diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:55:30 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:55:30 -0700 |
| commit | 52897ee28cde53d0f8c9f6ddb66dd80d31536937 (patch) | |
| tree | 97bbce9c9abc5a6473d4c247b9752c14b62a3760 | |
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-0.txt | 9560 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-0.zip | bin | 0 -> 149417 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-8.txt | 9580 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 146623 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 190352 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-h/31277-h.htm | 20610 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-h/images/bottomcorner.gif | bin | 0 -> 108 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-h/images/bracket.gif | bin | 0 -> 150 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-h/images/bracket3.gif | bin | 0 -> 164 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-h/images/bracket3_rt.gif | bin | 0 -> 165 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-h/images/bracket_rt.gif | bin | 0 -> 149 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-h/images/decline.gif | bin | 0 -> 231 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-h/images/decsmall.gif | bin | 0 -> 145 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-h/images/dot.gif | bin | 0 -> 57 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-h/images/pg109note.png | bin | 0 -> 1144 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31277-h/images/topcorner.gif | bin | 0 -> 109 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
19 files changed, 39766 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/31277-0.txt b/31277-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ba3d0c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9560 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book, by +C. Alphonso Smith + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book + with Inflections, Syntax, Selections for Reading, and Glossary + +Author: C. Alphonso Smith + +Release Date: February 15, 2010 [EBook #31277] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Louise Hope, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +[Transcriber’s Note: + +This e-text includes characters that require UTF-8 (Unicode) file +encoding: + + Āā Ēē Īī Ōō Ūū; ȳ Ǣǣ (vowels with macron or “long” mark) + Ęę Ǫǫ (e and o with ogonek) + +If any of these characters do not display properly--in particular, if +the diacritic does not appear directly above the letter--or if the +apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, +make sure your text reader’s “character set” or “file encoding” is set +to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change the default font. +Depending on available fonts, some tables may not line up vertically. +As a last resort, use the Latin-1 version of the file instead. + +See the Poetry section (between V and VI in Part III, Readings) for +potential problems specific to that section. + +Italics are shown with _lines_. Boldface is shown with #hash marks#. +In the printed book, boldface was used for all Anglo-Saxon other than +exercises and reading passages; it has been omitted from the e-text +except when necessary for clarity. + +In references to numbered Sections, “Note” may mean either an inset Note +or a footnote. + +In the prose reading selections (pages 99-121), page numbers and line +breaks have been retained for use with the linenotes and Glossary. Page +numbers are shown in [[double brackets]]. In the verse selections, line +numbers in the notes have been replaced with line numbers from the +original texts, printed in brackets as shown. The distinction between +linenotes and numbered footnotes is in the original. + +Single brackets [] and asterisks * are in the original, as are the +symbols + = < >. Text in [[double brackets]] was added by the +transcriber.] + + + + + ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR + + AND EXERCISE BOOK + + + With Inflections, Syntax, Selections + for Reading, and Glossary + + + By + + C. ALPHONSO SMITH, Ph.D., LL.D. + + Late Professor of English in the + United States Naval Academy + + + + + ALLYN and BACON + Boston New York Chicago + Atlanta San Francisco + + + + + Copyright, 1896, by + C. ALPHONSO SMITH. + + + IAI + + + Norwood Press + J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith + Norwood Mass. U.S.A. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The scope of this book is indicated in § 5. It is intended for +beginners, and in writing it, these words of Sir Thomas Elyot have not +been forgotten: “Grammer, beinge but an introduction to the +understandinge of autors, if it be made to longe or exquisite to the +lerner, it in a maner mortifieth his corage: And by that time he cometh +to the most swete and pleasant redinge of olde autors, the sparkes of +fervent desire of lernynge are extincte with the burdone of grammer, +lyke as a lyttell fyre is sone quenched with a great heape of small +stickes.” --_The Governour_, Cap. X. + +Only the essentials, therefore, are treated in this work, which is +planned more as a foundation for the study of Modern English grammar, of +historical English grammar, and of the principles of English etymology, +than as a general introduction to Germanic philology. + +The Exercises in translation will, it is believed, furnish all the drill +necessary to enable the student to retain the forms and constructions +given in the various chapters. + +The Selections for Reading relate to the history and literature of King +Alfred’s day, and are sufficient to give the student a first-hand, +though brief, acquaintance with the native style and idiom of Early West +Saxon prose in its golden age. Most of the words and constructions +contained in them will be already familiar to the student through their +intentional employment in the Exercises. + +For the inflectional portion of this grammar, recourse has been had +chiefly to Sievers’ _Abriss der angelsächsischen Grammatik_ (1895). +Constant reference has been made also to the same author’s earlier and +larger _Angelsächsishe Grammatik_, translated by Cook. A more sparing +use has been made of Cosijn’s _Altwestsächsische Grammatik_. + +For syntax and illustrative sentences, Dr. J. E. Wülfing’s _Syntax in +den Werken Alfreds des Grossen, Part I._ (Bonn, 1894) has proved +indispensable. Advance sheets of the second part of this great work lead +one to believe that when completed the three parts will constitute the +most important contribution to the study of English syntax that has yet +been made. Old English sentences have also been cited from Sweet’s +_Anglo-Saxon Reader_, Bright’s _Anglo-Saxon Reader_, and Cook’s _First +Book in Old English_. + +The short chapter on the Order of Words has been condensed from my +_Order of Words in Anglo-Saxon Prose_ (Publications of the Modern +Language Association of America, New Series, Vol. I, No. 2). + +Though assuming sole responsibility for everything contained in this +book, I take pleasure in acknowledging the kind and efficient assistance +that has been so generously given me in its preparation. To none do I +owe more than to Dr. J. E. Wülfing, of the University of Bonn; Prof. +James A. Harrison, of the University of Virginia; Prof. W. S. Currell, +of Washington and Lee University; Prof. J. Douglas Bruce, of Bryn Mawr +College; and Prof. L. M. Harris, of the University of Indiana. They have +each rendered material aid, not only in the tedious task of detecting +typographical errors in the proof-sheets, but by the valuable criticisms +and suggestions which they have made as this work was passing through +the press. + + C. ALPHONSO SMITH. + + Louisiana State University, + Baton Rouge, September, 1896. + + + + +PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. + + +In preparing this enlarged edition, a few minor errors in the first +edition have been corrected and a few sentences added. The chief +difference between the two editions, however, consists in the +introduction of more reading matter and the consequent exposition of Old +English meter. Both changes have been made at the persistent request of +teachers and students of Old English. + +Uniformity of treatment has been studiously preserved in the new +material and the old, the emphasis in both being placed on syntax and +upon the affinities that Old English shares with Modern English. + +Many obligations have been incurred in preparing this augmented edition. +I have again to thank Dr. J. E. Wülfing, Prof. James A. Harrison, Prof. +W. S. Currell, and Prof. J. Douglas Bruce. To the scholarly criticisms +also of Prof. J. M. Hart, of Cornell; Prof. Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., of +Williams College; and Prof. Frederick Tupper, Jr., of the University of +Vermont, I am indebted for aid as generously given as it is genuinely +appreciated. + + C. ALPHONSO SMITH. + + August, 1898. + + + + +PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. + + +Among those who have kindly aided in making this edition free from +error, I wish to thank especially my friend Dr. John M. McBryde, Jr., of +Hollins Institute, Virginia. + + C. ALPHONSO SMITH. + + University of North Carolina, + Chapel Hill, February, 1903. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +PART I.--INTRODUCTION. + +Chapters Pages + + I. History (§ 1-5) 1 + II. Sounds (§ 6-11) 4 + III. Inflections (§ 12-19) 10 + IV. Order of Words (§ 20-21) 18 + V. Practical Suggestions (§ 22-24) 21 + +PART II.--ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. + + VI. The a-Declension: Masculine a-Stems (§ 25-30) 27 + VII. Neuter a-Stems (§ 31-36) 30 + VIII. The ō-Declension (§ 37-42) 33 + IX. The i-Declension and the u-Declension (§ 43-55) 35 + X. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs (§ 56-62) 39 + XI. The Weak or n-Declension (§ 63-66) 44 + XII. Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions (§ 67-71) 47 + XIII. Pronouns (§ 72-77) 50 + XIV. Adjectives, Strong and Weak (§ 78-87) 53 + XV. Numerals (§ 88-92) 57 + XVI. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions (§ 93-95) 60 + XVII. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs (§ 96-100) 64 + XVIII. Strong Verbs: Class I, Syntax of Moods (§ 101-108) 68 + XIX. Classes II and III (§ 109-113) 74 + XX. Classes IV, V, VI, and VII; Contract Verbs (§ 114-121) 78 + XXI. Weak Verbs (§ 122-133) 82 + XXII. Remaining Verbs; Verb Phrases with #habban#, #bēon#, + and #weorðan# (§ 134-143) 90 + +PART III.--SELECTIONS FOR READING. + + PROSE. + + Introductory 98 + I. The Battle of Ashdown 99 + II. A Prayer of King Alfred 101 + III. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan 102 + Ohthere’s First Voyage 103 + Ohthere’s Second Voyage 106 + Wulfstan’s Voyage 107 + IV. The Story of Cædmon 111 + V. Alfred’s Preface to the Pastoral Care 116 + + POETRY. + + Introductory 122 + VI. Extracts from Beowulf 136 + VII. The Wanderer 148 + +GLOSSARIES. + + I. Old English--Modern English 155 + II. Modern English--Old English 190 + + + * * * * * + * * * * + + OLD ENGLISH + + GRAMMAR AND EXERCISES + + * * * * + * * * * * + + +OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND EXERCISE BOOK. + + + + +PART I. + +INTRODUCTION. