effectual a method of assuring order and +regularity in administration was the action taken by the United States +in another Caribbean island. A little country like the Dominican +Republic, in which few Presidents managed to retain their offices for +terms fixed by changeable constitutions, could not resist the temptation +to rid itself of a ruler who had held power for nearly a quarter of a +century. After he had been disposed of by assassination in 1899, the +government of his successor undertook to repudiate a depreciated paper +currency by ordering the customs duties to be paid in specie; and it +also tried to prevent the consul of an aggrieved foreign nation from +attaching certain revenues as security for the payment of the arrears +of an indemnity. Thereupon, in 1905, the President of the United States +entered into an arrangement with the Dominican Government whereby, in +return for a pledge from the former country to guarantee the territorial +integrity of the republic and an agreement to adjust all of its external +obligations of a pecuniary sort, American officials were to take charge +of the custom house send apportion the receipts from that source in such +a manner as to satisfy domestic needs and pay foreign creditors. * + + * See "The Path of Empire", by Carl Russell Fish (in "The + Chronicles of America"). + + + +CHAPTER IX. THE REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA + +Even so huge and conservative a country as Brazil could not start out +upon the pathway of republican freedom without some unrest; but the +political experience gained under a regime of limited monarchy had a +steadying effect. Besides, the Revolution of 1889 had been effected by a +combination of army officers and civilian enthusiasts who knew that the +provinces were ready for a radical change in the form of government, +but who were wise enough to make haste slowly. If a motto could mean +anything, the adoption of the positivist device, "Order and Progress," +displayed on the national flag seemed a happy augury. + +The constitution promulgated in 1891 set up a federal union broadly +similar to that of the United States, except that the powers of the +general Government were somewhat more restricted. Qualifications for +the suffrage were directly fixed in the fundamental law itself, but the +educational tests imposed excluded the great bulk of the population +from the right to vote. In the constitution, also, Church and State were +declared absolutely separate, and civil marriage was prescribed. + +Well adapted as the constitution was to the particular needs of Brazil, +the Government erected under it had to contend awhile with political +disturbances. Though conflicts occurred between the president and the +Congress, between the federal authority and the States, and between +the civil administration and naval and military officials, none were +so constant, so prolonged, or so disastrous as in the Spanish American +republics. Even when elected by the connivance of government officials, +the chief magistrate governed in accordance with republican forms. +Presidential power, in fact, was restrained both by the huge size of the +country and by the spirit of local autonomy upheld by the States. + +Ever since the war with Paraguay the financial credit of Brazil had been +impaired. The chronic deficit in the treasury had been further increased +by a serious lowering in the rate of exchange, which was due to an +excessive issue of paper money. In order to save the nation from +bankruptcy Manoel Ferraz de Campos Salles, a distinguished jurist, was +commissioned to effect an adjustment with the British creditors. As a +result of his negotiations a "funding loan" was obtained, in return +for which an equivalent amount in paper money was to be turned over +for cancellation at a fixed rate of exchange. Under this arrangement +depreciation ceased for awhile and the financial outlook became +brighter. + +The election of Campos Salles to the presidency in 1898, as a reward for +his success, was accompanied by the rise of definite political +parties. Among them the Radicals or Progressists favored a policy of +centralization under military auspices and exhibited certain antiforeign +tendencies. The Moderates or Republicans, on the contrary, with Campos +Salles as their candidate, declared for the existing constitution and +advocated a gradual adoption of such reforms as reason and time might +suggest. When the latter party won the election, confidence in the +stability of Brazil returned. + +As if Uruguay had not already suffered enough from internal discords, +two more serious conflicts demonstrated once again that this little +country, in which political power had been held substantially by one +party alone since 1865, could not hope for permanent peace until either +the excluded and apparently irreconcilable party had been finally and +utterly crushed, or, far better still, until the two factions could +manage to agree upon some satisfactory arrangement for rotation in +office. The struggle of 1897 ended in the assassination of the president +and in a division of the republic into two practically separate areas, +one ruled by the Colorados at Montevideo, the other by the Blancos. +A renewal of civil war in 1904 seemed altogether preferable to an +indefinite continuance of this dualism in government, even at the risk +of friction with Argentina, which was charged with not having observed +strict neutrality. This second struggle came to a close with the death +of the insurgent leader; but it cost the lives of thousands and did +irreparable damage to the commerce and industry of the country. + +Uruguay then enjoyed a respite from party upheavals until 1910, +when Jose Batlle, the able, resolute, and radical-minded head of the +Colorados, announced that he would be a candidate for the presidency. +As he had held the office before and had never ceased to wield a strong +personal influence over the administration of his successor, the +Blancos decided that now was the time to attempt once more to oust +their opponents from the control which they had monopolized for half a +century. Accusing the Government of an unconstitutional centralization +of power in the executive, of preventing free elections, and of +crippling the pastoral industries of the country, they started a revolt, +which ran a brief course. Batlle proved himself equal to the situation +and quickly suppressed the insurrection. Though he did make a wide use +of his authority, the President refrained from indulging in political +persecution and allowed the press all the liberty it desired in so far +as was consistent with the law. It was under his direction that Uruguay +entered upon a remarkable series of experiments in the nationalization +of business enterprises. Further, more or less at the suggestion of +Battle, a new constitution was ratified by popular vote in 1917. It +provided for a division of the executive power between the President +and a National Council of Administration, forbade the election of +administrative and military officials to the Congress, granted to that +body a considerable increase of power, and enlarged the facilities for +local self-government. In addition, it established the principle of +minority representation and of secrecy of the ballot, permitted the +Congress to extend the right of suffrage to women, and dissolved the +union between Church and State. If the terms of the new instrument are +faithfully observed, the old struggle between Blancos and Colorados will +have been brought definitely to a close. + +Paraguay lapsed after 1898 into the earlier sins of Spanish America. +Upon a comparatively placid presidential regime followed a series +of barrack uprisings or attacks by Congress on the executive. The +constitution became a farce. No longer, to be sure, an abode of Arcadian +seclusion as in colonial times, or a sort of territorial cobweb from the +center of which a spiderlike Francia hung motionless or darted upon his +hapless prey, or even a battle ground on which fanatical warriors might +fight and die at the behest of a savage Lopez, Paraguay now took on +the aspect of an arena in which petty political gamecocks might try out +their spurs. Happily, the opposing parties spent their energies in high +words and vehement gestures rather than in blows and bloodshed. The +credit of the country sank lower and lower until its paper money stood +at a discount of several hundred per cent compared with gold. + +European bankers had begun to view the financial future of Argentina +also with great alarm. In 1890 the mad careering of private speculation +and public expenditure along the roseate pathway of limitless credit +reached a veritable "crisis of progress." A frightful panic ensued. +Paper money fell to less than a quarter of its former value in gold. +Many a firm became bankrupt, and many a fortune shriveled. As is usual +in such cases, the Government had to shoulder the blame. A four-day +revolution broke out in Buenos Aires, and the President became the +scapegoat; but the panic went on, nevertheless, until gold stood at +nearly five to one. Most of the banks suspended payment; the national +debt underwent a huge increase; and immigration practically ceased. + +By 1895, however, the country had more or less resumed its normal +condition. A new census showed that the population had risen to four +million, about a sixth of whom resided in the capital. The importance +which agriculture had attained was attested by the establishment of a +separate ministry in the presidential cabinet. Industry, too, made such +rapid strides at this time that organized labor began to take a hand +in politics. The short-lived "revolution" of 1905, for example, was +not primarily the work of politicians but of strikers organized into +a workingmen's federation. For three months civil guarantees were +suspended, and by a so-called "law of residence," enacted some years +before and now put into effect, the Government was authorized to expel +summarily any foreigner guilty of fomenting strikes or of disturbing +public order in any other fashion. + +Political agitation soon assumed a new form. Since the +Autonomist-National party had been in control for thirty years or more, +it seemed to the Civic-Nationalists, now known as Republicans, to the +Autonomists proper, and to various other factions, that they ought to do +something to break the hold of that powerful organization. Accordingly +in 1906 the President, supported by a coalition of these factions, +started what was termed an "upward-downward revolution"--in other +words, a series of interventions by which local governors and members +of legislatures suspected of Autonomist-National leanings were to +be replaced by individuals who enjoyed the confidence of the +Administration. Pretexts for such action were not hard to find under +the terms of the constitution; but their political interests suffered so +much in the effort that the promoters had to abandon it. + +Owing to persistent obstruction on the part of Congress, which took the +form of a refusal either to sanction his appointments or to approve the +budget, the President suspended the sessions of that body in 1908 and +decreed a continuance of the estimates for the preceding year. The +antagonism between the chief executive and the legislature became so +violent that, if his opponents had not been split up into factions, +civil war might have ensued in Argentina. + +To remedy a situation made worse by the absence--usual in most of the +Hispanic republics--of a secret ballot and by the refusal of political +malcontents to take part in elections, voting was made both obligatory +and secret in 1911, and the principle of minority representation was +introduced. Legislation of this sort was designed to check bribery and +intimidation and to enable the radical-minded to do their duty at the +polls. Its effect was shown five years later, when the secret ballot +was used substantially for the first time. The radicals won both the +presidency and a majority in the Congress. + +One of the secrets of the prosperity of Argentina, as of Brazil, in +recent years has been its abstention from warlike ventures beyond its +borders and its endeavor to adjust boundary conflicts by arbitration. +Even when its attitude toward its huge neighbor had become embittered +in consequence of a boundary decision rendered by the President of +the United States in 1895, it abated none of its enthusiasm for the +principle of a peaceful settlement of international disputes. Four +years later, in a treaty with Uruguay, the so-called "Argentine Formula" +appeared. To quote its language: "The contracting parties agree to +submit to arbitration all questions of any nature which may arise +between them, provided they do not affect provisions of the constitution +of either state, and cannot be adjusted by direct negotiation." This +Formula was soon put to the test in a serious dispute with Chile. + +In the Treaty of 1881, in partitioning Patagonia, the crest of the +Andes had been assumed to be the true continental watershed between the +Atlantic and the Pacific and hence was made the boundary line between +Argentina and Chile. The entire Atlantic coast was to belong to +Argentina, the Pacific coast to Chile; the island of Tierra del Fuego +was to be divided between them. At the same time the Strait of Magellan +was declared a neutral waterway, open to the ships of all nations. Ere +long, however, it was ascertained that the crest of the Andes did not +actually coincide with the continental divide. Thereupon Argentina +insisted that the boundary line should be made to run along the crest, +while Chile demanded that it be traced along the watershed. Since the +mountainous area concerned was of little value, the question at bottom +was simply one of power and prestige between rival states. + +As the dispute waxed warmer, a noisy press and populace clamored for +war. The Governments of the two nations spent large sums in increasing +their armaments; and Argentina, in imitation of its western neighbor, +made military service compulsory. But, as the conviction gradually +spread that a struggle would leave the victor as prostrate as the +vanquished, wiser counsels prevailed. In 1899, accordingly, the matter +was referred to the King of Great Britain for decision. Though the award +was a compromise, Chile was the actual gainer in territory. + +By their treaties of 1902 both republics declared their intention to +uphold the principle of arbitration and to refrain from interfering in +each other's affairs along their respective coasts. They also agreed +upon a limitation of armaments--the sole example on record of a +realization of the purpose of the First Hague Conference. To commemorate +still further their international accord, in 1904 they erected on the +summit of the Uspallata Pass, over which San Martin had crossed with +his army of liberation in 1817, a bronze statue of Christ the Redeemer. +There, amid the snow-capped peaks of the giant Andes, one may read +inscribed upon the pedestal: "Sooner shall these mountains crumble to +dust than Argentinos and Chileans break the peace which at the feet of +Christ the Redeemer they have sworn to maintain!" Nor has the peace been +broken. + +Though hostilities with Argentina had thus been averted, Chile had +experienced within its own frontiers the most serious revolution it had +known in sixty years. The struggle was not one of partisan chieftains +or political groups but a genuine contest to determine which of +two theories of government should prevail--the presidential or the +parliamentary, a presidential autocracy with the spread of real +democracy or a congressional oligarchy based on the existing order. The +sincerity and public spirit of both contestants helped to lend dignity +to the conflict. + +Jose Manuel Balmaceda, a man of marked ability, who became President in +1886, had devoted much of his political life to urging an enlargement +of the executive power, a greater freedom to municipalities in the +management of their local affairs, and a broadening of the suffrage. +He had even advocated a separation of Church and State. Most of these +proposals so conservative a land as Chile was not prepared to accept. +Though civil marriage was authorized and ecclesiastical influence +was lessened in other respects, the Church stood firm. During his +administration Balmaceda introduced many reforms, both material and +educational. He gave a great impetus to the construction of public +works, enhanced the national credit by a favorable conversion of the +public debt, fostered immigration, and devoted especial attention to the +establishment of secondary schools. Excellent as the administration of +Balmaceda had been in other respects, he nevertheless failed to combine +the liberal factions into a party willing to support the plans of reform +which he had steadily favored. The parliamentary system made Cabinets +altogether unstable, as political groups in the lower house of the +Congress alternately cohered and fell apart. This defect, Balmaceda +thought, should be corrected by making the members of his official +family independent of the legislative branch. The Council of State, a +somewhat anomalous body placed between the President and Cabinet on the +one side and the Congress on the other, was an additional obstruction to +a smooth-running administration. For it he would substitute a tribunal +charged with the duty of resolving conflicts between the two chief +branches of government. Balmaceda believed, also, that greater liberty +should be given to the press and that existing taxes should be altered +as rarely as possible. On its side, the Congress felt that the President +was trying to establish a dictatorship and to replace the unitary system +by a federal union, the probable weakness of which would enable him to +retain his power more securely. + +Toward the close of his term in January, 1891, when the Liberals +declined to support his candidate for the presidency, Balmaceda, furious +at the opposition which he had encountered, took matters into his own +hands. Since the Congress refused to pass the appropriation bills, he +declared that body dissolved and proceeded to levy the taxes by decree. +To this arbitrary and altogether unconstitutional performance the +Congress retorted by declaring the President deposed. Civil war broke +out forthwith, and a strange spectacle presented itself. The two chief +cities, Santiago and Valparaiso, and most of the army backed Balmaceda, +whereas the country districts, especially in the north, and practically +all the navy upheld the Congress. + +These were, indeed, dark days for Chile. During a struggle of about +eight months the nation suffered more than it had done in years of +warfare with Peru and Bolivia. Though the bulk of the army stood by +Balmaceda, the Congress was able to raise and organize a much stronger +fighting force under a Prussian drillmaster. The tide of battle turned; +Santiago and Valparaiso capitulated; and the presidential cause was +lost. Balmaceda, who had taken refuge in the Argentina legation, +committed suicide. But the Balmacedists, who were included in a general +amnesty, still maintained themselves as a party to advocate in a +peaceful fashion the principles of their fallen leader. + +Chile had its reputation for stability well tested in 1910 when +the executive changed four times without the slightest political +disturbance. According to the constitution, the officer who takes the +place of the President in case of the latter's death or disability, +though vested with full authority, has the title of Vice President only. +It so happened that after the death of the President two members of the +Cabinet in succession held the vice presidency, and they were followed +by the chief magistrate, who was duly elected and installed at the +close of the year. In 1915, for the first time since their leader +had committed suicide, one of the followers of Balmaceda was chosen +President--by a strange coalition of Liberal-Democrats, or Balmacedists, +Conservatives, and Nationalists, over the candidate of the Radicals, +Liberals, and Democrats. The maintenance of the parliamentary system, +however, continued to produce frequent alterations in the personnel of +the Cabinet. + +In its foreign relations, apart from the adjustment reached with +Argentina, Chile managed to settle the difficulties with Bolivia arising +out of the War of the Pacific. By the terms of treaties concluded in +1895 and 1905, the region tentatively transferred by the armistice of +1884 was ceded outright to Chile in return for a seaport and a narrow +right of way to it through the former Peruvian province of Tarapaca. +With Peru, Chile was not so fortunate. Though the tension over the +ultimate disposal of the Tacna and Arica question was somewhat reduced, +it was far from being removed. Chile absolutely refused to submit the +matter to arbitration, on the ground that such a procedure could not +properly be applied to a question arising out of a war that had taken +place so many years before. Chile did not wish to give the region up, +lest by so doing it might expose Tarapaca to a possible attack from +Peru. The investment of large amounts of foreign capital in the +exploitation of the deposits of nitrate of soda had made that province +economically very valuable, and the export tax levied on the product was +the chief source of the national revenue. These were all potent +reasons why Chile wanted to keep its hold on Tacna and Arica. Besides, +possession was nine points in the law! + +On the other hand, the original plan of having the question decided by a +vote of the inhabitants of the provinces concerned was not carried +into effect, partly because both claimants cherished a conviction that +whichever lost the election would deny its validity, and partly because +they could not agree upon the precise method of holding it. Chile +suggested that the international commission which was selected to +take charge of the plebiscite, and which was composed of a Chilean, a +Peruvian, and a neutral, should be presided over by the Chilean member +as representative of the country actually in possession, whereas Peru +insisted that the neutral should act as chairman. Chile proposed also +that Chileans, Peruvians, and foreigners resident in the area six months +before the date of the elections should vote, provided that they had +the right to do so under the terms of the constitutions of both states. +Peru, on its part, objected to the length of residence, and wished to +limit carefully the number of Chilean voters, to exclude foreigners +altogether from the election, and to disregard qualifications for the +suffrage which required an ability to read and write. Both countries, +moreover, appeared to have a lurking suspicion that in any event +the other would try to secure a majority at the polls by supplying a +requisite number of voters drawn from their respective citizenry who +were not ordinarily resident in Tacna and Arica! Unable to overcome the +deadlock, Chile and Peru agreed in 1913 to postpone the settlement for +twenty years longer. At the expiration of this period, when Chile would +have held the provinces for half a century, the question should be +finally adjusted on bases mutually satisfactory. Officially amicable +relations were then restored. + +While the political situation in Bolivia remained stable, so much could +not be said of that in Peru and Ecuador. If the troubles in the former +were more or less military, a persistence of the conflict between +clericals and radicals characterized the commotions in the latter, +because of certain liberal provisions in the Constitution of 1907. +Peru, on the other hand, in 1915 guaranteed its people the enjoyment of +religious liberty. + +Next to the Tacna and Arica question, the dubious boundaries of Ecuador +constituted the most serious international problem in South America. The +so-called Oriente region, lying east of the Andes and claimed by Peru, +Brazil, and Colombia, appeared differently on different maps, according +as one claimant nation or another set forth its own case. Had all three +been satisfied, nothing would have been left of Ecuador but the strip +between the Andes and the Pacific coast, including the cities of Quito +and Guayaquil. The Ecuadorians, therefore, were bitterly sensitive on +the subject. + +Protracted negotiations over the boundaries became alike tedious and +listless. But the moment that the respective diplomats had agreed upon +some knotty point, the Congress of one litigant or another was almost +sure to reject the decision and start the controversy all over again. +Even reference of the matter to the arbitral judgment of European +monarchs produced, so far as Ecuador and Peru were concerned, riotous +attacks upon the Peruvian legation and consulates, charges and +countercharges of invasion of each other's territory, and the suspension +of diplomatic relations. Though the United States, Argentina, and Brazil +had interposed to ward off an armed conflict between the two republics +and, in 1911, had urged that the dispute be submitted to the Hague +Tribunal, nothing would induce Ecuador to comply. + +Colombia was even more unfortunate than its southern neighbor, for in +addition to political convulsions it suffered financial disaster and +an actual deprivation of territory. Struggles among factions, official +influence at the elections, dictatorships, and fighting between the +departments and the national Government plunged the country, in 1899, +into the worst civil war it had known for many a day. Paper money, +issued in unlimited amounts and given a forced circulation, made the +distress still more acute. Then came the hardest blow of all. Since +1830 Panama, as province or state, had tried many times to secede from +Colombia. In 1903 the opportunity it sought became altogether favorable. +The parent nation, just beginning to recover from the disasters of civil +strife, would probably be unable to prevent a new attempt at withdrawal. +The people of Panama, of course, knew how eager the United States was +to acquire the region of the proposed Canal Zone, since it had failed to +win it by negotiation with Colombia. Accordingly, if they were to +start a "revolution," they had reason to believe that it would not lack +support--or at least, connivance--from that quarter. + +On the 3d of November the projected "revolution" occurred, on schedule +time, and the United States recognized the independence of the "Republic +of Panama" three days later! In return for a guarantee of independence, +however, the United States stipulated, in the convention concluded +on the 18th of November, that, besides authority to enforce sanitary +regulations in the Canal Zone, it should also have the right of +intervention to maintain order in the republic itself. More than +once, indeed, after Panama adopted its constitution in 1904, elections +threatened to become tumultuous; whereupon the United States saw to it +that they passed off quietly. + +Having no wish to flout their huge neighbor to the northward, the +Hispanic nations at large hastened to acknowledge the independence of +the new republic, despite the indignation that prevailed in press and +public over what was regarded as an act of despoilment. In view of the +resentful attitude of Colombia and mindful also of the opinion of many +Americans that a gross injustice had been committed, the United States +eventually offered terms of settlement. It agreed to express regret for +the ill feeling between the two countries which had arisen out of the +Panama incident, provided that such expression were made mutual; and, as +a species of indemnity, it agreed to pay for canal rights to be acquired +in Colombian territory and for the lease of certain islands as naval +stations. But neither the terms nor the amount of the compensation +proved acceptable. Instead, Colombia urged that the whole matter be +referred to the judgment of the tribunal at The Hague. + +Alluding to the use made of the liberties won in the struggle for +emancipation from Spain by the native land of Miranda, Bolivar, and +Sucre, on the part of the country which had been in the vanguard of +the fight for freedom from a foreign yoke, a writer of Venezuela once +declared that it had not elected legally a single President; had not put +democratic ideas or institutions into practice; had lived wholly under +dictatorships; had neglected public instruction; and had set up a large +number of oppressive commercial monopolies, including the navigation +of rivers, the coastwise trade, the pearl fisheries, and the sale of +tobacco, salt, sugar, liquor, matches, explosives, butter, grease, +cement, shoes, meat, and flour. Exaggerated as the indictment is and +applicable also, though in less degree, to some of the other backward +countries of Hispanic America, it contains unfortunately a large measure +of truth. Indeed, so far as Venezuela itself is concerned, this critic +might have added that every time a "restorer," "regenerator," or +"liberator" succumbed there, the old craze for federalism again broke +out and menaced the nation with piecemeal destruction. Obedient, +furthermore, to the whims of a presidential despot, Venezuela +perpetrated more outrages on foreigners and created more international +friction after 1899 than any other land in Spanish America had ever +done. + +While the formidable Guzman Blanco was still alive, the various +Presidents acted cautiously. No sooner had he passed away than disorder +broke out afresh. Since a new dictator thought he needed a longer term +of office and divers other administrative advantages, a constitution +incorporating them was framed and published in the due and customary +manner. This had hardly gone into operation when, in 1895, a contest +arose with Great Britain about the boundaries between Venezuela and +British Guiana. Under pressure from the United States, however, the +matter was referred to arbitration, and Venezuela came out substantially +the loser. + +In 1899 there appeared on the scene a personage compared with whom +Zelaya was the merest novice in the art of making trouble. This was +Cipriano Castro, the greatest international nuisance of the early +twentieth century. A rude, arrogant, fearless, energetic, capricious +mountaineer and cattleman, he regarded foreigners no less than his +own countryfolk, it would seem, as objects for his particular scorn, +displeasure, exploitation, or amusement, as the case might be. He was +greatly angered by the way in which foreigners in dispute with +local officials avoided a resort to Venezuelan courts and--still +worse--rejected their decisions and appealed instead to their diplomatic +representatives for protection. He declared such a procedure to be an +affront to the national dignity. Yet foreigners were usually correct in +arming that judges appointed by an arbitrary President were little more +than figureheads, incapable of dispensing justice, even were they so +inclined. + +Jealous not only of his personal prestige but of what he imagined, or +pretended to imagine, were the rights of a small nation, Castro tried +throughout to portray the situation in such a light as to induce the +other Hispanic republics also to view foreign interference as a +dire peril to their own independence and sovereignty; and he further +endeavored to involve the United States in a struggle with European +powers as a means possibly of testing the efficacy of the Monroe +Doctrine or of laying bare before the world the evil nature of American +imperialistic designs. + +By the year 1901, in which Venezuela adopted another constitution, the +revolutionary disturbances had materially diminished the revenues from +the customs. Furthermore Castro's regulations exacting military service +of all males between fourteen and sixty years of age had filled the +prisons to overflowing. Many foreigners who had suffered in consequence +resorted to measures of self-defense--among them representatives of +certain American and British asphalt companies which were working +concessions granted by Castro's predecessors. Though familiar with what +commonly happens to those who handle pitch, they had not scrupled to +aid some of Castro's enemies. Castro forthwith imposed on them enormous +fines which amounted practically to a confiscation of their rights. + +While the United States and Great Britain were expostulating over this +behavior of the despot, France broke off diplomatic relations with +Venezuela because of Castro's refusal either to pay or to submit to +arbitration certain claims which had originated in previous revolutions. +Germany, aggrieved in similar fashion, contemplated a seizure of the +customs until its demands for redress were satisfied. And then came +Italy with like causes of complaint. As if these complications were not +sufficient, Venezuela came to blows with Colombia. + +As the foreign pressure on Castro steadily increased, Luis Maria Drago, +the Argentine Minister of Foreign Affairs, formulated in 1902 the +doctrine with which his name has been associated. It stated in substance +that force should never be employed between nations for the collection +of contractual debts. Encouraged by this apparent token of support from +a sister republic, Castro defied his array of foreign adversaries more +vigorously than ever, declaring that he might find it needful to invade +the United States, by way of New Orleans, to teach it the lesson it +deserved! But when he attempted, in the following year, to close the +ports of Venezuela as a means of bringing his native antagonists to +terms, Great Britain, Germany, and Italy seized his warships, blockaded +the coast, and bombarded some of his forts. Thereupon the United States +interposed with a suggestion that the dispute be laid before the Hague +Tribunal. Although Castro yielded, he did not fail to have a clause +inserted in a new "constitution" requiring foreigners who might wish +to enter the republic to show certificates of good character from the +Governments of their respective countries. + +These incidents gave much food for thought to Castro as well as to +his soberer compatriots. The European powers had displayed an apparent +willingness to have the United States, if it chose to do so, assume the +role of a New World policeman and financial guarantor. Were it to assume +these duties, backward republics in the Caribbean and its vicinity were +likely to have their affairs, internal as well as external, supervised +by the big nation in order to ward off European intervention. At +this moment, indeed, the United States was intervening in Panama. The +prospect aroused in many Hispanic countries the fear of a "Yankee peril" +greater even than that emanating from Europe. Instead of being a kindly +and disinterested protector of small neighbors, the "Colossus of the +North" appeared rather to resemble a political and commercial ogre bent +upon swallowing them to satisfy "manifest destiny." + +Having succeeded in putting around his head an aureole of local +popularity, Castro in 1905 picked a new set of partially justified +quarrels with the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy, Colombia, +and even with the Netherlands, arising out of the depredations of +revolutionists; but an armed menace from the United States induced him +to desist from his plans. He contented himself accordingly with issuing +a decree of amnesty for all political offenders except the leaders. When +"reelected," he carried his magnanimity so far as to resign awhile in +favor of the Vice President, stating that, if his retirement were to +bring peace and concord, he would make it permanent. But as he saw to it +that his temporary withdrawal should not have this happy result, he came +back again to his firmer position a few months later. + +Venting his wrath upon the Netherlands because its minister had reported +to his Government an outbreak of cholera at La Guaira, the chief seaport +of Venezuela, the dictator laid an embargo on Dutch commerce, seized +its ships, and denounced the Dutch for their alleged failure to check +filibustering from their islands off the coast. When the minister +protested, Castro expelled him. Thereupon the Netherlands instituted a +blockade of the Venezuelan ports. What might have happened if Castro +had remained much longer in charge, may be guessed. Toward the close +of 1908, however, he departed for Europe to undergo a course of medical +treatment. Hardly had he left Venezuelan shores when Juan Vicente Gomez, +the able, astute, and vigorous Vice President, managed to secure his +own election to the presidency and an immediate recognition from +foreign states. Under his direction all of the international tangles of +Venezuela were straightened out. + +In 1914 the country adopted its eleventh constitution and thereby +lengthened the presidential term to seven years, shortened that +of members of the lower house of the Congress to four, determined +definitely the number of States in the union, altered the apportionment +of their congressional representation, and enlarged the powers of the +federal Government--or, rather, those of its executive branch! In 1914 +Gomez resigned office in favor of the Vice President, and secured an +appointment instead as commander in chief of the army. This procedure +was promptly denounced as a trick to evade the constitutional +prohibition of two consecutive terms. A year later he was unanimously +elected President, though he never formally took the oath of office. + +Whatever may be thought of the political ways and means of this +new Guzmin Blanco to maintain himself as a power behind or on the +presidential throne, Gomez gave Venezuela an administration of a sort +very different from that of his immediate predecessor. He suppressed +various government monopolies, removed other obstacles to the material +advancement of the country, and reduced the national debt. He did much +also to improve the sanitary conditions at La Guaira, and he promoted +education, especially the teaching of foreign languages. + +Gomez nevertheless had to keep a watchful eye on the partisans of +Castro, who broke out in revolt whenever they had an opportunity. The +United States, Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Denmark, Cuba, +and Colombia eyed the movements of the ex-dictator nervously, as +European powers long ago were wont to do in the case of a certain Man +of Destiny, and barred him out of both their possessions and Venezuela +itself. International patience, never Job-like, had been too sorely +vexed to permit his return. Nevertheless, after the manner of the +ancient persecutor of the Biblical martyr, Castro did not refrain from +going to and fro in the earth. In fact he still "walketh about" seeking +to recover his hold upon Venezuela! + + + +CHAPTER X. MEXICO IN REVOLUTION + +When, in 1910, like several of its sister republics, Mexico celebrated +the centennial anniversary of its independence, the era of peace +and progress inaugurated by Porfirio Diaz seemed likely to last +indefinitely, for he was entering upon his eighth term as President. +Brilliant as his career had been, however, and greatly as Mexico had +prospered under his rigid rule, a sullen discontent had been brewing. +The country that had had but one continuous President in twenty-six +years was destined to have some fourteen chief magistrates in less than +a quarter of that time, and to surpass all its previous records for +rapidity in presidential succession, by having one executive who is said +to have held office for precisely fifty-six minutes! + +It has often been asserted that the reason for the downfall of Diaz +and the lapse of Mexico into the unhappy conditions of a half century +earlier was that he had grown too old to keep a firm grip on the +situation. It has also been declared that his insistence upon reelection +and upon the elevation of his own personal candidate to the vice +presidency, as a successor in case of his retirement, occasioned his +overthrow. The truth of the matter is that these circumstances were only +incidental to his downfall; the real causes of revolution lay deeprooted +in the history of these twenty-six years. The most significant feature +of the revolt was its civilian character. A widespread public opinion +had been created; a national consciousness had been awakened which was +intolerant of abuses and determined upon their removal at any cost; and +this public opinion and national consciousness were products of general +education, which had brought to the fore a number of intelligent men +eager to participate in public affairs and yet barred out because of +their unwillingness to support the existing regime. + +Some one has remarked, and rightly, that Diaz in his zeal for the +material advancement of Mexico, mistook the tangible wealth of the +country for its welfare. Desirable and even necessary as that material +progress was, it produced only a one-sided prosperity. Diaz was +singularly deaf to the just complaints of the people of the laboring +classes, who, as manufacturing and other industrial enterprises +developed, were resolved to better their conditions. In the country at +large the discontent was still stronger. Throughout many of the rural +districts general advancement had been retarded because of the holding +of huge areas of fertile land by a comparatively few rich families, who +did little to improve it and were content with small returns from the +labor of throngs of unskilled native cultivators. Wretchedly paid and +housed, and toiling long hours, the workers lived like the serfs of +medieval days or as their own ancestors did in colonial times. Ignorant, +poverty-stricken, liable at any moment to be dispossessed of the tiny +patch of ground on which they raised a few hills of corn or beans, most +of them were naturally a simple, peaceful folk who, in spite of their +misfortunes, might have gone on indefinitely with their drudgery in +a hopeless apathetic fashion, unless their latent savage instincts +happened to be aroused by drink and the prospect of plunder. On the +other hand, the intelligent among them, knowing that in some of the +northern States of the republic wages were higher and treatment fairer, +felt a sense of wrong which, like that of the laboring class in the +towns, was all the more dangerous because it was not allowed to find +expression. + +Diaz thought that what Mexico required above everything else was the +development of industrial efficiency and financial strength, assured +by a maintenance of absolute order. Though disposed to do justice in +individual cases, he would tolerate no class movements of any kind. +Labor unions, strikes, and other efforts at lightening the burden of the +workers he regarded as seditious and deserving of severe punishment. In +order to attract capital from abroad as the best means of exploiting the +vast resources of the country, he was willing to go to any length, it +would seem, in guaranteeing protection. Small wonder, therefore, that +the people who shared in none of the immediate advantages from that +source should have muttered that Mexico was the "mother of foreigners +and the stepmother of Mexicans." And, since so much of the capital came +from the United States, the antiforeign sentiment singled Americans out +for its particular dislike. + +If Diaz appeared unable to appreciate the significance of the +educational and industrial awakening, he was no less oblivious of the +political outcome. He knew, of course, that the Mexican constitution +made impossible demands upon the political capacity of the people. He +was himself mainly of Indian blood and he believed that he understood +the temperament and limitations of most Mexicans. Knowing how +tenaciously they clung to political notions, he believed that it was +safer and wiser to forego, at least for a time, real popular government +and to concentrate power in the hands of a strong man who could maintain +order. + +Accordingly, backed by his political adherents, known as cientificos +(doctrinaires), some of whom had acquired a sinister ascendancy over +him, and also by the Church, the landed proprietors, and the foreign +capitalists, Diaz centered the entire administration more and more in +himself. Elections became mere farces. Not only the federal officials +themselves but the state governors, the members of the state +legislatures, and all others in authority during the later years of his +rule owed their selection primarily to him and held their positions only +if personally loyal to him. Confident of his support and certain that +protests against misgovernment would be regarded by the President as +seditious, many of them abused their power at will. Notable among them +were the local officials, called jefes politicos, whose control of the +police force enabled them to indulge in practices of intimidation and +extortion which ultimately became unendurable. + +Though symptoms of popular wrath against the Diaz regime, or diazpotism +as the Mexicans termed it, were apparent as early as 1908, it was not +until January, 1911, that the actual revolution came. It was headed by +Francisco I. Madero, a member of a wealthy and distinguished family +of landed proprietors in one of the northern States. What the +revolutionists demanded in substance was the retirement of the +President, Vice President, and Cabinet; a return to the principle of no +reelection to the chief magistracy; a guarantee of fair elections at +all times; the choice of capable, honest, and impartial judges, jefes +politicos, and other officials; and, in particular, a series of agrarian +and industrial reforms which would break up the great estates, create +peasant proprietorships, and better the conditions of the working +classes. Disposed at first to treat the insurrection lightly, Diaz soon +found that he had underestimated its strength. Grants of some of the +demands and promises of reform were met with a dogged insistence upon +his own resignation. Then, as the rebellion spread to the southward, the +masterful old man realized that his thirty-one years of rule were at an +end. On the 25th of May, therefore, he gave up his power and sailed for +Europe. + +Madero was chosen President five months later, but the revolution soon +passed beyond his control. He was a sincere idealist, if not something +of a visionary, actuated by humane and kindly sentiments, but he lacked +resoluteness and the art of managing men. He was too prolific, also, of +promises which he must have known he could not keep. Yielding to family +influence, he let his followers get out of hand. Ambitious chieftains +and groups of Radicals blocked and thwarted him at every turn. When +he could find no means of carrying out his program without wholesale +confiscation and the disruption of business interests, he was accused of +abandoning his duty. One officer after another deserted him and turned +rebel. Brigandage and insurrection swept over the country and threatened +to involve it in ugly complications with the United States and European +powers. At length, in February, 1913, came the blow that put an end to +all of Madero's efforts and aspirations. A military uprising in the +city of Mexico made him prisoner, forced him to resign, and set up a +provisional government under the dictatorship of Victoriano Huerta, +one of his chief lieutenants. Two weeks later both Madero and the Vice +President were assassinated while on their way supposedly to a place of +safety. + +Huerta was a rough soldier of Indian origin, possessed of unusual force +of character and strength of will, ruthless, cunning, and in bearing +alternately dignified and vulgar. A scientifico in political faith, he +was disposed to restore the Diaz regime, so far as an application of +shrewdness and force could make it possible. But from the outset he +found an obstacle confronting him that he could not surmount. Though +acknowledged by European countries and by many of the Hispanic +republics, he could not win recognition from the United States, either +as provisional President or as a candidate for regular election to the +office. Whether personally responsible for the murder of Madero or +not, he was not regarded by the American Government as entitled to +recognition, on the ground that he was not the choice of the Mexican +people. In its refusal to recognize an administration set up merely by +brute force, the United States was upheld by Argentina, Brazil, Chile, +and Cuba. The elimination of Huerta became the chief feature for a while +of its Mexican policy. + +Meanwhile the followers of Madero and the pronounced Radicals had found +a new northern leader in the person of Venustiano Carranza. They +called themselves Constitutionalists, as indicative of their purpose to +reestablish the constitution and to choose a successor to Madero in +a constitutional manner. What they really desired was those radical +changes along social, industrial, and political lines, which Madero had +championed in theory. They sought to introduce a species of socialistic +regime that would provide the Mexicans with an opportunity for +self-regeneration. While Diaz had believed in economic progress +supported by the great landed proprietors, the moral influence of the +Church, and the application of foreign capital, the Constitutionalists, +personified in Carranza, were convinced that these agencies, if left +free and undisturbed to work their will, would ruin Mexico. Though not +exactly antiforeign in their attitude, they wished to curb the power +of the foreigner; they would accept his aid whenever desirable for the +economic development of the country, but they would not submit to his +virtual control of public affairs. In any case they would tolerate no +interference by the United States. Compromise with the Huerta regime, +therefore, was impossible. Huerta, the "strong man" of the Diaz type, +must go. On this point, at least, the Constitutionalists were in +thorough agreement with the United States. + +A variety of international complications ensued. Both Huertistas and +Carranzistas perpetrated outrages on foreigners, which evoked sharp +protests and threats from the United States and European powers. +While careful not to recognize his opponents officially, the American +Government resorted to all kinds of means to oust the dictator. An +embargo was laid on the export of arms and munitions; all efforts to +procure financial help from abroad were balked. The power of Huerta was +waning perceptibly and that of the Constitutionalists was increasing +when an incident that occurred in April, 1914, at Tampico brought +matters to a climax. A number of American sailors who had gone ashore +to obtain supplies were arrested and temporarily detained. The United +States demanded that the American flag be saluted as reparation for the +insult. Upon the refusal of Huerta to comply, the United States sent a +naval expedition to occupy Vera Cruz. + +Both Carranza and Huerta regarded this move as equivalent to an act of +war. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile then offered their mediation. But +the conference arranged for this purpose at Niagara Falls, Canada, +had before it a task altogether impossible of accomplishment. Though +Carranza was willing to have the Constitutionalists represented, if +the discussion related solely to the immediate issue between the United +States and Huerta, he declined to extend the scope of the conference so +as to admit the right of the United States to interfere in the internal +affairs of Mexico. The conference accomplished nothing so far as the +immediate issue was concerned. The dictator did not make reparation for +the "affronts and indignities" he had committed; but his day was over. +The advance of the Constitutionalists southward compelled him in July +to abandon the capital and leave the country. Four months later the +American forces were withdrawn from Vera Cruz. The "A B C" Conference, +however barren it was of direct results, helped to allay suspicions of +the United States in Hispanic America and brought appreciably nearer a +"concert of the western world." + +While far from exercising full control throughout Mexico, the "first +chief" of the Constitutionalists was easily the dominant figure in +the situation. At home a ranchman, in public affairs a statesman of +considerable ability, knowing how to insist and yet how to temporize, +Carranza carried on a struggle, both in arms and in diplomacy, which +singled him out as a remarkable character. Shrewdly aware of the +advantageous circumstances afforded him by the war in Europe, he turned +them to account with a degree of skill that blocked every attempt at +defeat or compromise. No matter how serious the opposition to him in +Mexico itself, how menacing the attitude of the United States, or how +persuasive the conciliatory disposition of Hispanic American nations, he +clung stubbornly and tenaciously to his program. + +Even after Huerta had been eliminated, Carranza's position was not +assured, for Francisco, or "Pancho," Villa, a chieftain whose personal +qualities resembled those of the fallen dictator, was equally determined +to eliminate him. For a brief moment, indeed, peace reigned. Under +an alleged agreement between them, a convention of Constitutionalist +officers was to choose a provisional President, who should be ineligible +as a candidate for the permanent presidency at the regular elections. +When Carranza assumed both of these positions, Villa declared his act +a violation of their understanding and insisted upon his retirement. +Inasmuch as the convention was dominated by Villa, the "first chief" +decided to ignore its election of a provisional President. + +The struggle between the Conventionalists headed by Villa and the +Constitutionalists under Carranza plunged Mexico into worse discord and +misery than ever. Indeed it became a sort of three-cornered contest. The +third party was Emiliano Zapata, an Indian bandit, nominally a supporter +of Villa but actually favorable to neither of the rivals. Operating near +the capital, he plundered Conventionalists and Constitutionalists with +equal impartiality, and as a diversion occasionally occupied the city +itself. These circumstances gave force to the saying that Mexico was a +"land where peace breaks out once in a while!" + +Early in 1915 Carranza proceeded to issue a number of radical decrees +that exasperated foreigners almost beyond endurance. Rather than resort +to extreme measures again, however, the United States invoked the +cooperation of the Hispanic republics and proposed a conference to +devise some solution of the Mexican problem. To give the proposed +conference a wider representation, it invited not only the "A B C" +powers, but Bolivia, Uruguay, and Guatemala to participate. Meeting +at Washington in August, the mediators encountered the same difficulty +which had confronted their predecessors at Niagara Falls. Though the +other chieftains assented, Carranza, now certain of success, declined to +heed any proposal of conciliation. Characterizing efforts of the kind as +an unwarranted interference in the internal affairs of a sister nation, +he warned the Hispanic republics against setting up so dangerous a +precedent. In reply Argentina stated that the conference obeyed a "lofty +inspiration of Pan-American solidarity, and, instead of finding any +cause for alarm, the Mexican people should see in it a proof of their +friendly consideration that her fate evokes in us, and calls forth our +good wishes for her pacification and development." However, as the only +apparent escape from more watchful waiting or from armed intervention on +the part of the United States, in October the seven Governments decided +to accept the facts as they stood, and accordingly recognized Carranza +as the de facto ruler of Mexico. + +Enraged at this favor shown to his rival, Villa determined deliberately +to provoke American intervention by a murderous raid on a town in New +Mexico in March, 1916. When the United States dispatched an expedition +to avenge the outrage, Carranza protested energetically against its +violation of Mexican territory and demanded its withdrawal. Several +clashes, in fact, occurred between American soldiers and Carranzistas. +Neither the expedition itself, however, nor diplomatic efforts to find +some method of cooperation which would prevent constant trouble along +the frontier served any useful purpose, since Villa apparently could +not be captured and Carranza refused to yield to diplomatic persuasion. +Carranza then proposed that a joint commission be appointed to settle +these vexed questions. Even this device proved wholly unsatisfactory. +The Mexicans would not concede the right of the United States to send +an armed expedition into their country at any time, and the Americans +refused to accept limitations on the kind of troops that they might +employ or on the zone of their operations. In January, 1917, the joint +commission was dissolved and the American soldiers were withdrawn. Again +the "first chief" had won! + +On the 5th of February a convention assembled at Queretaro promulgated +a constitution embodying substantially all of the radical program +that Carranza had anticipated in his decrees. Besides providing for an +elaborate improvement in the condition of the laboring classes and +for such a division of great estates as might satisfy their particular +needs, the new constitution imposed drastic restrictions upon foreigners +and religious bodies. Under its terms, foreigners could not acquire +industrial concessions unless they waived their treaty rights and +consented to regard themselves for the purpose as Mexican citizens. +In all such cases preference was to be shown Mexicans over foreigners. +Ecclesiastical corporations were forbidden to own real property. No +primary school and no charitable institution could be conducted by +any religious mission or denomination, and religious publications must +refrain from commenting on public affairs. The presidential term was +reduced from six years to four; reelection was prohibited; and the +office of Vice President was abolished. + +When, on the 1st of May, Venustiano Carranza was chosen President, +Mexico had its first constitutional executive in four years. After +a cruel and obstinately intolerant struggle that had occasioned +indescribable suffering from disease and starvation, as well as the +usual slaughter and destruction incident to war, the country began to +enjoy once more a measure of peace. Financial exhaustion, however, had +to be overcome before recuperation was possible. Industrial progress had +become almost paralyzed; vast quantities of depreciated paper money had +to be withdrawn from circulation; and an enormous array of claims for +the loss of foreign life and property had rolled up. + + + +CHAPTER XI. THE REPUBLICS OF THE CARIBBEAN + +The course of events in certain of the republics in and around the +Caribbean Sea warned the Hispanic nations that independence was a +relative condition and that it might vary in direct ratio with nearness +to the United States. After 1906 this powerful northern neighbor showed +an unmistakable tendency to extend its influence in various ways. Here +fiscal and police control was established; there official recognition +was withheld from a President who had secured office by unconstitutional +methods. Nonrecognition promised to be an effective way of maintaining +a regime of law and order, as the United States understood those terms. +Assurances from the United States of the full political equality of all +republics, big or little, in the western hemisphere did not always carry +conviction to Spanish American ears. The smaller countries in and around +the Caribbean Sea, at least, seemed likely to become virtually American +protectorates. + +Like their Hispanic neighbor on the north, the little republics of +Central America were also scenes of political disturbance. None of them +except Panama escaped revolutionary uprisings, though the loss of life +and property was insignificant. On the other hand, in these early years +of the century the five countries north of Panama made substantial +progress toward federation. As a South American writer has expressed +it, their previous efforts in that direction "amid sumptuous festivals, +banquets and other solemn public acts" at which they "intoned in +lyric accents daily hymns for the imperishable reunion of the isthmian +republics," had been as illusory as they were frequent. Despite the +mediation of the United States and Mexico in 1906, while the latter +was still ruled by Diaz, the struggle in which Nicaragua, Honduras, +Guatemala, and Salvador had been engaged was soon renewed between +the first two belligerents. Since diplomatic interposition no longer +availed, American marines were landed in Nicaragua, and the bumptious +Zelaya was induced to have his country meet its neighbors in a +conference at Washington. Under the auspices of the United States and +Mexico, in December, 1907, representatives of the five republics signed +a series of conventions providing for peace and cooperation. An arbitral +court of justice, to be erected in Costa Rica and composed of one judge +from each nation, was to decide all matters of dispute which could not +be adjusted through ordinary diplomatic means. Here, also, an institute +for the training of Central American teachers was to be established. +Annual conferences were to discuss, and an office in Guatemala was to +record, measures designed to secure uniformity in financial, commercial, +industrial, sanitary, and educational regulations. Honduras, the storm +center of weakness, was to be neutralized. None of the States was +thereafter to recognize in any of them a government which had been set +up in an illegal fashion. A "Constitutional Act of Central American +Fraternity," moreover, was adopted on behalf of peace, harmony, and +progress. Toward a realization of the several objects of the conference, +the Presidents of the five republics were to invite their colleagues +of the United States and Mexico, whenever needful, to appoint +representatives, to "lend their good offices in a purely friendly way." + +Though most of these agencies were promptly put into operation, the +results were not altogether satisfactory. Some discords, to be sure, +were removed by treaties settling boundary questions and providing for +reciprocal trade advantages; but it is doubtful whether the arrangements +devised at Washington would have worked at all if the United States had +not kept the little countries under a certain amount of observation. +What the Central Americans apparently preferred was to be left alone, +some of them to mind their own business, others to mind their neighbor's +affairs. + +Of all the Central American countries Honduras was, perhaps, the one +most afflicted with pecuniary misfortunes. In 1909 its foreign debt, +along with arrears of interest unpaid for thirty-seven years, was +estimated at upwards of $110,000,000. Of this amount a large part +consisted of loans obtained from foreign capitalists, at more or less +extortionate rates, for the construction of a short railway, of which +less than half had been built. That revolutions should be rather +chronic in a land where so much money could be squandered and where +the temperaments of Presidents and ex-Presidents were so bellicose, +was natural enough. When the United States could not induce the warring +rivals to abide by fair elections, it sent a force of marines to overawe +them and gave warning that further disturbances would not be allowed. + +In Nicaragua the conditions were similar. Here Zelaya, restive under the +limitations set by the conference at Washington, yearned to become the +"strong man" of Central America, who would teach the Yankees to stop +their meddling. But his downfall was imminent. In 1909, as the result of +his execution of two American soldiers of fortune who had taken part in +a recent insurrection, the United States resolved to tolerate Zelaya no +longer. Openly recognizing the insurgents, it forced the dictator out of +the country. Three years later, when a President-elect started to assume +office before the legally appointed time, a force of American marines +at the capital convinced him that such a procedure was undesirable. The +"corrupt and barbarous" conditions prevailing in Zelaya's time, he was +informed, could not be tolerated. The United States, in fact, notified +all parties in Nicaragua that, under the terms of the Washington +conventions, it had a "moral mandate to exert its influence for the +preservation of the general peace of Central America." Since those +agreements had vested no one with authority to enforce them, such an +interpretation of their language, aimed apparently at all disturbances, +foreign as well as domestic, was rather elastic! At all events, after +1912, when a new constitution was adopted, the country became relatively +quiet and somewhat progressive. Whenever a political flurry did take +place, American marines were employed to preserve the peace. Many +citizens, therefore, declined to vote, on the ground that the moral and +material support thus furnished by the great nation to the northward +rendered it futile for them to assume political responsibilities. + +Meanwhile negotiations began which were ultimately to make Nicaragua a +fiscal protectorate of the United States. American officials were chosen +to act as financial advisers and collectors of customs, and favorable +arrangements were concluded with American bankers regarding the monetary +situation; but it was not until 1916 that a treaty covering this +situation was ratified. According to its provisions, in return for a +stipulated sum to be expended under American direction, Nicaragua was +to grant to the United States the exclusive privilege of constructing a +canal through the territory of the republic and to lease to it the Corn +Islands and a part of Fonseca Bay, on the Pacific coast, for use as +naval stations. The prospect of American intervention alarmed the +neighboring republics. Asserting that the treaty infringed upon their +respective boundaries, Costa Rica, and Salvador brought suit against +Nicaragua before the Central American Court. With the exception of +the Nicaraguan representative, the judges upheld the contention of the +plaintiffs that the defendant had no right to make any such concessions +without previous consultation with Costa Rica, Salvador, and Honduras, +since all three alike were affected by them. The Court observed, +however, that it could not declare the treaty void because the +United States, one of the parties concerned, was not subject to its +jurisdiction. Nicaragua declined to accept the decision; and the United +States, the country responsible for the existence of the Court and +presumably interested in helping to enforce its judgment, allowed it to +go out of existence in 1918 on the expiration of its ten-year term. + +The economic situation of Costa Rica brought about a state of affairs +wholly unusual in Central American politics. The President, Alfredo +Gonzalez, wished to reform the system of taxation so that a fairer share +of the public burdens should fall on the great landholders who, like +most of their brethren in the Hispanic countries, were practically +exempt. This project, coupled with the fact that certain American +citizens seeking an oil concession had undermined the power of the +President by wholesale bribery, induced the Minister of War, in 1917, +to start a revolt against him. Rather than shed the blood of his fellow +citizens for mere personal advantages, Gonzalez sustained the good +reputation of Costa Rica for freedom from civil commotions by quietly +leaving the country and going to the United States to present his case. +In consequence, the American Government declined to recognize the de +facto ruler. + +Police and fiscal supervision by the United States has characterized +the recent history of Panama. Not only has a proposed increase in the +customs duties been disallowed, but more than once the unrest attending +presidential elections has required the calming presence of American +officials. As a means of forestalling outbreaks, particularly in view +of the cosmopolitan population resident on the Isthmus, the republic +enacted a law in 1914 which forbade foreigners to mix in local politics +and authorized the expulsion of naturalized citizens who attacked the +Government through the press or otherwise. With the approval of the +United States, Panama entered into an agreement with American financiers +providing for the creation of a national bank, one-fourth of the +directors of which should be named by the Government of the republic. + +The second period of American rule in Cuba lasted till 1909. Control of +the Government was then formally transferred to Jose Miguel Gomez, the +President who had been chosen by the Liberals at the elections held in +the previous year; but the United States did not cease to watch over its +chief Caribbean ward. A bitter controversy soon developed in the Cuban +Congress over measures to forbid the further purchase of land by aliens, +and to insure that a certain percentage of the public offices should +be held by colored citizens. Though both projects were defeated, they +revealed a strong antiforeign sentiment and much dissatisfaction on the +part of the negro population. It was clear also that Gomez, intended to +oust all conservatives from office, for an obedient Congress passed a +bill suspending the civil service rules. + +The partisanship of Gomez, and his supporters, together with the +constant interference of military veterans in political affairs, +provoked numerous outbreaks, which led the United States, in 1912, to +warn Cuba that it might again be compelled to intervene. Eventually, +when a negro insurrection in the eastern part of the island menaced the +safety of foreigners, American marines were landed. Another instance +of intervention was the objection by the United States to an employers' +liability law that would have given a monopoly of the insurance business +to a Cuban company to the detriment of American firms. + +After the election of Mario Menocal, the Conservative candidate, to the +presidency in 1912, another occasion for intervention presented itself. +An amnesty bill, originally drafted for the purpose of freeing the +colored insurgents and other offenders, was amended so as to empower +the retiring President to grant pardon before trial to persons whom +his successor wished to prosecute for wholesale corruption in financial +transactions. Before the bill passed, however, notice was sent from +Washington that, since the American Government had the authority to +supervise the finances of the republic, Gomez would better veto the +bill, and this he accordingly did. + +A sharp struggle arose when it became known that Menocal would be a +candidate for reelection. The Liberal majority in the Congress passed +a bill requiring that a President who sought to succeed himself should +resign two months before the elections. When Menocal vetoed this +measure, his opponents demanded that the United States supervise the +elections. As the result of the elections was doubtful, Gomez and his +followers resorted in 1917 to the usual insurrection; whereupon the +American Government warned the rebels that it would not recognize their +claims if they won by force. Active aid from that quarter, as well as +the capture of the insurgent leader, caused the movement to collapse +after the electoral college had decided in favor of Menocal. + +In the Dominican Republic disturbances were frequent, notwithstanding +the fact that American officials were in charge of the customhouses and +by their presence were expected to exert a quieting influence. Even +the adoption, in 1908, of a new constitution which provided for the +prolongation of the presidential term to six years and for the abolition +of the office of Vice President--two stabilizing devices quite common +in Hispanic countries where personal ambition is prone to be a source of +political trouble--did not help much to restore order. The assassination +of the President and the persistence of age-long quarrels with Haiti +over boundaries made matters worse. Thereupon, in 1913, the United +States served formal notice on the rebellious parties that it would +not only refuse to recognize any Government set up by force but would +withhold any share in the receipts from the customs. As this procedure +did not prevent a revolutionary leader from demanding half a million +dollars as a financial sedative for his political nerves and from +creating more trouble when the President failed to dispense it, the +heavy hand of an American naval force administered another kind +of specific, until commissioners from Porto Rico could arrive to +superintend the selection of a new chief magistrate. Notwithstanding the +protest of the Dominican Government, the "fairest and freest" elections +ever known in the country were held under the direction of those +officials--as a "body of friendly observers"! + +However amicable this arrangement seemed, it did not smother the flames +of discord. In 1916, when an American naval commander suggested that a +rebellious Minister of War leave the capital, he agreed to do so if the +"fairest and freest" of chosen Presidents would resign. Even after both +of them had complied with the suggestions, the individuals who assumed +their respective offices were soon at loggerheads. Accordingly the +United States placed the republic under military rule, until a President +could be elected who might be able to retain his post without too much +"friendly observation" from Washington, and a Minister of War could be +appointed who would refrain from making war on the President! Then the +organization of a new party to combat the previous inordinate display +of personalities in politics created some hope that the republic would +accomplish its own redemption. + +Only because of its relation to the wars of emancipation and to the +Dominican Republic, need the negro state of Haiti, occupying the western +part of the Caribbean island, be mentioned in connection with the story +of the Hispanic nations. Suffice it to say that the fact that their +color was different and that they spoke a variant of French instead of +Spanish did not prevent the inhabitants of this state from offering a +far worse spectacle of political and financial demoralization than +did their neighbors to the eastward. Perpetual commotions and repeated +interventions by American and European naval forces on behalf of the +foreign residents, eventually made it imperative for the United States +to take direct charge of the republic. In 1916, by a convention +which placed the finances under American control, created a native +constabulary under American officers, and imposed a number of other +restraints, the United States converted Haiti into what is practically a +protectorate. + + + +CHAPTER XII. PAN-AMERICANISM AND THE GREAT WAR + +While the Hispanic republics were entering upon the second century of +their independent life, the idea of a certain community of interests +between themselves and the United States began to assume a fairly +definite form. Though emphasized by American statesmen and publicists +in particular, the new point of view was not generally understood or +appreciated by the people of either this country or its fellow nations +to the southward. It seemed, nevertheless, to promise an effective +cooperation in spirit and action between them and came therefore to be +called "Pan-Americanism." + +This sentiment of inter-American solidarity sprang from several sources. +The periodical conferences of the United States and its sister republics +gave occasion for an interchange of official courtesies and expressions +of good feeling. Doubtless, also, the presence of delegates from the +Hispanic countries at the international gatherings at The Hague served +to acquaint the world at large with the stability, strength, wealth, and +culture of their respective lands. Individual Americans took an active +interest in their fellows of Hispanic stock and found their interest +reciprocated. Motives of business or pleasure and a desire to obtain +personal knowledge about one another led to visits and countervisits +that became steadily more frequent. Societies were created to encourage +the friendship and acquaintance thus formed. Scientific congresses were +held and institutes were founded in which both the United States and +Hispanic America were represented. Books, articles, and newspaper +accounts about one another's countries were published in increasing +volume. Educational institutions devoted a constantly growing attention +to inter-American affairs. Individuals and commissions were dispatched +by the Hispanic nations and the United States to study one another's +conditions and to confer about matters of mutual concern. Secretaries of +State, Ministers of Foreign Affairs, and other distinguished personages +interchanged visits. Above all, the common dangers and responsibilities +falling upon the Americas at large as a consequence of the European war +seemed likely to bring the several nations into a harmony of feeling and +relationship to which they had never before attained. + +Pan-Americanism, however, was destined to remain largely a generous +ideal. The action of the United States in extending its direct influence +over the small republics in and around the Caribbean aroused +the suspicion and alarm of Hispanic Americans, who still feared +imperialistic designs on the part of that country now more than ever the +Colossus of the North. "The art of oratory among the Yankees," declared +a South American critic, "is lavish with a fraternal idealism; but +strong wills enforce their imperialistic ambitions." Impassioned +speakers and writers adjured the ghost of Hispanic confederation to rise +and confront the new northern peril. They even advocated an appeal +to Great Britain, Germany, or Japan, and they urged closer economic, +social, and intellectual relations with the countries of Europe. + +It was while the United States was thus widening the sphere of its +influence in the Caribbean that the "A B C" powers--Argentina, Brazil, +and Chile--reached an understanding which was in a sense a measure of +self-defense. For some years cordial relations had existed among these +three nations which had grown so remarkably in strength and prestige. +It was felt that by united action they might set up in the New World +the European principle of a balance of power, assume the leadership +in Hispanic America, and serve in some degree as a counterpoise to the +United States. Nevertheless they were disposed to cooperate with their +northern neighbor in the peaceable adjustment of conflicts in which +other Hispanic countries were concerned, provided that the mediation +carried on by such a "concert of the western world" did not include +actual intervention in the internal affairs of the countries involved. + +With this attitude of the public mind, it is not strange that the +Hispanic republics at large should have been inclined to look with scant +favor upon proposals made by the United States, in 1916, to render the +spirit of Pan-Americanism more precise in its operation. The proposals +in substance were these: that all the nations of America "mutually agree +to guarantee the territorial integrity" of one another; to "maintain a +republican form of government"; to prohibit the "exportation of arms +to any but the legally constituted governments"; and to adopt laws of +neutrality which would make it "impossible to filibustering expeditions +to threaten or carry on revolutions in neighboring republics." These +proposals appear to have received no formal approval beyond what is +signified by the diplomatic expression "in principle." Considering the +disparity in strength, wealth, and prestige between the northern +country and its southern fellows, suggestions of the sort could be made +practicable only by letting the United States do whatever it might +think needful to accomplish the objects which it sought. Obviously the +Hispanic nations, singly or collectively, would hardly venture to take +any such action within the borders of the United States itself, if, for +example, it failed to maintain what, in their opinion, was "a republican +form of government." A full acceptance of the plan accordingly would +have amounted to a recognition of American overlordship, and this they +were naturally not disposed to admit. + +The common perils and duties confronting the Americas as a result of +the Great War, however, made close cooperation between the Hispanic +republics and the United States up to a certain point indispensable. +Toward that transatlantic struggle the attitude of all the nations of +the New World at the outset was substantially the same. Though strongly +sympathetic on the whole with the "Allies" and notably with France, the +southern countries nevertheless declared their neutrality. More than +that, they tried to convert neutrality into a Pan-American policy, +instead of regarding it as an official attitude to be adopted by the +republics separately. Thus when the conflict overseas began to injure +the rights of neutrals, Argentina and other nations urged that the +countries of the New World jointly agree to declare that direct maritime +commerce between American lands should be considered as "inter-American +coastwise trade," and that the merchant ships engaged in it, whatever +the flag under which they sailed, should be looked upon as neutral. +Though the South American countries failed to enlist the support of +their northern neighbor in this bold departure from international +precedent, they found some compensation for their disappointment in the +closer commercial and financial relations which they established with +the United States. + +Because of the dependence of the Hispanic nations, and especially those +of the southern group, on the intimacy of their economic ties with the +belligerents overseas, they suffered from the ravages of the struggle +more perhaps than other lands outside of Europe. Negotiations for +prospective loans were dropped. Industries were suspended, work on +public improvements was checked, and commerce brought almost to a +standstill. As the revenues fell off and ready money became scarce, +drastic measures had to be devised to meet the financial strain. For the +protection of credit, bank holidays were declared, stock exchanges were +closed, moratoria were set up in nearly all the countries, taxes +and duties were increased, radical reductions in expenditure were +undertaken, and in a few cases large quantities of paper money were +issued. + +With the European market thus wholly or partially cut off, the +Hispanic republics were forced to supply the consequent shortage with +manufactured articles and other goods from the United States and to send +thither their raw materials in exchange. To their northern neighbor they +had to turn also for pecuniary aid. A Pan-American financial conference +was held at Washington in 1915, and an international high commission was +appointed to carry its recommendations into effect. Gradually most of +the Hispanic countries came to show a favorable trade balance. Then, as +the war drew into its fourth year, several of them even began to enjoy +great prosperity. That Pan-Americanism had not meant much more than +cooperation for economic ends seemed evident when, on April 6, 1917, +the United States declared war on Germany. Instead of following +spontaneously in the wake of their great northern neighbor, the Hispanic +republics were divided by conflicting currents of opinion and hesitated +as to their proper course of procedure. While a majority of them +expressed approval of what the United States had done, and while Uruguay +for its part asserted that "no American country, which in defense of its +own rights should find itself in a state of war with nations of other +continents, would be treated as a belligerent," Mexico veered almost to +the other extreme by proposing that the republics of America agree to +lay an embargo on the shipment of munitions to the warring powers. + +As a matter of fact, only seven out of the nineteen Hispanic nations saw +fit to imitate the example set by their northern neighbor and to declare +war on Germany. These were Cuba--in view of its "duty toward the United +States," Panama, Guatemala, Brazil, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. +Since the Dominican Republic at the time was under American military +control, it was not in a position to choose its course. Four countries +Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Uruguay--broke off diplomatic relations +with Germany. The other seven republics--Mexico, Salvador, Colombia, +Venezuela, Chile, Argentina, and Paraguay--continued their formal +neutrality. In spite of a disclosure made by the United States of +insulting and threatening utterances on the part of the German charge +d'affaires in Argentina, which led to popular outbreaks at the capital +and induced the national Congress to declare in favor of a severance of +diplomatic relations with that functionary's Government, the President +of the republic stood firm in his resolution to maintain neutrality. +If Pan-Americanism had ever involved the idea of political cooperation +among the nations of the New World, it broke down just when it might +have served the greatest of purposes. Even the "A B C" combination +itself had apparently been shattered. + +A century and more had now passed since the Spanish and Portuguese +peoples of the New World had achieved their independence. Eighteen +political children of various sizes and stages of advancement, or +backwardness, were born of Spain in America, and one acknowledged the +maternity of Portugal. Big Brazil has always maintained the happiest +relations with the little mother in Europe, who still watches with +pride the growth of her strapping youngster. Between Spain and her +descendants, however, animosity endured for many years after they had +thrown off the parental yoke. Yet of late, much has been done on both +sides to render the relationship cordial. The graceful act of Spain in +sending the much-beloved Infanta Isabel to represent her in Argentina +and Chile at the celebration of the centennial anniversary of their cry +for independence, and to wish them Godspeed on their onward journey, was +typical of the yearning of the mother country for her children overseas, +despite the lapse of years and political ties. So, too, her ablest men +of intellect have striven nobly and with marked success to revive +among them a sense of filial affection and gratitude for all that Spain +contributed to mold the mind and heart of her kindred in distant +lands. On their part, the Hispanic Americans have come to a clearer +consciousness of the fact that on the continents of the New World there +are two distinct types of civilization, with all that each connotes of +differences in race, psychology, tradition, language, and custom--their +own, and that represented by the United States. Appreciative though +the southern countries are of their northern neighbor, they cling +nevertheless to their heritage from Spain and Portugal in whatever seems +conducive to the maintenance of their own ideals of life and thought. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + +For anything like a detailed study of the history of the Hispanic +nations of America, obviously one must consult works written in Spanish +and Portuguese. There are many important books, also, in French and +German; but, with few exceptions, the recommendations for the general +reader will be limited to accounts in English. + +A very useful outline and guide to recent literature on the subject is +W. W. Pierson, Jr., "A Syllabus of Latin-American History" (Chapel Hill, +North Carolina, 1917). A brief introduction to the history and present +aspects of Hispanic American civilization is W. R. Shepherd, "Latin +America" (New York, 1914). The best general accounts of the Spanish +and Portuguese colonial systems will be found in Charles de Lannoy and +Herman van der Linden, "Histoire de L'Expansion Coloniale des Peuples +Europeans: Portugal et Espagne" (Brussels and Paris, 1907), and Kurt +Simon, "Spanien and Portugal als See and Kolonialmdchte" (Hamburg, +1913). For the Spanish colonial regime alone, E. G. Bourne, "Spain in +America" (New York, 1904) is excellent. The situation in southern South +America toward the close of Spanish rule is well described in Bernard +Moses, "South America on the Eve of Emancipation" (New York, 1908). +Among contemporary accounts of that period, Alexander von Humboldt and +Aime Bonpland, "Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions +of America", 3 vols. (London, 1881); Alexander von Humboldt, "Political +Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain", 4 vols. (London,1811-1822); and F. +R. J. de Pons, "Travels in South America", 2 vols. (London, 1807), are +authoritative, even if not always easy to read. + +On the wars of independence, see the scholarly treatise by W. S. +Robertson, "Rise of the Spanish-American Republics as Told in the +Lives of their Liberators" (New York, 1918); Bartolome Mitre, "The +Emancipation of South America" (London, 1893)--a condensed translation +of the author's "Historia de San Martin", and wholly favorable to that +patriot; and F. L. Petre, "Simon Bolivar" (London, 1910)--impartial +at the expense of the imagination. Among the numerous contemporary +accounts, the following will be found serviceable: W. D. Robinson, +"Memoirs of the Mexican Revolution" (Philadelphia, 1890); J. R. +Poinsett, "Notes on Mexico" (London, 1825); H. M. Brackenridge, "Voyage +to South America," 2 vols. (London, 1820); W. B. Stevenson, "Historical +and Descriptive Narrative of Twenty Years' Residence in South America", +3 vols. (London, 1895); J. Miller, "Memoirs of General Miller in the +Service of the Republic of Peru", 2 vols. (London, 1828); H. L. V. +Ducoudray Holstein, "Memoirs of Simon Bolivar", 2 vols. (London, 1830), +and John Armitage, "History of Brazil", 2 vols. (London, 1836). + +The best books on the history of the republics as a whole since the +attainment of independence, and written from an Hispanic American +viewpoint, are F. Garcia Calderon, "Latin America, its Rise and +Progress" (New York, 1913), and M. de Oliveira Lima, "The Evolution of +Brazil Compared with that of Spanish and Anglo-Saxon America" (Stanford +University, California, 1914). The countries of Central America are +dealt with by W. H. Koebel, "Central America" (New York, 1917), and of +South America by T. C. Dawson, "The South American Republics", 2 vols. +(New York, 1903-1904), and C. E. Akers, "History of South America" +(London, 1912), though in a manner that often confuses rather than +enlightens. + +Among the histories and descriptions of individual countries, arranged +in alphabetical order, the following are probably the most useful to the +general reader: W. A. Hirst, "Argentina" (New York, 1910); Paul Walle, +"Bolivia" (New York, 1914); Pierre Denis, "Brazil" (New York, 1911); +G. F. S. Elliot, "Chile" (New York, 1907); P. J. Eder, "Colombia" (New +York, 1913); J. B. Calvo, "The Republic of Costa Rica" (Chicago, 1890); +A. G. Robinson, "Cuba, Old and New" (New York, 1915); Otto Schoenrich, +"Santo Domingo" (New York, 1918); C. R. Enock, "Ecuador" (New York, +1914); C. R. Enock, "Mexico" (New York, 1909); W. H. Koebel, "Paraguay" +(New York, 1917); C. R. Enock, "Peru" (New York, 1910); W. H. Koebel, +"Uruguay" (New York, 1911), and L. V. Dalton, "Venezuela" (New York, +1912). Of these, the books by Robinson and Eder, on Cuba and Colombia, +respectively, are the most readable and reliable. + +For additional bibliographical references see "South America" and the +articles on individual countries in "The Encyclopaedia Britannica", 11th +edition, and in Marrion Wilcox and G. E. Rines, "Encyclopedia of Latin +America" (New York, 1917). + +Of contemporary or later works descriptive of the life and times of +eminent characters in the history of the Hispanic American republics +since 1830, a few may be taken as representative. Rosas: J. A. King, +"Twenty-four Years in the Argentine Republic" (London, 1846), and +Woodbine Parish, "Buenos Ayres and the Provinces of the Rio de la Plata" +(London, 1850). Francia: J. R. Rengger, "Reign of Dr. Joseph Gaspard +Roderick [!] de Francia in Paraguay" (London, 1827); J. P. and W. P. +Robertson, "Letters on South America", 3 vols. (London, 1843), and E. +L. White, "El Supremo", a novel (New York, 1916). Santa Anna: Waddy +Thompson, "Recollections of Mexico" (New York, 1846), and F. E. Ingles, +Calderon de la Barca, "Life in Mexico" (London, 1859.). Juarez: U. +R. Burke, "Life of Benito Juarez" (London, 1894). Solano Lopez: T. J. +Hutchinson, "Parana; with Incidents of the Paraguayan War and South +American Recollections" (London, 1868); George Thompson, "The War in +Paraguay" (London, 1869); R. F. Burton, "Letters from the Battle-fields +of Paraguay" (London, 1870), and C. A. Washburn, "The History of +Paraguay", 2 vols. (Boston, 1871). Pedro II: J. C. Fletcher and D. P. +Kidder, "Brazil and the Brazilians" (Boston, 1879), and Frank Bennett, +"Forty Years in Brazil"(London, 1914). Garcia Moreno: Frederick +Hassaurek, "Four Years among Spanish Americans"(New York, 1867). Guzman +Blanco: C. D. Dance, "Recollections of Four Years in Venezuela" (London, +1876). Diaz: James Creelman, "Diaz, Master of Mexico" (New York, 1911). +Balmaceda: M. H. Hervey, "Dark Days in Chile" (London, 1891-1890. +Carranza: L. Gutierrez de Lara and Edgcumb Pinchon, "The Mexican People: +their Struggle for Freedom" (New York, 1914). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Hispanic Nations of the New World, by +William R. Shepherd + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISPANIC NATIONS *** + +***** This file should be named 3042.txt or 3042.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/4/3042/ + +Produced by The James J. 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If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation" + the 60 days following each date you prepare (or were + legally required to prepare) your annual (or equivalent + periodic) tax return. Please contact us beforehand to + let us know your plans and to work out the details. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +The Project gratefully accepts contributions of money, time, +public domain etexts, and royalty free copyright licenses. +If you are interested in contributing scanning equipment or +software or other items, please contact Michael Hart at: +hart@pobox.com + +*END THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.07.00*END* + + + + +Title: The Hispanic Nations of the New World, A Chronicle of our +Southern Neighbors + +Author: William R. Shepherd + +THIS BOOK, VOLUME 50 IN THE CHRONICLES OF AMERICA SERIES, ALLEN +JOHNSON, EDITOR, WAS DONATED TO PROJECT GUTENBERG BY THE JAMES J. +KELLY LIBRARY OF ST. GREGORY'S UNIVERSITY; THANKS TO ALEV AKMAN. + +Scanned by Dianne Bean. Proofed by Joseph Buersmeyer. + + +THE HISPANIC NATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD, A CHRONICLE OF OUR +SOUTHERN NEIGHBORS + +BY WILLIAM R. SHEPHERD + +NEW HAVEN: YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS +TORONTO: GLASGOW, BROOK & CO. +LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD +OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS + +1919 + + +CONTENTS + +I. THE HERITAGE FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL + +II. "OUR OLD KING OR NONE" + +III. "INDEPENDENCE OR DEATH" + +IV. PLOUGHING THE SEA + +V. THE AGE OF THE DICTATORS + +VI. PERIL FROM ABROAD + +VII. GREATER STATES AND LESSER + +VIII. "ON THE MARGIN OF INTERNATIONAL LIFE" + +IX. THE REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA + +X. MEXICO IN REVOLUTION + +XI. THE REPUBLICS OF THE CARIBBEAN + +XII. PAN-AMERICANISM AND THE GREAT WAR + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + + + +THE HISPANIC NATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD + +CHAPTER I. THE HERITAGE FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL + +At the time of the American Revolution most of the New World +still belonged to Spain and Portugal, whose captains and +conquerors had been the first to come to its shores. Spain had +the lion's share, but Portugal held Brazil, in itself a vast land +of unsuspected resources. No empire mankind had ever yet known +rivaled in size the illimitable domains of Spain and Portugal in +the New World; and none displayed such remarkable contrasts in +land and people. Boundless plains and forests, swamps and +deserts, mighty mountain chains, torrential streams and majestic +rivers, marked the surface of the country. This vast territory +stretched from the temperate prairies west of the Mississippi +down to the steaming lowlands of Central America, then up through +tablelands in the southern continent to high plateaus, miles +above sea level, where the sun blazed and the cold, dry air was +hard to breathe, and then higher still to the lofty peaks of the +Andes, clad in eternal snow or pouring fire and smoke from their +summits in the clouds, and thence to the lower temperate valleys, +grassy pampas, and undulating hills of the far south. + +Scattered over these vast colonial domains in the Western World +were somewhere between 12,000,000 and 19,000,000 people subject +to Spain, and perhaps 3,000,000, to Portugal; the great majority +of them were Indians and negroes, the latter predominating in the +lands bordering on the Caribbean Sea and along the shores of +Brazil. Possibly one-fourth of the inhabitants came of European +stock, including not only Spaniards and their descendants but +also the folk who spoke English in the Floridas and French in +Louisiana. + +During the centuries which had elapsed since the entry of the +Spaniards and Portuguese into these regions an extraordinary +fusion of races had taken place. White, red, and black had +mingled to such an extent that the bulk of the settled population +became half-caste. Only in the more temperate regions of the far +north and south, where the aborigines were comparatively few or +had disappeared altogether, did the whites remain racially +distinct. Socially the Indian and the negro counted for little. +They constituted the laboring class on whom all the burdens fell +and for whom advantages in the body politic were scant. Legally +the Indian under Spanish rule stood on a footing of equality with +his white fellows, and many a gifted native came to be reckoned a +force in the community, though his social position remained a +subordinate one. Most of the negroes were slaves and were more +kindly treated by the Spaniards than by the Portuguese. + +Though divided among themselves, the Europeans were everywhere +politically dominant. The Spaniard was always an individualist. +Besides, he often brought from the Old World petty provincial +traditions which were intensified in the New. The inhabitants of +towns, many of which had been founded quite independently of one +another, knew little about their remote neighbors and often were +quite willing to convert their ignorance into prejudice: The +dweller in the uplands and the resident on the coast were wont to +view each other with disfavor. The one was thought heavy and +stupid, the other frivolous and lazy. Native Spaniards regarded +the Creoles, or American born, as persons who had degenerated +more or less by their contact with the aborigines and the +wilderness. For their part, the Creoles looked upon the Spaniards +as upstarts and intruders, whose sole claim to consideration lay +in the privileges dispensed them by the home government. In +testimony of this attitude they coined for their oversea kindred +numerous nicknames which were more expressive than complimentary. +While the Creoles held most of the wealth and of the lower +offices, the Spaniards enjoyed the perquisites and emoluments of +the higher posts. + +Though objects of disdain to both these masters, the Indians +generally preferred the Spaniard to the Creole. The Spaniard +represented a distant authority interested in the welfare of its +humbler subjects and came less into actual daily contact with the +natives. While it would hardly be correct to say that the +Spaniard was viewed as a protector and the Creole as an +oppressor, yet the aborigines unconsciously made some such hazy +distinction if indeed they did not view all Europeans with +suspicion and dislike. In Brazil the relation of classes was much +the same, except that here the native element was much less +conspicuous as a social factor. + +These distinctions were all the more accentuated by the absence +both of other European peoples and of a definite middle class of +any race. Everywhere in the areas tenanted originally by +Spaniards and Portuguese the European of alien stock was +unwelcome, even though he obtained a grudging permission from the +home governments to remain a colonist. In Brazil, owing to the +close commercial connections between Great Britain and Portugal, +foreigners were not so rigidly excluded as in Spanish America. +The Spaniard was unwilling that lands so rich in natural +treasures should be thrown open to exploitation by others, even +if the newcomer professed the Catholic faith. The heretic was +denied admission as a matter of course. Had the foreigner been +allowed to enter, the risk of such exploitation doubtless would +have been increased, but a middle class might have arisen to weld +the the discordant factions into a society which had common +desires and aspirations. With the development of commerce and +industry, with the growth of activities which bring men into +touch with each other in everyday affairs, something like a +solidarity of sentiment might have been awakened. In its absence +the only bond among the dominant whites was their sense of +superiority to the colored masses beneath them. + +Manual labor and trade had never attracted the Spaniards and the +Portuguese. The army, the church, and the law were the three +callings that offered the greatest opportunity for distinction. +Agriculture, grazing, and mining they did not disdain, provided +that superintendence and not actual work was the main requisite. +The economic organization which the Spaniards and Portuguese +established in America was naturally a more or less faithful +reproduction of that to which they had been accustomed at home. +Agriculture and grazing became the chief occupations. Domestic +animals and many kinds of plants brought from Europe throve +wonderfully in their new home. Huge estates were the rule; small +farms, the exception. On the ranches and plantations vast droves +of cattle, sheep, and horses were raised, as well as immense +crops. Mining, once so much in vogue, had become an occupation of +secondary importance. + +On their estates the planter, the ranchman, and the mine owner +lived like feudal overlords, waited upon by Indian and negro +peasants who also tilled the fields, tended the droves, and dug +the earth for precious metals and stones. Originally the natives +had been forced to work under conditions approximating actual +servitude, but gradually the harsher features of this system had +given way to a mode of service closely resembling peonage. Paid a +pitifully small wage, provided with a hut of reeds or sundried +mud and a tiny patch of soil on which to grow a few hills of the +corn and beans that were his usual nourishment, the ordinary +Indian or half-caste laborer was scarcely more than a beast of +burden, a creature in whom civic virtues of a high order were not +likely to develop. If he betook himself to the town his possible +usefulness lessened in proportion as he fell into drunken or +dissolute habits, or lapsed into a state of lazy and vacuous +dreaminess, enlivened only by chatter or the rolling of a +cigarette. On the other hand, when employed in a capacity where +native talent might be tested, he often revealed a power of +action which, if properly guided, could be turned to excellent +account. As a cowboy, for example, he became a capital horseman, +brave, alert, skillful, and daring. + +Commerce with Portugal and Spain was long confined to yearly +fairs and occasional trading fleets that plied between fixed +points. But when liberal decrees threw open numerous ports in the +mother countries to traffic and the several colonies were given +also the privilege of exchanging their products among themselves, +the volume of exports and imports increased and gave an impetus +to activity which brought a notable release from the torpor and +vegetation characterizing earlier days. Yet, even so, +communication was difficult and irregular. By sea the distances +were great and the vessels slow. Overland the natural obstacles +to transportation were so numerous and the methods of conveyance +so cumbersome and expensive that the people of one province were +practically strangers to their neighbors. + +Matters of the mind and of the soul were under the guardianship +of the Church. More than merely a spiritual mentor, it controlled +education and determined in large measure the course of +intellectual life. Possessed of vast wealth in lands and +revenues, its monasteries and priories, its hospitals and +asylums, its residences of ecclesiastics, were the finest +buildings in every community, adorned with the masterpieces of +sculptors and painters. A village might boast of only a few +squalid huts, yet there in the "plaza," or central square, loomed +up a massively imposing edifice of worship, its towers pointing +heavenward, the sign and symbol of triumphant power. + +The Church, in fact, was the greatest civilizing agency that +Spain and Portugal had at their disposal. It inculcated a +reverence for the monarch and his ministers and fostered a +deep-rooted sentiment of conservatism which made disloyalty and +innovation almost sacrilegious. In the Spanish colonies in +particular the Church not only protected the natives against the +rapacity of many a white master but taught them the rudiments of +the Christian faith, as well as useful arts and trades. In remote +places, secluded so far as possible from contact with Europeans, +missionary pioneers gathered together groups of neophytes whom +they rendered docile and industrious, it is true, but whom they +often deprived of initiative and selfreliance and kept illiterate +and superstitious. + +Education was reserved commonly for members of the ruling class. +As imparted in the universities and schools, it savored strongly +of medievalism. Though some attention was devoted to the natural +sciences, experimental methods were not encouraged and found no +place in lectures and textbooks. Books, periodicals, and other +publications came under ecclesiastical inspection, and a vigilant +censorship determined what was fit for the public to read. + +Supreme over all the colonial domains was the government of their +majesties, the monarchs of Spain and Portugal. A ministry and a +council managed the affairs of the inhabitants of America and +guarded their destinies in accordance with the theories of +enlightened despotism then prevailing in Europe. The Spanish +dominions were divided into viceroyalties and subdivided into +captaincies general, presidencies, and intendancies. Associated +with the high officials who ruled them were audiencias, or +boards, which were at once judicial and administrative. Below +these individuals and bodies were a host of lesser functionaries +who, like their superiors, held their posts by appointment. In +Brazil the governor general bore the title of viceroy and carried +on the administration assisted by provincial captains, supreme +courts, and local officers. + +This control was by no means so autocratic as it might seem. +Portugal had too many interests elsewhere, and was too feeble +besides, to keep tight rein over a territory so vast and a +population so much inclined as the Brazilian to form itself into +provincial units, jealous of the central authority. Spain, on its +part, had always practised the good old Roman rule of "divide and +govern." Its policy was to hold the balance among officials, +civil and ecclesiastical, and inhabitants, white and colored. It +knew how strongly individualistic the Spaniard was and realized +the full force of the adage, "I obey, but I do not fulfill! " +Legislatures and other agencies of government directly +representative of the people did not exist in Spanish or +Portuguese America. The Spanish cabildo, or town council, +however, afforded an opportunity for the expression of the +popular will and often proved intractable. Its membership was +appointive, elective, hereditary, and even purchasable, but the +form did not affect the substance. The Spanish Americans had an +instinct for politics. "Here all men govern," declared one of the +viceroys; "the people have more part in political discussions +than in any other provinces in the world; a council of war sits +in every house." + + + +CHAPTER II. "OUR OLD KING OR NONE" + +The movement which led eventually to the emancipation of the +colonies differed from the local uprisings which occurred in +various parts of South America during the eighteenth century. +Either the arbitrary conduct of individual governors or excessive +taxation had caused the earlier revolts. To the final revolution +foreign nations and foreign ideas gave the necessary impulse. A +few members of the intellectual class had read in secret the +writings of French and English philosophers. Othershad traveled +abroad and came home to whisper to their countrymen what they had +seen and heard in lands more progressive than Spain and Portugal. +The commercial relations, both licit and illicit, which Great +Britain had maintained with several of the colonies had served to +diffuse among them some notions of what went on in the busy world +outside. + +By gaining its independence, the United States had set a +practical example of what might be done elsewhere in America. +Translated into French, the Declaration of Independence was read +and commented upon by enthusiasts who dreamed of the possibility +of applying its principles in their own lands. More powerful +still were the ideas liberated by the French Revolution and +Napoleon. Borne across the ocean, the doctrines of "Liberty, +Fraternity, Equality "stirred the ardent-minded to thoughts of +action, though the Spanish and Portuguese Americans who schemed +and plotted were the merest handful. The seed they planted was +slow to germinate among peoples who had been taught to regard +things foreign as outlandish and heretical. Many years therefore +elapsed before the ideas of the few became the convictions of the +masses, for the conservatism and loyalty of the common people +were unbelieveably steadfast. + +Not Spanish and Portuguese America, but Santo Domingo, an island +which had been under French rule since 1795 and which was +tenanted chiefly by ignorant and brutalized negro slaves, was the +scene of the first effectual assertion of independence in the +lands originally colonized by Spain. Rising in revolt against +their masters, the negroes had won complete control under their +remarkable commander, Toussaint L'Ouverture, when Napoleon +Bonaparte, then First Consul, decided to restore the old regime. +But the huge expedition which was sent to reduce the island ended +in absolute failure. After a ruthless racial warfare, +characterized by ferocity on both sides, the French retired. In +1804 the negro leaders proclaimed the independence of the island +as the "Republic of Haiti," under a President who, appreciative +of the example just set by Napoleon, informed his followers that +he too had assumed the august title of "Emperor"! His immediate +successor in African royalty was the notorious Henri Christophe, +who gathered about him a nobility garish in color and taste-- +including their sable lordships, the "Duke of Marmalade" and the +"Count of Lemonade"; and who built the palace of "Sans Souci" and +the countryseats of "Queen's Delight" and "King's Beautiful +View," about which cluster tales of barbaric pleasure that rival +the grim legends clinging to the parapets and enshrouding the +dungeons of his mountain fortress of "La Ferriere." None of these +black or mulatto potentates, however, could expel French +authority from the eastern part of Santo Domingo. That task was +taken in hand by the inhabitants themselves, and in 1809 they +succeeded in restoring the control of Spain. Meanwhile events +which had been occurring in South America prepared the way for +the movement that was ultimately to banish the flags of both +Spain and Portugal from the continents of the New World. As the +one country had fallen more or less tinder the influence of +France, so the other had become practically dependent upon Great +Britain. Interested in the expansion of its commerce and viewing +the outlying possessions of peoples who submitted to French +guidance as legitimate objects for seizure, Great Britain in 1797 +wrested Trinidad from the feeble grip of Spain and thus acquired +a strategic position very near South America itself. Haiti, +Trinidad, and Jamaica, in fact, all became Centers of +revolutionary agitation and havens of refuge for. Spanish +American radicals in the troublous years to follow. + +Foremost among the early conspirators was the Venezuelan, +Francisco de Miranda, known to his fellow Americans of Spanish +stock as the "Precursor." Napoleon once remarked of him: "He is a +Don Quixote, with this difference--he is not crazy . . . . The +man has sacred fire in his soul." An officer in the armies of +Spain and of revolutionary France and later a resident of London, +Miranda devoted thirty years of his adventurous life to the cause +of independence for his countrymen. With officials of the British +Government he labored long and zealously, eliciting from them +vague promises of armed support and some financial aid. It was in +London, also, that he organized a group of sympathizers into the +secret society called the "Grand Lodge of America." With it, or +with its branches in France and Spain, many of the leaders of the +subsequent revolution came to be identified. + +In 1806, availing himself of the negligence of the United States +and having the connivance of the British authorities in Trinidad, +Miranda headed two expeditions to the coast of Venezuela. He had +hoped that his appearance would be the signal for a general +uprising; instead, he was treated with indifference. His +countrymen seemed to regard him as a tool of Great Britain, and +no one felt disposed to accept the blessings of liberty under +that guise. Humiliated, but not despairing, Miranda returned to +London to await a happier day. + +Two British expeditions which attempted to conquer the region +about the Rio de la Plata in 1806 and 1807 were also frustrated +by this same stubborn loyalty. When the Spanish viceroy fled, the +inhabitants themselves rallied to the defense of the country and +drove out the invaders. Thereupon the people of Buenos Aires, +assembled in cabildo abierto, or town meeting, deposed the +viceroy and chose their victorious leader in his stead until a +successor could be regularly appointed. + +Then, in 1808, fell the blow which was to shatter the bonds +uniting Spain to its continental dominions in America. The +discord and corruption which prevailed in that unfortunate +country afforded Napoleon an opportunity to oust its feeble king +and his incompetent son, Ferdinand, and to place Joseph Bonaparte +on the throne. But the master of Europe underestimated the +fighting ability of Spaniards. Instead of humbly complying with +his mandate, they rose in arms against the usurper and created a +central junta, or revolutionary committee, to govern in the name +of Ferdinand VII, as their rightful ruler. + +The news of this French aggression aroused in the colonies a +spirit of resistance as vehement as that in the mother country. +Both Spaniards and Creoles repudiated the "intruder king." +Believing, as did their comrades oversea, that Ferdinand was a +helpless victim in the hands of Napoleon, they recognized the +revolutionary government and sent great sums of money to Spain to +aid in the struggle against the French. Envoys from Joseph +Bonaparte seeking an acknowledgment of his rule were angrily +rejected and were forced to leave. + +The situation on both sides of the ocean was now an extraordinary +one. Just as the junta in Spain had no legal right to govern, so +the officials in the colonies, holding their posts by appointment +from a deposed king, had no legal authority, and the people would +not allow them to accept new commissions from a usurper. The +Church, too, detesting Napoleon as the heir of a revolution that +had undermined the Catholic faith and regarding him as a godless +despot who had made the Pope a captive, refused to recognize the +French pretender. Until Ferdinand VII could be restored to his +throne, therefore, the colonists had to choose whether they would +carry on the administration under the guidance of the +self-constituted authorities in Spain, or should themselves +create similar organizations in each of the colonies to take +charge of affairs. The former course was favored by the official +element and its supporters among the conservative classes, the +latter by the liberals, who felt that they had as much right as +the people of the mother country to choose the form of government +best suited to their interests. + +Each party viewed the other with distrust. Opposition to the more +democratic procedure, it was felt, could mean nothing less than +secret submission to the pretensions of Joseph Bonaparte; whereas +the establishment in America of any organizations like those in +Spain surely indicated a spirit of disloyalty toward Ferdinand +VII himself. Under circumstances like these, when the junta and +its successor, the council of regency, refused to make +substantial concessions to the colonies, both parties were +inevitably drifting toward independence. In the phrase of Manuel +Belgrano, one of the great leaders in the viceroyalty of La +Plata, "our old King or none" became the watchword that gradually +shaped the thoughts of Spanish Americans. + +When, therefore, in 1810, the news came that the French army had +overrun Spain, democratic ideas so long cherished in secret and +propagated so industriously by Miranda and his followers at last +found expression in a series of uprisings in the four +viceroyalties of La Plata, Peru, New Granada, and New Spain. But +in each of these viceroyalties the revolution ran a different +course. Sometimes it was the capital city that led off; sometimes +a provincial town; sometimes a group of individuals in the +country districts. Among the actual participants in the various +movements very little harmony was to be found. Here a particular +leader claimed obedience; there a board of self-chosen +magistrates held sway; elsewhere a town or province refused to +acknowledge the central authority. To add to these complications, +in 1812, a revolutionary Cortes, or legislative body, assembled +at Cadiz, adopted for Spain and its dominions a constitution +providing for direct representation of the colonies in oversea +administration. Since arrangements of this sort contented many of +the Spanish Americans who had protested against existing abuses, +they were quite unwilling to press their grievances further. +Given all these evidences of division in activity and counsel, +one does not find it difficult to foresee the outcome. + +On May 25, 1810, popular agitation at Buenos Aires forced the +Spanish viceroy of La Plata to resign. The central authority was +thereupon vested in an elected junta that was to govern in the +name of Ferdinand VII. Opposition broke out immediately. The +northern and eastern parts of the viceroyalty showed themselves +quite unwilling to obey these upstarts. Meantime, urged on by +radicals who revived the Jacobin doctrines of revolutionary +France, the junta strove to suppress in rigorous fashion any +symptoms of disaffection; but it could do nothing to stem the +tide of separation in the rest of the viceroyalty--in Charcas +(Bolivia), Paraguay, and the Banda Oriental, or East Bank, of the +Uruguay. + +At Buenos Aires acute difference of opinion--about the extent to +which the movement should be carried and about the permanent form +of government to be adopted as well as the method of establishing +it--produced a series of political commotions little short of +anarchy. Triumvirates followed the junta into power; supreme +directors alternated with triumvirates; and constituent asmblies +came and went. Under one authority or another the name of the +viceroyalty was changed to "United Provinces of La Plata River"; +a seal, a flag ,and a coat of arms were chosen; and numerous +features of the Spanish regime were abolished, including titles +of nobility, the Inquisition, the slave trade, and restrictions +on the press. But so chaotic were the conditions within and so +disastrous the campaigns without, that eventually commissioners +were sent to Europe, bearing instructions to seek a king for the +distracted country. + +When Charcas fell under the control of the viceroy of Peru, +Paraguay set up a regime for itself. At Asuncion, the capital, a +revolutionary outbreak in 1811 replaced the Spanish intendant by +a triumvirate, of which the most prominent member was Dr. Jose +Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia. A lawyer by profession, familiar +with the history of Rome, an admirer of France and Napoleon, a +misanthrope and a recluse, possessing a blind faith in himself +and actuated by a sense of implacable hatred for all who might +venture to thwart his will, this extraordinary personage speedily +made himself master of the country. A population composed chiefly +of Indians, docile in temperament and submissive for many years +to the paternal rule of Jesuit missionaries, could not fail to +become pliant instruments in his hands. At his direction, +therefore, Paraguay declared itself independent of both Spain and +La Plata. This done, an obedient Congress elected Francia consul +of the republic and later invested him with the title of +dictator. In the Banda Oriental two distinct movements appeared. +Montevideo, the capital, long a center of royalist sympathies and +for some years hostile to the revolutionary government in Buenos +Aires, was reunited with La Plata in 1814. Elsewhere the people +of the province followed the fortunes of Jose Gervasio Artigas, +an able and valiant cavalry officer, who roamed through it at +will, bidding defiance to any authority not his own. Most of the +former viceroyalty of La Plata had thus, to all intents and +purposes, thrown off the yoke of Spain. + +Chile was the only other province that for a while gave promise +of similar action. Here again it was the capital city that took +the lead. On receipt of the news of the occurrences at Buenos +Aires in May, 1810, the people of Santiago forced the captain +general to resign and, on the 18th of September, replaced him by +a junta of their own choosing. But neither this body, nor its +successors, nor even the Congress that assembled the following +year, could establish a permanent and effective government. +Nowhere in Spanish America, perhaps, did the lower classes count +for so little, and the upper class for so much, as in Chile. +Though the great landholders were disposed to favor a reasonable +amount of local autonomy for the country, they refused to heed +the demands of the radicals for complete independence and the +establishwent of a republic. Accordingly, in proportion as their +opponents resorted to measures of compulsion, the gentry +gradually withdrew their support and offered little resistance +when troops dispatched by the viceroy of Peru restored the +Spanish regime in 1814. The irreconcilable among the patriots +fled over the Andes to the western part of La Plata, where they +found hospitable refuge. + +But of all the Spanish dominions in South America none witnessed +so desperate a struggle for emancipation as the viceroyalty of +New Granada. Learning of the catastrophe that had befallen the +mother country, the leading citizens of Caracas, acting in +conjunction with the cabildo, deposed the captain general on +April 19, 1810, and created a junta in his stead. The example was +quickly followed by most of the smaller divisions of the +province. Then when Miranda returned from England to head the +revolutionary movement, a Congress, on July 5, 1811, declared +Venezuela independent of Spain. Carried away, also, by the +enthusiasm of the moment, and forgetful of the utter +unpreparedness of the country, the Congress promulgated a federal +constitution modeled on that of the United States, which set +forth all the approved doctrines of the rights of man. + +Neither Miranda nor his youthful coadjutor, Simon Bolivar, soon +to become famous in the annals of Spanish American history, +approved of this plunge into democracy. Ardent as their +patriotism was, they knew that the country needed centralized +control and not experiments in confederation or theoretical +liberty. They speedily found out, also, that they could not count +on the support of the people at large. Then, almost as if Nature +herself disapproved of the whole proceeding, a frightful +earthquake in the following year shook many a Venezuelan town +into ruins. Everywhere the royalists took heart. Dissensions +broke out between Miranda and his subordinates. Betrayed into the +hands of his enemies, the old warrior himself was sent away to +die in a Spanish dungeon. And so the "earthquake" republic +collapsed. + +But the rigorous measures adopted by the royalists to sustain +their triumph enabled Bolivar to renew the struggle in 1813. He +entered upon a campaign which was signalized by acts of barbarity +on both sides. His declaration of "war to the death" was answered +in kind. Wholesale slaughter of prisoners, indiscriminate +pillage, and wanton destruction of property spread terror and +desolation throughout the country. Acclaimed "Liberator of +Venezuela" and made dictator by the people of Caracas, Bolivar +strove in vain to overcome the half-savage llaneros, or cowboys +of the plains, who despised the innovating aristocrats of the +capital. Though he won a few victories, he did not make the cause +of independence popular, and, realizing his failure, he retired +into New Granada. + +In this region an astounding series of revolutions and +counter-revolutions had taken place. Unmindful of pleas for +cooperation, the Creole leaders in town and district, from 1810 +onward, seized control of affairs in a fashion that betokened a +speedy disintegration of the country. Though the viceroy was +deposed and a general Congress was summoned to meet at the +capital, Bogota, efforts at centralization encountered opposition +in every quarter. Only the royalists managed to preserve a +semblance of unity. Separate republics sprang into being and in +1813 declared their independence of Spain. Presidents and +congresses were pitted against one another. Towns fought among +themselves. Even parishes demanded local autonomy. For a while +the services of Bolivar were invoked to force rebellious areas +into obedience to the principle of confederation, but with scant +result. Unable to agree with his fellow officers and displaying +traits of moral weakness which at this time as on previous +occasions showed that he had not yet risen to a full sense of +responsibility, the Liberator renounced the task and fled to +Jamaica. + +The scene now shifts northward to the viceroyalty of New Spain. +Unlike the struggles already described, the uprisings that began +in 1810 in central Mexico were substantially revolts of Indians +and half-castes against white domination. On the 16th of +September, a crowd of natives rose under the leadership of Miguel +Hidalgo, a parish priest of the village of Dolores. Bearing on +their banners the slogan, "Long live Ferdinand VII and down with +bad government, " the undisciplined crowd, soon to number tens of +thousands, aroused such terror by their behavior that the whites +were compelled to unite in self-defense. It mattered not whether +Hidalgo hoped to establish a republic or simply to secure for his +followers relief from oppression: in either case the whites could +expect only Indian domination. Before the trained forces of the +whites a horde of natives, so ignorant of modern warfare that +some of them tried to stop cannon balls by clapping their straw +hats over the mouths of the guns, could not stand their ground. +Hidalgo was captured and shot, but he was succeeded by Jose Maria +Morelos, also a priest. Reviving the old Aztec name for central +Mexico, he summoned a "Congress of Anahuac," which in 1813 +asserted that dependence on the throne of Spain was "forever +broken and dissolved." Abler and more humane than Hidalgo, he set +up a revolutionary government that the authorities of Mexico +failed for a while to suppress. + +In 1814, therefore, Spain still held the bulk of its dominions. +Trinidad, to be sure, had been lost to Great Britain, and both +Louisiana and West Florida to the United States. Royalist +control, furthermore, had ceased in parts of the viceroyalties of +La Plata and New Granada. To regain Trinidad and Louisiana was +hopeless: but a wise policy conciliation or an overwheming +display of armed force might yet restore Spanish rule where it +had been merely suspended. + +Very different was the course of events in Brazil. Strangely +enough, the first impulse toward independence was given by the +Portuguese royal family. Terrified by the prospective invasion of +the country by a French army, late in 1807 the Prince Regent, the +royal family, and a host of Portuguese nobles and commoners took +passage on British vessels and sailed to Rio de Janeiro. Brazil +thereupon became the seat of royal government and immediately +assumed an importance which it could never have attained as a +mere dependency. Acting under the advice of the British minister, +the Prince Regent threw open the ports of the colony to the ships +of all nations friendly to Portugal, gave his sanction to a +variety of reforms beneficial to commerce and industry, and even +permitted a printing press to be set up, though only for official +purposes. From all these benevolent activities Brazil derived +great advantages. On the other hand, the Prince Regent's aversion +to popular education or anything that might savor of democracy +and the greed of his followers for place and distinction +alienated his colonial subjects. They could not fail to contrast +autocracy in Brazil with the liberal ideas that had made headway +elsewhere in Spanish America. As a consequence a spirit of unrest +arose which boded ill for the maintenance of Portuguese rule. + + + +CHAPTER III "INDEPNDENCE OR DEATH" + +The restoration of Ferdinand VII to his throne in 1814 encouraged +the liberals of Spain, no less than the loyalists of Spanish +America, to hope that the "old King" would now grant a new +dispensation. Freedom of commerce and a fair measure of popular +representation in government, it was believed, would compensate +both the mother country for the suffering which it had undergone +during the Peninsular War and the colonies for the trials to +which loyalty had been subjected. But Ferdinand VII was a typical +Bourbon. Nothing less than an absolute reestablishment of the +earlier regime would satisfy him. On both sides of the Atlantic, +therefore, the liberals were forced into opposition to the crown, +although they were so far apart that they could not cooperate +with each other. Independence was to be the fortune of the +Spanish Americans, and a continuance of despotism, for a while, +the lot of the Spaniards. + +As the region of the viceroyalty of La Plata had been the first +to cast off the authority of the home government, so it was the +first to complete its separation from Spain. Despite the fact +that disorder was rampant everywhere and that most of the local +districts could not or would not send deputies, a congress that +assembled at Tucuman voted on July 9, 1816, to declare the +"United Provinces in South America" independent. Comprehensive +though the expression was, it applied only to the central part of +the former viceroyalty, and even there it was little more than an +aspiration. Mistrust of the authorities at Buenos Aires, +insistence upon provincial autonomy, failure to agree upon a +particular kind of republican government, and a lingering +inclination to monarchy made progress toward national unity +impossible. In 1819, to be sure, a constitution was adopted, +providing for a centralized government, but in the country at +large it encountered too much resistance from those who favored a +federal government to become effective. + +In the Banda Oriental, over most of which Artigas and his +horsemen held sway, chaotic conditions invited aggression from +the direction of Brazil. This East Bank of the Uruguay had long +been disputed territory between Spain and Portugal; and now its +definite acquisition by the latter seemed an easy undertaking. +Instead, however, the task turned out to be a truly formidable +one. Montevideo, feebly defended by the forces of the Government +at Buenos Aires, soon capitulated, but four years elapsed before +the rest of the country could be subdued. Artigas fled to +Paraguay, where he fell into the clutches of Francia, never to +escape. In 1821 the Banda Oriental was annexed to Brazil as the +Cisplatine Province. + +Over Paraguay that grim and somber potentate, known as "The +Supreme One"--El Supremo--presided with iron hand. In 1817 +Francia set up a despotism unique in the annals of South America. +Fearful lest contact with the outer world might weaken his +tenacious grip upon his subjects, whom he terrorized into +obedience, he barred approach to the country and suffered no one +to leave it. He organized and drilled an army obedient to his +will.. When he went forth by day, attended by an escort of +cavalry, the doors and windows of houses had to be kept closed +and no one was allowed on the streets. Night he spent till a late +hour in reading and study, changing his bedroom frequently to +avoid assassination. Religious functions that might disturb the +public peace he forbade. Compelling the bishop of Asuncion to +resign on account of senile debility, Francia himself assumed the +episcopal office. Even intermarriage among the old colonial +families he prohibited, so as to reduce all to a common social +level. He attained his object. Paraguay became a quiet state, +whatever might be said of its neighbors! + +Elsewhere in southern Spanish America a brilliant feat of arms +brought to the fore its most distinguished soldier. This was Jose +de San Martin of La Plata. Like Miranda, he had been an officer +in the Spanish army and had returned to his native land an ardent +apostle of independence. Quick to realize the fact that, so long +as Chile remained under royalist control, the possibility of an +attack from that quarter was a constant menace to the safety of +the newly constituted republic, he conceived the bold plan of +organizing near the western frontier an army--composed partly of +Chilean refugees and partly of his own countrymen--with which he +proposed to cross the Andes and meet the enemy on his own ground. +Among these fugitives was the able and valiant Bernardo +O'Higgins, son of an Irish officer who had been viceroy of Peru. +Cooperating with O'Higgins, San Martin fixed his headquarters at +Mendoza and began to gather and train the four thousand men whom +he judged needful for the enterprise. + +By January, 1817, the "Army of the Andes" was ready. To cross the +mountains meant to transport men, horses, artillery, and stores +to an altitude of thirteen thousand feet, where the Uspallata +Pass afforded an outlet to Chilean soil. This pass was nearly a +mile higher than the Great St. Bernard in the Alps, the crossing +of which gave Napoleon Bonaparte such renown. On the 12th of +February the hosts of San Martin hurled themselves upon the +royalists entrenched on the slopes of Chacabuco and routed them +utterly. The battle proved decisive not of the fortunes of Chile +alone but of those of all Spanish South America. As a viceroy of +Peru later confessed, "it marked the moment when the cause of +Spain in the Indies began to recede." + +Named supreme director by the people of Santiago, O'Higgins +fought vigorously though ineffectually to drive out the royalists +who, reinforced from Peru, held the region south of the capital. +That he failed did not deter him from having a vote taken under +military auspices, on the strength of which, on February 12, +1818, he declared Chile an independent nation, the date of the +proclamation being changed to the 1st of January, so as to make +the inauguration of the new era coincident with the entry of the +new year. San Martin, meanwhile, had been collecting +reinforcements with which to strike the final blow. On the 5th of +April, the Battle of Maipo gave him the victory he desired. +Except for a few isolated points to the southward, the power of +Spain had fallen. + +Until the fall of Napoleon in 1815 it had been the native +loyalists who had supported the cause of the mother country in +the Spanish dominions. Henceforth, free from the menace of the +European dictator, Spain could look to her affairs in America, +and during the next three years dispatched twenty-five thousand +men to bring the eolonies to obedience. These soldiers began +their task in the northern part of South America, and there they +ended it--in failure. To this failure the defection of native +royalists contributed, for they were alienated not so much by the +presence of the Spanish troops as by the often merciless severity +that marked their conduct. The atrocities may have been provoked +by the behavior of their opponents; but, be this as it may, the +patriots gained recruits after each victory. + +A Spanish army of more than ten thousand, under the command of +Pablo Morillo, arrived in Venezuela in April, 1815. He found the +province relatively tranquil and even disposed to welcome the +full restoration of royal government. Leaving a garrison +sufficient for the purpose of military occupation, Morillo sailed +for Cartagena, the key to New Granada. Besieged by land and sea, +the inhabitants of the town maintained for upwards of three +months a resistance which, in its heroism, privation, and +sacrifice, recalled the memorable defense of Saragossa in the +mother country against the French seven years before. With +Cartagena taken, regulars and loyalists united to stamp out the +rebellion elsewhere. At Bogoth, in particular, the new Spanish +viceroy installed by Morillo waged a savage war on all suspected +of aiding the patriot cause. He did not spare even women, and one +of his victims was a young heroine, Policarpa Salavarrieta by +name. Though for her execution three thousand soldiers were +detailed, the girl was unterrified by her doom and was earnestly +beseeching the loyalists among them to turn their arms against +the enemies of their country when a volley stretched her lifeless +on the ground. + +Meanwhile Bolivar had been fitting out, in Haiti and in the Dutch +island of Curacao, an expedition to take up anew the work of +freeing Venezuela. Hardly had the Liberator landed in May, 1816, +when dissensions with his fellow officers frustrated any prospect +of success. Indeed they obliged him to seek refuge once more in +Haiti. Eventually, however, most of the patriot leaders became +convinced that, if they were to entertain a hope of success, they +must entrust their fortunes to Bolivar as supreme commander. +Their chances of success were increased furthermore by the +support of the llaneros who had been won over to the cause of +independence. Under their redoubtable chieftain, Jose Antonio +Paez, these fierce and ruthless horsemen performed many a feat of +valor in the campaigns which followed. + +Once again on Venezuelan soil, Bolivar determined to transfer his +operations to the eastern part of the country, which seemed to +offer better strategic advantages than the region about Caracas. +But even here the jealousy of his officers, the insubordination +of the free lances, the stubborn resistance of the loyalists-- +upheld by the wealthy and conservative classes and the able +generalship of Morillo, who had returned from New Granada--made +the situation of the Liberator all through 1817 and 1818 +extremely precarious. Happily for his fading fortunes, his hands +were strengthened from abroad. The United States had recognized +the belligerency of several of the revolutionary governments in +South America and had sent diplomatic agents to them. Great +Britain had blocked every attempt of Ferdinand VII to obtain help +from the Holy Alliance in reconquering his dominions. And +Ferdinand had contributed to his own undoing by failing to heed +the urgent requests of Morillo for reinforcements to fill his +dwindling ranks. More decisive still were the services of some +five thousand British, Irish, French, and German volunteers, who +were often the mainstay of Bolivar and his lieutenants during the +later phases of the struggle, both in Venezuela and elsewhere. + +For some time the Liberator had been evolving a plan of attack +upon the royalists in New Granada, similar to the offensive +campaign which San Martin had conducted in Chile. More than that, +he had conceived the idea, once independence had been attained, +of uniting the western part of the viceroyalty with Venezuela +into a single republic. The latter plan he laid down before a +Congress which assembled at Angostura in February, 1819, and +which promptly chose him President of the republic and vested him +with the powers of dictator. In June, at the head of 2100 men, he +started on his perilous journey over the Andes. + +Up through the passes and across bleak plateaus the little army +struggled till it reached the banks of the rivulet of Boyaca, in +the very heart of New Granada. Here, on the 7th of August, +Bolivar inflicted on the royalist forces a tremendous defeat that +gave the deathblow to the domination of Spain in northern South +America. On his triumphal return to Angostura, the Congress +signalized the victory by declaring the whole of the viceroyalty +an independent state under the name of the "Republic of Colombia" +and chose the Liberator as its provisional President. Two years +later, a fundamental law it had adopted was ratified with certain +changes by another Congress assembled at Rosario de Cucuta, and +Bolivar was made permanent President. + +Southward of Colombia lay the viceroyalty of Peru, the oldest, +richest, and most conservative of the larger Spanish dominions on +the continent. Intact, except for the loss of Chile, it had found +territorial compensation by stretching its power over the +provinces of Quito and Charcas, the one wrenched off from the +former New Granada, the other torn away from what had been La +Plata. Predominantly royalist in sentiment, it was like a huge +wedge thrust in between the two independent areas. By thus +cutting off the patriots of the north from their comrades in the +south, it threatened both with destruction of their liberty. + +Again fortune intervened from abroad, this time directly from +Spain itself. Ferdinand VII, who had gathered an army of twenty +thousand men at Cadiz, was ready to deliver a crushing blow at +the colonies when in January, 1890, a mutiny among the troops and +revolution throughout the country entirely frustrated the plan. +But although that reactionary monarch was compelled to accept the +Constitution of 1819, the Spanish liberals were unwilling to +concede to their fellows in America anything more substantial +than representation in the Cortes. Independence they would not +tolerate. On the other hand, the example of the mother country in +arms against its King in the name of liberty could not fail to +give heart to the cause of liberation in the provinces oversea +and to hasten its achievement. + +The first important efforts to profit by this situation were made +by the patriots in Chile. Both San Martin and O'Higgins had +perceived that the only effective way to eliminate the Peruvian +wedge was to gain control of its approaches by sea. The Chileans +had already won some success in this direction when the fiery and +imperious Scotch sailor, Thomas Cochrane, Earl of Dundonald, +appeared on the scene and offered to organize a navy. At length a +squadron was put under his command. With upwards of four thousand +troops in charge of San Martin the expedition set sail for Peru +late in August, 1820. + +While Cochrane busied himself in destroying the Spanish blockade, +his comrade in arms marched up to the very gates of Lima, the +capital, and everywhere aroused enthusiasm for emancipation. When +negotiations, which had been begun by the viceroy and continued +by a special commissioner from Spain, failed to swerve the +patriot leader from his demand for a recognition of independence, +the royalists decided to evacuate the town and to withdraw into +the mountainous region of the interior. San Martin, thereupon, +entered the capital at the head of his army of liberation and +summoned the inhabitants to a town meeting at which they might +determine for themselves what action should be taken. The result +was easily foreseen. On July 28, 1821, Peru was declared +independent, and a few days later San Martin was invested with +supreme command under the title of "Protector." + +But the triumph of the new Protector did not last long. For some +reason he failed to understand that the withdrawal of the +royalists from the neighborhood of the coast was merely a +strategic retreat that made the occupation of the capital a more +or less empty performance. This blunder and a variety of other +mishaps proved destined to blight his military career. +Unfortunate in the choice of his subordinates and unable to +retain their confidence; accused of irresolution and even of +cowardice; abandoned by Cochrane, who sailed off to Chile and +left the army stranded; incapable of restraining his soldiers +from indulgence in the pleasures of Lima; now severe, now lax in +an administration that alienated the sympathies of the +influential class, San Martin was indeed an unhappy figure. It +soon became clear that he must abandon all hope of ever +conquering the citadel of Spanish power in South America unless +he could prevail upon Bolivar to help him. + +A junction of the forces of the two great leaders was perfectly +feasible, after the last important foothold of the Spaniards on +the coast of Venezuela had been broken by the Battle of Carabobo, +on July 24, 1821. Whether such a union would be made, however, +depended upon two things: the ultimate disposition of the +province of Quito, lying between Colombia and Peru, and the +attitude which Bolivar and San Martin themselves should assume +toward each other. A revolution of the previous year at the +seaport town of Guayaquil in that province had installed an +independent government which besought the Liberator to sustain +its existence. Prompt to avail himself of so auspicious an +opportunity of uniting this former division of the viceroyalty of +New Granada to his republic of Colombia, Bolivar appointed +Antonio Jose de Sucre, his ablest lieutenant and probably the +most efficient of all Spanish American soldiers of the time, to +assume charge of the campaign. On his arrival at Guayaquil, this +officer found the inhabitants at odds among themselves. Some, +hearkening to the pleas of an agent of San Martin, favored union +with Peru; others, yielding to the arguments of a representative +of Bolivar, urged annexation to Colombia; still others regarded +absolute independence as most desirable. Under these +circumstances Sucre for a while made little headway against the +royalists concentrated in the mountainous parts of the country +despite the partial support he received from troops which were +sent by the southern commander. At length, on May 24, 1822, +scaling the flanks of the volcano of Pichincha, near the capital +town of Quito itself, he delivered the blow for freedom. Here +Bolivar, who had fought his way overland amid tremendous +difficulties, joined him and started for Guayaquil, where he and +San Martin were to hold their memorable interview. + +No characters in Spanish American history have called forth so +much controversy about their respective merits and demerits as +these two heroes of independence--Bolivar and San Martin. Even +now it seems quite impossible to obtain from the admirers of +either an opinion that does full justice to both; and foreigners +who venture to pass judgment are almost certain to provoke +criticism from one set of partisans or the other. Both Bolivar +and San Martin were sons of country gentlemen, aristocratic by +lineage and devoted to the cause of independence. Bolivar was +alert, dauntless, brilliant, impetuous, vehemently patriotic, and +yet often capricious, domineering, vain, ostentatious, and +disdainful of moral considerations--a masterful man, fertile in +intellect, fluent in speech and with pen, an inspiring leader and +one born to command in state and army. Quite as earnest, equally +courageous, and upholding in private life a higher standard of +morals, San Martin was relatively calm, cautious, almost taciturn +in manner, and slower in thought and action. He was primarily a +soldier, fitted to organize and conduct expeditions, rather than, +a man endowed with that supreme confidence in himself which +brings enthusiasm, affection, and loyalty in its train. + +When San Martin arrived at Guayaquil, late in July, 1822, his +hope of annexing the province of Quito to Peru was rudely +shattered by the news that Bolivar had already declared it a part +of Colombia. Though it was outwardly cordial and even effusive, +the meeting of the two men held out no prospect of accord. In an +interchange of views which lasted but a few hours, mutual +suspicion, jealousy, and resentment prevented their reaching an +effective understanding. The Protector, it would seem, thought +the Liberator actuated by a boundless ambition that would not +endure resistance. Bolivar fancied San Martin a crafty schemer +plotting for his own advancement. They failed to agree on the +three fundamental points essential to their further cooperation. +Bolivar declined to give up the province of Quito. He refused +also to send an army into Peru unless he could command it in +person, and then he declined to undertake the expedition on the +ground that as President of Colombia he ought not to leave the +territory of the republic. Divining this pretext, San Martin +offered to serve under his orders--a feint that Bolivar parried +by protesting that he would not hear of any such self-denial on +the part of a brother officer. + +Above all, the two men differed about the political form to be +adopted for the new independent states. Both of them realized +that anything like genuine democracies was quite impossible of +attainment for many years to come, and that strong +administrations would be needful to tide the Spanish Americans +over from the political inexperience of colonial days and the +disorders of revolution to intelligent self-government, which +could come only after a practical acquaintance with public +concerns on a large scale. San Martin believed that a limited +monarchy was the best form of government under the circumstances. +Bolivar held fast to the idea of a centralized or unitary +republic, in which actual power should be exercised by a life +president and an hereditary senate until the people, represented +in a lower house, should have gained a sufficient amount of +political experience. + +When San Martin returned to Lima he found affairs in a worse +state than ever. The tyrannical conduct of the officer he had +left in charge had provoked an uprising that made his position +insupportable. Conscious that his mission had come to an end and +certain that, unless he gave way, a collision with Bolivar was +inevitable, San Martin resolved to sacrifice himself lest harm +befall the common cause in which both had done such yeoman +service. Accordingly he resigned his power into the hands of a +constituent congress and left the country. But when he found that +no happier fortune awaited him in Chile and in his own native +land, San Martin decided to abandon Spanish America forever and +go into selfimposed exile. Broken in health and spirit, he took +up his residence in France, a recipient of bounty from a Spaniard +who had once been his comrade in arms. + +Meanwhile in the Mexican part of the viceroyalty of New Spain the +cry of independence raised by Morelos and his bands of Indian +followers had been stifled by the capture and execution of the +leader. But the cause of independence was not dead even if its +achievement was to be entrusted to other hands. Eager to emulate +the example of their brethren in South America, small parties of +Spaniards and Creoles fought to overturn the despotic rule of +Ferdinand VII, only to encounter defeat from the royalists. Then +came the Revolution of 1820 in the mother country. Forthwith +demands were heard for a recognition of the liberal regime. +Fearful of being displaced from power, the viceroy with the +support of the clergy and aristocracy ordered Agustin de +Iturbide, a Creole officer who had been an active royalist, to +quell an insurrection in the southern part of the country. + +The choice of this soldier was unfortunate. Personally ambitious +and cherishing in secret the thought of independence, Iturbide, +faithless to his trust, entered into negotiations with the +insurgents which culminated February 24, 1821, in what was called +the "Plan of Iguala." It contained three main provisions, or +"guarantees," as they were termed: the maintenance of the +Catholic religion to the exclusion of all others; the +establishment of a constitutional monarchy separate from Spain +and ruled by Ferdinand himself, or, if he declined the honor, by +some other European prince; and the union of Mexicans and +Spaniards without distinction of caste or privilege. A temporary +government also, in the form of a junta presided over by the +viceroy, was to be created; and provision was made for the +organization of an "Army of the Three Guarantees." + +Despite opposition from the royalists, the plan won increasing +favor. Powerless to thwart it and inclined besides to a policy of +conciliation, the new viceroy, Juan O'Donoju, agreed to ratify it +on condition--in obedience to a suggestion from Iturbide--that +the parties concerned should be at liberty, if they desired, to +choose any one as emperor, whether he were of a reigning family +or not. Thereupon, on the 28th of September, the provisional +government installed at the city of Mexico announced the +consummation of an "enterprise rendered eternally memorable, +which a genius beyond all admiration and eulogy, love and glory +of his country, began at Iguala, prosecuted and carried into +effect, overcoming obstacles almost insuparable"--and declared +the independence of a "Mexican Empire." The act was followed by +the appointment of a regency to govern until the accession of +Ferdinand VII, or some other personage, to the imperial throne. +Of this body Iturbide assumed the presidency, which carried with +it the powers of commander in chief and a salary of 120,000 +pesos, paid from the day on which the Plan of Iguala was signed. +O'Donoju contented himself with membership on the board and a +salary of one-twelfth that amount, until his speedy demise +removed from the scene the last of the Spanish viceroys in North +America. + +One step more was needed. Learning that the Cortes in Spain had +rejected the entire scheme, Iturbide allowed his soldiers to +acclaim him emperor, and an unwilling Congress saw itself obliged +to ratify the choice. On July 21, 1822, the destinies of the +country were committed to the charge of Agustin the First. + +As in the area of Mexico proper, so in the Central American part +of the viceroyalty of New Spain, the Spanish Revolution of 1820 +had unexpected results. Here in the five little provinces +composing the captaincy general of Guatemala there was much +unrest, but nothing of a serious nature occurred until after news +had been brought of the Plan of Iguala and its immediate outcome. +Thereupon a popular assembly met at the capital town of +Guatemala, and on September 15, 1821, declared the country an +independent state. This radical act accomplished, the patriot +leaders were unable to proceed further. Demands for the +establishment of a federation, for a recognition of local +autonomy, for annexation to Mexico, were all heard, and none, +except the last, was answered. While the "Imperialists" and +"Republicans" were arguing it out, a message from Emperor Agustin +announced that he would not allow the new state to remain +independent. On submission of the matter to a vote of the +cabildos, most of them approved reunion with the northern +neighbor. Salvador alone among the provinces held out until +troops from Mexico overcame its resistance. + +On the continents of America, Spain had now lost nearly all its +its possessions. In 1822 the United States had already acquired +East Florida on its own account, led off in recognizing the +independence of the several republics. Only in Peru and Charcas +the royalists still battled on behalf of the mother country. In +the West Indies, Santo Domingo followed the lead of its sister +colonies on the mainland by asserting in 1821 its independence; +but its brief independent life was snuffed out by the negroes of +Haiti, once more a republic, who spread their control over the +entire island. Cuba also felt the impulse of the times. But, +apart from the agitation of secret societies like the "Rays and +Suns of Bolivar," which was soon checked, the colony remained +tranquil. + +In Portuguese America the knowledge of what had occurred +throughout the Spanish dominions could not fail to awaken a +desire for independence. The Prince Regent was well aware of the +discontent of the Brazilians, but he thought to allay it by +substantial concessions. In 1815 he proceeded to elevate the +colony to substantial equality with the mother country by joining +them under the title of "United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and +the Algarves." The next year the Prince Regent himself became +King under the name of John IV. The flame of discontent, +nevertheless, continued to smolder. Republican outbreaks, though +quelled without much difficulty, recurred. Even the reforms which +had been instituted by John himself while Regent, and which had +assured freer communication with the world at large, only +emphasized more and more the absurdity of permitting a feeble +little land like Portugal to retain its hold upon a region so +extensive and valuable as Brazil. + +The events of 1820 in Portugal hastened the movement toward +independence. Fired by the success of their Spanish comrades, the +Portuguese liberals forthwith rose in revolt, demanded the +establishment of a limited monarchy, and insisted that the King +return to his people. In similar fashion, also, they drew up a +constitution which provided for the representation of Brazil by +deputies in a future Cortes. Beyond this they would concede no +special privileges to the colony. Indeed their idea seems to have +been that, with the King once more in Lisbon, their own liberties +would be secure and those of Brazil would be reduced to what were +befitting a mere dependency. Yielding to the inevitable, the King +decided to return to Portugal, leaving the young Crown Prince to +act as Regent in the colony. A critical moment for the little +country and its big dominion oversea had indubitably arrived. +John understood the trend of the times, for on the eve of his +departure he said to his son: "Pedro, if Brazil is to separate +itself from Portugal, as seems likely, you take the crown +yourself before any one else gets it!" + +Pedro was liberal in sentiment, popular among the Brazilians, and +well-disposed toward the aspirations of the country for a larger +measure of freedom, and yet not blind to the interests of the +dynasty of Braganza. He readily listened to the urgent pleas of +the leaders of the separatist party against obeying the +repressive mandaes of the Cortes. Laws which abolished the +central government of the colony and made the various provinces +individually subject to Portugal he declined to notice. With +equal promptness he refused to heed an order bidding him return +to Portugal immediately. To a delegation of prominent Brazilians +he said emphatically: "For the good of all and the general +welfare of the nation, I shall stay." More than that, in May, +1822, he accepted from the municipality of Rio de Janeiro the +title of "Perpetual and Constitutional Defender of Brazil, " and +in a series of proclamations urged the people of the country to +begin the great work of emancipation by forcibly resisting, if +needful, any attempt at coercion. + +Pedro now believed the moment had come to take the final step. +While on a journey through the province of Sao Paulo, he was +overtaken on the 7th of September, near a little stream called +the Ypiranga, by messengers with dispatches from Portugal. +Finding that the Cortes had annulled his acts and declared his +ministers guilty of treason, Pedro forthwith proclaimed Brazil an +independent state. The "cry of Ypiranga" was echoed with +tremendous enthusiasm throughout the country. When Pedro appeared +in the theater at Rio de Janeiro, a few days later, wearing on +his arm a ribbon on which were inscribed the words "Independence +or Death," he was given a tumultuous ovation. On the first day of +December the youthful monarch assumed the title of Emperor, and +Brazil thereupon took its place among the nations of America. + + + +CHAPTER IV. PLOUGHING THE SEA + +When the La Plata Congress at Tucuman took the decisive action +that severed the bond with Spain, it uttered a prophecy for all +Spanish America. To quote its language: "Vast and fertile +regions, climates benign and varied, abundant means of +subsistence, treasures of gold and silver . . . and fine +productions of every sort will attract to our continent +innumerable thousands of immigrants, to whom we shall open a safe +place of refuge and extend a beneficent protection." More hopeful +still were the words of a spokesman for another independent +country: "United, neither the empire of the Assyrians, the Medes +or the Persians, the Macedonian or the Roman Empire, can ever be +compared with this colossal republic." + +Very different was the vision of Bolivar. While a refugee in +Jamaica he wrote: "We are a little human species; we possess a +world apart . . . new in almost all the arts and sciences, and +yet old, after a fashion, in the uses of civil society. . . . +Neither Indians nor Europeans, we are a species that lies midway +. . . . Is it conceivable that a people recently freed of its +chains can launch itself into the sphere of liberty without +shattering its wings, like Icarus, and plunging into the abyss? +Such a prodigy is inconceivable, never beheld." Toward the close +of his career he declared: "The majority are mestizos, mulattoes, +Indians, and negroes. An ignorant people is a blunt instrument +for its own destruction. To it liberty means license, patriotism +means disloyalty, and justice means vengeance." "Independence," +he exclaimed, "is the only good we have achieved, at the cost of +everything else." + +Whether the abounding confidence of the prophecy or the anxious +doubt of the vision would come true, only the future could tell. +In 1822, at all events, optimism was the watchword and the total +exclusion of Spain from South America the goal of Bolivar and his +lieutenants, as they started southward to complete the work of +emancipation which had been begun by San Martin. + +The patriots of Peru, indeed, had fallen into straits so +desperate that an appeal to the Liberator offered the only hope +of salvation. While the royalists under their able and vigilant +leader, Jose Canterac, continued to strengthen their grasp upon +the interior of the country and to uphold the power of the +viceroy, the President chosen by the Congress had been driven by +the enemy from Lima. A number of the legislators in wrath +thereupon declared the President deposed. Not to be outdone, that +functionary on his part declared the Congress dissolved. The +malcontents immediately proceeded to elect a new chief +magistrate, thus bringing two Presidents into the field and +inaugurating a spectacle destined to become all too common in the +subsequent annals of Spanish America. + +When Bolivar arrived at Callao, the seaport of Lima, in +September, 1823, he acted with prompt vigor. He expelled one +President, converted the other into a passive instrument of his +will, declined to promulgate a constitution that the Congress had +prepared, and, after obtaining from that body an appointment to +supreme command, dissolved the Congress without further ado. +Unfortunately none of these radical measures had any perceptible +effect upon the military situation. Though Bolivar gathered +together an army made up of Colombians, Peruvians, and remnants +of San Martin's force, many months elapsed before he could +venture upon a serious campaign. Then events in Spain played into +his hands. The reaction that had followed the restoration of +Ferdinand VII to absolute power crossed the ocean and split the +royalists into opposing factions. Quick to seize the chance thus +afforded, Bolivar marched over the Andes to the plain of Junin. +There, on August 6, 1824, he repelled an onslaught by Canterac +and drove that leader back in headlong flight. Believing, +however, that the position he held was too perilous to risk an +offensive, he entrusted the military command to Sucre and +returned to headquarters. + +The royalists had now come to realize that only a supreme effort +could save them. They must overwhelm Sucre before reinforcements +could reach him, and to this end an army of upwards of ten +thousand was assembled. On the 9th of December it encountered +Sucre and his six thousand soldiers in the valley of Ayacucho, or +"Corner of Death," where the patriot general had entrenched his +army with admirable skill. The result was a total defeat for the +royalists--the Waterloo of Spain in South America. The battle +thus won by ragged and hungry soldiers--whose countersign the +night before had been "bread and cheese"--threw off the yoke of +the mother country forever. The viceroy fell wounded into their +hands and Canterac surrendered. On receipt of the glorious news, +the people of Lima greeted Bolivar with wild enthusiasm. A +Congress prolonged his dictatorship amid adulations that bordered +on the grotesque. + +Eastward of Peru in the vast mountainous region of Charcas, on +the very heights of South America, the royalists still found a +refuge. In January, 1825, a patriot general at the town of La Paz +undertook on his own responsibility to declare the entire +province independent, alike of Spain, Peru, and the United +Provinces of La Plata. This action was too precipitous, not to +say presumptuous, to suit Bolivar and Sucre. The better to +control the situation, the former went up to La Paz and the +latter to Chuquisaca, the capital, where a Congress was to +assemble for the purpose of imparting a more orderly turn to +affairs. Under the direction of the "Marshal of Ayacucho," as +Sucre was now called, the Congress issued on the 6th of August a +formal declaration of independence. In honor of the Liberator it +christened the new republic "Bolivar"--later Latinized into +"Bolivia"--and conferred upon him the presidency so long as he +might choose to remain. In November, 1896, a new Congress which +had been summoned to draft a constitution accepted, with slight +modifications, an instrument that the Liberator himself had +prepared. That body also renamed the capital "Sucre" and chose +the hero of Ayacucho as President of the republic. + +Now, the Liberator thought, was the opportune moment to impose +upon his territorial namesake a constitution embodying his ideas +of a stable government which would give Spanish Americans +eventually the political experience they needed. Providing for an +autocracy represented by a life President, it ran the gamut of +aristocracy and democracy, all the way from "censors" for life, +who were to watch over the due enforcement of the laws, down to +senators and "tribunes" chosen by electors, who in turn were to +be named by a select citizenry. Whenever actually present in the +territory of the republic, the Liberator was to enjoy supreme +command, in case he wished to exercise it. + +In 1826 Simon Bolivar stood at the zenith of his glory and power. +No adherents of the Spanish regime were left in South America to +menace the freedom of its independent states. In January a +resistance kept up for nine years by a handful of royalists +lodged on the remote island of Chiloe, off the southern coast of +Chile, had been broken, and the garrison at the fortress of +Callao had laid down its arms after a valiant struggle. Among +Spanish Americans no one was comparable to the marvelous man who +had founded three great republics stretching from the Caribbean +Sea to the Tropic of Capricorn. Hailed as the "Liberator" and the +"Terror of Despots," he was also acclaimed by the people as the +"Redeemer, the First-Born Son of the New World!" National +destinies were committed to his charge, and equestrian statues +were erected in his honor. In the popular imagination he was +ranked with Napoleon as a peerless conqueror, and with Washington +as the father of his country. That megalomania should have seized +the mind of the Liberator under circumstances like these is not +strange. + +Ever a zealous advocate of large states, Bolivar was an equally +ardent partisan of confederation. As president of three +republics--of Colombia actually, and of its satellites, Peru and +Bolivia, through his lieutenants--he could afford now to carry +out the plan that he had long since cherished of assembling at +the town of Panama, on Colombian soil, an "august congress" +representative of the independent countries of America. Here, on +the isthmus created by nature to join the continents, the nations +created by men should foregather and proclaim fraternal accord. +Presenting to the autocratic governments of Europe a solid front +of resistance to their pretensions as well as a visible symbol of +unity in sentiment, such a Congress by meeting periodically would +also promote friendship among the republics of the western +hemisphere and supply a convenient means of settling their +disputes. + +At this time the United States was regarded by its sister +republics with all the affection which gratitude for services +rendered to the cause of emancipation could evoke. Was it not +itself a republic, its people a democracy, its development +astounding, and its future radiant with hope? The pronouncement +of President Monroe, in 1823, protesting against interference on +the part of European powers with the liberties of independent +America, afforded the clearest possible proof that the great +northern republic was a natural protector, guide, and friend +whose advice and cooperation ought to be invoked. The United +States was accordingly asked to take part in the assembly--not to +concert military measures, but simply to join its fellows to the +southward in a solemn proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine by +America at large and to discuss means of suppressing the slave +trade. + +The Congress that met at Panama, in June, 1826, afforded scant +encouragement to Bolivar's roseate hope of interAmerican +solidarity. Whether because of the difficulties of travel, or +because of internal dissensions, or because of the suspicion that +the megalomania of the Liberator had awakened in Spanish America, +only the four continental countries nearest the isthmus--Mexico, +Central America, Colombia, and Peru--were represented. The +delegates, nevertheless, signed a compact of "perpetual union, +league, and confederation," provided for mutual assistance to be +rendered by the several nations in time of war, and arranged to +have the Areopagus of the Americas transferred to Mexico. None of +the acts of this Congress was ratified by the republics +concerned, except the agreement for union, which was adopted by +Colombia. + +Disheartening to Bolivar as this spectacle was, it proved merely +the first of a series of calamities which were to overshadow the +later years of the Liberator. His grandiose political structure +began to crumble, for it was built on the shifting sands of a +fickle popularity. The more he urged a general acceptance of the +principles of his autocratic constitution, the surer were his +followers that he coveted royal honors. In December he imposed +his instrument upon Peru. Then he learned that a meeting in +Venezuela, presided over by Paez, had declared itself in favor of +separation from Colombia. Hardly had he left Peru to check this +movement when an uprising at Lima deposed his representative and +led to the summons of a Congress which, in June, 1827, restored +the former constitution and chose a new President. In Quito, +also, the government of the unstable dictator was overthrown. + +Alarmed by symptoms of disaffection which also appeared in the +western part of the republic, Bolivar hurried to Bogota. There in +the hope of removing the growing antagonism, he offered his +"irrevocable" resignation, as he had done on more than one +occasion before. Though the malcontents declined to accept his +withdrawal from office, they insisted upon his calling a +constitutional convention. Meeting at Ocana, in April, 1828, that +body proceeded to abolish the life tenure of the presidency, to +limit the powers of the executive, and to increase those of the +legislature. Bolivar managed to quell the opposition in +dictatorial fashion; but his prestige had by this time fallen so +low that an attempt was made to assassinate him. The severity +with which he punished the conspirators served only to diminish +still more the popular confidence which he had once enjoyed. Even +in Bolivia his star of destiny had set. An outbreak of Colombian +troops at the capital forced the faithful Sucre to resign and +leave the country. The constitution was then modified to meet the +demand for a less autocratic government, and a new chief +magistrate was installed. + +Desperately the Liberator strove to ward off the impending +collapse. Tkough he recovered possession of the division of +Quito, a year of warfare failed to win back Peru, and he was +compelled to renounce all pretense of governing it. Feeble in +body and distracted in mind, he condemned bitterly the +machinations of his enemies. "There is no good faith in +Colombia," he exclaimed, "neither among men nor among nations. +Treaties are paper; constitutions, books; elections, combats; +liberty, anarchy, and life itself a torment." + +But the hardest blow was yet to fall. Late in December, 1829, an +assembly at Caracas declared Venezuela a separate state. The +great republic was rent in twain, and even what was left soon +split apart. In May, 1830, came the final crash. The Congress at +Bogota drafted a constitution, providing for a separate republic +to bear the old Spanish name of "New Granada," accepted +definitely the resignation of Bolivar, and granted him a pension. +Venezuela, his native land, set up a congress of its own and +demanded that he be exiled. The division of Quito declared itself +independent, under the name of the "Republic of the Equator" +(Ecuador). Everywhere the artificial handiwork of the Liberator +lay in ruins. "America is ungovernable. Those who have served in +the revolution have ploughed the sea, " was his despairing cry. + +Stricken to death, the fallen hero retired to an estate near +Santa Marta. Here, like his famous rival, San Martin, in France, +he found hospitality at the hands of a Spaniard. On December 17, +1830, the Liberator gave up his troubled soul. + +While Bolivar's great republic was falling apart, the United +Provinces of La Plata had lost practically all semblance of +cohesion. So broad were their notions of liberty that the several +provinces maintained a substantial independence of one another, +while within each province the caudillos, or partisan chieftains, +fought among themselves. + +Buenos Aires alone managed to preserve a measure of stability. +This comparative peace was due to the financial and commercial +measures devised by Bernardino Rivadavia, one of the most capable +statesmen of the time, and to the energetic manner in which +disorder was suppressed by Juan Manuel de Rosas, commander of the +gaucho, or cowboy, militia. Thanks also to the former leader, the +provinces were induced in 1826 to join in framing a constitution +of a unitary character, which vested in the administration at +Buenos Aires the power of appointing the local governors and of +controlling foreign affairs. The name of the country was at the +same time changed to that of the "Argentine Confederation"(c)-a +Latin rendering of "La Plata." + +No sooner had Rivadavia assumed the presidency under the new +order of things than dissension at home and warfare abroad +threatened to destroy all that he had accomplished. Ignoring the +terms of the constitution, the provinces had already begun to +reject the supremacy of Buenos Aires, when the outbreak of a +struggle with Brazil forced the contending parties for a while to +unite in the face of the common enemy. As before, the object of +international dispute was the region of the Banda Oriental. The +rule of Brazil had not been oppressive, but the people of its +Cisplatine Province, attached by language and sympathy to their +western neighbors, longed nevertheless to be free of foreign +control. In April, 1825, a band of thirty-three refugees arrived +from Buenos Aires and started a revolution which spread +throughout the country. Organizing a provisional government, the +insurgents proclaimed independence of Brazil and incorporation +with the United Provinces of La Plata. As soon as the authorities +at Buenos Aires had approved this action, war was inevitable. +Though the Brazilians were decisively beaten at the Battle of +Ituzaingo, on February 20, 1827, the struggle lasted until August +28, 1828, when mediation by Great Britain led to the conclusion +of a treaty at Rio de Janeiro, by which both Brazil and the +Argentine Confederation recognized the absolute independence of +the disputed province as the republic of Uruguay. + +Instead of quieting the discord that prevailed among the +Argentinos, these victories only fomented trouble. The +federalists had ousted Rivadavia and discarded the constitution, +but the federal idea for which they stood had several meanings. +To an inhabitant of Buenos Aires federalism meant domination by +the capital, not only over the province of the same name but over +the other provinces; whereas, to the people of the provinces, and +even to many of federalist faith in the province of Buenos Aires +itself, the term stood for the idea of a loose confederation in +which each provincial governor or chieftain should be practically +supreme in his own district, so long as he could maintain +himself. The Unitaries were opponents of both, except in so far +as their insistence upon a centralized form of government for the +nation would necessarily lead to the location of that government +at Buenos Aires. This peculiar dual contest between the town and +the province of Buenos Aires, and of the other provinces against +either or both, persisted for the next sixty years. In 1829, +however, a prolonged lull set in, when Rosas, the gaucho leader, +having won in company with other caudillos a decisive triumph +over the Unitaries, entered the capital and took supreme command. + +In Chile the course of events had assumed quite a different +aspect. Here, in 1818, a species of constitution had been adopted +by popular vote in a manner that appeared to show remarkable +unanimity, for the books in which the "ayes" and "noes" were to +be recorded contained no entries in the negative! What the +records really prove is that O'Higgins, the Supreme Director, +enjoyed the confidence of the ruling class. In exercise of the +autocratic power entrusted to him, he now proceeded to introduce +a variety of administrative reforms of signal advantage to the +moral and material welfare of the country. But as the danger of +conquest from any quarter lessened, the demand for a more +democratic organization grew louder, until in 1822 it became so +persistent that O'Higgins called a convention to draft a new +fundamental law. But its provisions suited neither himself nor +his opponents. Thereupon, realizing that his views of the +political capacity of the people resembled those of Bolivar and +were no longer applicable, and that his reforms had aroused too +much hostility, the Supreme Director resigned his post and +retired to Peru. Thus another hero of emancipation had met the +ingratitude for which republics are notorious. + +Political convulsions in the country followed the abdication of +O'Higgins. Not only had the spirit of the strife between +Unitaries and Federalists been communicated to Chile from the +neighboring republic to the eastward, but two other parties or +factions, divided on still different lines, had arisen. These +were the Conservative and the Liberal, or Bigwigs (pelucones) and +Greenhorns (pipiolos), as the adherents of the one derisively +dubbed the partisans of the other. Although in the ups and downs +of the struggle two constitutions were adopted, neither sufficed +to quiet the agitation. Not until 1830, when the Liberals +sustained an utter defeat on the field of battle, did the country +enter upon a period of quiet progress along conservative lines. +>From that time onward it presented a surprising contrast to its +fellow republics, which were beset with afflictions. + +Far to the northward, the Empire of Mexico set up by Iturbide in +1822 was doomed to a speedy fall. "Emperor by divine providence," +that ambitious adventurer inscribed on his coins, but his +countrymen knew that the bayonets of his soldiers were the actual +mainstay of his pretentious title. Neither his earlier career nor +the size of his following was sufficiently impressive to assure +him popular support if the military prop gave way. His lavish +expenditures, furthermore, and his arbitrary replacement of the +Congress by a docile body which would authorize forced loans at +his command, steadily undermined his position. Apart from the +faults of Iturbide himself, the popular sentiment of a country +bordering immediately upon the United States could not fail to be +colored by the ideas and institutions of its great neighbor. So, +too, the example of what had been accomplished, in form at least, +by their kinsmen elsewhere in America was bound to wield a potent +influence on the minds of the Mexicans. As a result, their desire +for a republic grew stronger from day to day. + +Iturbide, in fact, had not enjoyed his exalted rank five months +when Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, a young officer destined later +to become a conspicuous figure in Mexican history, started a +revolt to replace the "Empire" by a republic. Though he failed in +his object, two of Iturbide's generals joined the insurgents in +demanding a restoration of the Congress--an act which, as the +hapless "Emperor" perceived, would amount to his dethronement. +Realizing his impotence, Iturbide summoned the Congress and +announced his abdication. But instead of recognizing this +procedure, that body declared his accession itself null and void; +it agreed, however, to grant him a pension if he would leave the +country and reside in Italy. With this disposition of his person +Iturbide complied; but he soon wearied of exile and persuaded +himself that he would not lack supporters if he tried to regain +his former control in Mexico. This venture he decided to make in +complete ignorance of a decree ordering his summary execution if +he dared to set foot again on Mexican soil. He had hardly landed +in July, 1824, when he was seized and shot. + +Since a constituent assembly had declared itself in favor of +establishing a federal form of republic patterned after that of +the United States, the promulgation of a constitution followed on +October 4, 1824, and Guadalupe Victoria, one of the leaders in +the revolt against Iturbide, was chosen President of the United +Mexican States. Though considerable unrest prevailed toward the +close of his term, the new President managed to retain his office +for the allotted four years. In most respects, however, the new +order of things opened auspiciously. In November, 1825, the +surrender of the fortress of San Juan de Ulua, in the harbor of +Vera Cruz, banished the last remnant of Spanish power, and two +years later the suppression of plots for the restoration of +Ferdinand VII, coupled with the expulsion of a large number of +Spaniards, helped to restore calm. There were those even who +dared to hope that the federal system would operate as smoothly +in Mexico as it had done in the United States. + +But the political organization of a country so different from its +northern neighbor in population, traditions, and practices, could +not rest merely on a basis of imitation, even more or less +modified. The artificiality of the fabric became apparent enough +as soon as ambitious individuals and groups of malcontents +concerted measures to mold it into a likeness of reality. Two +main political factions soon appeared. For the form they assumed +British and American influences were responsible. Adopting a kind +of Masonic organization, the Conservatives and Centralists called +themselves Escoceses (Scottish-Rite Men), whereas the Radicals +and Federalists took the name of Yorkinos (York-Rite Men). +Whatever their respective slogans and professions of political +faith, they were little more than personal followers of rival +generals or politicians who yearned to occupy the presidential +chair. + +Upon the downfall of Iturbide, the malcontents in Central America +bestirred themselves to throw off the Mexican yoke. On July +1,1823, a Congress declared the region an independent republic +under the name of the "United Provinces of Central America." In +November of the next year, following the precedent established in +Mexico, and obedient also to local demand, the new republic +issued a constitution, in accordance with which the five little +divisions of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa +Rica were to become states of a federal union, each having the +privilege of choosing its own local authorities. Immediately +Federalists and Centralists, Radicals and Conservatives, all +wished, it would seem, to impose their particular viewpoint upon +their fellows. The situation was not unlike that in the Argentine +Confederation. The efforts of Guatemala--the province in which +power had been concentrated under the colonial regime--to assert +supremacy over its fellow states, and their refusal to respect +either the federal bond or one another's rights made civil war +inevitable. The struggle which broke out among Guatemala, +Salvador, and Honduras, lasted until 1829, when Francisco +Morazan, at the head of the "Allied Army, Upholder of the Law," +entered the capital of the republic and assumed dictatorial +power. + +Of all the Hispanic nations, however, Brazil was easily the most +stable. Here the leaders, while clinging to independence, strove +to avoid dangerous innovations in government. Rather than create +a political system for which the country was not prepared, they +established a constitutional monarchy. But Brazil itself was too +vast and its interior too difficult of access to allow it to +become all at once a unit, either in organization or in spirit. +The idea of national solidarity had as yet made scant progress. +The old rivalry which existed between the provinces of the north, +dominated by Bahia or Pernambuco, and those of the south, +controlled by Rio de Janeiro or Sao Paulo, still made itself +felt. What the Empire amounted to, therefore, was an +agglomeration of provinces, held together by the personal +prestige of a young monarch. + +Since the mother country still held parts of northern Brazil, the +Emperor entrusted the energetic Cochrane, who had performed such +valiant service for Chile and Peru, with the task of expelling +the foreign soldiery. When this had been accomplished and a +republican outbreak in the same region had been suppressed, the +more difficult task of satisfying all parties by a constitution +had to be undertaken. There were partisans of monarchy and +advocates of republicanism, men of conservative and of liberal +sympathies; disagreements, also, between the Brazilians and the +native Portuguese residents were frequent. So far as possible +Pedro desired to meet popular desires, and yet without imposing +too many limitations on the monarchy itself. But in the assembly +called to draft the constitution the liberal members made a +determined effort to introduce republican forms. Pedro thereupon +dissolved that body and in 1826 promulgated a constitution of his +own. + +The popularity of the Emperor thereafter soon began to wane, +partly because of the scandalous character of his private life, +and partly because he declined to observe constitutional +restrictions and chose his ministers at will. His insistent war +in Portugal to uphold the claims of his daughter to the throne +betrayed, or seemed to betray, dynastic ambitions. His inability +to hold Uruguay as a Brazilian province, and his continued +retention of foreign soldiers who had been employed in the +struggle with the Argentine Confederation, for the apparent +purpose of quelling possible insurrections in the future, bred +much discontent. So also did the restraints he laid upon the +press, which had been infected by the liberal movements in +neighboring republics. When he failed to subdue these outbreaks, +his rule became all the more discredited. Thereupon, menaced by a +dangerous uprising at Rio de Janeiro in 1831, he abdicated the +throne in favor of his son, Pedro, then five years of age, and +set sail for Portugal. + +Under the influence of Great Britain the small European mother +country had in 1825 recognized the independence of its big +transatlantic dominion; but it was not until 1836 that the Cortes +of Spain authorized the Crown to enter upon negotiations looking +to the same action in regard to the eleven republics which had +sprung out of its colonial domain. Even then many years elapsed +before the mother country acknowledged the independence of them +all. + + + +CHAPTER V. THE AGE OF THE DICTATORS + +Independence without liberty and statehood without respect for +law are phrases which sum up the situation in Spanish America +after the failure of Bolivar's "great design." The outcome was a +collection of crude republics, racked by internal dissension and +torn by mutual jealousy--patrias bobas, or "foolish fatherlands," +as one of their own writers has termed them. + +Now that the bond of unity once supplied by Spain had been +broken, the entire region which had been its continental domain +in America dissolved awhile into its elements. The Spanish +language, the traditions and customs of the dominant class, and a +"republican" form of government, were practically the sole ties +which remained. Laws, to be sure, had been enacted, providing for +the immediate or gradual abolition of negro slavery and for an +improvement in the status of the Indian and half-caste; but the +bulk of the inhabitants, as in colonial times, remained outside +of the body politic and social. Though the so-called +"constitutions" might confer upon the colored inhabitants all the +privileges and immunities of citizens if they could read and +write, and even a chance to hold office if they could show +possession of a sufficient income or of a professional title of +some sort, their usual inability to do either made their +privileges illusory. Their only share in public concerns lay in +performing military service at the behest of their superiors. +Even where the language of the constitutions did not exclude the +colored inhabitants directly or indirectly, practical authority +was exercised by dictators who played the autocrat, or by +"liberators" who aimed at the enjoyment of that function +themselves. + +Not all the dictators, however, were selfish tyrants, nor all the +liberators mere pretenders. Disturbed conditions bred by twenty +years of warfare, antique methods of industry, a backward +commerce, inadequate means of communication, and a population +ignorant, superstitious, and scant, made a strong ruler more or +less indispensable. Whatever his official designation, the +dictator was the logical successor of the Spanish viceroy or +captain general, but without the sense of responsibility or the +legal restraint of either. These circumstances account for that +curious political phase in the development of the Spanish +American nations--the presidential despotism. + +On the other hand, the men who denounced oppression, +unscrupulousness, and venality, and who in rhetorical +pronunciamentos urged the "people" to overthrow the dictators, +were often actuated by motives of patriotism, even though they +based their declarations on assumptions and assertions, rather +than on principles and facts. Not infrequently a liberator of +this sort became "provisional president" until he himself, or +some person of his choice, could be elected "constitutional +president"--two other institutions more or less peculiar to +Spanish America. + +In an atmosphere of political theorizing mingled with ambition +for personal advancement, both leaders and followers were +professed devotees of constitutions. No people, it was thought, +could maintain a real republic and be a true democracy if they +did not possess a written constitution. The longer this was, the +more precise its definition of powers and liberties, the more +authentic the republic and the more genuine the democracy was +thought to be. In some countries the notion was carried still +farther by an insistence upon frequent changes in the fundamental +law or in the