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +HISTORY. + + +1. The history of the English language falls naturally into three +periods; but these periods blend into one another so gradually that too +much significance must not be attached to the exact dates which +scholars, chiefly for convenience of treatment, have assigned as their +limits. Our language, it is true, has undergone many and great changes; +but its continuity has never been broken, and its individuality has +never been lost. + + +2. The first of these periods is that of OLD ENGLISH, or ANGLO-SAXON,[1] +commonly known as the period of _full inflections_. _E.g._ #stān-as#, +_stones_; #car-u#, _care_; #will-a#, _will_; #bind-an#, _to bind_; +#help-að# (= #ath#), _they help_. + +It extends from the arrival of the English in Great Britain to about one +hundred years after the Norman Conquest,--from A.D. 449 to 1150; but +there are no literary remains of the earlier centuries of this period. +There were four[2] distinct dialects spoken at this time. These were the +Northumbrian, spoken north of the river Humber; the Mercian, spoken in +the midland region between the Humber and the Thames; the West Saxon, +spoken south and west of the Thames; and the Kentish, spoken in the +neighborhood of Canterbury. Of these dialects, Modern English is most +nearly akin to the Mercian; but the best known of them is the West +Saxon. It was in the West Saxon dialect that King Alfred (849-901) wrote +and spoke. His writings belong to the period of Early West Saxon as +distinguished from the period of Late West Saxon, the latter being best +represented in the writings of Abbot Ælfric (955?-1025?). + + [Footnote 1: This unfortunate nomenclature is due to the term + _Angli Saxones_, which Latin writers used as a designation for + the English Saxons as distinguished from the continental or Old + Saxons. But Alfred and Ælfric both use the term _Englisc_, not + Anglo-Saxon. The Angles spread over Northumbria and Mercia, far + outnumbering the other tribes. Thus _Englisc_ (= _Angel_ + + _isc_) became the general name for the language spoken.] + + [Footnote 2: As small as England is, there are six distinct + dialects spoken in her borders to-day. Of these the Yorkshire + dialect is, perhaps, the most peculiar. It preserves many + Northumbrian survivals. See Tennyson’s _Northern Farmer_.] + + +3. The second period is that of MIDDLE ENGLISH, or the period of +_leveled inflections_, the dominant vowel of the inflections being e. +_E.g._ #ston-es#, #car-e#, #will-e#, #bind-en# (or #bind-e#), +#help-eth#, each being, as in the earlier period, a dissyllable. + +The Middle English period extends from A.D. 1150 to 1500. Its greatest +representatives are Chaucer (1340-1400) in poetry and Wiclif (1324-1384) +in prose. There were three prominent dialects during this period: the +Northern, corresponding to the older Northumbrian; the Midland (divided +into East Midland and West Midland), corresponding to the Mercian; and +the Southern, corresponding to the West Saxon and Kentish. London, +situated in East Midland territory, had become the dominant speech +center; and it was this East Midland dialect that both Chaucer and +Wiclif employed. + + NOTE.--It is a great mistake to think that Chaucer shaped our + language from crude materials. His influence was conservative, not + plastic. The popularity of his works tended to crystalize and thus + to perpetuate the forms of the East Midland dialect, but that + dialect was ready to his hand before he began to write. The speech + of London was, in Chaucer’s time, a mixture of Southern and + Midland forms, but the Southern forms (survivals of the West Saxon + dialect) had already begun to fall away; and this they continued + to do, so that “Chaucer’s language,” as Dr. Murray says, “is more + Southern than standard English eventually became.” See also + Morsbach, _Ueber den Ursprung der neuenglischen Schriftsprache_ + (1888). + + +4. The last period is that of MODERN ENGLISH, or the period of _lost +inflections_. _E.g._ _stones_, _care_, _will_, _bind_, _help_, each +being a monosyllable. Modern English extends from A.D. 1500 to the +present time. It has witnessed comparatively few grammatical changes, +but the vocabulary of our language has been vastly increased by +additions from the classical languages. Vowels, too, have shifted their +values. + + +5. It is the object of this book to give an elementary knowledge of +Early West Saxon, that is, the language of King Alfred. With this +knowledge, it will not be difficult for the student to read Late West +Saxon, or any other dialect of the Old English period. Such knowledge +will also serve as the best introduction to the structure both of Middle +English and of Modern English, besides laying a secure foundation for +the scientific study of any other Germanic tongue. + + NOTE.--The Germanic, or Teutonic, languages constitute a branch of + the great Aryan, or Indo-Germanic (known also as the + Indo-European) group. They are subdivided as follows: + + { North Germanic: Scandinavian, or Norse. + { + { { Old High German, + Germanic { East Germanic: Gothic. { (to A.D. 1100,) + { { + { { High German { Middle High German, + { { { (A.D. 1100-1500,) + { { { + { West Germanic { { New High German. + { { (A.D. 1500-.) + { + { Low German { Dutch, + { Old Saxon, + { Frisian, + { English. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +SOUNDS. + + +#Vowels and Diphthongs.# + +6. The long vowels and diphthongs will in this book be designated by the +macron (–). Vowel length should in every case be associated by the +student with each word learned: quantity alone sometimes distinguishes +words meaning wholly different things: #fōr#, _he went_, #for#, _for_; +#gōd#, _good_, #God#, _God_; #mān#, _crime_, #man#, _man_. + +Long vowels and diphthongs: + + ā as in f_a_ther: #stān#, _a stone_. + ǣ as in m_a_n (prolonged): #slǣpan#, _to sleep_. + ē as in th_e_y: #hēr#, _here_. + ī as in mach_i_ne: #mīn#, _mine_. + ō as in n_o_te (pure, not diphthongal): #bōc#, _book_. + ū as in r_u_le: #tūn#, _town_. + ȳ as in German gr_ü_n, or English gr_ee_n (with lips rounded):[1] + #brȳd#, _bride_. + +The diphthongs, long and short, have the stress upon the first vowel. +The second vowel is obscured, and represents approximately the sound of +_er_ in _sooner_, _faster_ (= _soon-uh_, _fast-uh_). The long diphthongs +(ǣ is not a diphthong proper) are ēo, īe, and ēa. The sound of ēo is +approximately reproduced in _mayor_ (= _mā-uh_); that of īe in the +dissyllabic pronunciation of _fear_ (= _fē-uh_). But ēa = _ǣ-uh_. This +diphthong is hardly to be distinguished from _ea_ in _pear_, _bear_, +etc., as pronounced in the southern section of the United States +(= _bæ-uh_, _pæ-uh_). + + +7. The short sounds are nothing more than the long vowels and diphthongs +shortened; but the student must at once rid himself of the idea that +Modern English _red_, for example, is the shortened form of _reed_, or +that _mat_ is the shortened form of _mate_. Pronounce these long sounds +with increasing rapidity, and _reed_ will approach _rid_, while _mate_ +will approach _met_. The Old English short vowel sounds are: + + a as in _a_rtistic: #habban#, _to have_. + æ as in m_a_nkind: #dæg#, _day_. + e, ę as in l_e_t: #stelan#, _to steal_, #sęttan#, _to set_. + i as in s_i_t: #hit#, _it_. + o as in br_oa_d (but shorter): #God#, _God_. + ǫ as in n_o_t: #lǫmb#, _lamb_. + u as in f_u_ll: #sunu#, _son_. + y as in m_i_ller (with lips rounded)[1]: #gylden#, _golden_. + + NOTE.--The symbol ę is known as _umlaut_-e (§ 58). It stands for + Germanic _a_, while e (without the cedilla) represents Germanic + _e_. The symbol ǫ is employed only before m and n. It, too, + represents Germanic _a_. But Alfred writes #manig# or #monig#, + _many_; #lamb# or #lomb#, _lamb_; #hand# or #hond#, _hand_, etc. + The cedilla is an etymological sign added by modern grammarians. + + [Transcriber’s Note: + The letters ę and ǫ were printed as shown in this e-text. The + diacritic is not a cedilla (open to the left) but an ogonek (open + to the right).] + + [Footnote 1: Vowels are said to be round, or rounded, when the + lip-opening is rounded; that is, when the lips are thrust out + and puckered as if preparing to pronounce _w_. Thus _o_ and _u_ + are round vowels: add _-ing_ to each, and phonetically you have + added _-wing_. _E.g. go^{w}ing_, _su^{w}ing_.] + + +#Consonants.# + +8. There is little difference between the values of Old English +consonants and those of Modern English. The following distinctions, +however, require notice: + +The digraph #th# is represented in Old English texts by ð and þ, no +consistent distinction being made between them. In the works of Alfred, +ð (capital, Ð) is the more common: #ðās#, _those_; #ðæt#, _that_; +#bindeð#, _he binds_. + +The consonant #c# had the hard sound of _k_, the latter symbol being +rare in West Saxon: #cyning#, _king_; #cwēn#, _queen_; #cūð#, _known_. +When followed by a palatal vowel sound,--_e_, _i_, _æ_, _ea_, _eo_, +long or short,--a vanishing _y_ sound was doubtless interposed (_cf._ +dialectic _k^{y}ind_ for _kind_). In Modern English the combination +has passed into _ch_: #cealc#, _chalk_; #cīdan#, _to chide_; #lǣce#, +_leech_; #cild#, _child_; #cēowan#, _to chew_. This change (_c_ > _ch_) +is known as Palatalization. The letter g, pronounced as in Modern +English _gun_, has also a palatal value before the palatal vowels +(_cf._ dialectic _g^{y}irl_ for _girl_). + +The combination #cg#, which frequently stands for #gg#, had probably the +sound of _dge_ in Modern English _edge_: #ęcg#, _edge_; #sęcgan#, _to +say_; #brycg#, _bridge_. Initial #h# is sounded as in Modern English: +#habban#, _to have_; #hālga#, _saint_. When closing a syllable it has +the sound of German _ch_: #slōh#, _he slew_; #hēah#, _high_; #ðurh#, +_through_. + + +9. An important distinction is that between voiced (or sonant) and +voiceless (or surd) consonants.[2] In Old English they are as follows: + + VOICED. VOICELESS. + + g h, c + d t + ð, þ (as in _th_ough) ð, þ (as in _th_in) + b p + f (= v) f + s (= z) s + +It is evident, therefore, that ð (þ), f, and s have double values in Old +English. If voiced, they are equivalent to _th_ (in _th_ough), _v_, and +_z_. Otherwise, they are pronounced as _th_ (in _th_in), _f_ (in _f_in), +and _s_ (in _s_in). The syllabic environment will usually compel the +student to give these letters their proper values. When occurring +between vowels, they are always voiced: #ōðer#, _other_; #ofer#, _over_; +#rīsan#, _to rise_. + + NOTE.