actual form of government, not so much to meet +imperative needs as to satisfy a zest for experimentation or to +suit the whims of mercurial temperaments. The congresses, +constituent assemblies, and the like, which drew these +instruments, were supposed to be faithful reproductions of +similar bodies abroad and to represent the popular will. In fact, +however, they were substantially colonial cabildos, enlarged into +the semblance of a legislature, intent upon local or personal +concerns, and lacking any national consciousness. In any case the +members were apt to be creatures of a republican despot or else +delegates of politicians or petty factions. + +Assuming that the leaders had a fairly clear conception of what +they wanted, even if the mass of their adherents did not, it is +possible to aline the factions or parties somewhat as follows: on +the one hand, the unitary, the military, the clerical, the +conservative, and the moderate; on the other,the federalist, the +civilian, the lay, the liberal, and the radical. Interspersed +among them were the advocates of a presidential or congressional +system like that of the United States, the upholders of a +parliamentary regime like that of European nations, and the +supporters of methods of government of a more experimental kind. +Broadly speaking, the line of cleavage was made by opinions, +concerning the form of government and by convictions regarding +the relations of Church and State. These opinions were mainly a +product of revolutionary experience; these convictions, on the +other hand, were a bequest from colonial times. + +The Unitaries wished to have a system of government modeled upon +that of France. They wanted the various provinces made into +administrative districts over which the national authority should +exercise full sway. Their direct opponents, the Federalists, +resembled to some extent the Antifederalists rather than the +party bearing the former title in the earlier history of the +United States; but even here an exact analogy fails. They did not +seek to have the provinces enjoy local self-government or to have +perpetuated the traditions of a sort of municipal home rule +handed down from the colonial cabildos, so much as to secure the +recognition of a number of isolated villages or small towns as +sovereign states--which meant turning them over as fiefs to their +local chieftains. Federalism, therefore, was the Spanish American +expression for a feudalism upheld by military lordlets and their +retainers. + +Among the measures of reform introduced by one republic or +another during the revolutionary period, abolition of the +Inquisition had been one of the foremost; otherwise comparatively +little was done to curb the influence of the Church. Indeed the +earlier constitutions regularly contained articles declaring +Roman Catholicism the sole legal faith as well as the religion of +the state, and safeguarding in other respects its prestige in the +community. Here was an institution, wealthy, proud, and +influential, which declined to yield its ancient prerogatives and +privileges and to that end relied upon the support of clericals +and conservatives who disliked innovations of a democratic sort +and viewed askance the entry of immigrants professing an alien +faith. Opposed to the Church stood governments verging on +bankruptcy, desirous of exercising supreme control, and dominated +by individuals eager to put theories of democracy into practice +and to throw open the doors of the republic freely to newcomers +from other lands. In the opinion of these radicals the Church +ought to be deprived both of its property and of its monopoly of +education. The one should be turned over to the nation, to which +it properly belonged, and should be converted into public +utilities; the other should be made absolutely secular, in order +to destroy clerical influence over the youthful mind. In this +program radicals and liberals concurred with varying degrees of +intensity, while the moderates strove to hold the balance between +them and their opponents. + +Out of this complex situation civil commotions were bound to +arise. Occasionally these were real wars, but as a rule only +skirmishes or sporadic insurrections occurred. They were called +"revolutions," not because some great principle was actually at +stake but because the term had been popular ever since the +struggle with Spain. As a designation for movements aimed at +securing rotation in office, and hence control of the treasury, +it was appropriate enough! At all events, whether serious or +farcical, the commotions often involved an expenditure in life +and money far beyond the value of the interests affected. +Further, both the prevalent disorder and the centralization of +authority impelled the educated and wellto-do classes to take up +their residence at the seat of government. Not a few of the +uprisings were, in fact, protests on the part of the neglected +folk in the interior of the country against concentration of +population, wealth, intellect, and power in the Spanish American +capitals. + +Among the towns of this sort was Buenos Aires. Here, in 1829, +Rosas inaugurated a career of rulership over the Argentine +Confederation, culminating in a despotism that made him the most +extraordinary figure of his time. Originally a stockfarmer and +skilled in all the exercises of the cowboy, he developed an +unusual talent for administration. His keen intelligence, supple +statecraft, inflexibility of purpose, and vigor of action, united +to a shrewd understanding of human follies and passions, gave to +his personality a dominance that awed and to his word of command +a power that humbled. Over his fellow chieftains who held the +provinces in terrorized subjection, he won an ascendancy that +insured compliance with his will. The instincts of the multitude +he flattered by his generous simplicity, while he enlisted the +support of the responsible class by maintaining order in the +countryside. The desire, also, of Buenos Aires to be paramount +over the other provinces had no small share in strengthening his +power. + +Relatively honest in money matters, and a stickler for precision +and uniformity, Rosas sought to govern a nation in the +rough-and-ready fashion of the stock farm. A creature of his +environment, no better and no worse than his associates, but only +more capable than they, and absolutely convinced that pitiless +autocracy was the sole means of creating a nation out of chaotic +fragments, this "Robespierre of South America" carried on his +despotic sway, regardless of the fury of opponents and the menace +of foreign intervention. + +During the first three years of his control, however, except for +the rigorous suppression of unitary movements and the muzzling of +the press, few signs appeared of the "black night of Argentine +history "which was soon to close down on the land. Realizing that +the auspicious moment had not yet arrived for him to exercise the +limitless power that he thought needful, he declined an offer of +reelection from the provincial legislature, in the hope that, +through a policy of conciliation, his successor might fall a prey +to the designs of the Unitaries. When this happened, he secretly +stirred up the provinces into a renewal of the earlier +disturbances, until the evidence became overwhelming that Rosas +alone could bring peace and progress out of turmoil and +backwardness. Reluctantly the legislature yielded him the power +it knew he wanted. This he would not accept until a "popular" +vote of some 9000 to 4 confirmed the choice. In 1835, +accordingly, he became dictator for the first of four successive +terms of five years. + +Then ensued, notably in Buenos Aires itself, a state of affairs +at once grotesque and frightful. Not content with hunting down +and inflicting every possible, outrage upon those suspected of +sympathy with the Unitaries, Rosas forbade them to display the +light blue and white colors of their party device and directed +that red, the sign of Federalism, should be displayed on all +occasions. Pink he would not tolerate as being too attenuated a +shade and altogether too suggestive of political trimming! A band +of his followers, made up of ruffians, and called the Mazorca, or +"Ear of Corn," because of the resemblance of their close +fellowship to its adhering grains, broke into private houses, +destroyed everything light blue within reach, and maltreated the +unfortunate occupants at will. No man was safe also who did not +give his face a leonine aspect by wearing a mustache and +sidewhiskers--emblems, the one of "federalism," and the other of +"independence." To possess a visage bare of these hirsute +adornments or a countenance too efflorescent in that respect was, +under a regime of tonsorial politics, to invite personal +disaster! Nothing apparently was too cringing or servile to show +how submissive the people were to the mastery of Rosas. Private +vengeance and defamation of the innocent did their sinister work +unchecked. Even when his arbitrary treatment of foreigners had +compelled France for a while to institute a blockade of Buenos +Aires, the wily dictator utilized the incident to turn patriotic +resentment to his own advantage. + +Meanwhile matters in Uruguay had come to such a pass that Rosas +saw an opportunity to extend his control in that direction also. +Placed between Brazil and the Argentine Confederation and so +often a bone of contention, the little country was hardly free +from the rule of the former state when it came near falling under +the domination of the latter. Only a few years of relative +tranquillity had elapsed when two parties sprang up in Uruguay: +the "Reds" (Colorados) and the "Whites" (Blancos). Of these, the +one was supposed to represent the liberal and the other the +conservative element. In fact, they were the followings of +partisan chieftains, whose struggles for the presidency during +many years to come retarded the advancement of a country to which +nature had been generous. + +When Fructuoso Rivera, the President up to 1835, thought of +choosing some one to be elected in constitutional fashion as his +successor, he unwisely singled out Manuel Oribe, one of the +famous "Thirty-three" who had raised the cry of independence a +decade before. But instead of a henchman he found a rival. Both +of them straightway adopted the colors and bid for the support of +one of the local factions; and both appealed to the factions of +the Argentine Confederation for aid, Rivera to the Unitaries and +Oribe to the Federalists. In 1843, Oribe, at the head of an army +of Blancos and Federalists and with the moral support of Rosas, +laid siege to Montevideo. Defended by Colorados, Unitaries, and +numerous foreigners, including Giuseppe Garibaldi, the town held +out valiantly for eight years--a feat that earned for it the +title of the "New Troy." Anxious to stop the slaughter and +destruction that were injuring their nationals, France, Great +Britain, and Brazil offered their mediation; but Rosas would have +none of it. What the antagonists did he cared little, so long as +they enfeebled the country and increased his chances of +dominating it. At length, in 1845, the two European powers +established a blockade of Argentine ports, which was not lifted +until the dictator grudgingly agreed to withdraw his troops from +the neighboring republic. + +More than any other single factor, this intervention of France +and Great Britain administered a blow to Rosas from which he +could not recover. The operations of their fleets and the +resistance of Montevideo had lowered the prestige of the dictator +and had raised the hopes of the Unitaries that a last desperate +effort might shake off his hated control. In May, 1851, Justo +Jose de Urquiza, one of his most trusted lieutenants, declared +the independence of his own province and called upon the others +to rise against the tyrant. Enlisting the support of Brazil, +Uruguay, and Paraguay, he assembled a "great army of liberation," +composed of about twenty-five thousand men, at whose head he +marched to meet the redoubtable Rosas. On February 3,1852, at a +spot near Buenos Aires, the man of might who, like his +contemporary Francia in Paraguay, had held the Argentine +Confederation in thralldom for so many years, went down to final +defeat. Embarking on a British warship he sailed for England, +there to become a quiet country gentleman in a land where gauchos +and dictators were unhonored. + +In the meantime Paraguay, spared from such convulsion as racked +its neighbor on the east, dragged on its secluded existence of +backwardness and stagnation. Indians and half-castes vegetated in +ignorance and docility, and the handful of whites quaked in +terror, while the inexorable Francia tightened the reins of +commercial and industrial restriction and erected forts along the +frontiers to keep out the pernicious foreigner. At his death, in +1840, men and women wept at his funeral in fear perchance, as one +historian remarks, lest he come back to life; and the priest who +officiated at the service likened the departed dictator to Caesar +and Augustus! + +Paraguay was destined, however, to fall under a despot far worse +than Francia when in 1862 Francisco Solano Lopez became +President. The new ruler was a man of considerable intelligence +and education. While a traveler in Europe he had seen much of its +military organizations, and he had also gained no slight +acquaintance with the vices of its capital cities. This acquired +knowledge he joined to evil propensities until he became a +veritable monster of wickedness. Vain, arrogant, reckless, +absolutely devoid of scruple, swaggering in victory, dogged in +defeat, ferociously cruel at all times, he murdered his brothers +and his best friends; he executed, imprisoned, or banished any +one whom he thought too influential; he tortured his mother and +sisters; and, like the French Terrorists, he impaled his officers +upon the unpleasant dilemma of winning victories or losing their +lives. Even members of the American legation suffered torment at +his hands, and the minister himself barely escaped death. + +Over his people, Lopez wielded a marvelous power, compounded of +persuasive eloquence and brute force. If the Paraguayans had +obeyed their earlier masters blindly, they were dumb before this +new despot and deaf to other than his word of command. To them he +was the "Great Father," who talked to them in their own tongue of +Guarani, who was the personification of the nation, the greatest +ruler in the world, the invincible champion who inspired them +with a loathing and contempt for their enemies. Such were the +traits of a man and such the traits of a people who waged for six +years a warfare among the most extraordinary in human annals. + +What prompted Lopez to embark on his career of international +madness and prosecute it with the rage of a demon is not entirely +clear. A vision of himself as the Napoleon of southern South +America, who might cause Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay to cringe +before his footstool, while he disposed at will of their +territory and fortunes, doubtless stirred his imagination. So, +too, the thought of his country, wedged in between two huge +neighbors and threatened with suffocation between their +overlapping folds, may well have suggested the wisdom of +conquering overland a highway to the sea. At all events, he +assembled an army of upwards of ninety thousand men, the greatest +military array that Hispanic America had ever seen. Though +admirably drilled and disciplined, they were poorly armed, mostly +with flintlock muskets, and they were also deficient in artillery +except that of antiquated pattern. With this mighty force at his +back, yet knowing that the neighboring countries could eventually +call into the field armies much larger in size equipped with +repeating rifles and supplied with modern artillery, the "Jupiter +of Paraguay" nevertheless made ready to launch his thunderbolt. + +The primary object at which he aimed was Uruguay. In this little +state the Colorados, upheld openly or secretly by Brazil and +Argentina, were conducting a "crusade of liberty" against the +Blanco government at Montevideo, which was favored by Paraguay. +Neither of the two great powers wished to see an alliance formed +between Uruguay and Paraguay, lest when united in this manner the +smaller nations might become too strong to tolerate further +intervention in their affairs. For her part, Brazil had motives +for resentment arising out of boundary disputes with Paraguay and +Uruguay, as well as out of the inevitable injury to its nationals +inflicted by the commotions in the latter country; whereas +Argentina cherished grievances against Lopez for the audacity +with which his troops roamed through her provinces and the +impudence with which his vessels, plying on the lower Parana, +ignored the customs regulations. Thus it happened that obscure +civil discords in one little republic exploded into a terrific +international struggle which shook South America to its +foundations. + +In 1864, scorning the arts of diplomacy which he did not +apparently understand, Lopez sent down an order for the two big +states to leave the matter of Uruguayan politics to his impartial +adjustment. At both Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires a roar of +laughter went up from the press at this notion of an obscure +chieftain of a band of Indians in the tropical backwoods daring +to poise the equilibrium of much more than half a continent on +his insolent hand. But the merriment soon subsided, as Brazilians +and Argentinos came to realize what their peril might be from a +huge army of skilled and valiant soldiers, a veritable horde of +fighting fanatics, drawn up in a compact little land, centrally +located and affording in other respects every kind of strategic +advantage. + +When Brazil invaded Uruguay and restored the Colorados to power, +Lopez demanded permission from Argentina to cross its frontier, +for the purpose of assailing his enemy from another quarter. When +the permission was denied, Lopez declared war on Argentina also. +It was in every respect a daring step, but Lopez knew that +Argentina was not so well prepared as his own state for a war of +endurance. Uruguay then entered into an alliance in 1865 with its +two big "protectors." In accordance with its terms, the allies +agreed not to conclude peace until Lopez had been overthrown, +heavy indemnities had been exacted of Paraguay, its +fortifications demolished, its army disbanded, and the country +forced to accept any boundaries that the victors might see fit to +impose. + +Into the details of the campaigns in the frightful conflict that +ensued it is not necessary to enter. Although, in 1866, the +allies had assembled an army of some fifty thousand men, Lopez +continued taking the offensive until, as the number and +determination of his adversaries increased, he was compelled to +retreat into his own country. Here he and his Indian legions +levied terrific toll upon the lives of their enemies who pressed +onward, up or down the rivers and through tropical swamps and +forests. Inch by inch he contested their entry upon Paraguayan +soil. When the able-bodied men gave out, old men, boys, women, +and girls fought on with stubborn fury, and died before they +would surrender. The wounded escaped if they could, or, cursing +their captors, tore off their bandages and bled to death. Disease +wrought awful havoc in all the armies engaged; yet the struggle +continued until flesh and blood could endure no more. Flying +before his pursuers into the wilds of the north and frantically +dragging along with him masses of fugitive men, women, and +children, whom he remorselessly shot, or starved to death, or +left to perish of exhaustion, Lopez turned finally at bay, and, +on March 1, 1870, was felled by the lance of a cavalryman. He had +sworn to die for his country and he did, though his country might +perish with him. + +No land in modern times has ever reached a point so near +annihilation as Paraguay. Added to the utter ruin of its +industries and the devastation of its fields, dwellings, and +towns, hundreds of thousands of men, women, and children had +perished. Indeed, the horrors that had befallen it might well +have led the allies to ask themselves whether it was worth while +to destroy a country in order to change its rulers. Five years +before Lopez came into power the population of Paraguay had been +reckoned at something between 800,000 and 1,400,000--so +unreliable were census returns in those days. In 1878 it was +estimated at about 230,000, of whom women over fifteen years of +age outnumbered the men nearly four to one. Loose polygamy was +the inevitable consequence, and women became the breadwinners. +Even today in this country the excess of females over males is +very great. All in all, it is not strange that Paraguay should be +called the "Niobe among nations." + +Unlike many nations of Spanish America in which a more or less +anticlerical regime was in the ascendant, Ecuador fell under a +sort of theocracy. Here appeared one of the strangest characters +in a story already full of extraordinary personages--Gabriel +Garcia Moreno, who became President of that republic in 1861. In +some respects the counterpart of Francia of Paraguay, in others +both a medieval mystic and an enlightened ruler of modern type, +he was a man of remarkable intellect, constructive ability, +earnest patriotism, and disinterested zeal for orderliness and +progress. On his presidential sash were inscribed the words: "My +Power in the Constitution"; but is real power lay in himself and +in the system which he implanted. + +Garcia Moreno had a varied career. He had been a student of +chemistry and other natural sciences. He had spent his youth in +exile in Europe, where he prepared himself for his subsequent +career as a journalist and a university professor. Through it all +he had been an active participant in public affairs. Grim of +countenance, austere in bearing, violent of temper, relentless in +severity, he was a devoted believer in the Roman Catholic faith +and in this Church as the sole effective basis upon which a state +could be founded or social and political regeneration could be +assured. In order to render effective his concept of what a +nation ought to be, Garcia Moreno introduced and upheld in all +rigidity an administration the like of which had been known +hardly anywhere since the Middle Ages. He recalled the Jesuits, +established schools of the "Brothers of the Christian Doctrine," +and made education a matter wholly under ecclesiastical control. +He forbade heretical worship, called the country the "Republic of +the Sacred Heart," and entered into a concordat with the Pope +under which the Church in Ecuador became more subject to the will +of the supreme pontiff than western Europe had been in the days +of Innocent III. + +Liberals in and outside of Ecuador tried feebly to shake off this +masterful theocracy, for the friendship which Garcia Moreno +displayed toward the diplomatic representatives of the Catholic +powers of Europe, notably those of Spain and France, excited the +neighboring republics. Colombia, indeed, sent an army to liberate +the "brother democrats of Ecuador from the rule of Professor +Garcia Moreno," but the mass of the people stood loyally by their +President. For this astounding obedience to an administration +apparently so unrelated to modern ideas, the ecclesiastical +domination was not solely or even chiefly responsible. In more +ways than one Garcia Moreno, the professor President, was a +statesman of vision and deed. He put down brigandage and +lawlessness; reformed the finances; erected hospitals; promoted +education; and encouraged the study of natural science. Even his +salary he gave over to public improvements. His successors in the +presidential office found it impossible to govern the country +without Garcia Moreno. Elected for a third term to carry on his +curious policy of conservatism and reaction blended with modern +advancement, he fell by the hand of an assassin in 1875. But the +system which he had done so much to establish in Ecuador survived +him for many years. + +Although Brazil did not escape the evils of insurrection which +retarded the growth of nearly all of its neighbors, none of its +numerous commotions shook the stability of the nation to a +perilous degree. By 1850 all danger of revolution had vanished. +The country began to enter upon a career of peace and progress +under a regime which combined broadly the federal organization of +the United States with the form of a constitutional monarchy. +Brazil enjoyed one of the few enlightened despotisms in South +America. Adopting at the outset the parliamentary system, the +Emperor Pedro II chose his ministers from among the liberals or +conservatives, as one party or the other might possess a majority +in the lower house of the Congress. Though the legislative power +of the nation was enjoyed almost entirely by the planters and +their associates who formed the dominant social class, individual +liberty was fully guaranteed, and even freedom of conscience and +of the press was allowed. Negro slavery, though tolerated, was +not expressly recognized. + +Thanks to the political discretion and unusual personal qualities +of "Dom Pedro," his popularity became more and more marked as the +years went on. A patron of science and literature, a scholar +rather than a ruler, a placid and somewhat eccentric philosopher, +careless of the trappings of state, he devoted himself without +stint to the public welfare. Shrewdly divining that the +monarchical system might not survive much longer, he kept his +realm pacified by a policy of conciliation. Pedro II even went so +far as to call himself the best republican in the Empire. He +might have said, with justice perhaps, that he was the best +republican in the whole of Hispanic America. What he really +accomplished was the successful exercise of a paternal autocracy +of kindness and liberality over his subjects. + +If more or less permanent dictators and occasional liberators +were the order of the day in most of the Spanish American +republics, intermittent dictators and liberators dashed across +the stage in Mexico from 1829 well beyond the middle of the +century. The other countries could show numerous instances in +which the occupant of the chief magistracy held office to the +close of his constitutional term; but Mexico could not show a +single one! What Mexico furnished, instead, was a kaleidoscopic +spectacle of successive presidents or dictators, an unstable +array of self-styled "generals" without a presidential +succession. There were no fewer than fifty such transient rulers +in thirty-two years, with anywhere from one to six a year, with +even the same incumbent twice in one year, or, in the case of the +repetitious Santa Anna, nine times in twenty years--in spite of +the fact that the constitutional term of office was four years. +This was a record that made the most turbulent South American +states seem, by comparison, lands of methodical regularity in the +choice of their national executive. And as if this instability in +the chief magistracy were not enough, the form of government in +Mexico shifted violently from federal to centralized, and back +again to federal. Mad struggles raged between partisan chieftains +and their bands of Escoceses and Yorkinos, crying out upon the +"President" in power because of his undue influence upon the +choice of a successor, backing their respective candidates if +they lost, and waiting for a chance to oust them if they won. + +This tumultuous epoch had scarcely begun when Spain in 1829 made +a final attempt to recover her lost dominion in Mexico. Local +quarrels were straightway dropped for two months until the +invaders had surrendered. Thereupon the great landholders, who +disliked the prevailing Yorkino regime for its democratic +policies and for favoring the abolition of slavery, rallied to +the aid of a "general" who issued a manifesto demanding an +observance of the constitution and the laws! After Santa Anna, +who was playing the role of a Mexican Warwick, had disposed of +this aspirant, he switched blithely over to the Escoceses, +reduced the federal system almost to a nullity, and in 1836 +marched away to conquer the revolting Texans. But, instead, they +conquered him and gained their independence, so that his reward +was exile. + +Now the Escoceses were free to promulgate a new constitution, to +abolish the federal arrangement altogether, and to replace it by +a strongly centralized government under which the individual +States became mere administrative districts. Hardly had this +radical change been effected when in 1838 war broke out with +France on account of the injuries which its nationals, among whom +were certain pastry cooks, had suffered during the interminable +commotions. Mexico was forced to pay a heavy indemnity; and Santa +Anna, who had returned to fight the invader, was unfortunate +enough to lose a leg in the struggle. This physical deprivation, +however, did not interfere with that doughty hero's zest for +tilting with other unquiet spirits who yearned to assure national +regeneration by continuing to elevate and depose "presidents." + +Another swing of the political pendulum had restored the federal +system when again everything was overturned by the disastrous war +with the United States. Once more Santa Anna returned, this time, +however, to joust in vain with the "Yankee despoilers" who were +destined to dismember Mexico and to annex two-thirds of its +territory. Again Santa Anna was banished--to dream of a more +favorable opportunity when he might become the savior of a +country which had fallen into bankruptcy and impotence. + +His opportunity came in 1853, when conservatives and clericals +indulged the fatuous hope that he would both sustain their +privileges and lift Mexico out of its sore distress. Either their +memories were short or else distance had cast a halo about his +figure. At all events, he returned from exile and assumed, for +the ninth and last time, a presidency which he intended to be +something more than a mere dictatorship. Scorning the formality +of a Congress, he had himself entitled "Most Serene Highness," as +indicative of his ambition to become a monarch in name as well as +in fact. + +Royal or imperial designs had long since brought one military +upstart to grief. They were now to cut Santa Anna's residence in +Mexico similarly short. Eruptions of discontent broke out all +over the country. Unable to make them subside, Santa Anna fell +back upon an expedient which recalls practices elsewhere in +Spanish America. He opened registries in which all citizens might +record "freely" their approval or disapproval of his continuance +in power. Though he obtained the huge majority of affirmative +votes to be expected in such cases, he found that these +pen-and-ink signatures were no more serviceable than his +soldiers. Accordingly the dictator of many a day, fallen from his +former estate of highness, decided to abandon his serenity also, +and in 1854 fled the country--for its good and his own. + + + +CHAPTER VI. PERIL FROM ABROAD + +Apart from the spoliation of Mexico by the United States, the +independence of the Hispanic nations had not been menaced for +more than thirty years. Now comes a period in which the plight of +their big northern neighbor, rent in twain by civil war and +powerless to enforce the spirit of the Monroe Doctrine, caused +two of the countries to become subject a while to European +control. One of these was the Dominican Republic. + +In 1844 the Spanish-speaking population of the eastern part of +the island of Santo Domingo, writhing under the despotic yoke of +Haiti, had seized a favorable occasion to regain their freedom. +But the magic word "independence" could not give stability to the +new state any more than it had done in the case of its western +foes. The Haitians had lapsed long since into a condition +resembling that of their African forefathers. They reveled in the +barbarities of Voodoo, a sort of snake worship, and they groveled +before "presidents" and "emperors" who rose and fell on the tide +of decaying civilization. The Dominicans unhappily were not much +more progressive. Revolutions alternated with invasions and +counterinvasions and effectually prevented enduring progress. + +On several occasions the Dominicans had sought reannexation to +Spain or had craved the protection of France as a defense against +continual menace from their negro enemies and as a relief from +domestic turmoil. But every move in this direction failed because +of a natural reluctance on the part of Spain and France, which +was heightened by a refusal of the United States to permit what +it regarded as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine. In 1861, +however, the outbreak of civil war in the United States appeared +to present a favorable opportunity to obtain protection from +abroad. If the Dominican Republic could not remain independent +anyway, reunion with the old mother country seemed altogether +preferable to reconquest by Haiti. The President, therefore, +entered into negotiations with the Spanish Governor and Captain +General of Cuba, and then issued a proclamation signed by himself +and four of his ministers announcing that by the "free and +spontaneous will" of its citizens, who had conferred upon him the +power to do so, the nation recognized Queen Isabella II as its +lawful sovereign! Practically no protest was made by the +Dominicans against this loss of their independence. + +Difficulties which should have been foreseen by Spain were quick +to reveal themselves. It fell to the exPresident, now a colonial +governor and captain general, to appoint a host of officials and, +not unnaturally, he named his own henchmen. By so doing he not +only aroused the animosity of the disappointed but stimlated that +of the otherwise disaffected as well, until both the aggrieved +factions began to plot rebellion. Spain, too, sent over a crowd +of officials who could not adjust themselves to local conditions. +The failure of the mother country to allow the Dominicans +representation in the Spanish Cortes and its readiness to levy +taxes stirred up resentment that soon ended in revolution. Unable +to check this new trouble, and awed by the threatening attitude +of the United States, Spain decided to withdraw in 1865. The +Dominicans thus were left with their independence and a +chance--which they promptly seized--to renew their commotions. So +serious did these disturbances become that in 1869 the President +of the reconstituted republic sought annexation to the United +States but without success. American efforts, on the other hand, +were equally futile to restore peace and order in the troubled +country until many years later. + +The intervention of Spain in Santo Domingo and its subsequent +withdrawal could not fail to have disastrous consequences in its +colony of Cuba, the "Pearl of the Antilles" as it was proudly +called. Here abundant crops of sugar and tobacco had brought +wealth and luxury, but not many immigrants because of the havoc +made by epidemics of yellow fever. Nearly a third of the insular +population was still composed of negro slaves, who could hardly +relish the thought that, while the mother country had tolerated +the suppression of the hateful institution in Santo Domingo, she +still maintained it in Cuba. A bureaucracy, also, prone to +corruption owing to the temptations of loose accounting at the +custom house, governed in routinary, if not in arbitrary, +fashion. Under these circumstances dislike for the suspicious and +repressive administration of Spain grew apace, and secret +societies renewed their agitation for its overthrow. The symptoms +of unrest were aggravated by the forced retirement of Spain from +Santo Domingo. If the Dominicans had succeeded so well, it ought +not to be difficult for a prolonged rebellion to wear Spain out +and compel it to abandon Cuba also. At this critical moment news +was brought of a Spanish revolution across the seas. + +Just as the plight of Spain in 1808, and again in 1820, had +afforded a favorable opportunity for its colonies on the +continents of America to win their independence, so now in 1868 +the tidings that Queen Isabella had been dethroned by a liberal +uprising aroused the Cubans to action under their devoted leader, +Carlos Manuel de Cespedes. The insurrection had not gained much +headway, however, when the provisional government of the mother +country instructed a new Governor and Captain General--whose +name, Dulce (Sweet), had an auspicious sound--to open +negotiations with the insurgents and to hold out the hope of +reforms. But the royalists, now as formerly,would listen to no +compromise. Organizing themselves into bodies of volunteers, they +drove Dulce out. He was succeeded by one Caballero de Rodas +(Knight of Rhodes) who lived up to his name by trying to ride +roughshod over the rebellious Cubans. Thus began the Ten Years' +War--a war of skirmishes and brief encounters, rarely involving a +decisive action, which drenched the soil of Cuba with blood and +laid waste its fields in a fury of destruction. + +Among the radicals and liberals who tried to retain a fleeting +control over Mexico after the final departure of Santa Anna was +the first genuine statesman it had ever known in its history as a +republic--Benito Pablo Juarez, an Indian. At twelve years of age +he could not read or write or even speak Spanish. His employer, +however, noted his intelligence and had him educated. Becoming a +lawyer, Juarez entered the political arena and rose to prominence +by dint of natural talent for leadership, an indomitable +perseverance, and a sturdy patriotism. A radical by conviction, +he felt that the salvation of Mexico could never be attained +until clericalism and militarism had been banished from its soil +forever. + +Under his influence a provisional government had already begun a +policy of lessening the privileges of the Church, when the +conservative elements, with a cry that religion was being +attacked, rose up in arms again. This movement repressed, a +Congress proceeded in 1857 to issue a liberal constitution which +was destined to last for sixty years. It established the federal +system in a definite fashion, abolished special privileges, both +ecclesiastical and military, and organized the country on sound +bases worthy of a modern nation. Mexico seemed about to enter +upon a rational development. But the newly elected President, +yielding to the importunities of the clergy, abolished the +constitution, dissolved the legislature, and set up a +dictatorship, in spite of the energetic protests of Juarez, who +had been chosen Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and who, in +accordance with the terms of the temporarily discarded +instrument, was authorized to assume the presidency should that +office fall vacant. The rule of the usurper was short-lived, +however. Various improvised "generals" of conservative stripe put +themselves at the head of a movement to "save country, religion, +and the rights of the army," drove the would-be dictator out, and +restored the old regime. + +Juarez now proclaimed himself acting President, as he was legally +entitled to do, and set up his government at Vera Cruz while one +"provisional president" followed another. Throughout this trying +time Juarez defended his position vigorously and rejected every +offer of compromise. In 1859 he promulgated his famous Reform +Laws which nationalized ecclesiastical property, secularized +cemeteries, suppressed religious communities, granted freedom of +worship, and made marriage a civil contract. For Mexico, however, +as for other Spanish American countries, measures of the sort +were far too much in advance of their time to insure a ready +acceptance. Although Juarez obtained a great moral victory when +his government was recognized by the United States, he had to +struggle two years more before he could gain possession of the +capital. Triumphant in 1861, he carried his anticlerical program +to the point of actually expelling the Papal Nuncio and other +ecclesiastics who refused to obey his decrees. By so doing he +leveled the way for the clericals, conservatives, and the +militarists to invite foreign intervention on behalf of their +desperate cause. But, even if they had not been guilty of +behavior so unpatriotic, the anger of the Pope over the treatment +of his Church, the wrath of Spain over the conduct of Juarez, who +had expelled the Spanish minister for siding with the +ecclesiastics, the desire of Great Britain to collect debts due +to her subjects, and above all the imperialistic ambitions of +Napoleon III, who dreamt of converting the intellectual influence +of France in Hispanic America into a political ascendancy, would +probably have led to European occupation in any event, so long at +least as the United States was slit asunder and incapable of +action. + +Some years before, the Mexican Government under the clerical and +militarist regime had made a contract with a Swiss banker who for +a payment of $500,000 had received bonds worth more than fifteen +times the value of the loan. When, therefore, the Mexican +Congress undertook to defer payments on a foreign debt that +included the proceeds of this outrageous contract, the +Governments of France, Great Britain, and Spain decided to +intervene. According to their agreement the three powers were +simply to hold the seaports of Mexico and collect the customs +duties until their pecuniary demands had been satisfied. +Learning, however, that Napoleon III had ulterior designs, Great +Britain and Spain withdrew their forces and left him to proceed +with his scheme of conquest. After capturing Puebla in May, 1863, +a French army numbering some thirty thousand men entered the +capital and installed an assemblage of notables belonging to the +clerical and conservative groups. This body thereupon proclaimed +the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under an emperor. +The title was to be offered to Maximilian, Archduke of Austria. +In case he should not accept, the matter was to be referred to +the "benevolence of his majesty, the Emperor of the French," who +might then select some other Catholic prince. + +On his arrival, a year later, the amiable and well-meaning +Maximilian soon discovered that, instead of being an "Emperor," +he was actually little more than a precarious chief of a faction +sustained by the bayonets of a foreign army. In the northern part +of Mexico, Juarez, Porfirio Diaz,--later to become the most +renowned of presidential autocrats,--and other patriot leaders, +though hunted from place to place, held firmly to their resolve +never to bow to the yoke of the pretender. Nor could Maximilian +be sure of the loyalty of even his supposed adherents. Little by +little the unpleasant conviction intruded itself upon him that he +must either abdicate or crush all resistance in the hope that +eventually time and good will might win over the Mexicans. But do +what they would, his foreign legions could not catch the wary and +stubborn Juarez and his guerrilla lieutenants, who persistently +wore down the forces of their enemies. Then the financial +situation became grave. Still more menacing was the attitude of +the United States now that its civil war was at an end. On May +31, 1866, Maximilian received word that Napoleon III had decided +to withdraw the French troops. He then determined to abdicate, +but he was restrained by the unhappy Empress Carlotta, who +hastened to Europe to plead his cause with Napoleon. Meantime, as +the French troops were withdrawn, Juarez occupied the territory. + +Feebly the "Emperor" strove to enlist the favor of his +adversaries by a number of liberal decrees; but their sole result +was his abandonment by many a lukewarm conservative. Inexorably +the patriot armies closed around him until in May, 1867, he was +captured at Queretaro, where he had sought refuge. Denied the +privilege of leaving the country on a promise never to return, he +asked Escobedo, his captor, to treat him as a prisoner of war. +"That's my business," was the grim reply. On the pretext that +Maximilian had refused to recognize the competence of the +military court chosen to try him, Juarez gave the order to shoot +him. On the 19th of June the Austrian archduke paid for a +fleeting glory with his life. Thus failed the second attempt at +erecting an empire in Mexico. For thirty-four years diplomatic +relations between that country and Austria-Hungary were severed. +The clericalmilitary combination had been overthrown, and the +Mexican people had rearmed their independence. As Juarez +declared: "Peace means respect for the rights of others." + +Even if foreign dreams of empire in Mexico had vanished so +abruptly, it could hardly be expected that a land torn for many +years by convulsions could become suddenly tranquil. With Diaz +and other aspirants to presidential power, or with chieftains who +aimed at setting up little republics of their own in the several +states, Juarez had to contend for some time before he could +establish a fair amount of order. Under his successor, who also +was a civilian, an era of effective reform began. In 1873 +amendments to the constitution declared Church and State +absolutely separate and provided for the abolition of peonage--a +provision which was more honored in, the breach than in the +observance. + + + +CHAPTER VII. GREATER STATES AND LESSER + +During the half century that had elapsed since 1826, the nations +of Hispanic America had passed through dark ages. Their evolution +had always been accompanied by growing pains and had at times +been arrested altogether or unduly hastened by harsh injections +of radicalism. It was not an orderly development through gradual +modifications in the social and economic structure, but rather a +fitful progress now assisted and now retarded by the arbitrary +deeds of men of action, good and bad, who had seized power. +Dictators, however, steadily decreased in number and gave place +often to presidential autocrats who were continued in office by +constant reelection and who were imbued with modern ideas. In +1876 these Hispanic nations stood on the threshold of a new era. +Some were destined to advance rapidly beyond it; others, to move +slowly onward; and a few to make little or no progress. + +The most remarkable feature in the new era was the rise of four +states--Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile--to a position of +eminence among their fellows. Extent of territory, development of +natural resources, the character of the inhabitants and the +increase of their numbers, and the amount of popular intelligence +and prosperity, all contributed to this end. Each of the four +nations belonged to a fairly well-defined historical and +geographical group in southern North America, and in eastern and +western South America, respectively. In the first group were +Mexico, the republics of Central America, and the island +countries of the Caribbean; in the second, Brazil, Argentina, +Uruguay, and Paraguay; and in the third, Chile, Peru, and +Bolivia. In a fourth group were Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. + +When the President of Mexico proceeded, in 1876, to violate the +constitution by securing his reelection, the people were prepared +by their earlier experiences and by the rule of Juarez to defend +their constitutional rights. A widespread rebellion headed by +Diaz broke out. In the so-called "Plan of Tuxtepec" the +revolutionists declared themselves in favor of the principle of +absolutely no reelection. Meantime the Chief Justice of the +Supreme Court handed down a decision that the action of the +Congress in sustaining the President was illegal, since in +reality no elections had been held because of the abstention of +voters and the seizure of the polls by revolutionists or +government forces. "Above the constitution, nothing; above the +constitution, no one," he declared. But as this assumption of a +power of judgment on matters of purely political concern was +equally a violation of the constitution and concealed, besides, +an attempt to make the Chief Justice President, Diaz and his +followers drove both of the pretenders out. Then in 1876 he +managed to bring about his own election instead. + +Porfirio Diaz was a soldier who had seen active service in nearly +every important campaign since the war with the United States. +Often himself in revolt against presidents, legal and illegal, +Diaz was vastly more than an ordinary partisan chieftain. +Schooled by a long experience, he had come to appreciate the fact +that what Mexico required for its national development was +freedom from internal disorders and a fair chance for +recuperation. Justice, order, and prosperity, he felt, could be +assured only by imposing upon the country the heavy weight of an +iron hand. Foreign capital must be invested in Mexico and then +protected; immigration must be encouraged, and other material, +moral, and intellectual aid of all sorts must be drawn from +abroad for the upbuilding of the nation. + +To effect such a transformation in a land so tormented and +impoverished as Mexico--a country which, within the span of +fifty-five years had lived under two "emperors," and some +thirty-six presidents, nine "provisional presidents," ten +dictators, twelve "regents," and five "supreme +councilors"--required indeed a masterful intelligence and a +masterful authority. Porfirio Diaz possessed and exercised both. +He was, in fact, just the man for the times. An able +administrator, stern and severe but just, rather reserved in +manner and guarded in utterance, shrewd in the selection of +associates, and singularly successful in his dealings with +foreigners, he entered upon a "presidential reign" of thirty-five +years broken by but one intermission of four--which brought +Mexico out upon the highway to new national life. + +Under the stable and efficient rulership of Diaz, "plans," +"pronunciamentos," "revolutions," and similar devices of +professional trouble makers, had short shrift. Whenever an +uprising started, it was promptly quelled, either by a +well-disciplined army or by the rurales, a mounted police made up +to some extent of former bandits to whom the President gave the +choice of police service or of sharp punishment for their crimes. +Order, in fact, was not always maintained, nor was justice always +meted out, by recourse to judges and courts. Instead, a novel +kind of lynch law was invoked. The name it bore was the ley fuga, +or "flight law," in accordance with which malefactors or +political suspects taken by government agents from one locality +to another, on the excuse of securing readier justice, were given +by their captors a pretended chance to escape and were then shot +while they ran! The only difference between this method and +others of the sort employed by Spanish American autocrats to +enforce obedience lay in its purpose. Of Diaz one might say what +Bacon said of King Henry VII: "He drew blood as physicians do, to +save life rather than to spill it." If need be, here and there, +disorder and revolt were stamped out by terrorism; but the +Mexican people did not yield to authority from terror but rather +from a thorough loyalty to the new regime. + +Among the numerous measures of material improvement which Diaz +undertook during his first term, the construction of railways was +the most important. The size of the country, its want of +navigable rivers, and its relatively small and widely scattered +population, made imperative the establishment of these means of +communication. Despite the misgivings of many intelligent +Mexicans that the presence of foreign capital would impair local +independence in some way, Diaz laid the foundations of future +national prosperity by granting concessions to the Mexican +Central and National Mexican companies, which soon began +construction. Under his successor a national bank was created; +and when Diaz was again elected he readjusted the existing +foreign debt and boldly contracted new debts abroad. + +At the close of his first term, in 1880, a surplus in the +treasury was not so great a novelty as the circumstance +altogether unique in the political annals of Mexico-that Diaz +turned over the presidency in peaceful fashion to his properly +elected successor! He did so reluctantly, to be sure, but he +could not afford just yet to ignore his own avowed principle, +which had been made a part of the constitution shortly after his +accession. Although the confidence he reposed in that successor +was not entirely justified, the immense personal popularity of +Diaz saved the prestige of the new chief magistrate. Under his +administration the constitution was amended in such a way as to +deprive the Chief Justice of the privilege of replacing the +President in case of a vacancy, thus eliminating that official +from politics. After his resumption of office, Diaz had the +fundamental law modified anew, so as to permit the reelection of +a President for one term only! For this change, inconsistent +though it may seem, Diaz was not alone responsible. Circumstances +had changed, and the constitution had to change with them. + +Had the "United Provinces of Central America," as they came forth +from under the rule of Spain, seen fit to abstain from following +in the unsteady footsteps of Mexico up to the time of the +accession of Diaz to power, had they done nothing more than +develop their natural wealth and utilize their admirable +geographical situation, they might have become prosperous and +kept their corporate name. As it was, their history for upwards +of forty years had little to record other than a momentary +cohesion and a subsequent lapse into five quarrelsome little +republics--the "Balkan States" of America. Among them Costa Rica +had suffered least from arbitrary management or internal +commotion and showed the greatest signs of advancement. + +In Guatemala, however, there had arisen another Diaz, though a +man quite inferior in many respects to his northern counterpart. +When Justo Rufino Barrios became President of that republic in +1873 he was believed to have conservative leanings. Ere long, +however, he astounded his compatriots by showing them that he was +a thoroughgoing radical with methods of action to correspond to +his convictions. Not only did he keep the Jesuits out of the +country but he abolished monastic orders altogether and converted +their buildings to public use. He made marriage a civil contract +and he secularized the burying grounds. Education he encouraged +by engaging the services of foreign instructors, and he brought +about a better observance of the law by the promulgation of new +codes. He also introduced railways and telegraph lines. Since the +manufacture of aniline dyes abroad had diminished the demand for +cochineal, Barrios decided to replace this export by cultivating +coffee. To this end, he distributed seeds among the planters and +furnished financial aid besides, with a promise to inspect the +fields in due season and see what had been accomplished. Finding +that in many cases the seeds had been thrown away and the money +wasted in drink and gambling, he ordered the guilty planters to +be given fifty lashes, with the assurance that on a second +offense he would shoot them on sight. Coffee planting in +Guatemala was pursued thereafter with much alacrity! + +Posts in the government service Barrios distributed quite +impartially among Conservatives and Democrats, deserving or +otherwise, for he had them both well under control. At his behest +a permanent constitution was promulgated in 1880. While he +affected to dislike continual reelection, he saw to it +nevertheless that he himself should be the sole candidate who was +likely to win. + +Barrios doubtless could have remained President of Guatemala for +the term of his natural life if he had not raised up the ghost of +federation. All the republics of Central America accepted his +invitation in 1876 to send delegates to his capital to discuss +the project. But nothing was accomplished because Barrios and the +President of Salvador were soon at loggerheads. Nine years later, +feeling himself stronger, Barrios again proposed federation. But +the other republics had by this time learned too much of the +methods of the autocrat of Guatemala, even while they admired his +progressive policy, to relish the thought of a federation +dominated by Guatemala and its masterful President. Though he +"persuaded" Honduras to accept the plan, the three other +republics preferred to unite in self-defense, and in the ensuing +struggle the quixotic Barrios was killed. A few years later the +project was revived and the constitution of a "Republic of +Central America" was agreed upon, when war between Guatemala and +Salvador again frustrated its execution. + +In Brazil two great movements were by this time under way: the +total abolition of slavery and the establishment of a republic. +Despite the tenacious opposition of many of the planters, from +about the year 1883 the movement for emancipation made great +headway. There was a growing determination on the part of the +majority of the inhabitants to remove the blot that made the +country an object of reproach among the civilized states of the +world. Provinces and towns, one after another, freed the slaves +within their borders. The imperial Government, on its part, +hastened the process by liberating its own slaves and by imposing +upon those still in bondage taxes higher than their market value; +it fixed a price for other slaves; it decreed that the older +slaves should be set free; and it increased the funds already +appropriated to compensate owners of slaves who should be +emancipated. In 1887 the number of slaves had fallen to about +720,000, worth legally about $650 each. A year later came the +final blow, when the Princess Regent assented to a measure which +abolished slavery outright and repealed all former acts relating +to slavery. So radical a proceeding wrought havoc in the +coffee-growing southern provinces in particular, from which the +negroes now freed migrated by tens of thousands to the northern +provinces. Their places, however, were taken by Italians and +other Europeans who came to work the plantations on a cooperative +basis. All through the eighties, in fact, immigrants from Italy +poured into the temperate regions of southern Brazil, to the +number of nearly two hundred thousand, supplementing the many +thousands of Germans who had settled, chiefly in the province of +Rio Grande do Sul, thirty years before. + +Apart from the industrial problem thus created by the abolition +of slavery, there seemed to be no serious political or economic +questions before the country. Ever since 1881, when a law +providing for direct elections was passed, the Liberals had been +in full control. The old Dom Pedro, who had endeared himself to +his people, was as much liked and respected as ever. But as he +had grown feeble and almost blind, the heiress to the throne, who +had marked absolutist and clerical tendencies, was disposed to +take advantage of his infirmities. + +For many years, on the other hand, doctrines opposed to the +principle of monarchy had been spread in zealous fashion by +members of the military class, notable among whom was Deodoro da +Fonseca. And now some of the planters longed to wreak vengeance +on a ruler who had dared to thwart their will by emancipating the +slaves. Besides this persistent discontent, radical republican +newspapers continually stirred up fresh agitation. Whatever the +personal service rendered by the Emperor to the welfare of the +country, to them he represented a political system which deprived +the provinces of much of their local autonomy and the Brazilian +people at large of self-government. + +But the chief reason for the momentous change which was about to +take place was the fact that the constitutional monarchy had +really completed its work as a transitional government. Under +that regime Brazil had reached a condition of stability and had +attained a level of progress which might well enable it to govern +itself. During all this time the influence of the Spanish +American nations had been growing apace. Even if they had fallen +into many a political calamity, they were nevertheless +"republics," and to the South American this word had a magic +sound. Above all, there was the potent suggestion of the success +of the United States of North America, whose extension of its +federal system over a vast territory suggested what Brazil with +its provinces might accomplish in the southern continent. Hence +the vast majority of intelligent Brazilians felt that they had +become self-reliant enough to establish a republic without fear +of lapsing into the unfortunate experiences of the other Hispanic +countries. + +In 1889, when provision was made for a speedy abdication of the +Emperor in favor of his daughter, the republican newspapers +declared that a scheme was being concocted to exile the chief +military agitators and to interfere with any effort on the part +of the army to prevent the accession of the new ruler. Thereupon, +on the 15th of November, the radicals at Rio de Janeiro, aided by +the garrison, broke out in open revolt. Proclaiming the +establishment of a federal republic under the name of the "United +States of Brazil," they deposed the imperial ministry, set up a +provisional government with Deodoro da Fonseca at its head, +arranged for the election of a constitutional convention, and +bade Dom Pedro and his family leave the country within +twenty-four hours. + +On the 17th of November, before daybreak, the summons was obeyed. +Not a soul appeared to bid the old Emperor farewell as he and his +family boarded the steamer that was to bear them to exile in +Europe. Though seemingly an act of heartlessness and ingratitude, +the precaution was a wise one in that it averted, possible +conflict and bloodshed. For the second time in its history, a +fundamental change had been wrought in the political system of +the nation without a resort to war! The United States of Brazil +accordingly took its place peacefully among its fellow republics +of the New World. + +Meanwhile Argentina, the great neighbor of Brazil to the +southwest, had been gaining territory and new resources. Since +the definite adoption of a federal constitution in 1853, this +state had attained to a considerable degree of national +consciousness under the leadership of able presidents such as +Bartolome Mitre, the soldier and historian, and Domingo Faustino +Sarmiento, the publicist and promoter of popular education. One +evidence of this new nationalism was a widespread belief in the +necessity of territorial expansion. Knowing that Chile +entertained designs upon Patagonia, the Argentine Government +forestalled any action by conducting a war of practical +extermination against the Indian tribes of that region and by +adding it to the national domain. The so-called "conquest of the +desert" in the far south of the continent opened to civilization +a vast habitable area of untold economic possibilities. + +In the electoral campaign of 1880 the presidential candidates +were Julio Argentino Roca and the Governor of the province of +Buenos Aires. The former, an able officer skilled in both arms +and politics, had on his side the advantage of a reputation won +in the struggle with the Patagonian Indians, the approval of the +national Government, and the support of most of the provinces. +Feeling certain of defeat at the polls, the partisans of the +latter candidate resorted to the timeworn expedient of a revolt. +Though the uprising lasted but twenty days, the diplomatic corps +at the capital proffered its mediation between the contestants, +in order to avoid any further bloodshed. The result was that the +fractious Governor withdrew his candidacy and a radical change +was effected in the relations of Buenos Aires, city and province, +to the country at large. The city, together with its environs, +was converted into a federal district and became solely and +distinctively the national capital. Its public buildings, +railways, and telegraph service, as well as the provincial debt, +were taken over by the general Government. The seat of provincial +authority was transferred to the village of Ensenada, which +thereupon was rechristened La Plata. + +A veritable tide of wealth and general prosperity was now rolling +over Argentina. By 1885 its population had risen to upwards of +3,000,000. Immigration increased to a point far beyond the +wildest expectations. In 1889 alone about 300,000 newcomers +arrived and lent their aid in the promotion of industry and +commerce. Fields hitherto uncultivated or given over to grazing +now bore vast crops of wheat, maize, linseed, and sugar. Large +quantities of capital, chiefly from Great Britain, also poured +into the country. As a result, the price of land rose high, and +feverish speculation became the order of the day. Banks and other +institutions of credit were set up, colonizing schemes were +devised, and railways were laid out. To meet the demands of all +these enterprises, the Government borrowed immense sums from +foreign capitalists and issued vast quantities of paper money, +with little regard for its ultimate redemption. Argentina spent +huge sums in prodigal fashion on all sorts of public improvements +in an effort to attract still more capital and immigration, and +thus entered upon a dangerous era of inflation. + +Of the near neighbors of Argentina, Uruguay continued along the +tortuous path of alternate disturbance and progress, losing many +of its inhabitants to the greater states beyond, where they +sought relative peace and security; while Paraguay, on the other +hand, enjoyed freedom from civil strife, though weighed down with +a war debt and untold millions in indemnities exacted by +Argentina and Brazil, which it could never hope to pay. In +consequence, this indebtedness was a useful club to brandish over +powerless Paraguay whenever that little country might venture to +question the right of either of its big neighbors to break the +promise they had made of keeping its territory intact. Argentina, +however, consented in 1878 to refer certain claims to the +decision of the President of the United States. When Paraguay won +the arbitration, it showed its gratitude by naming one of its +localities Villa Hayes. As time went on, however, its population +increased and hid many of the scars of war. + +On the western side of South America there broke out the struggle +known as the "War of the Pacific" between Chile, on the one side, +and Peru and Bolivia as allies on the other. In Peru unstable and +corrupt governments had contracted foreign loans under conditions +that made their repayment almost impossible and had spent the +proceeds in so reckless and extravagant a fashion as to bring the +country to the verge of bankruptcy. Bolivia, similarly governed, +was still the scene of the orgies and carnivals which had for +some time characterized its unfortunate history. One of its +buffoon "presidents," moreover, had entered into boundary +agreements with both Chile and Brazil, under which the nation +lost several important areas and some of its territory on the +Pacific. The boundaries of Bolivia, indeed, were run almost +everywhere on purely arbitrary lines drawn with scant regard for +the physical features of the country and with many a frontier +question left wholly unsettled. For some years Chilean companies +and speculators, aided by foreign capital mainly British in +origin, had been working deposits of nitrate of soda in the +province of Antofagasta, or "the desert of Atacama," a region +along the coast to the northward belonging to Bolivia, and also +in the provinces of Tacna, Arica, and Tarapaca, still farther to +the northward, belonging to Peru. Because boundary lines were not +altogether clear and because the three countries were all eager +to exploit these deposits, controversies over this debatable +ground were sure to rise. For the privilege of developing +portions of this region, individuals and companies had obtained +concessions from the various governments concerned; elsewhere, +industrial free lances dug away without reference to such +formalities. + +It is quite likely that Chile, whose motto was "By Right or by +Might," was prepared to sustain the claims of its citizens by +either alternative. At all events, scenting a prospective +conflict, Chile had devoted much attention to the development of +its naval and military establishment--a state of affairs which +did not escape the observation of its suspicious neighbors. + +The policy of Peru was determined partly by personal motives and +partly by reasons of state. In 1873 the President, lacking +sufficient financial and political support to keep himself in +office, resolved upon the risky expedient of arousing popular +passion against Chile, in the hope that he might thereby +replenish the national treasury. Accordingly he proceeded to pick +a quarrel by ordering the deposits in Tarapaca to be expropriated +with scant respect for the concessions made to the Chilean +miners. Realizing, however, the possible consequences of such an +action, he entered into an alliance with Bolivia. This country +thereupon proceeded to levy an increased duty on the exportation +of nitrates from the Atacama region. Chile, already aware of the +hostile combination which had been formed, protested so +vigorously that a year later Bolivia agreed to withdraw the new +regulations and to submit the dispute to arbitration. + +Such were the relations of these three states in 1878, when +Bolivia, taking advantage of differences of opinion between Chile +and Argentina regarding the Patagonian region, reimposed its +export duty, canceled the Chilean concessions, and confiscated +the nitrate deposits. Chile then declared war in February, 1879, +and within two months occupied the entire coast of Bolivia up to +the frontiers of Peru. On his part the President of Bolivia was +too much engrossed in the festivities connected with a masquerade +to bother about notifying the people that their land had been +invaded until several days after the event had occurred! + +Misfortunes far worse than anything which had fallen to the lot +of its ally now awaited Peru, which first attempted an officious +mediation and then declared war on the 4th of April. Since Peru +and Bolivia together had a population double that of Chile, and +since Peru possessed a much larger army and navy than Chile, the +allies counted confidently on victory. But Peru's army of eight +thousand--having within four hundred as many officers as men, +directed by no fewer than twenty-six generals, and presided over +by a civil government altogether inept--was no match for an army +less than a third of its size to be sure, but well drilled and +commanded, and with a stable, progressive, and efficient +government at its back. The Peruvian forces, lacking any +substantial support from Bolivia, crumpled under the terrific +attacks of their adversaries. Efforts on the part of the United +States to mediate in the struggle were blocked by the dogged +refusal of Chile to abate its demands for annexation. Early in +1881 its army entered Lima in triumph, and the war was over. + +For a while the victors treated the Peruvians and their capital +city shamefully. The Chilean soldiers stripped the national +library of its contents, tore up the lamp-posts in the streets, +carried away the benches in the parks, and even shipped off the +local menagerie to Santiago! What they did not remove or destroy +was disposed of by the rabble of Lima itself. But in two years so +utterly chaotic did the conditions in the hapless country become +that Chile at length had to set up a government in order to +conclude a peace. It was not until October 20, 1883, that the +treaty was signed at Lima and ratified later at Ancon. Peru was +forced to cede Tarapaca outright and to agree that Tacna and +Arica should be held by Chile for ten years. At the expiration of +this period the inhabitants of the two provinces were to be +allowed to choose by vote the country to which they would prefer +to belong, and the nation that won the election was to pay the +loser 10,000,000 pesos. In April, 1884, Bolivia, also, entered +into an arrangement with Chile, according to which a portion of +its seacoast should be ceded absolutely and the remainder should +be occupied by Chile until a more definite understanding on the +matter could be reached. + +Chile emerged from the war not only triumphant over its northern +rivals but dominant on the west coast of South America. Important +developments in Chilean national policy followed. To maintain its +vantage and to guard against reprisals, the victorious state had +to keep in military readiness on land and sea. It therefore +looked to Prussia for a pattern for its army and to Great Britain +for a model for its navy. + +Peru had suffered cruelly from the war. Its territorial losses +deprived it of an opportunity to satisfy its foreign creditors +through a grant of concessions. The public treasury, too, was +empty, and many a private fortune had melted away. Not until a +military hand stronger than its competitors managed to secure a +firm grip on affairs did Peru begin once more its toilsome +journey toward material betterment. + +Bolivia, on its part, had emerged from the struggle practically a +landlocked country. Though bereft of access to the sea except by +permission of its neighbors, it had, however, not endured +anything like the calamities of its ally. In 1880 it had adopted +a permanent constitution and it now entered upon a course of slow +and relatively peaceful progress. + +In the republics to the northward struggles between clericals and +radicals caused sharp, abrupt alternations in government. In +Ecuador the hostility between clericals and radicals was all the +more bitter because of the rivalry of the two chief towns, +Guayaquil the seaport and Quito the capital, each of which +sheltered a faction. No sooner therefore had Garcia Moreno fallen +than the radicals of Guayaquil rose up against the clericals at +Quito. Once in power, they hunted their enemies down until order +under a dictator could be restored. The military President who +assumed power in 1876 was too radical to suit the clericals and +too clerical to suit the radicals. Accordingly his opponents +decided to make the contest three-cornered by fighting the +dictator and one another. When the President had been forced out, +a conservative took charge until parties of bushwhackers and +mutinous soldiers were able to install a military leader, whose +retention of power was brief. In 1888 another conservative, who +had been absent from the country when elected and who was an +adept in law and diplomacy, managed to win sufficient support +from all three factions to retain office for the constitutional +period. + +In Colombia a financial crisis had been approaching ever since +the price of coffee, cocoa, and other Colombian products had +fallen in the European markets. This decrease had caused a +serious diminution in the export trade and had forced gold and +silver practically out of circulation. At the same time the +various "states" were increasing their powers at the expense of +the federal Government, and the country was rent by factions. In +order to give the republic a thoroughly centralized +administration which would restore financial confidence and bring +back the influence of the Church as a social and political +factor, a genuine revolution, which was started in 1876, +eventually put an end to both radicalism and states' rights. At +the outset Rafael Nunez, the unitary and clerical candidate and a +lawyer by profession, was beaten on the field, but at a +subsequent election he obtained the requisite number of votes +and, in 1880, assumed the presidency. That the loser in war +should become the victor in peace showed the futility of +bloodshed in such revolutions. + +Not until Nunez came into office again did he feel himself strong +enough to uproot altogether the radicalism and disunion which had +flourished since 1860. Ignoring the national Legislature, he +called a Congress of his own, which in 1886 framed a constitution +that converted the "sovereign states" into "departments," or mere +administrative districts, to be ruled as the national Government +saw fit. Further, the presidential term was lengthened from two +years to six, and the name of the country was changed, finally, +to "Republic of Colombia." Two years later the power of the +Church was strengthened by a concordat with the Pope. + +Venezuela on its part had undergone changes no less marked. A +liberal constitution promulgated in 1864 had provided for the +reorganization of the country on a federal basis. The name chosen +for the republic was "United States of Venezuela." More than +that, it had anticipated Mexico and Guatemala in being the first +of the Hispanic nations to witness the establishment of a +presidential autocracy of the continuous and enlightened type. + +Antonio Guzman Blanco was the man who imposed upon Venezuela for +about nineteen years a regime of obedience to law, and, to some +extent, of modern ideas of administration such as the country had +never known before. A person of much versatility, he had studied +medicine and law before he became a soldier and a politician. +Later he displayed another kind of versatility by letting +henchmen hold the presidential office while he remained the power +behind the throne. Endowed with a masterful will and a pronounced +taste for minute supervision, he had exactly the ability +necessary to rule Venezuela wisely and well. + +Amid considerable opposition he began, in 1870, the first of his +three periods of administration--the Septennium, as it was +termed. The "sovereign" states he governed through "sovereign" +officials of his own selection. He stopped the plundering of +farms and the dragging of laborers off to military service. He +established in Venezuela an excellent monetary system. Great sums +were expended in the erection of public and private buildings and +in the embellishment of Caracas. European capital and immigration +were encouraged to venture into a country hitherto so torn by +chronic disorder as to deprive both labor and property of all +guarantees. Roads, railways, and telegraph lines were +constructed. The ministers of the Church were rendered submissive +to the civil power. Primary education became alike free and +compulsory. As the phrase went, Guzman Blanco "taught Venezuela +to read." At the end of his term of office he went into voluntary +retirement. + +In 1879 Guzman Blanco put himself at the head of a movement which +he called a "revolution of replevin"--which meant, presumably, +that he was opposed to presidential "continuism," and in favor of +republican institutions! Although a constitution promulgated in +1881 fixed the chief magistrate's term of office at two years, +the success which Guzman Blanco had attained enabled him to +control affairs for five years--the Quinquennium, as it was +called. Thereupon he procured his appointment to a diplomatic +post in Europe; but the popular demand for his presence was too +strong for him to remain away. In 1886 he was elected by +acclamation. He held office two years more and then, finding that +his influence had waned, he left Venezuela for good. Whatever his +faults in other respects, Guzman Blanco--be it said to his credit +--tried to destroy the pest of periodical revolutions in his +country. Thanks to his vigorous suppression of these uprisings, +some years of at least comparative security were made possible. +More than any other President the nation had ever had, he was +entitled to the distinction of having been a benefactor, if not +altogether a regenerator, of his native land. + + + +CHAPTER VIII. "ON THE MARGIN OF INTERNATIONAL LIFE" + +During the period from 1889 to 1907 two incidents revealed the +standing that the republics of Hispanic America had now acquired +in the world at large. In 1889 at Washington, and later in their +own capital cities, they met with the United States in council. +In 1899, and again in 1907, they joined their great northern +neighbor and the nations of Europe and Asia at The Hague for +deliberation on mutual concerns, and they were admitted to an +international fellowship and cooperation far beyond a mere +recognition of their independence and a formal interchange of +diplomats and consuls. + +Since attempts of the Hispanic countries themselves to realize +the aims of Bolivar in calling the Congress at Panama had failed, +the United States now undertook to call into existence a sort of +inter-American Congress. Instead of being merely a supporter, the +great republic of the north had resolved to become the director +of the movement for greater solidarity in thought and action. By +linking up the concerns of the Hispanic nations with its own +destinies it would assert not so much its position as guardian of +the Monroe Doctrine as its headship, if not its actual dominance, +in the New World, and would so widen the bounds of its political +and commercial influence - a tendency known as "imperialism." +Such was the way, at least, in which the Hispanic republics came +to view the action of the "Colossus of the North" in inviting +them to participate in an assemblage meeting more or less +periodically and termed officially the "International Conference +of American States," and popularly the "Pan-American Conference." + +Whether the mistrust the smaller countries felt at the outset was +lessened in any degree by the attendance of their delegates at +the sessions of this conference remains open to question. +Although these representatives, in common with their colleagues +from the United States, assented to a variety of conventions and +passed a much larger number of resolutions, their acquiescence +seemed due to a desire to gratify their powerful associate, +rather than to a belief in the possible utility of such measures. +The experience of the earlier gatherings had demonstrated that +political issues would have to be excluded from consideration. +Propositions, for example, such as that to extend the basic idea +of the Monroe Doctrine into a sort of self-denying ordinance, +under which all the nations of America should agree to abstain +thereafter from acquiring any part of one another's territory by +conquest, and to adopt, also, the principle of compulsory +arbitration, proved impossible of acceptance. Accordingly, from +that time onward the matters treated by the Conference dealt for +the most part with innocuous, though often praiseworthy, projects +for bringing the United States and its sister republics into +closer commercial, industrial, and intellectual relations. + +The gathering itself, on the other hand, became to a large extent +a fiesta, a festive occasion for the display of social amenities. +Much as the Hispanic Americans missed their favorite topic of +politics, they found consolation in entertaining the +distinguished foreign visitors with the genial courtesy and +generous hospitality for which they are famous. As one of their +periodicals later expressed it, since a discussion of politics +was tabooed, it were better to devote the sessions of the +Conference to talking about music and lyric poetry! At all +events, as far as the outcome was concerned, their national +legislatures ratified comparatively few of the conventions. + +Among the Hispanic nations of America only Mexico took part in +the First Conference at The Hague. Practically all of them were +represented at the second. The appearance of their delegates at +these august assemblages of the powers of earth was viewed for a +while with mixed feelings. The attitude of the Great Powers +towards them resembled that of parents of the old regime: +children at the international table should be "seen and not +heard." As a matter of fact, the Hispanic Americans were both +seen and heard--especially the latter! They were able to show the +Europeans that, even if they did happen to come from relatively +weak states, they possessed a skillful intelligence, a breadth of +knowledge, a capacity for expression, and a consciousness of +national character, which would not allow them simply to play +"Man Friday" to an international Crusoe. The president of the +second conference, indeed, confessed that they had been a +"revelation" to him. + +Hence, as time went on, the progress and possibilities of the +republics of Hispanic America came to be appreciated more and +more by the world at large. Gradually people began to realize +that the countries south of the United States were not merely an +indistinguishable block on the map, to be referred to vaguely as +"Central and South America" or as "Latin America." The reading +public at least knew that these countries were quite different +from one another, both in achievements and in prospects. + +Yet the fact remains that, despite their active part in these +American and European conferences, the Hispanic countries of the +New World did not receive the recognition which they felt was +their due. Their national associates in the European gatherings +were disinclined to admit that the possession of independence and +sovereignty entitled them to equal representation on +international council boards. To a greater or less degree, +therefore, they continued to stay in the borderland where no one +either affirmed or denied their individuality. To quote the +phrase of an Hispanic American, they stood "on the margin of +international life." How far they might pass beyond it into the +full privileges of recognition and association on equal terms, +would depend upon the readiness with which they could atone for +the errors or recover from the misfortunes of the past, and upon +their power to attain stability, prosperity, strength, and +responsibility. + +Certain of the Hispanic republics, however, were not allowed to +remain alone on their side of "the margin of international life." +Though nothing so extreme as the earlier French intervention took +place, foreign nations were not at all averse to crossing over +the marginal line and teaching them what a failure to comply with +international obligations meant. The period from 1889 to 1907, +therefore, is characterized also by interference on the part of +European powers, and by interposition on the part of the United +States, in the affairs of countries in and around the Caribbean +Sea. Because of the action taken by the United States two more +republics--Cuba and Panama--came into being, thus increasing the +number of political offshoots from Spain in America to eighteen. +Another result of this interposition was the creation of what +were substantially American protectorates. Here the United States +did not deprive the countries concerned of their independence an +d sovereignty, but subjected them to a kind of guardianship or +tutelage, so far as it thought needful to insure stability, +solvency, health, and welfare in general. Foremost in the +northern group of Hispanic nations, Mexico, under the guidance of +Diaz, marched steadily onward. Peace, order, and law; an +increasing population; internal wealth and well-being; a +flourishing industry and commerce; suitable care for things +mental as well as material; the respect and confidence of +foreigners--these were blessings which the country had hitherto +never beheld. The Mexicans, once in anarchy and enmity created by +militarists and clericals, came to know one another in +friendship, and arrived at something like a national +consciousness. + +In 1889 there was held the first conference on educational +problems which the republic had ever had. Three years later a +mining code was drawn up which made ownership inviolable on +payment of lawful dues, removed uncertainties of operation, and +stimulated the industry in a remarkable fashion. Far less +beneficial in the long run was a law enacted in 1894. Instead of +granting a legal title to lands held by prescriptive rights +through an occupation of many years, it made such property part +of the public domain, which might be acquired, like a mining +claim, by any one who could secure a grant of it from the +Government. Though hailed at the time as a piece of constructive +legislation, its unfortunate effect was to enable large +landowners who wished to increase their possessions to oust poor +cultivators of the soil from their humble holdings. On the other +hand, under the statesmanlike management of Jose Yves Limantour, +the Minister of Finance, the monetary situation at home and +abroad was strengthened beyond measure, and banking interests +were promoted accordingly. Further, an act abolishing the +alcabala, a vexatious internal revenue tax, gave a great stimulus +to freedom of commerce throughout the country. In order to insure +a continuance of the new regime, the constitution was altered in +three important respects. The amendment of 1890 restored the +original clause of 1857, which permitted indefinite reelection to +the presidency; that of 1896 established a presidential +succession in case of a vacancy, beginning with the Minister of +Foreign Affairs; and that of 1904 lengthened the term of the +chief magistrate from four years to six and created the office of +Vice President. + +In Central America two republics, Guatemala and Costa Rica, set +an excellent example both because they were free from internal +commotions and because they refrained from interference in the +affairs of their neighbors. The contrast between these two quiet +little nations, under their lawyer Presidents, and the bellicose +but equally small Nicaragua, Honduras, and Salvador, under their +chieftains, military and juristic, was quite remarkable. +Nevertheless another attempt at confederation was made. In 1895 +the ruler of Honduras, declaring that reunion was a "primordial +necessity," invited his fellow potentates of Nicaragua and +Salvador to unite in creating the "Greater Republic of Central +America" and asked Guatemala and Costa Rica to join. Delegates +actually appeared from all five republics, attended fiestas, gave +expression to pious wishes, and went home! Later still, in 1902, +the respective Presidents signed a "convention of peace and +obligatory arbitration" as a means of adjusting perpetual +disagreements about politics and boundaries; but nothing was done +to carry these ideas into effect. + +The personage mainly responsible for these failures was Jose +Santos Zelaya, one of the most arrant military lordlets and +meddlers that Central America had produced in a long time. Since +1893 he had been dictator of Nicaragua, a country not only +entangled in continuous wrangles among its towns and factions, +but bowed under an enormous burden of debt created by excessive +emissions of paper money and by the contraction of more or less +scandalous foreign loans. Quite undisturbed by the financial +situation, Zelaya promptly silenced local bickerings and devoted +his energies to altering the constitution for his presidential +benefit and to making trouble for his neighbors. Nor did he +refrain from displays of arbitrary conduct that were sure to +provoke foreign intervention. Great Britain, for example, on two +occasions exacted reparation at the cannon's mouth for ill +treatment of its citizens. + +Zelaya waxed wroth at the spectacle of Guatemala, once so active +in revolutionary arts but now quietly minding its own business. +In 1906, therefore, along with parties of Hondurans, +Salvadoreans, and disaffected Guatemalans, he began an invasion +of that country and continued operations with decreasing success +until, the United States and Mexico offering their mediation, +peace was signed aboard an American cruiser. Then, when Costa +Rica invited the other republics to discuss confederation within +its calm frontiers, Zelaya preferred his own particular +occupation to any such procedure. Accordingly, displeased with a +recent boundary decision, he started along with Salvador to fight +Honduras. Once more the United States and Mexico tendered their +good offices, and again a Central American conflict was closed +aboard an American warship. About the only real achievement of +Zelaya was the signing of a treaty by which Great Britain +recognized the complete sovereignty of Nicaragua over the +Mosquito Indians, whose buzzing for a larger amount of freedom +and more tribute had been disturbing unduly the "repose" of that +small nation! + +To the eastward the new republic of Cuba was about to be born. +Here a promise of adequate representation in the Spanish Cortes +and of a local legislature had failed to satisfy the aspirations +of many of its inhabitants. The discontent was aggravated by lax +and corrupt methods of administration as well as by financial +difficulties. Swarms of Spanish officials enjoyed large salaries +without performing duties of equivalent value. Not a few of them +had come over to enrich themselves at public expense and under +conditions altogether scandalous. On Cuba, furthermore, was +saddled the debt incurred by the Ten Years' War, while the island +continued to be a lucrative market for Spanish goods without +obtaining from Spain a corresponding advantage for its own +products. + +As the insistence upon a removal of these abuses and upon a grant +of genuine self-government became steadily more clamorous, three +political groups appeared. The Constitutional Unionists, or +"Austrianizers," as they were dubbed because of their avowed +loyalty to the royal house of Bourbon-Hapsburg, were made up of +the Spanish and conservative elements and represented the large +economic interests and the Church. The Liberals, or +"Autonomists," desired such reforms in the administration as +would assure the exercise of self-government and yet preserve the +bond with the mother country. On the other hand, the Radicals, or +"Nationalists"--the party of "Cuba Free"--would be satisfied with +nothing short of absolute independence. All these differences of +opinion were sharpened by the activities of a sensational press. + +>From about 1890 onward the movement toward independence gathered +tremendous strength, especially when the Cubans found popular +sentiment in the United States so favorable to it. Excitement +rose still higher when the Spanish Government proposed to bestow +a larger measure of autonomy. When, however, the Cortes decided +upon less liberal arrangements, the Autonomists declared that +they had been deceived, and the Nationalists denounced the utter +unreliability of Spanish promises. Even if the concessions had +been generous, the result probably would have been the same, for +by this time the plot to set Cuba free had become so widespread, +both in the island itself and among the refugees in the United +States, that the inevitable struggle could not have been +deferred. + +In 1895 the revolution broke out. The whites, headed by Maximo +Gomez, and the negroes and mulattoes by their chieftain, Antonio +Maceo, both of whom had done valiant service in the earlier war, +started upon a campaign of deliberate terrorism. This time they +were resolved to win at any cost. Spurning every offer of +conciliation, they burned, ravaged, and laid waste, spread +desolation along their pathway, and reduced thousands to abject +poverty and want. + +Then the Spanish Government came to the conclusion that nothing +but the most rigorous sort of reprisals would check the excesses +of the rebels. In 1896 it commissioned Valeriano Weyler, an +officer who personified ferocity, to put down the rebellion. If +the insurgents had fancied that the conciliatory spirit hitherto +displayed by the Spaniards was due to irresolution or weakness, +they found that these were not the qualities of their new +opponent. Weyler, instead of trying to suppress the rebellion by +hurrying detachments of troops first to one spot and then to +another in pursuit of enemies accustomed to guerrilla tactics, +determined to stamp it out province by province. To this end he +planted his army firmly in one particular area, prohibited the +planting or harvesting of crops there, and ordered the +inhabitants to assemble in camps which they were not permitted to +leave on any pretext whatever. This was his policy of +"reconcentration." Deficient food supply, lack of sanitary +precautions, and absence of moral safeguards made conditions of +life in these camps appalling. Death was a welcome relief. +Reconcentration, combined with executions and deportations, could +have but one result--the "pacification" of Cuba by converting it +into a desert. + +Not in the United States alone but in Spain itself the story of +these drastic measures kindled popular indignation to such an +extent that, in 1897, the Government was forced to recall the +ferocious Weyler and to send over a new Governor and Captain +General, with instructions to abandon the worst features of his +predecessor's policy and to establish a complete system of +autonomy in both Cuba and Porto Rico. Feeling assured, however, +that an ally was at hand who would soon make their independence +certain, the Cuban patriots flatly rejected these overtures. In +their expectations they were not mistaken. By its armed +intervention, in the following year the United States acquired +Porto Rico for itself and compelled Spain to withdraw from Cuba.