--The general rule in Old English, as in Modern English, is, + that voiced consonants have a special affinity for other voiced + consonants, and voiceless for voiceless. This is the law of + Assimilation. Thus when _de_ is added to form the preterit of a + verb whose stem ends in a voiceless consonant, the d is unvoiced, + or assimilated, to t: #sęttan#, _to set_, #sętte# (but #tręddan#, + _to tread_, has #trędde#); #slǣpan#, _to sleep_, #slǣpte#; + #dręncan#, _to drench_, #dręncte#; #cyssan#, _to kiss_, #cyste#. + See § 126, Note 1. + + [Footnote 2: A little practice will enable the student to see + the appropriateness of calling these consonants voiced and + voiceless. Try to pronounce a voiced consonant,--_d_ in _den_, + for example, but without the assistance of _en_,--and there will + be heard a gurgle, or _vocal_ murmur. But in _t_, of _ten_, + there is no sound at all, but only a feeling of tension in the + organs.] + + +#Syllables.# + +10. A syllable is usually a vowel, either alone or in combination with +consonants, uttered with a single impulse of stress; but certain +consonants may form syllables: _oven_ (= _ov-n_), _battle_ (= _bæt-l_); +(_cf._ also the vulgar pronunciation of _elm_). + +A syllable may be (1) weak or strong, (2) open or closed, (3) long or +short. + +(1) A weak syllable receives a light stress. Its vowel sound is often +different from that of the corresponding strong, or stressed, syllable. +_Cf._ weak and strong _my_ in “I want my lárge hat” and “I want mý hat.” + +(2) An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong: #dē-man#, _to deem_; +#ðū#, _thou_; #sca-can#, _to shake_; #dæ-ges#, _by day_. A closed +syllable ends in one or more consonants: #ðing#, _thing_; #gōd#, _good_; +#glæd#, _glad_. + +(3) A syllable is long (_a_) if it contains a long vowel or a long +diphthong: #drī-fan#, _to drive_; #lū-can#, _to lock_; #slǣ-pan#, _to +sleep_; #cēo-san#, _to choose_; (_b_) if its vowel or diphthong is +followed by more than one consonant:[3] #cræft#, _strength_; #heard#, +_hard_; #lib-ban#, _to live_; #feal-lan#, _to fall_. Otherwise, the +syllable is short: #ðe#, _which_; #be-ran#, _to bear_; #ðæt#, _that_; +#gie-fan#, _to give_. + + NOTE 1.--A single consonant belongs to the following syllable: + #hā-lig#, _holy_ (not #hāl-ig#); #wrī-tan#, _to write_; #fæ-der#, + _father_. + + NOTE 2.--The student will notice that the syllable may be long and + the vowel short; but the vowel cannot be long and the syllable + short. + + NOTE 3.--Old English short vowels, occurring in open syllables, + have regularly become long in Modern English: #we-fan#, _to + weave_; #e-tan#, _to eat_; #ma-cian#, _to make_; #na-cod#, + _naked_; #a-can#, _to ache_; #o-fer#, _over_. And Old English long + vowels, preceding two or more consonants, have generally been + shortened: #brēost#, _breast_; #hǣlð#, _health_; #slǣpte#, + _slept_; #lǣdde#, _led_. + + [Footnote 3: Taken separately, every syllable ending in a single + consonant is long. It may be said, therefore, that all closed + syllables are long; but in the natural flow of language, the + single final consonant of a syllable so often blends with a + following initial vowel, the syllable thus becoming open and + short, that such syllables are not recognized as prevailingly + long. _Cf._ Modern English _at all_ (= _a-tall_).] + + +#Accentuation.# + +11. The accent in Old English falls usually on the radical syllable, +never on the inflectional ending: #bríngan#, _to bring_; #stā́nas#, +_stones_; #bérende#, _bearing_; #ī́delnes#, _idleness_; #frḗondscipe#, +_friendship_. + +But in the case of compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbs the first +member of the compound (unless it be ge- or be-) receives the stronger +stress: #héofon-rīce#, _heaven-kingdom_; #ǫ́nd-giet#, _intelligence_; +#sṓð-fæst#, _truthful_; #gód-cund#, _divine_; #éall-unga#, _entirely_; +#blī́ðe-līce#, _blithely_. But #be-hā́t#, _promise_; #ge-béd#, _prayer_; +#ge-fḗalīc#, _joyous_; #be-sǫ́ne#, _immediately_. + +Compound verbs, however, have the stress on the radical syllable: +#for-gíefan#, _to forgive_; #of-línnan#, _to cease_; #ā-cnā́wan#, _to +know_; #wið-stǫ́ndan#, _to withstand_; #on-sácan#, _to resist_. + + NOTE.--The tendency of nouns to take the stress on the prefix, + while verbs retain it on the root, is exemplified in many Modern + English words: _préference_, _prefér_; _cóntract_ (noun), + _contráct_ (verb); _ábstinence_, _abstaín_; _pérfume_ (noun), + _perfúme_ (verb). + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +INFLECTIONS. + + +#Cases.# + +12. There are five cases in Old English: the nominative, the genitive, +the dative, the accusative, and the instrumental.[1] Each of them, +except the nominative, may be governed by prepositions. When used +without prepositions, they have, in general, the following functions: + +(_a_) The nominative, as in Modern English, is the case of the subject +of a finite verb. + +(_b_) The genitive (the possessive case of Modern English) is the case +of the possessor or source. It may be called the _of_ case. + +(_c_) The dative is the case of the indirect object. It may be called +the _to_ or _for_ case. + +(_d_) The accusative (the objective case of Modern English) is the case +of the direct object. + +(_e_) The instrumental, which rarely differs from the dative in form, is +the case of the means or the method. It may be called the _with_ or _by_ +case. + +The following paradigm of #mūð#, _the mouth_, illustrates the several +cases (the article being, for the present, gratuitously added in the +Modern English equivalents): + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + _N._ mūð = _the mouth._ mūð-as = _the mouths._ + + _G._ mūð-es[2] = _of the mouth_ mūð-a = _of the mouths_ + (= _the mouth’s_). (= _the mouths’_). + + _D._ mūð-e = _to_ or _for the mūð-um = _to_ or _for the mouths._ + mouth._ + + _A._ mūð = _the mouth._ mūð-as = _the mouths._ + + _I._ mūðe = _with_ or _by means mūð-um = _with_ or _by means + of the mouth._ of the mouths._ + + [Footnote 1: Most grammars add a sixth case, the vocative. But + it seems best to consider the vocative as only a _function_ of + the nominative _form_.] + + [Footnote 2: Of course our “apostrophe and _s_” (= _’s_) comes + from the Old English genitive ending -es. The _e_ is preserved + in _Wednesday_ (= Old English #Wōdnes dæg#). But at a very early + period it was thought that _John’s book_, for example, was a + shortened form of _John his book_. Thus Addison (_Spectator_, + No. 135) declares _’s_ a survival of _his_. How, then, would he + explain the _s_ of _his_? And how would he dispose of _Mary’s + book_?] + + +#Gender.# + +13. The gender of Old English nouns, unlike that of Modern English, +depends partly on meaning and partly on form, or ending. Thus #mūð#, +_mouth_, is masculine; #tunge#, _tongue_, feminine; #ēage#, _eye_, +neuter. + +No very comprehensive rules, therefore, can be given; but the gender of +every noun should be learned with its meaning. Gender will be indicated +in the vocabularies by the different gender forms of the definite +article, #sē# for the masculine, #sēo# for the feminine, and #ðæt# for +the neuter: #sē mūð#, #sēo tunge#, #ðæt ēage# = _the mouth_, _the +tongue_, _the eye_. + +All nouns ending in #-dōm#, #-hād#, #-scipe#, or #-ere# are masculine +(_cf._ Modern English wis_dom_, child_hood_, friend_ship_, work_er_). +Masculine, also, are nouns ending in -a. + +Those ending in #-nes# or #-ung# are feminine (_cf._ Modern English +good_ness_, and gerundial forms in _-ing_: see_ing_ is believ_ing_). + +Thus #sē wīsdōm#, _wisdom_; #sē cildhād#, _childhood_; #sē frēondscipe#, +_friendship_; #sē fiscere#, _fisher(man)_; #sē hunta#, _hunter_; #sēo +gelīcnes#, _likeness_; #sēo leornung#, _learning_. + + +#Declensions.# + +14. There are two great systems of declension in Old English, the Vowel +Declension and the Consonant Declension. A noun is said to belong to the +Vowel Declension when the final letter of its stem is a vowel, this +vowel being then known as the _stem-characteristic_; but if the +stem-characteristic is a consonant, the noun belongs to the Consonant +Declension. There might have been, therefore, as many subdivisions of +the Vowel Declension in Old English as there were vowels, and as many +subdivisions of the Consonant Declension as there were consonants. All +Old English nouns, however, belonging to the Vowel Declension, ended +their stems originally in a, ō, i, or u. Hence there are but four +subdivisions of the Vowel Declension: a-stems, ō-stems, i-stems, and +u-stems. + +The Vowel Declension is commonly called the Strong Declension, and its +nouns Strong Nouns. + + NOTE.--The terms Strong and Weak were first used by Jacob Grimm + (1785-1863) in the terminology of verbs, and thence transferred to + nouns and adjectives. By a Strong Verb, Grimm meant one that could + form its preterit out of its own resources; that is, without + calling in the aid of an additional syllable: Modern English + _run_, _ran_; _find_, _found_; but verbs of the Weak Conjugation + had to borrow, as it were, an inflectional syllable: _gain_, + _gained_; _help_, _helped_. + + +15. The stems of nouns belonging to the Consonant Declension ended, +with but few exceptions, in the letter n (_cf._ Latin _homin-em_, +_ration-em_, Greek ποιμέν-α). They are called, therefore, n-stems, +the Declension itself being known as the n-Declension, or the Weak +Declension. The nouns, also, are called Weak Nouns. + + +16. If every Old English noun had preserved the original Germanic +stem-characteristic (or final letter of the stem), there would be no +difficulty in deciding at once whether any given noun is an a-stem, +ō-stem, i-stem, u-stem, or n-stem; but these final letters had, for the +most part, either been dropped, or fused with the case-endings, long +before the period of historic Old English. It is only, therefore, by a +rigid comparison of the Germanic languages with one another, and with +the other Aryan languages, that scholars are able to reconstruct a +single Germanic language, in which the original stem-characteristics may +be seen far better than in any one historic branch of the Germanic group +(§ 5, Note). + +This hypothetical language, which bears the same ancestral relation to +the historic Germanic dialects that Latin bears to the Romance tongues, +is known simply as _Germanic_ (Gmc.), or as _Primitive Germanic_. +Ability to reconstruct Germanic forms is not expected of the students of +this book, but the following table should be examined as illustrating +the basis of distinction among the several Old English declensions (O.E. += Old English, Mn.E. = Modern English): + + { {Gmc. _staina-z_, + {(1) a-stems {O.E. #stān#, + { {Mn.E. _stone_. + { + { {Gmc. _hallō_, + {(2) ō-stems {O.E. #heall#, + I. Strong or Vowel { {Mn.E. _hall_. + Declensions { + { {Gmc. _bōni-z_, + {(3) i-stems {O.E. #bēn#, + { {Mn.E. _boon_. + { + { {Gmc. _sunu-z_, + {(4) u-stems {O.E. #sunu#, + { {Mn.E. _son_. + + {(1) n-stems {Gmc. _tungōn-iz_, + { (Weak {O.E. #tung-an#, + { Declension) {Mn.E. _tongue-s_. + { + { { {Gmc. _fōt-iz_, + { {(_a_) {O.E. #fēt#, + II. Consonant {(2) Remnants { {Mn.E. _feet_. + Declensions { of other { + { Consonant { {Gmc. _frijōnd-iz_, + { Declensions {(_b_) {O.E. #frīend#, + { { {Mn.E. _friend-s_. + { { + { { {Gmc. _brōðr-iz_, + { {(_c_) {O.E. #brōðor#, + { { {Mn.E. _brother-s_. + + + NOTE.