* + +* See "The Path of Empire", by Carl Russell Fish (in "The +Chronicles of America"). + +The island then became a republic, subject only to such +limitations on its freedom of action as its big guardian might +see fit to impose. Not only was Cuba placed under American rule +from 1899 to 1902, but it had to insert in the Constitution of +1901 certain clauses that could not fail to be galling to Cuban +pride. Among them two were of special significance. One imposed +limitations on the financial powers of the Government of the new +nation, and the other authorized the United States, at its +discretion, to intervene in Cuban affairs for the purpose of +maintaining public order. The Cubans, it would seem, had +exchanged a dependence on Spain for a restricted independence +measured by the will of a country infinitely stronger. + +Cuba began its life as a republic in 1902, under a government for +which a form both unitary and federal had been provided. Tomas +Estrada Palma, the first President and long the head of the Cuban +junta in the United States, showed himself disposed from the +outset to continue the beneficial reforms in administration which +had been introduced under American rule. Prudent and conciliatory +in temperament, he tried to dispel as best he could the bitter +recollections of the war and to repair its ravages. In this +policy he was upheld by the conservative class, or Moderates. +Their opponents, the Liberals, dominated by men of radical +tendencies, were eager to assert the right, to which they thought +Cuba entitled as an independent sovereign nation, to make +possible mistakes and correct them without having the United +States forever holding the ferule of the schoolmaster over it. +They were well aware, however, that they were not at liberty to +have their country pass through the tempestuous experience which +had been the lot of so many Hispanic republics. They could vent a +natural anger and disappointment, nevertheless, on the President +and his supporters. Rather than continue to be governed by Cubans +not to their liking, they were willing to bring about a renewal +of American rule. In this respect the wishes of the Radicals were +soon gratified. Hardly had Estrada Palma, in 1906, assumed office +for a second time, when parties of malcontents, declaring that he +had secured his reelection by fraudulent means, rose up in arms +and demanded that he annul the vote and hold a fair election. The +President accepted the challenge and waged a futile conflict, and +again the United States intervened. Upon the resignation of +Estrada Palma, an American Governor was again installed, and Cuba +was told in unmistakable fashion that the next intervention might +be permanent. + +Less drastic but quite as effectual a method of assuring order +and regularity in administration was the action taken by the +United States in another Caribbean island. A little country like +the Dominican Republic, in which few Presidents managed to retain +their offices for terms fixed by changeable constitutions, could +not resist the temptation to rid itself of a ruler who had held +power for nearly a quarter of a century. After he had been +disposed of by assassination in 1899, the government of his +successor undertook to repudiate a depreciated paper currency by +ordering the customs duties to be paid in specie; and it also +tried to prevent the consul of an aggrieved foreign nation from +attaching certain revenues as security for the payment of the +arrears of an indemnity. Thereupon, in 1905, the President of the +United States entered into an arrangement with the Dominican +Government whereby, in return for a pledge from the former +country to guarantee the territorial integrity of the republic +and an agreement to adjust all of its external obligations of a +pecuniary sort, American officials were to take charge of the +custom house send apportion the receipts from that source in such +a manner as to satisfy domestic needs and pay foreign creditors.* + +* See "The Path of Empire", by Carl Russell Fish (in "The +Chronicles of America"). + + + +CHAPTER IX. THE REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA + +Even so huge and conservative a country as Brazil could not start +out upon the pathway of republican freedom without some unrest; +but the political experience gained under a regime of limited +monarchy had a steadying effect. Besides, the Revolution of 1889 +had been effected by a combination of army officers and civilian +enthusiasts who knew that the provinces were ready for a radical +change in the form of government, but who were wise enough to +make haste slowly. If a motto could mean anything, the adoption +of the positivist device, "Order and Progress," displayed on the +national flag seemed a happy augury. + +The constitution promulgated in 1891 set up a federal union +broadly similar to that of the United States, except that the +powers of the general Government were somewhat more restricted. +Qualifications for the suffrage were directly fixed in the +fundamental law itself, but the educational tests imposed +excluded the great bulk of the population from the right to vote. +In the constitution, also, Church and State were declared +absolutely separate, and civil marriage was prescribed. + +Well adapted as the constitution was to the particular needs of +Brazil, the Government erected under it had to contend awhile +with political disturbances. Though conflicts occurred between +the president and the Congress, between the federal authority and +the States, and between the civil administration and naval and +military officials, none were so constant, so prolonged, or so +disastrous as in the Spanish American republics. Even when +elected by the connivance of government officials, the chief +magistrate governed in accordance with republican forms. +Presidential power, in fact, was restrained both by the huge size +of the country and by the spirit of local autonomy upheld by the +States. + +Ever since the war with Paraguay the financial credit of Brazil +had been impaired. The chronic deficit in the treasury had been +further increased by a serious lowering in the rate of exchange, +which was due to an excessive issue of paper money. In order to +save the nation from bankruptcy Manoel Ferraz de Campos Salles, a +distinguished jurist, was commissioned to effect an adjustment +with the British creditors. As a result of his negotiations a +"funding loan" was obtained, in return for which an equivalent +amount in paper money was to be turned over for cancellation at a +fixed rate of exchange. Under this arrangement depreciation +ceased for awhile and the financial outlook became brighter. + +The election of Campos Salles to the presidency in 1898, as a +reward for his success, was accompanied by the rise of definite +political parties. Among them the Radicals or Progressists +favored a policy of centralization under military auspices and +exhibited certain antiforeign tendencies. The Moderates or +Republicans, on the contrary, with Campos Salles as their +candidate, declared for the existing constitution and advocated a +gradual adoption of such reforms as reason and time might +suggest. When the latter party won the election, confidence in +the stability of Brazil returned. + +As if Uruguay had not already suffered enough from internal +discords, two more serious conflicts demonstrated once again that +this little country, in which political power had been held +substantially by one party alone since 1865, could not hope for +permanent peace until either the excluded and apparently +irreconcilable party had been finally and utterly crushed, or, +far better still, until the two factions could manage to agree +upon some satisfactory arrangement for rotation in office. The +struggle of 1897 ended in the assassination of the president and +in a division of the republic into two practically separate +areas, one ruled by the Colorados at Montevideo, the other by the +Blancos. A renewal of civil war in 1904 seemed altogether +preferable to an indefinite continuance of this dualism in +government, even at the risk of friction with Argentina, which +was charged with not having observed strict neutrality. This +second struggle came to a close with the death of the insurgent +leader; but it cost the lives of thousands and did irreparable +damage to the commerce and industry of the country. + +Uruguay then enjoyed a respite from party upheavals until 1910, +when Jose Batlle, the able, resolute, and radical-minded head of +the Colorados, announced that he would be a candidate for the +presidency. As he had held the office before and had never ceased +to wield a strong personal influence over the administration of +his successor, the Blancos decided that now was the time to +attempt once more to oust their opponents from the control which +they had monopolized for half a century. Accusing the Government +of an unconstitutional centralization of power in the executive, +of preventing free elections, and of crippling the pastoral +industries of the country, they started a revolt, which ran a +brief course. Batlle proved himself equal to the situation and +quickly suppressed the insurrection. Though he did make a wide +use of his authority, the President refrained from indulging in +political persecution and allowed the press all the liberty it +desired in so far as was consistent with the law. It was under +his direction that Uruguay entered upon a remarkable series of +experiments in the nationalization of business enterprises. +Further, more or less at the suggestion of Battle, a new +constitution was ratified by popular vote in 1917. It provided +for a division of the executive power between the President and a +National Council of Administration, forbade the election of +administrative and military officials to the Congress, granted to +that body a considerable increase of power, and enlarged the +facilities for local self-government. In addition, it established +the principle of minority representation and of secrecy of the +ballot, permitted the Congress to extend the right of suffrage to +women, and dissolved the union between Church and State. If the +terms of the new instrument are faithfully observed, the old +struggle between Blancos and Colorados will have been brought +definitely to a close. + +Paraguay lapsed after 1898 into the earlier sins of Spanish +America. Upon a comparatively placid presidential regime followed +a series of barrack uprisings or attacks by Congress on the +executive. The constitution became a farce. No longer, to be +sure, an abode of Arcadian seclusion as in colonial times, or a +sort of territorial cobweb from the center of which a spiderlike +Francia hung motionless or darted upon his hapless prey, or even +a battle ground on which fanatical warriors might fight and die +at the behest of a savage Lopez, Paraguay now took on the aspect +of an arena in which petty political gamecocks might try out +their spurs. Happily, the opposing parties spent their energies +in high words and vehement gestures rather than in blows and +bloodshed. The credit of the country sank lower and lower until +its paper money stood at a discount of several hundred per cent +compared with gold. + +European bankers had begun to view the financial future of +Argentina also with great alarm. In 1890 the mad careering of +private speculation and public expenditure along the roseate +pathway of limitless credit reached a veritable "crisis of +progress." A frightful panic ensued. Paper money fell to less +than a quarter of its former value in gold. Many a firm became +bankrupt, and many a fortune shriveled. As is usual in such +cases, the Government had to shoulder the blame. A four-day +revolution broke out in Buenos Aires, and the President became +the scapegoat; but the panic went on, nevertheless, until gold +stood at nearly five to one. Most of the banks suspended payment; +the national debt underwent a huge increase; and immigration +practically ceased. + +By 1895, however, the country had more or less resumed its normal +condition. A new census showed that the population had risen to +four million, about a sixth of whom resided in the capital. The +importance which agriculture had attained was attested by the +establishment of a separate ministry in the presidential cabinet. +Industry, too, made such rapid strides at this time that +organized labor began to take a hand in politics. The short-lived +"revolution" of 1905, for example, was not primarily the work of +politicians but of strikers organized into a workingmen's +federation. For three months civil guarantees were suspended, and +by a so-called "law of residence," enacted some years before and +now put into effect, the Government was authorized to expel +summarily any foreigner guilty of fomenting strikes or of +disturbing public order in any other fashion. + +Political agitation soon assumed a new form. Since the +Autonomist-National party had been in control for thirty years or +more, it seemed to the Civic-Nationalists, now known as +Republicans, to the Autonomists proper, and to various other +factions, that they ought to do something to break the hold of +that powerful organization. Accordingly in 1906 the President, +supported by a coalition of these factions, started what was +termed an "upward-downward revolution"--in other words, a series +of interventions by which local governors and members of +legislatures suspected of Autonomist-National leanings were to be +replaced by individuals who enjoyed the confidence of the +Administration. Pretexts for such action were not hard to find +under the terms of the constitution; but their political +interests suffered so much in the effort that the promoters had +to abandon it. + +Owing to persistent obstruction on the part of Congress, which +took the form of a refusal either to sanction his appointments or +to approve the budget, the President suspended the sessions of +that body in 1908 and decreed a continuance of the estimates for +the preceding year. The antagonism between the chief executive +and the legislature became so violent that, if his opponents had +not been split up into factions, civil war might have ensued in +Argentina. + +To remedy a situation made worse by the absence-- usual in most +of the Hispanic republics--of a secret ballot and by the refusal +of political malcontents to take part in elections, voting was +made both obligatory and secret in 1911, and the principle of +minority representation was introduced. Legislation of this sort +was designed to check bribery and intimidation and to enable the +radical-minded to do their duty at the polls. Its effect was +shown five years later, when the secret ballot was used +substantially for the first time. The radicals won both the +presidency and a majority in the Congress. + +One of the secrets of the prosperity of Argentina, as of Brazil, +in recent years has been its abstention from warlike ventures +beyond its borders and its endeavor to adjust boundary conflicts +by arbitration. Even when its attitude toward its huge neighbor +had become embittered in consequence of a boundary decision +rendered by the President of the United States in 1895, it abated +none of its enthusiasm for the principle of a peaceful settlement +of international disputes. Four years later, in a treaty with +Uruguay, the so-called "Argentine Formula" appeared. To quote its +language: "The contracting parties agree to submit to arbitration +all questions of any nature which may arise between them, +provided they do not affect provisions of the constitution of +either state, and cannot be adjusted by direct negotiation." This +Formula was soon put to the test in a serious dispute with Chile. + +In the Treaty of 1881, in partitioning Patagonia, the crest of +the Andes had been assumed to be the true continental watershed +between the Atlantic and the Pacific and hence was made the +boundary line between Argentina and Chile. The entire Atlantic +coast was to belong to Argentina, the Pacific coast to Chile; the +island of Tierra del Fuego was to be divided between them. At the +same time the Strait of Magellan was declared a neutral waterway, +open to the ships of all nations. Ere long, however, it was +ascertained that the crest of the Andes did not actually coincide +with the continental divide. Thereupon Argentina insisted that +the boundary line should be made to run along the crest, while +Chile demanded that it be traced along the watershed. Since the +mountainous area concerned was of little value, the question at +bottom was simply one of power and prestige between rival states. + +As the dispute waxed warmer, a noisy press and populace clamored +for war. The Governments of the two nations spent large sums in +increasing their armaments; and Argentina, in imitation of its +western neighbor, made military service compulsory. But, as the +conviction gradually spread that a struggle would leave the +victor as prostrate as the vanquished, wiser counsels prevailed. +In 1899, accordingly, the matter was referred to the King of +Great Britain for decision. Though the award was a compromise, +Chile was the actual gainer in territory. + +By their treaties of 1902 both republics declared their intention +to uphold the principle of arbitration and to refrain from +interfering in each other's affairs along their respective +coasts. They also agreed upon a limitation of armaments--the sole +example on record of a realization of the purpose of the First +Hague Conference. To commemorate still further their +international accord, in 1904 they erected on the summit of the +Uspallata Pass, over which San Martin had crossed with his army +of liberation in 1817, a bronze statue of Christ the Redeemer. +There, amid the snow-capped peaks of the giant Andes, one may +read inscribed upon the pedestal: "Sooner shall these mountains +crumble to dust than Argentinos and Chileans break the peace +which at the feet of Christ the Redeemer they have sworn to +maintain!" Nor has the peace been broken. + +Though hostilities with Argentina had thus been averted, Chile +had experienced within its own frontiers the most serious +revolution it had known in sixty years. The struggle was not one +of partisan chieftains or political groups but a genuine contest +to determine which of two theories of government should +prevail--the presidential or the parliamentary, a presidential +autocracy with the spread of real democracy or a congressional +oligarchy based on the existing order. The sincerity and public +spirit of both contestants helped to lend dignity to the +conflict. + +Jose Manuel Balmaceda, a man of marked ability, who became +President in 1886, had devoted much of his political life to +urging an enlargement of the executive power, a greater freedom +to municipalities in the management of their local affairs, and a +broadening of the suffrage. He had even advocated a separation of +Church and State. Most of these proposals so conservative a land +as Chile was not prepared to accept. Though civil marriage was +authorized and ecclesiastical influence was lessened in other +respects, the Church stood firm. During his administration +Balmaceda introduced many reforms, both material and educational. +He gave a great impetus to the construction of public works, +enhanced the national credit by a favorable conversion of the +public debt, fostered immigration, and devoted especial attention +to the establishment of secondary schools. Excellent as the +administration of Balmaceda had been in other respects, he +nevertheless failed to combine the liberal factions into a party +willing to support the plans of reform which he had steadily +favored. The parliamentary system made Cabinets altogether +unstable, as political groups in the lower house of the Congress +alternately cohered and fell apart. This defect, Balmaceda +thought, should be corrected by making the members of his +official family independent of the legislative branch. The +Council of State, a somewhat anomalous body placed between the +President and Cabinet on the one side and the Congress on the +other, was an additional obstruction to a smooth-running +administration. For it he would substitute a tribunal charged +with the duty of resolving conflicts between the two chief +branches of government. Balmaceda believed, also, that greater +liberty should be given to the press and that existing taxes +should be altered as rarely as possible. On its side, the +Congress felt that the President was trying to establish a +dictatorship and to replace the unitary system by a federal +union, the probable weakness of which would enable him to retain +his power more securely. + +Toward the close of his term in January, 1891, when the Liberals +declined to support his candidate for the presidency, Balmaceda, +furious at the opposition which he had encountered, took matters +into his own hands. Since the Congress refused to pass the +appropriation bills, he declared that body dissolved and +proceeded to levy the taxes by decree. To this arbitrary and +altogether unconstitutional performance the Congress retorted by +declaring the President deposed. Civil war broke out forthwith, +and a strange spectacle presented itself. The two chief cities, +Santiago and Valparaiso, and most of the army backed Balmaceda, +whereas the country districts, especially in the north, and +practically all the navy upheld the Congress. + +These were, indeed, dark days for Chile. During a struggle of +about eight months the nation suffered more than it had done in +years of warfare with Peru and Bolivia. Though the bulk of the +army stood by Balmaceda, the Congress was able to raise and +organize a much stronger fighting force under a Prussian +drillmaster. The tide of battle turned; Santiago and Valparaiso +capitulated; and the presidential cause was lost. Balmaceda, who +had taken refuge in the Argentina legation, committed suicide. +But the Balmacedists, who were included in a general amnesty, +still maintained themselves as a party to advocate in a peaceful +fashion the principles of their fallen leader. + +Chile had its reputation for stability well tested in 1910 when +the executive changed four times without the slightest political +disturbance. According to the constitution, the officer who takes +the place of the President in case of the latter's death or +disability, though vested with full authority, has the title of +Vice President only. It so happened that after the death of the +President two members of the Cabinet in succession held the vice +presidency, and they were followed by the chief magistrate, who +was duly elected and installed at the close of the year. In 1915, +for the first time since their leader had committed suicide, one +of the followers of Balmaceda was chosen President--by a strange +coalition of Liberal-Democrats, or Balmacedists, Conservatives, +and Nationalists, over the candidate of the Radicals, Liberals, +and Democrats. The maintenance of the parliamentary system, +however, continued to produce frequent alterations in the +personnel of the Cabinet. + +In its foreign relations, apart from the adjustment reached with +Argentina, Chile managed to settle the difficulties with Bolivia +arising out of the War of the Pacific. By the terms of treaties +concluded in 1895 and 1905, the region tentatively transferred by +the armistice of 1884 was ceded outright to Chile in return for a +seaport and a narrow right of way to it through the former +Peruvian province of Tarapaca. With Peru, Chile was not so +fortunate. Though the tension over the ultimate disposal of the +Tacna and Arica question was somewhat reduced, it was far from +being removed. Chile absolutely refused to submit the matter to +arbitration, on the ground that such a procedure could not +properly be applied to a question arising out of a war that had +taken place so many years before. Chile did not wish to give the +region up, lest by so doing it might expose Tarapaca to a +possible attack from Peru. The investment of large amounts of +foreign capital in the exploitation of the deposits of nitrate of +soda had made that province economically very valuable, and the +export tax levied on the product was the chief source of the +national revenue. These were all potent reasons why Chile wanted +to keep its hold on Tacna and Arica. Besides, possession was nine +points in the law! + +On the other hand, the original plan of having the question +decided by a vote of the inhabitants of the provinces concerned +was not carried into effect, partly because both claimants +cherished a conviction that whichever lost the election would +deny its validity, and partly because they could not agree upon +the precise method of holding it. Chile suggested that the +international commission which was selected to take charge of the +plebiscite, and which was composed of a Chilean, a Peruvian, and +a neutral, should be presided over by the Chilean member as +representative of the country actually in possession, whereas +Peru insisted that the neutral should act as chairman. Chile +proposed also that Chileans, Peruvians, and foreigners resident +in the area six months before the date of the elections should +vote, provided that they had the right to do so under the terms +of the constitutions of both states. Peru, on its part, objected +to the length of residence, and wished to limit carefully the +number of Chilean voters, to exclude foreigners altogether from +the election, and to disregard qualifications for the suffrage +which required an ability to read and write. Both countries, +moreover, appeared to have a lurking suspicion that in any event +the other would try to secure a majority at the polls by +supplying a requisite number of voters drawn from their +respective citizenry who were not ordinarily resident in Tacna +and Arica! Unable to overcome the deadlock, Chile and Peru agreed +in 1913 to postpone the settlement for twenty years longer. At +the expiration of this period, when Chile would have held the +provinces for half a century, the question should be finally +adjusted on bases mutually satisfactory. Officially amicable +relations were then restored. + +While the political situation in Bolivia remained stable, so much +could not be said of that in Peru and Ecuador. If the troubles in +the former were more or less military, a persistence of the +conflict between clericals and radicals characterized the +commotions in the latter, because of certain liberal provisions +in the Constitution of 1907. Peru, on the other hand, in 1915 +guaranteed its people the enjoyment of religious liberty. + +Next to the Tacna and Arica question, the dubious boundaries of +Ecuador constituted the most serious international problem in +South America. The so-called Oriente region, lying east of the +Andes and claimed by Peru, Brazil, and Colombia, appeared +differently on different maps, according as one claimant nation +or another set forth its own case. Had all three been satisfied, +nothing would have been left of Ecuador but the strip between the +Andes and the Pacific coast, including the cities of Quito and +Guayaquil. The Ecuadorians, therefore, were bitterly sensitive on +the subject. + +Protracted negotiations over the boundaries became alike tedious +and listless. But the moment that the respective diplomats had +agreed upon some knotty point, the Congress of one litigant or +another was almost sure to reject the decision and start the +controversy all over again. Even reference of the matter to the +arbitral judgment of European monarchs produced, so far as +Ecuador and Peru were concerned, riotous attacks upon the +Peruvian legation and consulates, charges and countercharges of +invasion of each other's territory, and the suspension of +diplomatic relations. Though the United States, Argentina, and +Brazil had interposed to ward off an armed conflict between the +two republics and, in 1911, had urged that the dispute be +submitted to the Hague Tribunal, nothing would induce Ecuador to +comply. + +Colombia was even more unfortunate than its southern neighbor, +for in addition to political convulsions it suffered financial +disaster and an actual deprivation of territory. Struggles among +factions, official influence at the elections, dictatorships, and +fighting between the departments and the national Government +plunged the country, in 1899, into the worst civil war it had +known for many a day. Paper money, issued in unlimited amounts +and given a forced circulation, made the distress still more +acute. Then came the hardest blow of all. Since 1830 Panama, as +province or state, had tried many times to secede from Colombia. +In 1903 the opportunity it sought became altogether favorable. +The parent nation, just beginning to recover from the disasters +of civil strife, would probably be unable to prevent a new +attempt at withdrawal. The people of Panama, of course, knew how +eager the United States was to acquire the region of the proposed +Canal Zone, since it had failed to win it by negotiation with +Colombia. Accordingly, if they were to start a "revolution," they +had reason to believe that it would not lack support--or at +least, connivance--from that quarter. + +On the 3d of November the projected "revolution" occurred, on +schedule time, and the United States recognized the independence +of the "Republic of Panama" three days later! In return for a +guarantee of independence, however, the United States stipulated, +in the convention concluded on the 18th of November, that, +besides authority to enforce sanitary regulations in the Canal +Zone, it should also have the right of intervention to maintain +order in the republic itself. More than once, indeed, after +Panama adopted its constitution in 1904, elections threatened to +become tumultuous; whereupon the United States saw to it that +they passed off quietly. + +Having no wish to flout their huge neighbor to the northward, the +Hispanic nations at large hastened to acknowledge the +independence of the new republic, despite the indignation that +prevailed in press and public over what was regarded as an act of +despoilment. In view of the resentful attitude of Colombia and +mindful also of the opinion of many Americans that a gross +injustice had been committed, the United States eventually +offered terms of settlement. It agreed to express regret for the +ill feeling between the two countries which had arisen out of the +Panama incident, provided that such expression were made mutual; +and, as a species of indemnity, it agreed to pay for canal rights +to be acquired in Colombian territory and for the lease of +certain islands as naval stations. But neither the terms nor the +amount of the compensation proved acceptable. Instead, Colombia +urged that the whole matter be referred to the judgment of the +tribunal at The Hague. + +Alluding to the use made of the liberties won in the struggle for +emancipation from Spain by the native land of Miranda, Bolivar, +and Sucre, on the part of the country which had been in the +vanguard of the fight for freedom from a foreign yoke, a writer +of Venezuela once declared that it had not elected legally a +single President; had not put democratic ideas or institutions +into practice; had lived wholly under dictatorships; had +neglected public instruction; and had set up a large number of +oppressive commercial monopolies, including the navigation of +rivers, the coastwise trade, the pearl fisheries, and the sale of +tobacco, salt, sugar, liquor, matches, explosives, butter, +grease, cement, shoes, meat, and flour. Exaggerated as the +indictment is and applicable also, though in less degree, to some +of the other backward countries of Hispanic America, it contains +unfortunately a large measure of truth. Indeed, so far as +Venezuela itself is concerned, this critic might have added that +every time a "restorer," "regenerator," or "liberator" succumbed +there, the old craze for federalism again broke out and menaced +the nation with piecemeal destruction. Obedient, furthermore, to +the whims of a presidential despot, Venezuela perpetrated more +outrages on foreigners and created more international friction +after 1899 than any other land in Spanish America had ever done. + +While the formidable Guzman Blanco was still alive, the various +Presidents acted cautiously. No sooner had he passed away than +disorder broke out afresh. Since a new dictator thought he needed +a longer term of office and divers other administrative +advantages, a constitution incorporating them was framed and +published in the due and customary manner. This had hardly gone +into operation when, in 1895, a contest arose with Great Britain +about the boundaries between Venezuela and British Guiana. Under +pressure from the United States, however, the matter was referred +to arbitration, and Venezuela came out substantially the loser. + +In 1899 there appeared on the scene a personage compared with +whom Zelaya was the merest novice in the art of making trouble. +This was Cipriano Castro, the greatest international nuisance of +the early twentieth century. A rude, arrogant, fearless, +energetic, capricious mountaineer and cattleman, he regarded +foreigners no less than his own countryfolk, it would seem, as +objects for his particular scorn, displeasure, exploitation, or +amusement, as the case might be. He was greatly angered by the +way in which foreigners in dispute with local officials avoided a +resort to Venezuelan courts and--still worse--rejected their +decisions and appealed instead to their diplomatic +representatives for protection. He declared such a procedure to +be an affront to the national dignity. Yet foreigners were +usually correct in arming that judges appointed by an arbitrary +President were little more than figureheads, incapable of +dispensing justice, even were they so inclined. + +Jealous not only of his personal prestige but of what he +imagined, or pretended to imagine, were the rights of a small +nation, Castro tried throughout to portray the situation in such +a light as to induce the other Hispanic republics also to view +foreign interference as a dire peril to their own independence +and sovereignty; and he further endeavored to involve the United +States in a struggle with European powers as a means possibly of +testing the efficacy of the Monroe Doctrine or of laying bare +before the world the evil nature of American imperialistic +designs. + +By the year 1901, in which Venezuela adopted another +constitution, the revolutionary disturbances had materially +diminished the revenues from the customs. Furthermore Castro's +regulations exacting military service of all males between +fourteen and sixty years of age had filled the prisons to +overflowing. Many foreigners who had suffered in consequence +resorted to measures of self-defense--among them representatives +of certain American and British asphalt companies which were +working concessions granted by Castro's predecessors. Though +familiar with what commonly happens to those who handle pitch, +they had not scrupled to aid some of Castro's enemies. Castro +forthwith imposed on them enormous fines which amounted +practically to a confiscation of their rights. + +While the United States and Great Britain were expostulating over +this behavior of the despot, France broke off diplomatic +relations with Venezuela because of Castro's refusal either to +pay or to submit to arbitration certain claims which had +originated in previous revolutions. Germany, aggrieved in similar +fashion, contemplated a seizure of the customs until its demands +for redress were satisfied. And then came Italy with like causes +of complaint. As if these complications were not sufficient, +Venezuela came to blows with Colombia. + +As the foreign pressure on Castro steadily increased, Luis Maria +Drago, the Argentine Minister of Foreign Affairs, formulated in +1902 the doctrine with which his name has been associated. It +stated in substance that force should never be employed between +nations for the collection of contractual debts. Encouraged by +this apparent token of support from a sister republic, Castro +defied his array of foreign adversaries more vigorously than +ever, declaring that he might find it needful to invade the +United States, by way of New Orleans, to teach it the lesson it +deserved! But when he attempted, in the following year, to close +the ports of Venezuela as a means of bringing his native +antagonists to terms, Great Britain, Germany, and Italy seized +his warships, blockaded the coast, and bombarded some of his +forts. Thereupon the United States interposed with a suggestion +that the dispute be laid before the Hague Tribunal. Although +Castro yielded, he did not fail to have a clause inserted in a +new "constitution" requiring foreigners who might wish to enter +the republic to show certificates of good character from the +Governments of their respective countries. + +These incidents gave much food for thought to Castro as well as +to his soberer compatriots. The European powers had displayed an +apparent willingness to have the United States, if it chose to do +so, assume the role of a New World policeman and financial +guarantor. Were it to assume these duties, backward republics in +the Caribbean and its vicinity were likely to have their affairs, +internal as well as external, supervised by the big nation in +order to ward off European intervention. At this moment, indeed, +the United States was intervening in Panama. The prospect aroused +in many Hispanic countries the fear of a "Yankee peril" greater +even than that emanating from Europe. Instead of being a kindly +and disinterested protector of small neighbors, the "Colossus of +the North" appeared rather to resemble a political and commercial +ogre bent upon swallowing them to satisfy "manifest destiny." + +Having succeeded in putting around his head an aureole of local +popularity, Castro in 1905 picked a new set of partially +justified quarrels with the United States, Great Britain, France, +Italy, Colombia, and even with the Netherlands, arising out of +the depredations of revolutionists; but an armed menace from the +United States induced him to desist from his plans. He contented +himself accordingly with issuing a decree of amnesty for all +political offenders except the leaders. When "reelected," he +carried his magnanimity so far as to resign awhile in favor of +the Vice President, stating that, if his retirement were to bring +peace and concord, he would make it permanent. But as he saw to +it that his temporary withdrawal should not have this happy +result, he came back again to his firmer position a few months +later. + +Venting his wrath upon the Netherlands because its minister had +reported to his Government an outbreak of cholera at La Guaira, +the chief seaport of Venezuela, the dictator laid an embargo on +Dutch commerce, seized its ships, and denounced the Dutch for +their alleged failure to check filibustering from their islands +off the coast. When the minister protested, Castro expelled him. +Thereupon the Netherlands instituted a blockade of the Venezuelan +ports. What might have happened if Castro had remained much +longer in charge, may be guessed. Toward the close of 1908, +however, he departed for Europe to undergo a course of medical +treatment. Hardly had he left Venezuelan shores when Juan Vicente +Gomez, the able, astute, and vigorous Vice President, managed to +secure his own election to the presidency and an immediate +recognition from foreign states. Under his direction all of the +international tangles of Venezuela were straightened out. + +In 1914 the country adopted its eleventh constitution and thereby +lengthened the presidential term to seven years, shortened that +of members of the lower house of the Congress to four, determined +definitely the number of States in the union, altered the +apportionment of their congressional representation, and enlarged +the powers of the federal Government--or, rather, those of its +executive branch! In 1914 Gomez resigned office in favor of the +Vice President, and secured an appointment instead as commander +in chief of the army. This procedure was promptly denounced as a +trick to evade the constitutional prohibition of two consecutive +terms. A year later he was unanimously elected President, though +he never formally took the oath of office. + +Whatever may be thought of the political ways and means of this +new Guzmin Blanco to maintain himself as a power behind or on the +presidential throne, Gomez gave Venezuela an administration of a +sort very different from that of his immediate predecessor. He +suppressed various government monopolies, removed other obstacles +to the material advancement of the country, and reduced the +national debt. He did much also to improve the sanitary +conditions at La Guaira, and he promoted education, especially +the teaching of foreign languages. + +Gomez nevertheless had to keep a watchful eye on the partisans of +Castro, who broke out in revolt whenever they had an opportunity. +The United States, Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, +Denmark, Cuba, and Colombia eyed the movements of the ex-dictator +nervously, as European powers long ago were wont to do in the +case of a certain Man of Destiny, and barred him out of both +their possessions and Venezuela itself. International patience, +never Job-like, had been too sorely vexed to permit his return. +Nevertheless, after the manner of the ancient persecutor of the +Biblical martyr, Castro did not refrain from going to and fro in +the earth. In fact he still "walketh about" seeking to recover +his hold upon Venezuela! + + + +CHAPTER X. MEXICO IN REVOLUTION + +When, in 1910, like several of its sister republics, Mexico +celebrated the centennial anniversary of its independence, the +era of peace and progress inaugurated by Porfirio Diaz seemed +likely to last indefinitely, for he was entering upon his eighth +term as President. Brilliant as his career had been, however, and +greatly as Mexico had prospered under his rigid rule, a sullen +discontent had been brewing. The country that had had but one +continuous President in twenty-six years was destined to have +some fourteen chief magistrates in less than a quarter of that +time, and to surpass all its previous records for rapidity in +presidential succession, by having one executive who is said to +have held office for precisely fifty-six minutes! + +It has often been asserted that the reason for the downfall of +Diaz and the lapse of Mexico into the unhappy conditions of a +half century earlier was that he had grown too old to keep a firm +grip on the situation. It has also been declared that his +insistence upon reelection and upon the elevation of his own +personal candidate to the vice presidency, as a successor in case +of his retirement, occasioned his overthrow. The truth of the +matter is that these circumstances were only incidental to his +downfall; the real causes of revolution lay deeprooted in the +history of these twenty-six years. The most significant feature +of the revolt was its civilian character. A widespread public +opinion had been created; a national consciousness had been +awakened which was intolerant of abuses and determined upon their +removal at any cost; and this public opinion and national +consciousness were products of general education, which had +brought to the fore a number of intelligent men eager to +participate in public affairs and yet barred out because of their +unwillingness to support the existing regime. + +Some one has remarked, and rightly, that Diaz in his zeal for the +material advancement of Mexico, mistook the tangible wealth of +the country for its welfare. Desirable and even necessary as that +material progress was, it produced only a one-sided prosperity. +Diaz was singularly deaf to the just complaints of the people of +the laboring classes, who, as manufacturing and other industrial +enterprises developed, were resolved to better their conditions. +In the country at large the discontent was still stronger. +Throughout many of the rural districts general advancement had +been retarded because of the holding of huge areas of fertile +land by a comparatively few rich families, who did little to +improve it and were content with small returns from the labor of +throngs of unskilled native cultivators. Wretchedly paid and +housed, and toiling long hours, the workers lived like the serfs +of medieval days or as their own ancestors did in colonial times. +Ignorant, poverty-stricken, liable at any moment to be +dispossessed of the tiny patch of ground on which they raised a +few hills of corn or beans, most of them were naturally a simple, +peaceful folk who, in spite of their misfortunes, might have gone +on indefinitely with their drudgery in a hopeless apathetic +fashion, unless their latent savage instincts happened to be +aroused by drink and the prospect of plunder. On the other hand, +the intelligent among them, knowing that in some of the northern +States of the republic wages were higher and treatment fairer, +felt a sense of wrong which, like that of the laboring class in +the towns, was all the more dangerous because it was not allowed +to find expression. + +Diaz thought that what Mexico required above everything else was +the development of industrial efficiency and financial strength, +assured by a maintenance of absolute order. Though disposed to do +justice in individual cases, he would tolerate no class movements +of any kind. Labor unions, strikes, and other efforts at +lightening the burden of the workers he regarded as seditious and +deserving of severe punishment. In order to attract capital from +abroad as the best means of exploiting the vast resources of the +country, he was willing to go to any length, it would seem, in +guaranteeing protection. Small wonder, therefore, that the people +who shared in none of the immediate advantages from that source +should have muttered that Mexico was the "mother of foreigners +and the stepmother of Mexicans." And, since so much of the +capital came from the United States, the antiforeign sentiment +singled Americans out for its particular dislike. + +If Diaz appeared unable to appreciate the significance of the +educational and industrial awakening, he was no less oblivious of +the political outcome. He knew, of course, that the Mexican +constitution made impossible demands upon the political capacity +of the people. He was himself mainly of Indian blood and he +believed that he understood the temperament and limitations of +most Mexicans. Knowing how tenaciously they clung to political +notions, he believed that it was safer and wiser to forego, at +least for a time, real popular government and to concentrate +power in the hands of a strong man who could maintain order. + +Accordingly, backed by his political adherents, known as +cientificos (doctrinaires), some of whom had acquired a sinister +ascendancy over him, and also by the Church, the landed +proprietors, and the foreign capitalists, Diaz centered the +entire administration more and more in himself. Elections became +mere farces. Not only the federal officials themselves but the +state governors, the members of the state legislatures, and all +others in authority during the later years of his rule owed their +selection primarily to him and held their positions only if +personally loyal to him. Confident of his support and certain +that protests against misgovernment would be regarded by the +President as seditious, many of them abused their power at will. +Notable among them were the local officials, called jefes +politicos, whose control of the police force enabled them to +indulge in practices of intimidation and extortion which +ultimately became unendurable. + +Though symptoms of popular wrath against the Diaz regime, or +diazpotism as the Mexicans termed it, were apparent as early as +1908, it was not until January, 1911, that the actual revolution +came. It was headed by Francisco I. Madero, a member of a wealthy +and distinguished family of landed proprietors in one of the +northern States. What the revolutionists demanded in substance +was the retirement of the President, Vice President, and Cabinet; +a return to the principle of no reelection to the chief +magistracy; a guarantee of fair elections at all times; the +choice of capable, honest, and impartial judges, jefes politicos, +and other officials; and, in particular, a series of agrarian and +industrial reforms which would break up the great estates, create +peasant proprietorships, and better the conditions of the working +classes. Disposed at first to treat the insurrection lightly, +Diaz soon found that he had underestimated its strength. Grants +of some of the demands and promises of reform were met with a +dogged insistence upon his own resignation. Then, as the +rebellion spread to the southward, the masterful old man realized +that his thirty-one years of rule were at an end. On the 25th of +May, therefore, he gave up his power and sailed for Europe. + +Madero was chosen President five months later, but the revolution +soon passed beyond his control. He was a sincere idealist, if not +something of a visionary, actuated by humane and kindly +sentiments, but he lacked resoluteness and the art of managing +men. He was too prolific, also, of promises which he must have +known he could not keep. Yielding to family influence, he let his +followers get out of hand. Ambitious chieftains and groups of +Radicals blocked and thwarted him at every turn. When he could +find no means of carrying out his program without wholesale +confiscation and the disruption of business interests, he was +accused of abandoning his duty. One officer after another +deserted him and turned rebel. Brigandage and insurrection swept +over the country and threatened to involve it in ugly +complications with the United States and European powers. At +length, in February, 1913, came the blow that put an end to all +of Madero's efforts and aspirations. A military uprising in the +city of Mexico made him prisoner, forced him to resign, and set +up a provisional government under the dictatorship of Victoriano +Huerta, one of his chief lieutenants. Two weeks later both Madero +and the Vice President were assassinated while on their way +supposedly to a place of safety. + +Huerta was a rough soldier of Indian origin, possessed of unusual +force of character and strength of will, ruthless, cunning, and +in bearing alternately dignified and vulgar. A cientifico in +political faith, he was disposed to restore the Diaz regime, so +far as an application of shrewdness and force could make it +possible. But from the outset he found an obstacle confronting +him that he could not surmount. Though acknowledged by European +countries and by many of the Hispanic republics, he could not win +recognition from the United States, either as provisional +President or as a candidate for regular election to the office. +Whether personally responsible for the murder of Madero or not, +he was not regarded by the American Government as entitled to +recognition, on the ground that he was not the choice of the +Mexican people. In its refusal to recognize an administration set +up merely by brute force, the United States was upheld by +Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Cuba. The elimination of Huerta +became the chief feature for a while of its Mexican policy. + +Meanwhile the followers of Madero and the pronounced Radicals had +found a new northern leader in the person of Venustiano Carranza. +They called themselves Constitutionalists, as indicative of their +purpose to reestablish the constitution and to choose a successor +to Madero in a constitutional manner. What they really desired +was those radical changes along social, industrial, and political +lines, which Madero had championed in theory. They sought to +introduce a species of socialistic regime that would provide the +Mexicans with an opportunity for self-regeneration. While Diaz +had believed in economic progress supported by the great landed +proprietors, the moral influence of the Church, and the +application of foreign capital, the Constitutionalists, +personified in Carranza, were convinced that these agencies, if +left free and undisturbed to work their will, would ruin Mexico. +Though not exactly antiforeign in their attitude, they wished to +curb the power of the foreigner; they would accept his aid +whenever desirable for the economic development of the country, +but they would not submit to his virtual control of public +affairs. In any case they would tolerate no interference by the +United States. Compromise with the Huerta regime, therefore, was +impossible. Huerta, the "strong man" of the Diaz type, must go. +On this point, at least, the Constitutionalists were in thorough +agreement with the United States. + +A variety of international complications ensued. Both Huertistas +and Carranzistas perpetrated outrages on foreigners, which evoked +sharp protests and threats from the United States and European +powers. While careful not to recognize his opponents officially, +the American Government resorted to all kinds of means to oust +the dictator. An embargo was laid on the export of arms and +munitions; all efforts to procure financial help from abroad were +balked. The power of Huerta was waning perceptibly and that of +the Constitutionalists was increasing when an incident that +occurred in April, 1914, at Tampico brought matters to a climax. +A number of American sailors who had gone ashore to obtain +supplies were arrested and temporarily detained. The United +States demanded that the American flag be saluted as reparation +for the insult. Upon the refusal of Huerta to comply, the United +States sent a naval expedition to occupy Vera Cruz. + +Both Carranza and Huerta regarded this move as equivalent to an +act of war. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile then offered their +mediation. But the conference arranged for this purpose at +Niagara Falls, Canada, had before it a task altogether impossible +of accomplishment. Though Carranza was willing to have the +Constitutionalists represented, if the discussion related solely +to the immediate issue between the United States and Huerta, he +declined to extend the scope of the conference so as to admit the +right of the United States to interfere in the internal affairs +of Mexico. The conference accomplished nothing so far as the +immediate issue was concerned. The dictator did not make +reparation for the "affronts and indignities" he had committed; +but his day was over. The advance of the Constitutionalists +southward compelled him in July to abandon the capital and leave +the country. Four months later the American forces were withdrawn +from Vera Cruz. The "A B C" Conference, however barren it was of +direct results, helped to allay suspicions of the United States +in Hispanic America and brought appreciably nearer a "concert of +the western world." + +While far from exercising full control throughout Mexico, the +"first chief" of the Constitutionalists was easily the dominant +figure in the situation. At home a ranchman, in public affairs a +statesman of considerable ability, knowing how to insist and yet +how to temporize, Carranza carried on a struggle, both in arms +and in diplomacy, which singled him out as a remarkable +character. Shrewdly aware of the advantageous circumstances +afforded him by the war in Europe, he turned them to account with +a degree of skill that blocked every attempt at defeat or +compromise. No matter how serious the opposition to him in Mexico +itself, how menacing the attitude of the United States, or how +persuasive the conciliatory disposition of Hispanic American +nations, he clung stubbornly and tenaciously to his program. + +Even after Huerta had been eliminated, Carranza's position was +not assured, for Francisco, or "Pancho," Villa, a chieftain whose +personal qualities resembled those of the fallen dictator, was +equally determined to eliminate him. For a brief moment, indeed, +peace reigned. Under an alleged agreement between them, a +convention of Constitutionalist officers was to choose a +provisional President, who should be ineligible as a candidate +for the permanent presidency at the regular elections. When +Carranza assumed both of these positions, Villa declared his act +a violation of their understanding and insisted upon his +retirement. Inasmuch as the convention was dominated by Villa, +the "first chief" decided to ignore its election of a provisional +President. + +The struggle between the Conventionalists headed by Villa and the +Constitutionalists under Carranza plunged Mexico into worse +discord and misery than ever. Indeed it became a sort of +three-cornered contest. The third party was Emiliano Zapata, an +Indian bandit, nominally a supporter of Villa but actually +favorable to neither of the rivals. Operating near the capital, +he plundered Conventionalists and Constitutionalists with equal +impartiality, and as a diversion occasionally occupied the city +itself. These circumstances gave force to the saying that Mexico +was a "land where peace breaks out once in a while!" + +Early in 1915 Carranza proceeded to issue a number of radical +decrees that exasperated foreigners almost beyond endurance. +Rather than resort to extreme measures again, however, the United +States invoked the cooperation of the Hispanic republics and +proposed a conference to devise some solution of the Mexican +problem. To give the proposed conference a wider representation, +it invited not only the "A B C" powers, but Bolivia, Uruguay, and +Guatemala to participate. Meeting at Washington in August, the +mediators encountered the same difficulty which had confronted +their predecessors at Niagara Falls. Though the other chieftains +assented, Carranza, now certain of success, declined to heed any +proposal of conciliation. Characterizing efforts of the kind as +an unwarranted interference in the internal affairs of a sister +nation, he warned the Hispanic republics against setting up so +dangerous a precedent. In reply Argentina stated that the +conference obeyed a "lofty inspiration of Pan-American +solidarity, and, instead of finding any cause for alarm, the +Mexican people should see in it a proof of their friendly +consideration that her fate evokes in us, and calls forth our +good wishes for her pacification and development." However, as +the only apparent escape from more watchful waiting or from armed +intervention on the part of the United States, in October the +seven Governments decided to accept the facts as they stood, and +accordingly recognized Carranza as the de facto ruler of Mexico. + +Enraged at this favor shown to his rival, Villa determined +deliberately to provoke American intervention by a murderous raid +on a town in New Mexico in March, 1916. When the United States +dispatched an expedition to avenge the outrage, Carranza +protested energetically against its violation of Mexican +territory and demanded its withdrawal. Several clashes, in fact, +occurred between American soldiers and Carranzistas. Neither the +expedition itself, however, nor diplomatic efforts to find some +method of cooperation which would prevent constant trouble along +the frontier served any useful purpose, since Villa apparently +could not be captured and Carranza refused to yield to diplomatic +persuasion. Carranza then proposed that a joint commission be +appointed to settle these vexed questions. Even this device +proved wholly unsatisfactory. The Mexicans would not concede the +right of the United States to send an armed expedition into their +country at any time, and the Americans refused to accept +limitations on the kind of troops that they might employ or on +the zone of their operations. In January, 1917, the joint +commission was dissolved and the American soldiers were +withdrawn. Again the "first chief" had won! + +On the 5th of February a convention assembled at Queretaro +promulgated a constitution embodying substantially all of the +radical program that Carranza had anticipated in his decrees. +Besides providing for an elaborate improvement in the condition +of the laboring classes and for such a division of great estates +as might satisfy their particular needs, the new constitution +imposed drastic restrictions upon foreigners and religious +bodies. Under its terms, foreigners could not acquire industrial +concessions unless they waived their treaty rights and consented +to regard themselves for the purpose as Mexican citizens. In all +such cases preference was to be shown Mexicans over foreigners. +Ecclesiastical corporations were forbidden to own real property. +No primary school and no charitable institution could be +conducted by any religious mission or denomination, and religious +publications must refrain from commenting on public affairs. The +presidential term was reduced from six years to four; reelection +was prohibited; and the office of Vice President was abolished. + +When, on the 1st of May, Venustiano Carranza was chosen +President, Mexico had its first constitutional executive in four +years. After a cruel and obstinately intolerant struggle that had +occasioned indescribable suffering from disease and starvation, +as well as the usual slaughter and destruction incident to war, +the country began to enjoy once more a measure of peace. +Financial exhaustion, however, had to be overcome before +recuperation was possible. Industrial progress had become almost +paralyzed; vast quantities of depreciated paper money had to be +withdrawn from circulation; and an enormous array of claims for +the loss of foreign life and property had rolled up. + + + +CHAPTER XI. THE REPUBLICS OF THE CARIBBEAN + +The course of events in certain of the republics in and around +the Caribbean Sea warned the Hispanic nations that independence +was a relative condition and that it might vary in direct ratio +with nearness to the United States. After 1906 this powerful +northern neighbor showed an unmistakable tendency to extend its +influence in various ways. Here fiscal and police control was +established; there official recognition was withheld from a +President who had secured office by unconstitutional methods. +Nonrecognition promised to be an effective way of maintaining a +regime of law and order, as the United States understood those +terms. Assurances from the United States of the full political +equality of all republics, big or little, in the western +hemisphere did not always carry conviction to Spanish American +ears. The smaller countries in and around the Caribbean Sea, at +least, seemed likely to become virtually American protectorates. + +Like their Hispanic neighbor on the north, the little republics +of Central America were also scenes of political disturbance. +None of them except Panama escaped revolutionary uprisings, +though the loss of life and property was insignificant. On the +other hand, in these early years of the century the five +countries north of Panama made substantial progress toward +federation. As a South American writer has expressed it, their +previous efforts in that direction "amid sumptuous festivals, +banquets and other solemn public acts" at which they "intoned in +lyric accents daily hymns for the imperishable reunion of the +isthmian republics," had been as illusory as they were frequent. +Despite the mediation of the United States and Mexico in 1906, +while the latter was still ruled by Diaz, the struggle in which +Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, and Salvador had been engaged was +soon renewed between the first two belligerents. Since diplomatic +interposition no longer availed, American marines were landed in +Nicaragua, and the bumptious Zelaya was induced to have his +country meet its neighbors in a conference at Washington. Under +the auspices of the United States and Mexico, in December, 1907, +representatives of the five republics signed a series of +conventions providing for peace and cooperation. An arbitral +court of justice, to be erected in Costa Rica and composed of one +judge from each nation, was to decide all matters of dispute +which could not be adjusted through ordinary diplomatic means. +Here, also, an institute for the training of Central American +teachers was to be established. Annual conferences were to +discuss, and an office in Guatemala was to record, measures +designed to secure uniformity in financial, commercial, +industrial, sanitary, and educational regulations. Honduras, the +storm center of weakness, was to be neutralized. None of the +States was thereafter to recognize in any of them a government +which had been set up in an illegal fashion. A "Constitutional +Act of Central American Fraternity," moreover, was adopted on +behalf of peace, harmony, and progress. Toward a realization of +the several objects of the conference, the Presidents of the five +republics were to invite their colleagues of the United States +and Mexico, whenever needful, to appoint representatives, to +"lend their good offices in a purely friendly way." + +Though most of these agencies were promptly put into operation, +the results were not altogether satisfactory. Some discords, to +be sure, were removed by treaties settling boundary questions and +providing for reciprocal trade advantages; but it is doubtful +whether the arrangements devised at Washington would have worked +at all if the United States had not kept the little countries +under a certain amount of observation. What the Central Americans +apparently preferred was to be left alone, some of them to mind +their own business, others to mind their neighbor's affairs. + +Of all the Central American countries Honduras was, perhaps, the +one most afflicted with pecuniary misfortunes. In 1909 its +foreign debt, along with arrears of interest unpaid for +thirty-seven years, was estimated at upwards of $110,000,000. Of +this amount a large part consisted of loans obtained from foreign +capitalists, at more or less extortionate rates, for the +construction of a short railway, of which less than half had been +built. That revolutions should be rather chronic in a land where +so much money could be squandered and where the temperaments of +Presidents and ex-Presidents were so bellicose, was natural +enough. When the United States could not induce the warring +rivals to abide by fair elections, it sent a force of marines to +overawe them and gave warning that further disturbances would not +be allowed. + +In Nicaragua the conditions were similar. Here Zelaya, restive +under the limitations set by the conference at Washington, +yearned to become the "strong man" of Central America, who would +teach the Yankees to stop their meddling. But his downfall was +imminent. In 1909, as the result of his execution of two American +soldiers of fortune who had taken part in a recent insurrection, +the United States resolved to tolerate Zelaya no longer. Openly +recognizing the insurgents, it forced the dictator out of the +country. Three years later, when a President-elect started to +assume office before the legally appointed time, a force of +American marines at the capital convinced him that such a +procedure was undesirable. The "corrupt and barbarous" conditions +prevailing in Zelaya's time, he was informed, could not be +tolerated. The United States, in fact, notified all parties in +Nicaragua that, under the terms of the Washington conventions, it +had a "moral mandate to exert its influence for the preservation +of the general peace of Central America." Since those agreements +had vested no one with authority to enforce them, such an +interpretation of their language, aimed apparently at all +disturbances, foreign as well as domestic, was rather elastic! At +all events, after 1912, when a new constitution was adopted, the +country became relatively quiet and somewhat progressive. +Whenever a political flurry did take place, American marines were +employed to preserve the peace. Many citizens, therefore, +declined to vote, on the ground that the moral and material +support thus furnished by the great nation to the northward +rendered it futile for them to assume political responsibilities. + +Meanwhile negotiations began which were ultimately to make +Nicaragua a fiscal protectorate of the United States. American +officials were chosen to act as financial advisers and collectors +of customs, and favorable arrangements were concluded with +American bankers regarding the monetary situation; but it was not +until 1916 that a treaty covering this situation was ratified. +According to its provisions, in return for a stipulated sum to be +expended under American direction, Nicaragua was to grant to the +United States the exclusive privilege of constructing a canal +through the territory of the republic and to lease to it the Corn +Islands and a part of Fonseca Bay, on the Pacific coast, for use +as naval stations. The prospect of American intervention alarmed +the neighboring republics. Asserting that the treaty infringed +upon their respective boundaries, Costa Rica, and Salvador +brought suit against Nicaragua before the Central American Court. +With the exception of the Nicaraguan representative, the judges +upheld the contention of the plaintiffs that the defendant had no +right to make any such concessions without previous consultation +with Costa Rica, Salvador, and Honduras, since all three alike +were affected by them. The Court observed, however, that it could +not declare the treaty void because the United States, one of the +parties concerned, was not subject to its jurisdiction. Nicaragua +declined to accept the decision; and the United States, the +country responsible for the existence of the Court and presumably +interested in helping to enforce its judgment, allowed it to go +out of existence in 1918 on the expiration of its ten-year term. + +The economic situation of Costa Rica brought about a state of +affairs wholly unusual in Central American politics. The +President, Alfredo Gonzalez, wished to reform the system of +taxation so that a fairer share of the public burdens should fall +on the great landholders who, like most of their brethren in the +Hispanic countries, were practically exempt. This project, +coupled with the fact that certain American citizens seeking an +oil concession had undermined the power of the President by +wholesale bribery, induced the Minister of War, in 1917, to start +a revolt against him. Rather than shed the blood of his fellow +citizens for mere personal advantages, Gonzalez sustained the +good reputation of Costa Rica for freedom from civil commotions +by quietly leaving the country and going to the United States to +present his case. In consequence, the American Government +declined to recognize the de facto ruler. + +Police and fiscal supervision by the United States has +characterized the recent history of Panama. Not only has a +proposed increase in the customs duties been disallowed, but more +than once the unrest attending presidential elections has +required the calming presence of American officials. As a means +of forestalling outbreaks, particularly in view of the +cosmopolitan population resident on the Isthmus, the republic +enacted a law in 1914 which forbade foreigners to mix in local +politics and authorized the expulsion of naturalized citizens who +attacked the Government through the press or otherwise. With the +approval of the United States, Panama entered into an agreement +with American financiers providing for the creation of a national +bank, one-fourth of the directors of which should be named by the +Government of the republic. + +The second period of American rule in Cuba lasted till 1909. +Control of the Government was then formally transferred to Jose +Miguel Gomez, the President who had been chosen by the Liberals +at the elections held in the previous year; but the United States +did not cease to watch over its chief Caribbean ward. A bitter +controversy soon developed in the Cuban Congress over measures to +forbid the further purchase of land by aliens, and to insure that +a certain percentage of the public offices should be held by +colored citizens. Though both projects were defeated, they +revealed a strong antiforeign sentiment and much dissatisfaction +on the part of the negro population. It was clear also that +Gomez, intended to oust all conservatives from office, for an +obedient Congress passed a bill suspending the civil service +rules. + +The partisanship of Gomez, and his supporters, together with the +constant interference of military veterans in political affairs, +provoked numerous outbreaks, which led the United States, in +1912, to warn Cuba that it might again be compelled to intervene. +Eventually, when a negro insurrection in the eastern part of the +island menaced the safety of foreigners, American marines were +landed. Another instance of intervention was the objection by the +United States to an employers' liability law that would have +given a monopoly of the insurance business to a Cuban company to +the detriment of American firms. + +After the election of Mario Menocal, the Conservative candidate, +to the presidency in 1912, another occasion for intervention +presented itself. An amnesty bill, originally drafted for the +purpose of freeing the colored insurgents and other offenders, +was amended so as to empower the retiring President to grant +pardon before trial to persons whom his successor wished to +prosecute for wholesale corruption in financial transactions. +Before the bill passed, however, notice was sent from Washington +that, since the American Government had the authority to +supervise the finances of the republic, Gomez would better veto +the bill, and this he accordingly did. + +A sharp struggle arose when it became known that Menocal would be +a candidate for reelection. The Liberal majority in the Congress +passed a bill requiring that a President who sought to succeed +himself should resign two months before the elections. When +Menocal vetoed this measure, his opponents demanded that the +United States supervise the elections. As the result of the +elections was doubtful, Gomez and his followers resorted in 1917 +to the usual insurrection; whereupon the American Government +warned the rebels that it would not recognize their claims if +they won by force. Active aid from that quarter, as well as the +capture of the insurgent leader, caused the movement to collapse +after the electoral college had decided in favor of Menocal. + +In the Dominican Republic disturbances were frequent, +notwithstanding the fact that American officials were in charge +of the customhouses and by their presence were expected to exert +a quieting influence. Even the adoption, in 1908, of a new +constitution which provided for the prolongation of the +presidential term to six years and for the abolition of the +office of Vice President--two stabilizing devices quite common in +Hispanic countries where personal ambition is prone to be a +source of political trouble--did not help much to restore order. +The assassination of the President and the persistence of +age-long quarrels with Haiti over boundaries made matters worse. +Thereupon, in 1913, the United States served formal notice on the +rebellious parties that it would not only refuse to recognize any +Government set up by force but would withhold any share in the +receipts from the customs. As this procedure did not prevent a +revolutionary leader from demanding half a million dollars as a +financial sedative for his political nerves and from creating +more trouble when the President failed to dispense it, the heavy +hand of an American naval force administered another kind of +specific, until commissioners from Porto Rico could arrive to +superintend the selection of a new chief magistrate. +Notwithstanding the protest of the Dominican Government, the +"fairest and freest" elections ever known in the country were +held under the direction of those officials--as a "body of +friendly observers"! + +However amicable this arrangement seemed, it did not smother the +flames of discord. In 1916, when an American naval commander +suggested that a rebellious Minister of War leave the capital, he +agreed to do so if the "fairest and freest" of chosen Presidents +would resign. Even after both of them had complied with the +suggestions, the individuals who assumed their respective offices +were soon at loggerheads. Accordingly the United States placed +the republic under military rule, until a President could be +elected who might be able to retain his post without too much +"friendly observation" from Washington, and a Minister of War +could be appointed who would refrain from making war on the +President! Then the organization of a new party to combat the +previous inordinate display of personalities in politics created +some hope that the republic would accomplish its own redemption. + +Only because of its relation to the wars of emancipation and to +the Dominican Republic, need the negro state of Haiti, occupying +the western part of the Caribbean island, be mentioned in +connection with the story of the Hispanic nations. Suffice it to +say that the fact that their color was different and that they +spoke a variant of French instead of Spanish did not prevent the +inhabitants of this state from offering a far worse spectacle of +political and financial demoralization than did their neighbors +to the eastward. Perpetual commotions and repeated interventions +by American and European naval forces on behalf of the foreign +residents, eventually made it imperative for the United States to +take direct charge of the republic. In 1916, by a convention +which placed the finances under American control, created a +native constabulary under American officers, and imposed a number +of other restraints, the United States converted Haiti into what +is practically a protectorate. + + + +CHAPTER XII. PAN-AMERICANISM AND THE GREAT WAR + +While the Hispanic republics were entering upon the second +century of their independent life, the idea of a certain +community of interests between themselves and the United States +began to assume a fairly definite form. Though emphasized by +American statesmen and publicists in particular, the new point of +view was not generally understood or appreciated by the people of +either this country or its fellow nations to the southward. It +seemed, nevertheless, to promise an effective cooperation in +spirit and action between them and came therefore to be called +"Pan-Americanism." + +This sentiment of inter-American solidarity sprang from several +sources. The periodical conferences of the United States and its +sister republics gave occasion for an interchange of official +courtesies and expressions of good feeling. Doubtless, also, the +presence of delegates from the Hispanic countries at the +international gatherings at The Hague served to acquaint the +world at large with the stability, strength, wealth, and culture +of their respective lands. Individual Americans took an active +interest in their fellows of Hispanic stock and found their +interest reciprocated. Motives of business or pleasure and a +desire to obtain personal knowledge about one another led to +visits and countervisits that became steadily more frequent. +Societies were created to encourage the friendship and +acquaintance thus formed. Scientific congresses were held and +institutes were founded in which both the United States and +Hispanic America were represented. Books, articles, and newspaper +accounts about one another's countries were published in +increasing volume. Educational institutions devoted a constantly +growing attention to inter-American affairs. Individuals and +commissions were dispatched by the Hispanic nations and the +United States to study one another's conditions and to confer +about matters of mutual concern. Secretaries of State, Ministers +of Foreign Affairs, and other distinguished personages +interchanged visits. Above all, the common dangers and +responsibilities falling upon the Americas at large as a +consequence of the European war seemed likely to bring the +several nations into a harmony of feeling and relationship to +which they had never before attained. + +Pan-Americanism, however, was destined to remain largely a +generous ideal. The action of the United States in extending its +direct influence over the small republics in and around the +Caribbean aroused the suspicion and alarm of Hispanic Americans, +who still feared imperialistic designs on the part of that +country now more than ever the Colossus of the North. "The art of +oratory among the Yankees," declared a South American critic, "is +lavish with a fraternal idealism; but strong wills enforce their +imperialistic ambitions." Impassioned speakers and writers +adjured the ghost of Hispanic confederation to rise and confront +the new northern peril. They even advocated an appeal to Great +Britain, Germany, or Japan, and they urged closer economic, +social, and intellectual relations with the countries of Europe. + +It was while the United States was thus widening the sphere of +its influence in the Caribbean that the "A B C" +powers--Argentina, Brazil, and Chile--reached an understanding +which was in a sense a measure of self-defense. For some years +cordial relations had existed among these three nations which had +grown so remarkably in strength and prestige. It was felt that by +united action they might set up in the New World the European +principle of a balance of power, assume the leadership in +Hispanic America, and serve in some degree as a counterpoise to +the United States. Nevertheless they were disposed to cooperate +with their northern neighbor in the peaceable adjustment of +conflicts in which other Hispanic countries were concerned, +provided that the mediation carried on by such a "concert of the +western world" did not include actual intervention in the +internal affairs of the countries involved. + +With this attitude of the public mind, it is not strange that the +Hispanic republics at large should have been inclined to look +with scant favor upon proposals made by the United States, in +1916, to render the spirit of Pan-Americanism more precise in its +operation. The proposals in substance were these: that all the +nations of America "mutually agree to guarantee the territorial +integrity" of one another; to "maintain a republican form of +government"; to prohibit the "exportation of arms to any but the +legally constituted governments"; and to adopt laws of neutrality +which would make it "impossible to filibustering expeditions to +threaten or carry on revolutions in neighboring republics." These +proposals appear to have received no formal approval beyond what +is signified by the diplomatic expression "in principle." +Considering the disparity in strength, wealth, and prestige +between the northern country and its southern fellows, +suggestions of the sort could be made practicable only by letting +the United States do whatever it might think needful to +accomplish the objects which it sought. Obviously the Hispanic +nations, singly or collectively, would hardly venture to take any +such action within the borders of the United States itself, if, +for example, it failed to maintain what, in their opinion, was "a +republican form of government." A full acceptance of the plan +accordingly would have amounted to a recognition of American +overlordship, and this they were naturally not disposed to admit. + +The common perils and duties confronting the Americas as a result +of the Great War, however, made close cooperation between the +Hispanic republics and the United States up to a certain point +indispensable. Toward that transatlantic struggle the attitude of +all the nations of the New World at the outset was substantially +the same. Though strongly sympathetic on the whole with the +"Allies" and notably with France, the southern countries +nevertheless declared their neutrality. More than that, they +tried to convert neutrality into a Pan-American policy, instead +of regarding it as an official attitude to be adopted by the +republics separately. Thus when the conflict overseas began to +injure the rights of neutrals, Argentina and other nations urged +that the countries of the New World jointly agree to declare that +direct maritime commerce between American lands should be +considered as "inter-American coastwise trade," and that the +merchant ships engaged in it, whatever the flag under which they +sailed, should be looked upon as neutral. Though the South +American countries failed to enlist the support of their northern +neighbor in this bold departure from international precedent, +they found some compensation for their disappointment in the +closer commercial and financial relations which they established +with the United States. + +Because of the dependence of the Hispanic nations, and especially +those of the southern group, on the intimacy of their economic +ties with the belligerents overseas, they suffered from the +ravages of the struggle more perhaps than other lands outside of +Europe. Negotiations for prospective loans were dropped. +Industries were suspended, work on public improvements was +checked, and commerce brought almost to a standstill. As the +revenues fell off and ready money became scarce, drastic measures +had to be devised to meet the financial strain. For the +protection of credit, bank holidays were declared, stock +exchanges were closed, moratoria were set up in nearly all the +countries, taxes and duties were increased, radical reductions in +expenditure were undertaken, and in a few cases large quantities +of paper money were issued. + +With the European market thus wholly or partially cut off, the +Hispanic republics were forced to supply the consequent shortage +with manufactured articles and other goods from the United States +and to send thither their raw materials in exchange. To their +northern neighbor they had to turn also for pecuniary aid. A +Pan-American financial conference was held at Washington in 1915, +and an international high commission was appointed to carry its +recommendations into effect. Gradually most of the Hispanic +countries came to show a favorable trade balance. Then, as the +war drew into its fourth year, several of them even began to +enjoy great prosperity. That Pan-Americanism had not meant much +more than cooperation for economic ends seemed evident when, on +April 6, 1917, the United States declared war on Germany. Instead +of following spontaneously in the wake of their great northern +neighbor, the Hispanic republics were divided by conflicting +currents of opinion and hesitated as to their proper course of +procedure. While a majority of them expressed approval of what +the United States had done, and while Uruguay for its part +asserted that "no American country, which in defense of its own +rights should find itself in a state of war with nations of other +continents, would be treated as a belligerent," Mexico veered +almost to the other extreme by proposing that the republics of +America agree to lay an embargo on the shipment of munitions to +the warring powers. + +As a matter of fact, only seven out of the nineteen Hispanic +nations saw fit to imitate the example set by their northern +neighbor and to declare war on Germany. These were Cuba--in view +of its "duty toward the United States," Panama, Guatemala, +Brazil, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Since the Dominican +Republic at the time was under American military control, it was +not in a position to choose its course. Four countries Ecuador, +Peru, Bolivia, and Uruguay--broke off diplomatic relations with +Germany. The other seven republics--Mexico, Salvador, Colombia, +Venezuela, Chile, Argentina, and Paraguay--continued their formal +neutrality. In spite of a disclosure made by the United States of +insulting and threatening utterances on the part of the German +charge d'affaires in Argentina, which led to popular outbreaks at +the capital and induced the national Congress to declare in favor +of a severance of diplomatic relations with that functionary's +Government, the President of the republic stood firm in his +resolution to maintain neutrality. If Pan-Americanism had ever +involved the idea of political cooperation among the nations of +the New World, it broke down just when it might have served the +greatest of purposes. Even the "A B C" combination itself had +apparently been shattered. + +A century and more had now passed since the Spanish and +Portuguese peoples of the New World had achieved their +independence. Eighteen political children of various sizes and +stages of advancement, or backwardness, were born of Spain in +America, and one acknowledged the maternity of Portugal. Big +Brazil has always maintained the happiest relations with the +little mother in Europe, who still watches with pride the growth +of her strapping youngster. Between Spain and her descendants, +however, animosity endured for many years after they had thrown +off the parental yoke. Yet of late, much has been done on both +sides to render the relationship cordial. The graceful act of +Spain in sending the much-beloved Infanta Isabel to represent her +in Argentina and Chile at the celebration of the centennial +anniversary of their cry for independence, and to wish them +Godspeed on their onward journey, was typical of the yearning of +the mother country for her children overseas, despite the lapse +of years and political ties. So, too, her ablest men of intellect +have striven nobly and with marked success to revive among them a +sense of filial affection and gratitude for all that Spain +contributed to mold the mind and heart of her kindred in distant +lands. On their part, the Hispanic Americans have come to a +clearer consciousness of the fact that on the continents of the +New World there are two distinct types of civilization, with all +that each connotes of differences in race, psychology, tradition, +language, and custom--their own, and that represented by the +United States. Appreciative though the southern countries are of +their northern neighbor, they cling nevertheless to their +heritage from Spain and Portugal in whatever seems conducive to +the maintenance of their own ideals of life and thought. +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + +For anything like a detailed study of the history of the Hispanic +nations of America, obviously one must consult works written in +Spanish and Portuguese. There are many important books, also, in +French and German; but, with few exceptions, the recommendations +for the general reader will be limited to accounts in English. + +A very useful outline and guide to recent literature on the +subject is W. W. Pierson, Jr., "A Syllabus of Latin-American +History" (Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1917). A brief +introduction to the history and present aspects of Hispanic +American civilization is W. R. Shepherd, "Latin America" (New +York, 1914). The best general accounts of the Spanish and +Portuguese colonial systems will be found in Charles de Lannoy +and Herman van der Linden, "Histoire de L'Expansion Coloniale des +Peuples Europeens: Portugal et Espagne" (Brussels and Paris, +1907), and Kurt Simon, "Spanien and Portugal als See and +Kolonialmdchte" (Hamburg, 1913). For the Spanish colonial regime +alone, E. G. Bourne, "Spain in America" (New York, 1904) is +excellent. The situation in southern South America toward the +close of Spanish rule is well described in Bernard Moses, "South +America on the Eve of Emancipation" (New York, 1908). Among +contemporary accounts of that period, Alexander von Humboldt and +Aime Bonpland, "Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial +Regions of America", 3 vols. (London, 1881); Alexander von +Humboldt, "Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain", 4 vols. +(London,1811-1822); and F. R. J. de Pons, "Travels in South +America", 2 vols. (London, 1807), are authoritative, even if not +always easy to read. + +On the wars of independence, see the scholarly treatise by W. S. +Robertson, "Rise of the Spanish-American Republics as Told in the +Lives of their Liberators" (New York, 1918); Bartolome Mitre, +"The Emancipation of South America" (London, 1893)--a condensed +translation of the author's "Historia de San Martin", and wholly +favorable to that patriot; and F. L. Petre, "Simon Bolivar" +(London, 1910)--impartial at the expense of the imagination. +Among the numerous contemporary accounts, the following will be +found serviceable: W. D. Robinson, "Memoirs of the Mexican +Revolution" (Philadelphia, 1890); J. R. Poinsett, "Notes on +Mexico" (London, 1825); H. M. Brackenridge, "Voyage to South +America, 2 vols. (London, 1820); W. B. Stevenson, "Historical and +Descriptive Narrative of Twenty Years' Residence in South +America", 3 vols. (London, 1895); J. Miller, "Memoirs of General +Miller in the Service of the Republic of Peru", 2 vols. (London, +1828); H. L. V. Ducoudray Holstein, "Memoirs of Simon Bolivar", 2 +vols. (London, 1830), and John Armitage, "History of Brazil", 2 +vols. (London, 1836). + +The best books on the history of the republics as a whole since +the attainment of independence, and written from an Hispanic +American viewpoint, are F. Garcia Calderon, "Latin America, its +Rise and Progress" (New York, 1913), and M. de Oliveira Lima, +"The Evolution of Brazil Compared with that of Spanish and +Anglo-Saxon America" (Stanford University, California, 1914). The +countries of Central America are dealt with by W. H. Koebel, +"Central America" (New York, 1917), and of South America by T. C. +Dawson, "The South American Republics", 2 vols. (New York, +1903-1904), and C. E. Akers, "History of South America" (London, +1912), though in a manner that often confuses rather than +enlightens. + +Among the histories and descriptions of individual countries, +arranged in alphabetical order, the following are probably the +most useful to the general reader: W. A. Hirst, "Argentina" (New +York, 1910); Paul Walle, "Bolivia" (New York, 1914); Pierre +Denis, "Brazil" (New York, 1911); G. F. S. Elliot, "Chile" (New +York, 1907); P. J. Eder, "Colombia" (New York, 1913); J. B. +Calvo, "The Republic of Costa Rica" (Chicago, 1890); A. G. +Robinson, "Cuba, Old and New" (New York, 1915); Otto Schoenrich, +"Santo Domingo" (New York, 1918); C. R. Enock, "Ecuador" (New +York, 1914); C. R. Enock, "Mexico" (New York, 1909); W. H. +Koebel, "Paraguay" (New York, 1917); C. R. Enock, "Peru" (New +York, 1910); W. H. Koebel, "Uruguay" (New York, 1911), and L. V. +Dalton, "Venezuela" (New York, 1912). Of these, the books by +Robinson and Eder, on Cuba and Colombia, respectively, are the +most readable and reliable. + +For additional bibliographical references see "South America" and +the articles on individual countries in "The Encyclopaedia +Britannica", 11th edition, and in Marrion Wilcox and G. E. Rines, +"Encyclopedia of Latin America" (New York, 1917). + +Of contemporary or later works descriptive of the life and times +of eminent characters in the history of the Hispanic American +republics since 1830, a few may be taken as representative. +Rosas: J. A. King, "Twenty-four Years in the Argentine Republic" +(London, 1846), and Woodbine Parish, "Buenos Ayres and the +Provinces of the Rio de la Plata" (London, 1850). Francia: J. R. +Rengger, "Reign of Dr. Joseph Gaspard Roderick [!] de Francia in +Paraguay" (London, 1827); J. P. and W. P. Robertson, "Letters on +South America", 3 vols. (London, 1843), and E. L. White, "El +Supremo", a novel (New York, 1916). Santa Anna: Waddy Thompson, +"Recollections of Mexico" (New York, 1846), and F. E. Ingles, +Calderon de la Barca, "Life in Mexico" (London, 1859.). Juarez: +U. R. Burke, "Life of Benito Juarez" (London, 1894). Solano +Lopez: T. J. Hutchinson, "Parana; with Incidents of the +Paraguayan War and South American Recollections" (London, 1868); +George Thompson, "The War in Paraguay" (London, 1869); R. F. +Burton, "Letters from the Battle-fields of Paraguay" (London, +1870), and C. A. Washburn, "The History of Paraguay", 2 vols. +(Boston, 1871). Pedro II: J. C. Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, +"Brazil and the Brazilians" (Boston, 1879), and Frank Bennett, +"Forty Years in Brazil "(London, 1914). Garcia Moreno: Frederick +Hassaurek, "Four Years among Spanish Americans "(New York, 1867). +Guzman Blanco: C. D. Dance, "Recollections of Four Years in +Venezuela" (London, 1876). Diaz: James Creelman, "Diaz, Master of +Mexico" (New York, 1911). Balmaceda: M. H. Hervey, "Dark Days in +Chile" (London, 1891-1890. Carranza: L. Gutierrez de Lara and +Edgcumb Pinchon, "The Mexican People: their Struggle for Freedom" +(New York, 1914). + +End of the Project Gutenberg etext of The Hispanic Nations of the +New World. + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Hispanic Nations of the New World +by William R. Shepherd + diff --git a/old/hispn10.zip b/old/hispn10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2d380ca --- /dev/null +++ b/old/hispn10.zip |