--“It will be seen that if Old English #ēage#, _eye_, is said + to be an n-stem, what is meant is this, that at some former period + the kernel of the word ended in -n, while, as far as the Old + English language proper is concerned, all that is implied is that + the word is inflected in a certain manner.” (Jespersen, _Progress + in Language_, § 109). + + This is true of all Old English stems, whether Vowel or Consonant. + The division, therefore, into a-stems, ō-stems, etc., is made in + the interests of grammar as well as of philology. + + +#Conjugations.# + +17. There are, likewise, two systems of conjugation in Old English: the +Strong or Old Conjugation, and the Weak or New Conjugation. + +The verbs of the Strong Conjugation (the so-called Irregular Verbs of +Modern English) number about three hundred, of which not one hundred +remain in Modern English (§ 101, Note). They form their preterit and +frequently their past participle by changing the radical vowel of the +present stem. This vowel change or modification is called _ablaut_ +(pronounced _áhp-lowt_): Modern English _sing, sang, sung_; _rise, rose, +risen_. As the radical vowel of the preterit plural is often different +from that of the preterit singular, there are four _principal parts_ or +_tense stems_ in an Old English strong verb, instead of the three of +Modern English. The four principal parts in the conjugation of a strong +verb are (1) the present indicative, (2) the preterit indicative +singular, (3) the preterit indicative plural, and (4) the past +participle. + +Strong verbs fall into seven groups, illustrated in the following table: + + PRESENT. + PRET. SING. + PRET. PLUR. + PAST PARTICIPLE. + + I. Bītan, _to bite_: + + Ic bīt-e, _I bite_ or _shall bite_.[3] + Ic bāt, _I bit_. + Wē bit-on, _we bit_. + Ic hæbbe ge[4]-biten, _I have bitten_. + + II. Bēodan, _to bid_: + + Ic bēod-e, _I bid_ or _shall bid_. + Ic bēad, _I bade_. + Wē bud-on, _we bade_. + Ic hæbbe ge-boden, _I have bidden_. + + III. Bindan, _to bind_: + + Ic bind-e, _I bind_ or _shall bind_. + Ic bǫnd, _I bound_. + Wē bund-on, _we bound_. + Ic hæbbe ge-bund-en, _I have bound_. + + IV. Beran, _to bear_: + + Ic ber-e, _I bear_ or _shall bear_. + Ic bær, _I bore_. + Wē bǣr-on, _we bore_. + Ic hæbbe ge-bor-en, _I have borne_. + + V. Metan, _to measure_: + + Ic met-e, _I measure_ or _shall measure_. + Ic mæt, _I measured_. + Wē mǣt-on, _we measured_. + Ic hæbbe ge-met-en, _I have measured_. + + VI. Faran, _to go_: + + Ic far-e, _I go_ or _shall go_. + Ic fōr, _I went_. + Wē fōr-on, _we went_. + Ic eom[5] ge-far-en, _I have (am) gone_. + + VII. Feallan, _to fall_: + + Ic feall-e, _I fall_ or _shall fall_. + Ic fēoll, _I fell_. + Wē fēoll-on, _we fell_. + Ic eom[5] ge-feall-en, _I have (am) fallen_. + + [Footnote 3: Early West Saxon had no distinctive form for the + future. The present was used both as present proper and as + future. _Cf._ Modern English “I go home tomorrow,” or “I am + going home tomorrow” for “I shall go home tomorrow.”] + + [Footnote 4: The prefix ge- (Middle English _y-_), cognate with + Latin _co_ (_con_) and implying completeness of action, was not + always used. It never occurs in the past participles of compound + verbs: #oþ-feallan#, _to fall off_, past participle #oþ-feallen# + (not #oþ-gefeallen#). Milton errs in prefixing it to a present + participle: + + “What needs my Shakespeare, for his honour’d bones, + The labour of an age in piled stones? + Or that his hallow’d reliques should be hid + Under a star-_ypointing_ pyramid.” + --_Epitaph on William Shakespeare_. + + And Shakespeare misuses it in “Y-ravished,” a preterit + (_Pericles_ III, _Prologue_ l. 35). + + It survives in the archaic _y-clept_ (Old English #ge-clypod#, + called). It appears as _a_ in _aware_ (Old English #ge-wær#), + as _e_ in _enough_ (Old English #ge-nōh#), and as _i_ in + _handiwork_ (Old English #hand-ge-weorc#).] + + [Footnote 5: With intransitive verbs denoting _change of + condition_, the Old English auxiliary is usually some form of + _to be_ rather than _to have_. See § 139.] + + +18. The verbs of the Weak Conjugation (the so-called Regular Verbs of +Modern English) form their preterit and past participle by adding to the +present stem a suffix[6] with _d_ or _t_: Modern English _love_, +_loved_; _sleep_, _slept_. + +The stem of the preterit plural is never different from the stem of the +preterit singular; hence these verbs have only three distinctive +tense-stems, or principal parts: _viz._, (1) the present indicative, +(2) the preterit indicative, and (3) the past participle. + +Weak verbs fall into three groups, illustrated in the following table: + + PRESENT. + PRETERIT. + PAST PARTICIPLE. + + I. Fręmman, _to perform_: + + Ic fręmm-e, _I perform_ or _shall perform_. + Ic fręm-ede, _I performed_. + Ic hæbbe ge-fręm-ed, _I have performed_. + + II. Bodian, _to proclaim_: + + Ic bodi-e, _I proclaim_ or _shall proclaim_. + Ic bod-ode, _I proclaimed_. + Ic hæbbe ge-bod-od, _I have proclaimed_. + + III. Habban, _to have_: + + Ic hæbbe, _I have_ or _shall have_. + Ic hæf-de, _I had_. + Ic hæbbe ge-hæf-d, _I have had_. + + [Footnote 6: The theory that _loved_, for example, is a fused + form of _love-did_ has been generally given up. The dental + ending was doubtless an Indo-Germanic suffix, which became + completely specialized only in the Teutonic languages.] + + +19. There remain a few verbs (chiefly the Auxiliary Verbs of Modern +English) that do not belong entirely to either of the two conjugations +mentioned. The most important of them are, #Ic mæg# _I may_, #Ic mihte# +_I might_; #Ic cǫn# _I can_, #Ic cūðe# _I could_; #Ic mōt# _I must_, #Ic +mōste# _I must_; #Ic sceal# _I shall_, #Ic sceolde# _I should_; #Ic eom# +_I am_, #Ic wæs# _I was_; #Ic wille# _I will_, #Ic wolde# _I would_; #Ic +dō# _I do_, #Ic dyde# _I did_; #Ic gā# _I go_, #Ic ēode# _I went_. + +All but the last four of these are known as Preterit-Present Verbs. The +present tense of each of them is _in origin_ a preterit, _in function_ a +present. _Cf._ Modern English _ought_ (= _owed_). + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +ORDER OF WORDS. + + +20. The order of words in Old English is more like that of Modern German +than of Modern English. Yet it is only the Transposed order that the +student will feel to be at all un-English; and the Transposed order, +even before the period of the Norman Conquest, was fast yielding place +to the Normal order. + +The three divisions of order are (1) Normal, (2) Inverted, and +(3) Transposed. + +(1) Normal order = subject + predicate. In Old English, the Normal order +is found chiefly in independent clauses. The predicate is followed by +its modifiers: #Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa þonne ōðre hwalas#, _That whale +is much smaller than other whales_; #Ǫnd hē geseah twā scipu#, _And he +saw two ships_. + +(2) Inverted order = predicate + subject. This order occurs also in +independent clauses, and is employed (_a_) when some modifier of the +predicate precedes the predicate, the subject being thrown behind. The +words most frequently causing Inversion in Old English prose are #þā# +_then_, #þonne# _then_, and #þǣr# _there_: #Ðā fōr hē#, _Then went he_; +#Ðonne ærnað hȳ ealle tōweard þǣm fēo#, _Then gallop they all toward the +property_; #ac þǣr bið medo genōh#, _but there is mead enough_. + +Inversion is employed (_b_) in interrogative sentences: #Lufast ðū mē?# +_Lovest thou me?_ and (_c_) in imperative sentences: #Cume ðīn rīce#, +_Thy kingdom come_. + +(3) Transposed order = subject ... predicate. That is, the predicate +comes last in the sentence, being preceded by its modifiers. This is the +order observed in dependent clauses:[1] #Ðonne cymeð sē man sē þæt +swiftoste hors hafað#, _Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse_ +(literally, _that the swiftest horse has_); #Ne mētte hē ǣr nān gebūn +land, siþþan hē frǫm his āgnum hām fōr#, _Nor did he before find any +cultivated land, after he went from his own home_ (literally, _after he +from his own home went_). + + [Footnote 1: But in the _Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan_, in + which the style is apparently more that of oral than of written + discourse, the Normal is more frequent than the Transposed order + in dependent clauses. In his other writings Alfred manifests a + partiality for the Transposed order in dependent clauses, except + in the case of substantival clauses introduced by #þæt#. Such + clauses show a marked tendency to revert to their Normal _oratio + recta_ order. The norm thus set by the indirect affirmative + clause seems to have proved an important factor in the ultimate + disappearance of Transposition from dependent clauses. The + influence of Norman French helped only to consummate forces that + were already busily at work.] + + +21. Two other peculiarities in the order of words require a brief +notice. + +(1) Pronominal datives and accusatives usually precede the predicate: +#Hē hine oferwann#, _He overcame him_ (literally, _He him overcame_); +#Dryhten him andwyrde#, _The Lord answered him_. But substantival +datives and accusatives, as in Modern English, follow the predicate. The +following sentence illustrates both orders: #Hȳ genāmon Ioseph, ǫnd hine +gesealdon cīpemǫnnum, ǫnd hȳ hine gesealdon in Ēgypta lǫnd#, _They took +Joseph, and sold him to merchants, and they sold him into Egypt_ +(literally, _They took Joseph, and him sold to merchants, and they him +sold into Egyptians’ land_). + + NOTE.--The same order prevails in the case of pronominal + nominatives used as predicate nouns: #Ic hit eom#, _It is I_ + (literally, _I it am_); #Ðū hit eart#, _It is thou_ (literally, + _Thou it art_). + +(2) The attributive genitive, whatever relationship it expresses, +usually precedes the noun which it qualifies: #Breoton is gārsecges +īgland#, _Britain is an island of the ocean_ (literally, _ocean’s +island_); #Swilce hit is ēac berende on węcga ōrum#, _Likewise it is +also rich in ores of metals_ (literally, _metals’ ores_); #Cyninga +cyning#, _King of kings_ (literally, _Kings’ king_); #Gē witon Godes +rīces gerȳne#, _Ye know the mystery of the kingdom of God_ (literally, +_Ye know God’s kingdom’s mystery_). + +A preposition governing the word modified by the genitive, precedes the +genitive:[2] #On ealdra manna sægenum#, _In old men’s sayings_; #Æt ðǣra +strǣta ęndum#, _At the ends of the streets_ (literally, _At the streets’ +ends_); #For ealra ðīnra hālgena lufan#, _For all thy saints’ love_. +See, also, § 94, (5). + + [Footnote 2: The positions of the genitive are various. It + frequently follows its noun: #þā bearn þāra Aðeniensa#, _The + children of the Athenians_. It may separate an adjective and a + noun: #Ān lȳtel sǣs earm#, _A little arm of (the) sea_. The + genitive may here be construed as an adjective, or part of a + compound = _A little sea-arm_; #Mid mǫnegum Godes gifum#, _With + many God-gifts_ = _many divine gifts_.] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. + + +22. In the study of Old English, the student must remember that he is +dealing not with a foreign or isolated language but with the earlier +forms of his own mother tongue. The study will prove profitable and +stimulating in proportion as close and constant comparison is made of +the old with the new. The guiding principles in such a comparison are +reducible chiefly to two. These are (1) the regular operation of +phonetic laws, resulting especially in certain Vowel Shiftings, and +(2) the alterations in form and syntax that are produced by Analogy. + +(1) “The former of these is of physiological or _natural_ origin, and is +perfectly and inflexibly regular throughout the same period of the same +language; and even though different languages show different phonetic +habits and predilections, there is a strong general resemblance between +the changes induced in one language and in another; many of the +particular laws are true for many languages. + +(2) “The other principle is psychical, or mental, or _artificial_, +introducing various more or less capricious changes that are supposed to +be emendations; and its operation is, to some extent, uncertain and +fitful.”[1] + + [Footnote 1: Skeat, _Principles of English Etymology_, Second + Series, § 342. But Jespersen, with Collitz and others, stoutly + contests “the theory of sound laws and analogy sufficing between + them to explain everything in linguistic development.”] + + +(1) #Vowel-Shiftings.# + +23. It will prove an aid to the student in acquiring the inflections and +vocabulary of Old English to note carefully the following shiftings that +have taken place in the gradual growth of the Old English vowel system +into that of Modern English. + +(1) As stated in § 3, the Old English inflectional vowels, which were +all short and unaccented, weakened in early Middle English to _e_. This +_e_ in Modern English is frequently dropped: + + OLD ENGLISH. MIDDLE ENGLISH. MODERN ENGLISH. + stān-as ston-es stones + sun-u sun-e son + sun-a sun-e sons + ox-an ox-en oxen + swift-ra swift-er swifter + swift-ost swift-est swiftest + lōc-ode lok-ede looked + +(2) The Old English long vowels have shifted their phonetic values with +such uniform regularity that it is possible in almost every case to +infer the Modern English sound; but our spelling is so chaotic that +while the student may infer the modern sound, he cannot always infer the +modern symbol representing the sound. + + OLD MODERN ENGLISH. + ENGLISH. + + ā _o_[2] { nā = _no_; stān = _stone_; bān = _bone_; + (as in _no_) { rād = _road_; āc = _oak_; hāl = _whole_; + { hām = _home_; sāwan = _to sow_; gāst = + { _ghost_. + + ē _e_ { hē = _he_; wē = _we_; ðē = _thee_; mē = + (as in _he_) { _me_; gē = _ye_; hēl = _heel_; wērig = + { _weary_; gelēfan = _to believe_; gēs = + { _geese_. + + ī (ȳ) _i_ (_y_) { mīn = _mine_; ðīn = _thine_; wīr = _wire_; + (as in _mine_) { mȳs = _mice_; rīm = _rime_ (wrongly spelt + { _rhyme_); lȳs = _lice_; bī = _by_; + { scīnan = _to shine_; stig-rāp = _sty-rope_ + { (shortened to _stirrup_, stīgan meaning + { _to mount_). + + ō _o_ { dō = _I do_; tō = _too, to_; gōs = _goose_; + (as in _do_) { tōð = _tooth_; mōna = _moon_; ðōm = + { _doom_; mōd = _mood_; wōgian = _to woo_; + { slōh = _I slew_. + + ū _ou_ (_ow_) { ðū = _thou_; fūl = _foul_; hūs = _house_; + (as in _thou_) { nū = _now_; hū = _how_; tūn = _town_; + { ūre = our; ūt = _out_; hlūd = _loud_; + { ðūsend = _thousand_. + + + ǣ, _ea_ { ǣ: sǣ = _sea_; mǣl = _meal_; dǣlan = + ēa, (as in _sea_) { _to deal_; clǣne = _clean_; grǣdig = + ēo { _greedy_. + { + { ēa: ēare = _ear_; ēast = _east_; drēam = + { _dream_; gēar = _year_; bēatan = + { _to beat_. + { + { ēo: ðrēo = _three_; drēorig = _dreary_; + { sēo = _she_, hrēod = _reed_; dēop = + { _deep_. + + [Footnote 2: But Old English ā preceded by w sometimes gives + Modern English _o_ as in _two_: #twā# = _two_; #hwā# = _who_; + #hwām# = _whom_.] + + +(2) #Analogy.# + +24. But more important than vowel shifting is the great law of Analogy, +for Analogy shapes not only words but constructions. It belongs, +therefore, to Etymology and to Syntax, since it influences both form and +function. By this law, minorities tend to pass over to the side of the +majorities. “The greater mass of cases exerts an assimilative influence +upon the smaller.”[3] The effect of Analogy is to simplify and to +regularize. “The main factor in getting rid of irregularities is +group-influence, or Analogy--the influence exercised by the members of +an association-group on one another.... Irregularity consists in partial +isolation from an association-group through some formal difference.”[4] + +Under the influence of Analogy, entire declensions and conjugations have +been swept away, leaving in Modern English not a trace of their former +existence. There are in Old English, for example, five plural endings +for nouns, -as, -a, -e, -u, and -an. No one could well have predicted[5] +that -as (Middle English _-es_) would soon take the lead, and become the +norm to which the other endings would eventually conform, for there were +more an-plurals than as-plurals; but the as-plurals were doubtless more +often employed in everyday speech. _Oxen_ (Old English #oxan#) is the +sole pure survival of the hundreds of Old English an-plurals. No group +of feminine nouns in Old English had -es as the genitive singular +ending; but by the close of the Middle English period all feminines +formed their genitive singular in _-es_ (or _-s_, Modern English _’s_) +after the analogy of the Old English masculine and neuter nouns with +es-genitives. The weak preterits in -ode have all been leveled under the +ed-forms, and of the three hundred strong verbs in Old English more than +two hundred have become weak. + +These are not cases of derivation (as are the shifted vowels): Modern +English _-s_ in _sons_, for example, could not possibly be derived from +Old English -a in #suna#, or Middle English _-e_ in _sune_ (§ 23, (1)). +They are cases of replacement by Analogy. + +A few minor examples will quicken the student’s appreciation of the +nature of the influence exercised by Analogy: + +(_a_) The intrusive _l_ in _could_ (Chaucer always wrote _coud_ or +_coude_) is due to association with _would_ and _should_, in each of +which _l_ belongs by etymological right. + +(_b_) _He need not_ (for _He needs not_) is due to the assimilative +influence of the auxiliaries _may_, _can_, etc., which have never added +_-s_ for their third person singular (§ 137). + +(_c_) _I am friends with him_, in which _friends_ is a crystalized form +for _on good terms_, may be traced to the influence of such expressions +as _He and I are friends_, _They are friends_, etc. + +(_d_) Such errors as are seen in _runned_, _seed_, _gooses_, _badder_, +_hisself_, _says I_ (usually coupled with _says he_) are all analogical +formations. Though not sanctioned by good usage, it is hardly right to +call these forms the products of “false analogy.” The grammar involved +is false, because unsupported by literary usages and traditions; but the +analogy on which these forms are built is no more false than the law of +gravitation is false when it makes a dress sit unconventionally. + + [Footnote 3: Whitney, _Life and Growth of Language_, Chap. IV.] + + [Footnote 4: Sweet, _A New English Grammar_, Part I., § 535.] + + [Footnote 5: As Skeat says (§ 22, (2)), Analogy is “fitful.” It + enables us to explain many linguistic phenomena, but not to + anticipate them. The multiplication of books tends to check its + influence by perpetuating the forms already in use. Thus Chaucer + employed nine _en-_plurals, and his influence served for a time + to check the further encroachment of the _es-_plurals. As soon + as there is an acknowledged standard in any language, the + operation of Analogy is fettered.] + + + + +PART II. + +ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. + + + + +THE STRONG OR VOWEL DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS. + +THE a-DECLENSION. + +CHAPTER VI. + + +(_a_) #Masculine _a_-Stems.# + +[O.E., M.E., and Mn.E. will henceforth be used for Old English, Middle +English, and Modern English. Other abbreviations employed are +self-explaining.] + +25. The a-Declension, corresponding to the Second or _o_-Declension of +Latin and Greek, contains only (_a_) masculine and (_b_) neuter nouns. +To this declension belong most of the O.E. masculine and neuter nouns of +the Strong Declension. At a very early period, many of the nouns +belonging properly to the i- and u-Declensions began to pass over to the +a-Declension. This declension may therefore be considered the _normal +declension_ for all masculine and neuter nouns belonging to the Strong +Declension. + + +26. Paradigms of #sē mūð#, _mouth_; #sē fiscere#, _fisherman_; #sē +hwæl#, _whale_; #sē mearh#, _horse_; #sē finger#, _finger_: + + _Sing. N.A._ mūð fiscer-e hwæl mearh finger + _G._ mūð-es fiscer-es hwæl-es mēar-es fingr-es + _D.I._ mūð-e fiscer-e hwæl-e mēar-e fingr-e + + _Plur. N.A._ mūð-as fiscer-as hwal-as mēar-as fingr-as + _G._ mūð-a fiscer-a hwal-a mēar-a fingr-a + _D.I._ mūð-um fiscer-um hwal-um mēar-um fingr-um + + NOTE.--For meanings of the cases, see § 12. The dative and + instrumental are alike in all nouns. + + +27. The student will observe (1) that nouns whose nominative ends in -e +(#fiscere#) drop this letter before adding the case endings; (2) that æ +before a consonant (#hwæl#) changes to a in the plural;[1] (3) that h, +preceded by r (#mearh#) or l (#seolh#, _seal_), is dropped before an +inflectional vowel, the stem diphthong being then lengthened by way of +compensation; (4) that dissyllables (#finger#) having the first syllable +long, usually syncopate the vowel of the second syllable before adding +the case endings.[2] + + [Footnote 1: Adjectives usually retain æ in closed syllables, + changing it to a in open syllables: #hwæt# (_active_), #glæd# + (_glad_), #wær# (_wary_) have G. #hwates#, #glades#, #wares#; D. + #hwatum#, #gladum#, #warum#; but A. #hwætne#, #glædne#, #wærne#. + Nouns, however, change to a only in open syllables followed by a + guttural vowel, a or u. The æ in the open syllables of the + singular is doubtless due to the analogy of the N.A. singular, + both being closed syllables.] + + [Footnote 2: _Cf._ Mn.E. _drizz’ling_, _rememb’ring_, _abysmal_ + (_abysm_ = _abiz^{u}m_), _sick’ning_, in which the principle of + syncopation is precisely the same.] + + +28. Paradigm of the Definite Article[3] #sē#, #sēo#, #ðæt# = _the_: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + + _Sing. N._ sē (se) sēo ðæt + _G._ ðæs ðǣre ðæs + _D._ ðǣm (ðām) ðǣre ðǣm (ðām) + _A._ ðone ðā ðæt + _I._ ðȳ, ðon ---- ðȳ, ðon + + _All Genders._ + + _Plur. N.A._ ðā + _G._ ðāra + _D._ ðǣm (ðām) + + [Footnote 3: This may mean four things: (1) _The_, (2) _That_ + (demonstrative), (3) _He_, _she_, _it_, (4) _Who_, _which_, + _that_ (relative pronoun). Mn.E. demonstrative _that_ is, of + course, the survival of O.E. neuter #ðæt# in its demonstrative + sense. Professor Victor Henry (_Comparative Grammar of English + and German_, § 160, 3) sees a survival of dative plural + demonstrative #ðǣm# in such an expression as _in them days_. It + seems more probable, however, that _them_ so used has followed + the lead of _this_ and _these_, _that_ and _those_, in their + double function of pronoun and adjective. There was doubtless + some such evolution as, _I saw them. Them what? Them boys._ + + An unquestioned survival of the dative singular feminine of the + article is seen in the _-ter_ of _Atterbury_ (= #æt ðǣre byrig#, + _at the town_); and #ðǣm# survives in the _-ten_ of + _Attenborough_, the word _borough_ having become an uninflected + neuter. Skeat, _Principles_, First Series, § 185.] + + +29. VOCABULARY.[4] + + sē bōcere, _scribe_ [bōc]. + sē cyning, _king_. + sē dæg, _day_. + sē ęnde, _end_. + sē ęngel, _angel_ [angelus]. + sē frēodōm, _freedom_. + sē fugol (G. sometimes #fugles#), _bird_ [fowl]. + sē gār, _spear_ [gore, gar-fish]. + sē heofon, _heaven_. + sē hierde, _herdsman_ [shep-herd]. + ǫnd (and), _and_. + sē sęcg, _man, warrior_. + sē seolh, _seal_. + sē stān, _stone_. + sē wealh, _foreigner, Welshman_ [wal-nut]. + sē weall, _wall_. + sē wīsdōm, _wisdom_. + sē wulf, _wolf_. + + [Footnote 4: The brackets contain etymological hints that may + help the student to discern relationships otherwise overlooked. + The genitive is given only when not perfectly regular.] + + +30. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Ðāra wulfa mūðas. 2. Ðæs fisceres fingras. 3. Ðāra Wēala cyninge. +4. Ðǣm ęnglum ǫnd ðǣm hierdum. 5. Ðāra daga ęnde. 6. Ðǣm bōcerum ǫnd ðǣm +sęcgum ðæs cyninges. 7. Ðǣm sēole ǫnd ðǣm fuglum. 8. Ðā stānas ǫnd ðā +gāras. 9. Hwala ǫnd mēara. 10. Ðāra ęngla wīsdōm. 11. Ðæs cyninges +bōceres frēodōm. 12. Ðāra hierda fuglum. 13. Ðȳ stāne. 14. Ðǣm wealle. + +II. 1. For the horses and the seals. 2. For the Welshmen’s freedom. +3. Of the king’s birds. 4. By the wisdom of men and angels. 5. With the +spear and the stone. 6. The herdsman’s seal and the warriors’ spears. +7. To the king of heaven. 8. By means of the scribe’s wisdom. 9. The +whale’s mouth and the foreigner’s spear. 10. For the bird belonging to +(= of) the king’s scribe. 11. Of that finger. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +(_b_) #Neuter _a-_Stems.# + + +31. The neuter nouns of the a-Declension differ from the masculines only +in the N.A. plural. + + +32. Paradigms of #ðæt hof#, _court, dwelling_; #ðaet bearn#, _child_; +#ðæt bān#, _bone_; #ðæt rīce#, _kingdom_; #ðæt spere#, _spear_; #ðæt +werod#, _band of men_; #ðæt tungol#, _star_: + + _Sing. N.A._ hof bearn bān rīc-e + _G._ hof-es bearn-es bān-es rīc-es + _D.I._ hof-e bearn-e bān-e rīc-e + + _Plur. N.A._ hof-u bearn bān rīc-u + _G._ hof-a bearn-a bān-a rīc-a + _D.I._ hof-um bearn-um bān-um rīc-um + + _Sing. N.A._ sper-e werod tungol + _G._ sper-es werod-es tungl-es + _D.I._ sper-e werod-e tungl-e + + _Plur. N.A._ sper-u werod tungl-u + _G._ sper-a werod-a tungl-a + _D.I._ sper-um werod-um tungl-um + + +33. The paradigms show (1) that monosyllables with short stems (#hof#) +take -u in the N.A. plural; (2) that monosyllables with long stems +(#bearn#, #bān#) do not distinguish the N.A. plural from the N.A. +singular;[1] (3) that dissyllables in -e, whether the stem be long or +short (#rīce#, #spere#), have -u in the N.A. plural; (4) that +dissyllables ending in a consonant and having the first syllable +short[2] (#werod#) do not usually distinguish the N.A. plural from the +N.A. singular; (5) that dissyllables ending in a consonant and having +the first syllable long (#tungol#) more frequently take -u in the N.A. +plural. + + NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in the masculine a-stems. See + § 27, (4). + + [Footnote 1: Note the many nouns in Mn.E. that are unchanged in + the plural. These are either survivals of O.E. long stems, + _swine_, _sheep_, _deer_, _folk_, or analogical forms, _fish_, + _trout_, _mackerel_, _salmon_, etc.] + + [Footnote 2: Dissyllables whose first syllable is a prefix are, + of course, excluded. They follow the declension of their last + member: #gebed#, _prayer_, #gebedu#, _prayers_; #gefeoht#, + _battle_, #gefeoht#, _battles_.] + + +34. Present and Preterit Indicative of #habban#, _to have_: + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hæbbe, _I have_, or _shall have_.[3] + 2. ðū hæfst (hafast), _thou hast_, or _wilt have_. + 3. hē, hēo, hit hæfð (hafað), + _he, she, it has_, or _will have_. + + _Plur._ 1. wē habbað, _we have_, or _shall have_. + 2. gē habbað, _ye have_, or _will have_. + 3. hīe habbað, _they have_, or _will have_. + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hæfde _I had_. + 2. ðū hæfdest, _thou hadst_. + 3. hē, hēo, hit hæfde, _he, she, it had_. + + _Plur._ 1. wē hæfdon, _we had_. + 2. gē hæfdon, _ye had_. + 3. hīe hæfdon, _they had_. + + NOTE.--The negative #ne#, _not_, which always precedes its verb, + contracts with all the forms of #habban#. The negative loses its + e, #habban# its h. #Ne# + #habban# = #nabban#; #Ic ne hæbbe = Ic + næbbe#; #Ic ne hæfde = Ic næfde#, etc. The negative forms may be + got, therefore, by simply substituting in each case n for h. + + [Footnote 3: See § 17, Note 1. Note that (as in #hwæl#, § 27, + (2)) æ changes to a when the following syllable contains a: + #hæbbe#, but #hafast#.] + + +35. VOCABULARY. + + ðæt dæl, _dale_. + ðæt dēor, _animal_ [deer[4]]. + ðæt dor, _door_. + ðæt fæt, _vessel_ [vat]. + ðæt fȳr, _fire_. + ðæt gēar, _year_. + ðæt geoc, _yoke_. + ðæt geset, _habitation_ [settlement]. + ðæt hēafod, _head_. + ðæt hūs, _house_. + ðæt līc, _body_ [lich-gate]. + ðæt lim, _limb_. + on (with dat.) _in_. + ðæt spor, _track_. + ðæt wǣpen, _weapon_. + ðæt wīf, _wife, woman_. + ðæt wīte, _punishment_. + ðæt word, _word_. + + [Footnote 4: The old meaning survives in Shakespeare’s “Rats and + mice and such small deer,” _King Lear_, III, iv, 144.] + + +36. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Hē hafað ðæs cyninges bearn. 2. Ðā Wēalas habbað ðā speru. 3. Ðā +wīf habbað ðāra sęcga wǣpnu. 4. Ðū hæfst ðone fugol ǫnd ðæt hūs ðæs +hierdes. 5. Hæfð[5] hēo ðā fatu[6]? 6. Hæfde hē ðæs wīfes līc on ðǣm +hofe? 7. Hē næfde ðæs wīfes līc; hē hæfde ðæs dēores hēafod. 8. Hæfð sē +cyning gesetu on ðǣm dæle? 9. Sē bōcere hæfð ðā sēolas on ðǣm hūse. +10. Gē habbað frēodōm. + +II. 1. They have yokes and spears. 2. We have not the vessels in the +house. 3. He had fire in the vessel. 4. Did the woman have (= Had the +woman) the children? 5. The animal has the body of the woman’s child. +6. I shall have the heads of the wolves. 7. He and she have the king’s +houses. 8. Have not (= #Nabbað#) the children the warrior’s weapons? + + [Footnote 5: See § 20, (2), (b).] + + [Footnote 6: See § 27, (2).] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE ō-DECLENSION. + + +37. The ō-Declension, corresponding to the First or _ā-_Declension of +Latin and Greek, contains only feminine nouns. Many feminine i-stems and +u-stems soon passed over to this Declension. The ō-Declension may, +therefore, be considered the _normal declension_ for all strong feminine +nouns. + + +38. Paradigms of #sēo giefu#, _gift_; #sēo wund#, _wound_; #sēo rōd#, +_cross_; #sēo leornung#, _learning_; #sēo sāwol#, _soul_: + + _Sing. N._ gief-u wund rōd leornung sāwol + _G._ gief-e wund-e rōd-e leornung-a (e) sāwl-e + _D.I._ gief-e wund-e rōd-e leornung-a (e) sāwl-e + _A._ gief-e wund-e rōd-e leornung-a (e) sāwl-e + + _Plur. N.A._ gief-a wund-a rōd-a leornung-a sāwl-a + _G._ gief-a wund-a rōd-a leornung-a sāwl-a + _D.I._ gief-um wund-um rōd-um leornung-um sāwl-um + + +39. Note (1) that monosyllables with short stems (#giefu#) take u in the +nominative singular; (2) that monosyllables with long stems (#wund#, +#rōd#) present the unchanged stem in the nominative singular; (3) that +dissyllables are declined as monosyllables, except that abstract nouns +in -ung prefer a to e in the singular. + + NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems. See + § 27, (4). + + +40. Present and Preterit Indicative of #bēon# (#wesan#) _to be_: + + PRESENT (first form). PRESENT PRETERIT. + (second form). + + _Sing._ 1. Ic eom 1. Ic bēom 1. Ic wæs + 2. ðū eart 2. ðū bist 2. ðū wǣre + 3. hē is 3. hē bið 3. hē wæs + + _Plur._ 1. wē } 1. wē } 1. wē } + 2. gē } sind(on), sint 2. gē } bēoð 2. gē } wǣron + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + NOTE 1.--The forms #bēom#, #bist#, etc. are used chiefly as future + tenses in O.E. They survive to-day only in dialects and in poetry. + Farmer Dobson, for example, in Tennyson’s _Promise of May_, uses + _be_ for all persons of the present indicative, both singular and + plural; and _there be_ is frequent in Shakespeare for _there are_. + The Northern dialect employed #aron# as well as #sindon# and + #sind# for the present plural; hence Mn.E. _are_. + + NOTE 2.--Fusion with #ne# gives #neom#, #neart#, #nis# for the + present; #næs#, #nǣre#, #nǣron# for the preterit. + + NOTE 3.--The verb _to be_ is followed by the nominative case, as + in Mn.E.; but when the predicate noun is plural, and the subject a + neuter pronoun in the singular, the verb agrees in number with the + predicate noun. The neuter singular #ðæt# is frequently employed + in this construction: #Ðaet wǣron eall Finnas#, _They were all + Fins_; #Ðæt sind ęnglas#, _They are angels_; #Ðǣt wǣron ęngla + gāstas#, _They were angels’ spirits_. + + Notice, too, that O.E. writers do not say _It is I_, _It is thou_, + but _I it am_, _Thou it art_: #Ic hit eom#, #ðū hit eart#. See + § 21, (1), Note 1. + + +41. VOCABULARY. + + sēo brycg, _bridge_. + sēo costnung, _temptation_. + sēo cwalu, _death_ [quail, quell]. + sēo fōr, _journey_ [faran]. + sēo frōfor, _consolation, comfort_. + sēo geoguð, _youth_. + sēo glōf, _glove_. + sēo hālignes[1], _holiness_. + sēo heall, _hall_. + hēr, _here_. + hwā, _who_? + hwǣr, _where_? + sēo lufu, _love_. + sēo mearc, _boundary_ [mark, marches[2]]. + sēo mēd, _meed, reward_. + sēo mildheortnes, _mild-heartedness, mercy_. + sēo stōw, _place_ [stow away]. + ðǣr, _there_. + sēo ðearf, _need_. + sēo wylf, _she wolf_. + + [Footnote 1: All words ending in -nes double the -s before + adding the case endings.] + + [Footnote 2: As in _warden of the marches_.] + + +42. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Hwǣr is ðǣre brycge ęnde? 2. Hēr sind ðāra rīca mearca. 3. Hwā +hæfð þā glōfa? 4. Ðǣr bið ðǣm cyninge frōfre ðearf. 5. Sēo wund is on +ðǣre wylfe hēafde. 6. Wē habbað costnunga. 7. Hīe nǣron on ðǣre healle. +8. Ic hit neom. 9. Ðæt wǣron Wēalas. 10. Ðæt sind ðæs wīfes bearn. + +II. 1. We shall have the women’s gloves. 2. Where is the place? 3. He +will be in the hall. 4. Those (#Ðæt#) were not the boundaries of the +kingdom. 5. It was not I. 6. Ye are not the king’s scribes. 7. The +shepherd’s words are full (#full# + gen.) of wisdom and comfort. +8. Where are the bodies of the children? 9. The gifts are not here. +10. Who has the seals and the birds? + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +THE i-DECLENSION AND THE u-DECLENSION. + + +#The _i-_Declension.# (See § 58.) + +43. The i-Declension, corresponding to the group of _i-_stems in the +classical Third Declension, contains chiefly (_a_) masculine and (_b_) +feminine nouns. The N.A. plural of these nouns ended originally in -e +(from older i). + + +(_a_) #Masculine _i-_Stems.# + +44. These stems have almost completely gone over to the a-Declension, so +that -as is more common than -e as the N.A. plural ending, whether the +stem is long or short. The short stems all have -e in the N.A. singular. + + +45. Paradigms of #sē wyrm#, _worm_; #sē wine#, _friend_. + + _Sing. N.A._ wyrm win-e + _G._ wyrm-es win-es + _D.I._ wyrm-e win-e + + _Plur. N.A._ wyrm-as win-as (e) + _G._ wyrm-a win-a + _D.I._ wyrm-um win-um + + +#Names of Peoples.# + +46. The only i-stems that regularly retain -e of the N.A. plural are +certain names of tribes or peoples used only in the plural. + + +47. Paradigms of #ðā Ęngle#, _Angles_; #ðā Norðymbre#, _Northumbrians_; +#ðā lēode#, _people_: + + _Plur. N.A._ Ęngle Norðymbre lēode + _G._ Ęngla Norðymbra lēoda + _D.I._ Ęnglum Norðymbrum lēodum + + +(_b_) #Feminine _i-_Stems.# + +48. The short stems (#fręm-u#) conform entirely to the declension of +short ō-stems; long stems (#cwēn#, #wyrt#) differ from long ō-stems in +having no ending for the A. singular. They show, also, a preference for +-e rather than -a in the N.A. plural. + + +49. Paradigms of #sēo fręm-u#, _benefit_; #sēo cwēn#, _woman, queen_ +[quean]; #sēo wyrt#, _root_ [wort]: + + _Sing. N._ fręm-u cwēn wyrt + _G._ fręm-e cwēn-e wyrt-e + _D.I._ fręm-e cwēn-e wyrt-e + _A._ fręm-e cwēn wyrt + + _Plur. N.A._ fręm-a cwēn-e (a) wyrt-e (a) + _G._ fręm-a cwēn-a wyrt-a + _D.I._ fręm-um cwēn-um wyrt-um + + +#The _u-_Declension.# + +50. The u-Declension, corresponding to the group of u-stems in the +classical Third Declension, contains no neuters, and but few (_a_) +masculines and (_b_) feminines. The short-stemmed nouns of both genders +(#sun-u#, #dur-u#) retain the final u of the N.A. singular, while the +long stems (#feld#, #hǫnd#) drop it. The influence of the masculine +a-stems is most clearly seen in the long-stemmed masculines of the +u-Declension (#feld#, #feld-es#, etc.). + + NOTE.--Note the general aversion of all O.E. long stems to final + -u: _cf._ N.A. plural #hof-u#, but #bearn#, #bān#; N. singular + #gief-u#, but #wund#, #rōd#; N. singular #fręm-u#, but #cwēn#, + #wyrt#; N.A. singular #sun-u#, #dur-u#, but #feld#, #hǫnd#. + + +(_a_) #Masculine _u-_Stems.# + +51. Paradigms of #sē sun-u#, _son_; #sē feld#, _field_: + + _Sing. N.A._ sun-u feld + _G._ sun-a feld-a (es) + _D.I._ sun-a feld-a (e) + + _Plur. N.A._ sun-a feld-a (as) + _G._ sun-a feld-a + _D.I._ sun-um feld-um + + +(b) #Feminine _u-_Stems.# + +52. Paradigms of #sēo dur-u#, _door_; #sēo hǫnd#, _hand_: + + _Sing. N.A._ dur-u hǫnd + _G._ dur-a hǫnd-a + _D.I._ dur-a hǫnd-a + + _Plur. N.A._ dur-a hǫnd-a + _G._ dur-a hǫnd-a + _D.I._ dur-um hǫnd-um + + +53. Paradigm of the Third Personal Pronoun, #hē#, #hēo#, #hit# = _he_, +_she_, _it_: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ hē hēo hit + _G._ his hiere his + _D._ him hiere him + _A._ hine, hiene hīe hit + + _All Genders._ + _Plur. N.A._ hīe + _G._ hiera + _D._ him + + +54. VOCABULARY. + + (i-STEMS.) + + sē cierr, _turn, time_ [char, chare, chore]. + sēo dǣd, _deed_. + sē dǣl, _part_ [a great deal]. + ðā Dęne, _Danes_. + sē frēondscipe, _friendship_. + sēo hȳd, _skin, hide_. + ðā lǫndlēode, _natives_. + ðā Mierce, _Mercians_. + ðā Rōmware, _Romans_. + ðā Seaxe, _Saxons_. + sē stęde, _place_ [in-stead of]. + + (u-STEMS.) + + sēo flōr, _floor_. + sēo nosu, _nose_. + sē sumor (_G._ sumeres, _D._ sumera), _summer_. + sē winter (_G._ wintres, _D._ wintra), _winter_. + sē wudu, _wood, forest_. + + NOTE.--The numerous masculine nouns ending in -hād,--#cildhād# + (_childhood_), #wīfhād# (_womanhood_),--belong to the u-stems + historically; but they have all passed over to the a-Declension. + + +55. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Ðā Seaxe habbað ðæs dēores hȳd on ðǣm wuda. 2. Hwā hæfð ðā giefa? +3. Ðā Mierce hīe[1] habbað. 4. Hwǣr is ðæs Wēales fugol? 5. Ðā Dęne +hiene habbað. 6. Hwǣr sindon hiera winas? 7. Hīe sindon on ðæs cyninges +wuda. 8. Ðā Rōmware ǫnd ðā Seaxe hæfdon ðā gāras ǫnd ðā geocu. 9. Hēo is +on ðǣm hūse on wintra, ǫnd on ðǣm feldum on sumera. 10. Hwǣr is ðæs +hofes duru? 11. Hēo[2] (= sēo duru) nis hēr. + +II. 1. His friends have the bones of the seals and the bodies of the +Danes. 2. Art thou the king’s son? 3. Has she her[3] gifts in her[3] +hands? 4. Here are the fields of the natives. 5. Who had the bird? +6. I had it.[2] 7. The child had the worm in his[3] fingers. 8. The +Mercians were here during (the) summer (#on# + dat.). + + [Footnote 1: See § 21, (1).] + + [Footnote 2: Pronouns agree in gender with the nouns for which + they stand. #Hit#, however, sometimes stands for inanimate + things of both masculine and feminine genders. See Wülfing + (_l.c._) I, § 238.] + + [Footnote 3: See § 76 (last sentence).] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +PRESENT INDICATIVE ENDINGS OF STRONG VERBS. + + +56. The unchanged stem of the present indicative may always be found by +dropping -an of the infinitive: #feall-an#, _to fall_; #cēos-an#, _to +choose_; #bīd-an#, _to abide_. + + +57. The personal endings are: + + _Sing._ 1. -e _Plur._ 1. } + 2. -est 2. } -að + 3. -eð 3. } + + +#_i-_Umlaut.# + +58. The 2d and 3d singular endings were originally not -est and -eð, but +-is and -ið; and the i of these older endings has left its traces upon +almost every page of Early West Saxon literature. This i, though +unaccented and soon displaced, exerted a powerful back influence upon +the vowel of the preceding accented syllable. This influence, a form of +regressive assimilation, is known as i-umlaut (pronounced _oóm-lowt_). +The vowel i or j (= _y_), being itself a palatal, succeeded in +palatalizing every guttural vowel that preceded it, and in imposing +still more of the i-quality upon diphthongs that were already +palatal.[1] The changes produced were these: + + a became ę (æ): męnn (< *mann-iz), _men_. + ā “ ǣ ǣnig (< *ān-ig), _any_. + u “ y wyllen (< *wull-in), _woollen_. + ū “ ȳ mȳs (< *mūs-iz), _mice_. + o “ ę dęhter (< *dohtr-i), _to_ or _for the daughter_. + ō “ ē fēt (< *fōt-iz), _feet_. + ea “ ie wiexð (< *weax-ið), _he grows_ (weaxan = _to grow_). + ēa “ īe hīewð (< *hēaw-ið), _he hews_ (hēawan = to _hew_). + eo “ ie wiercan (< *weorc-jan), _to work_. + ēo “ īe līehtan (< *lēoht-jan), _to light_. + + [Footnote 1: The _palatal_ vowels and diphthongs were long or + short æ, e, i, (ie), y, ea, eo; the _guttural_ vowels were long + or short a, o, u.] + + +#The Unchanged Present Indicative.# + +59. In the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects, as well as in the dialect +of Late West Saxon, the 2d and 3d singular endings were usually joined +to the present stem without modification either of the stem itself or of +the personal endings. The complete absence of umlauted forms in the +present indicative of Mn.E. is thus accounted for. + +In Early West Saxon, however, such forms as the following are +comparatively rare in the 2d and 3d singular: + + _Sing._ 1. Ic feall-e cēos-e bīd-e + (_I fall_) (_I choose_) (_I abide_) + 2. ðū feall-est cēos-est bīd-est + 3. hē feall-eð cēos-eð bīd-eð + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } feall-að cēos-að bīd-að + 3. hīe } + + +#The Present Indicative with i-Umlaut and Contraction.# + +60. The 2d and 3d persons singular are distinguished from the other +forms of the present indicative in Early West Saxon by (1) i-umlaut of +the vowel of the stem, (2) syncope of the vowel of the ending, giving +-st and -ð for -est and -eð, and (3) contraction of -st and -ð with the +final consonant or consonants of the stem. + + +#Contraction.# + +61. The changes produced by i-umlaut have been already discussed. By +these changes, therefore, the stems of the 2d and 3d singular indicative +of such verbs as (1) #stǫndan# (= #standan#), _to stand_, (2) #cuman#, +_to come_, (3) #grōwan#, _to grow_, (4) #brūcan#, _to enjoy_, +(5) #blāwan#, _to blow_, (6) #feallan#, _to fall_, (7) #hēawan#, _to +hew_, (8) #weorpan#, _to throw_, and (9) #cēosan#, _to choose_, become +respectively (1) #stęnd-#,[2] (2) #cym-#, (3) #grēw-#, (4) #brȳc-#, +(5) #blǣw-#, (6) #fiell-#, (7) #hīew-#, (8) #wierp-#, and (9) #cīes-#. + +If the unchanged stem contains the vowel e, this is changed in the 2d +and 3d singular to i (ie): #cweðan# _to say_, stem #cwið-#; #beran# _to +bear_, stem #bier-#. But this mutation[3] had taken place long before +the period of O.E., and belongs to the Germanic languages in general. It +is best, however, to class the change of e to i or ie with the changes +due to umlaut, since it occurs consistently in the 2d and 3d singular +stems of Early West Saxon, and outlasted almost all of the umlaut forms +proper. + +If, now, the syncopated endings -st and -ð are added directly to the +umlauted stem, there will frequently result such a massing of consonants +as almost to defy pronunciation: #cwið-st#, _thou sayest_; #stęnd-st#, +_thou standest_, etc. Some sort of contraction, therefore, is demanded +for the sake of euphony. The ear and eye will, by a little practice, +become a sure guide in these contractions. The following rules, however, +must be observed. They apply only to the 2d and 3d singular of the +present indicative: + +(1) If the stem ends in a double consonant, one of the consonants is +dropped: + + 1. feall-e (_I fall_) 1. winn-e (_I fight_) 1. swimm-e (_I swim_) + 2. fiel-st 2. win-st 2. swim-st + 3. fiel-ð 3. win-ð 3. swim-ð + +(2) If the stem ends in -ð, this is dropped: + + 1. cweð-e (_I say_) 1. weorð-e (_I become_) + 2. cwi-st 2. wier-st + 3. cwi-ð 3. wier-ð + +(3) If the stem ends in -d, this is changed to -t. The -ð of the ending +is then also changed to -t, and usually absorbed. Thus the stem of the +2d singular serves as stem and ending for the 3d singular: + + 1. stǫnd-e (= stand-e) (_I stand_) 1. bind-e (_I bind_) + 2. stęnt-st 2. bint-st + 3. stęnt 3. bint + + 1. bīd-e (_I abide_) 1. rīd-e (_I ride_) + 2. bīt-st 2. rīt-st + 3. bīt (-t) 3. rīt (-t) + +(4) If the stem ends already in -t, the endings are added as in (3), -ð +being again changed to -t and absorbed: + + 1. brēot-e (_I break_) 1. feoht-e (_I fight_) 1. bīt-e (_I bite_) + 2. brīet-st 2. fieht-st 2. bīt-st + 3. brīet (-t) 3. fieht 3. bīt (-t) + +(5) If the stem ends in -s, this is dropped before -st (to avoid -sst), +but is retained before -ð, the latter being changed to -t. Thus the 2d +and 3d singulars are identical:[4] + + 1. cēos-e (_I choose_) 1. rīs-e (_I rise_) + 2. cīe-st 2. rī-st + 3. cīes-t 3. rīs-t + + [Footnote 2: The more common form for stems with a is æ rather + than ę: #faran#, _to go_, 2d and 3d singular stem #fær-#; + #sacan#, _to contend_, stem #sæc-#. Indeed, a changes to ę _via_ + æ (Cosijn, _Altwestsächsische Grammatik_, I, § 32).] + + [Footnote 3: Umlaut is frequently called Mutation. Metaphony is + still another name for the same phenomenon. The term Metaphony + has the advantage of easy adjectival formation (metaphonic). It + was proposed by Professor Victor Henry (_Comparative Grammar of + English and German_, Paris, 1894), but has not been + naturalized.] + + [Footnote 4: This happens also when the infinitive stem ends + in #st#: + + 1. berst-e (_I burst_) + 2. bier-st + 3. bierst.] + + +62. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Sē cyning fielð. 2. Ðā wīf cēosað ðā giefa. 3. Ðū stęntst on ðǣm +hūse. 4. Hē wierpð ðæt wǣpen. 5. Sē sęcg hīewð ðā līc. 6. Ðæt sǣd grēwð +ǫnd wiexð (_Mark_ iv. 27). 7. Ic stǫnde hēr, ǫnd ðū stęntst ðǣr. 8. “Ic +hit eom,” cwið hē. 9. Hīe berað ðæs wulfes bān. 10. Hē hīe bint, ǫnd ic +hine binde. 11. Ne rītst ðū? + +II. 1. We shall bind him. 2. Who chooses the child’s gifts? 3. “He was +not here,” says she. 4. Wilt thou remain in the hall? 5. The wolves are +biting (= bite) the fishermen. 6. He enjoys[5] the love of his children. +7. Do you enjoy (= Enjoyest thou) the consolation and friendship of the +scribe? 8. Will he come? 9. I shall throw the spear, and thou wilt bear +the weapons. 10. The king’s son will become king. 11. The army (#werod#) +is breaking the doors and walls of the house. + + [Footnote 5: #Brūcan#, _to enjoy_, usually takes the genitive + case, not the accusative. It means “to have joy of any thing.”] + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +THE CONSONANT DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS. + + +#The Weak or _n-_Declension.# + +63. The n-Declension contains almost all of the O.E. nouns belonging to +the Consonant Declensions. The stem characteristic n has been preserved +in the oblique cases, so that there is no difficulty in distinguishing +n-stems from the preceding vowel stems. + +The n-Declension includes (_a_) masculines, (_b_) feminines, and (_c_) +neuters. The masculines far outnumber the feminines, and the neuters +contain only #ēage#, _eye_ and #ēare#, _ear_. The masculines end in -a, +the feminines and neuters in -e. + + +64. Paradigms of (_a_) #sē hunta#, _hunter_; (_b_) #sēo tunge#, +_tongue_; (_c_) #ðæt ēage#, _eye_: + + _Sing. N._ hunt-a tung-e ēag-e + _G.D.I._ hunt-an tung-an ēag-an + _A._ hunt-an tung-an ēag-e + + _Plur. N.A._ hunt-an tung-an ēag-an + _G._ hunt-ena tung-ena ēag-ena + _D.I._ hunt-um tung-um ēag-um + + +65. VOCABULARY. + + sē adesa, _hatchet, adze_. + sē ǣmetta, _leisure_ [empt-iness]. + sē bǫna (bana), _murderer_ [bane]. + sēo cirice, _church_ [Scotch kirk]. + sē cnapa (later, #cnafa#), _boy_ [knave]. + sē cuma, _stranger_ [comer]. + ðæt ēare, _ear_. + sēo eorðe, _earth_. + sē gefēra, _companion_ [co-farer]. + sē guma, _man_ [bride-groom[1]]. + sēo heorte, _heart_. + sē mōna, _moon_. + sēo nǣdre, _adder_ [a nadder > an adder[2]]. + sē oxa, _ox_. + sē scēowyrhta, _shoe-maker_ [shoe-wright]. + sēo sunne, _sun_. + sē tēona, _injury_ [teen]. + biddan (with dat. of person and gen. of thing[3]), _to request, ask +for_. + cwelan, _to die_ [quail]. + gescieppan, _to create_ [shape, land-scape, friend-ship]. + giefan (with dat. of indirect object), _to give_. + healdan, _to hold_. + helpan (with dat.), _to help_. + scęððan[4] (with dat.), _to injure_ [scathe]. + wiðstǫndan (-standan) (with dat.), _to withstand_. + wrītan, _to write_. + + [Footnote 1: The _r_ is intrusive in _-groom_, as it is in + _cart-r-idge_, _part-r-idge_, _vag-r-ant_, and _hoa-r-se_.] + + [Footnote 2: The _n_ has been appropriated by the article. Cf. + _an apron_ (< _a napron_), _an auger_ (< _a nauger_), _an + orange_ (< _a norange_), _an umpire_ (< _a numpire_).] + + [Footnote 3: In Mn.E. we say “I request a favor of you”; but in + O.E. it was “I request you (dative) of a favor” (genitive). Cf. + _Cymbeline_, III, vi, 92: “We’ll mannerly demand thee of thy + story.” See Franz’s _Shakespeare-Grammatik_, § 361 (1900).] + + [Footnote 4: #Scęððan# is conjugated through the present + indicative like #fręmman#. See § 129.] + + +66. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Sē scēowyrhta brȳcð his ǣmettan. 2. Ðā guman biddað ðǣm cnapan ðæs +adesan. 3. Hwā is sē cuma? 4. Hielpst ðū ðǣm bǫnan? 5. Ic him ne helpe. +6. Ðā bearn scęððað ðæs bǫnan ēagum ǫnd ēarum. 7. Sē cuma cwielð on ðǣre +cirican. 8. Sē hunta wiðstęnt ðǣm wulfum. 9. Ðā oxan berað ðæs cnapan +gefēran. 10. Sē mōna ǫnd ðā tunglu sind on ðǣm heofonum. 11. Ðā huntan +healdað ðǣre nǣdran tungan. 12. Hē hiere giefð ðā giefa. 13. Ðā werod +scęððað ðæs cyninges feldum. + +II. 1. Who will bind the mouths of the oxen? 2. Who gives him the +gifts? 3. Thou art helping him, and I am injuring him. 4. The boy’s +companion is dying. 5. His nephew does not enjoy his leisure. 6. The +adder’s tongue injures the king’s companion. 7. The sun is the day’s +eye. 8. She asks the strangers for the spears. 9. The men’s bodies are +not here. 10. Is he not (#Nis hē#) the child’s murderer? 11. Who creates +the bodies and the souls of men? 12. Thou withstandest her. 13. He is +not writing. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +#Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions.# + +67. The nouns belonging here are chiefly masculines and feminines. Their +stem ended in a consonant other than n. The most important of them may +be divided as follows: (1) The _foot_ Declension, (2) r-Stems, and +(3) nd-Stems. These declensions are all characterized by the prevalence, +wherever possible, of i-umlaut in certain cases, the case ending being +then dropped. + + +68. (1) The nouns belonging to the _foot_ Declension exhibit umlaut most +consistently in the N.A. plural. + + _Sing. N.A._ sē fōt sē mǫn sē tōð sēo cū + _Sing. N.A._ (_foot_) (_man_) (_tooth_) (_cow_) + _Plur. N.A._ fēt męn tēð cȳ + + NOTE.--The dative singular usually has the same form as the N.A. + plural. Here belong also #sēo bōc# (_book_), #sēo burg# + (_borough_), #sēo gōs# (_goose_), #sēo lūs# (_louse_), and #sēo + mūs# (_mouse_), all with umlauted plurals. Mn.E. preserves only + six of the _foot_ Declension plurals: _feet_, _men_, _teeth_, + _geese_, _lice_, and _mice_. The _c_ in the last two is an + artificial spelling, intended to preserve the sound of voiceless + _s_. Mn.E. _kine_ (= _cy-en_) is a double plural formed after the + analogy of weak stems; Burns in _The Twa Dogs_ uses _kye_. + + No umlaut is possible in #sēo niht# (_night_) and #sē mōnað# + (_month_), plural #niht# and #mōnað# (preserved in Mn.E. + _twelvemonth_ and _fortnight_). + +(2) The r-Stems contain nouns expressing kinship, and exhibit umlaut of +the dative singular. + + _Sing. N.A._ sē fæder sē brōðor sēo mōdor + (_father_) (_brother_) (_mother_) + _D._ fæder brēðer mēder + + _Sing. N.A._ sēo dohtor (_daughter_) sēo swuster (_sister_) + _D._ dęhter swyster + + NOTE.--The N.A. plural is usually the same as the N.A. singular. + These umlaut datives are all due to the presence of a former i. + Cf. Lat. dative singular _patri_, _frātri_, _mātri_, _sorori_ + (< _*sosori_), and Greek θυγατρί. + +(3) The nd-Stems show umlaut both in the N.A. plural and in the dative +singular: + + _Sing. N.A._ sē frēond (_friend_) sē fēond (_enemy_) + _D._ frīend fīend + + _Plur. N.A._ frīend fīend + + NOTE.--Mn.E. _friend_ and _fiend_ are interesting analogical + spellings. When s had been added by analogy to the O.E. plurals + #frīend# and #fīend#, thus giving the double plurals _friends_ and + _fiends_, a second singular was formed by dropping the s. Thus + _friend_ and _fiend_ displaced the old singulars _frend_ and + _fend_, both of which occur in the M.E. _Ormulum_, written about + the year 1200. + + +#Summary of O.E. Declensions.# + +69. A brief, working summary of the O.E. system of declensions may now +be made on the basis of gender. + +All O.E. nouns are (1) masculine, (2) feminine, or (3) neuter. + +(1) The masculines follow the declension of #mūð# (§ 26), except those +ending in -a, which are declined like #hunta# (§ 64): + + _Sing. N.A._ mūð _N._ hunta + _G._ mūðes _G.D.A._ huntan + _D.I._ mūðe _I._ huntan + + _Plur. N.A._ mūðas huntan + _G._ mūða huntena + _D.I._ mūðum huntum + +(2) The short-stemmed neuters follow the declension of #hof# (§ 32); the +long-stemmed, that of #bearn# (§ 32): + + _Sing. N.A._ hof bearn + _G._ hofes bearnes + _D.I._ hofe bearne + + _Plur. N.A._ hofu bearn + _G._ hofa bearna + _D.I._ hofum bearnum + +(3) The feminines follow the declensions of #giefu# and #wund# (§ 38) +(the only difference being in the N. singular), except those ending in +-e, which follow the declension of #tunge# (§ 64): + + _Sing. N._ giefu wund tunge + _G._ giefe wunde tungan + _D.I._ giefe wunde tungan + _A._ giefe wunde tungan + + _Plur. N.A._ giefa wunda tungan + _G._ giefa wunda tungena + _D.I._ giefum wundum tungum + + +70. VOCABULARY. + + ac, _but_. + būtan (with dat.), _except, but, without_. + sē Crīst, _Christ_. + sē eorl, _earl, alderman, warrior_. + ðæt Ęnglalǫnd, _England_ [Angles’ land]. + faran, _to go_ [fare]. + findan, _to find_. + sē God, _God_. + hātan, _to call, name_. + sē hlāford, _lord_ [#hlāf-weard#]. + mid (with dat.), _with_. + on (with acc.), _on, against, into_. + tō (with dat.), _to_. + uton (with infin.), _let us_. + + NOTE.--O.E. #mǫn# (#man#) is frequently used in an indefinite sense + for _one_, _people_, _they_. It thus takes the place of a passive + construction proper: #And man nam þā gebrotu þe þār belifon, twęlf + cȳpan fulle#, _And there were taken up of fragments that remained + there twelve baskets full_; but more literally, _And one_ (or + _they_) _took the fragments_, etc.; #Ǫnd Hæstenes wīf ǫnd hīs suna + twēgen mǫn brōhte tō ðǣm cyninge#, _And Hæsten’s wife and his two + sons were brought to the king_. + + +71. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Mōn hine hǣt Ælfred. 2. Uton faran on ðæt scip. 3. God is cyninga +cyning ǫnd hlāforda hlāford. 4. Sē eorl ne giefð giefa his fīend. 5. Ic +næs mid his frīend. 6. Sēo mōdor færð mid hiere dęhter on ðā burg. +7. Fintst ðū ðæs bōceres bēc? 8. Hē bint ealle (all) ðā dēor būtan ðǣm +wulfum. 9. Ðū eart Crīst, Godes sunu. 10. “Uton bindan ðæs bǫnan fēt,” +cwið hē. + +II. 1. Christ is the son of God. 2. Let us call him Cædmon. 3. He throws +his spear against the door. 4. Thou art not the earl’s brother. 5. He +will go with his father to England, but I shall remain (abide) here. +6. Gifts are not given to murderers. 7. Who will find the tracks of the +animals? 8. They ask their lord for his weapons (§ 65, Note 3). + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +PRONOUNS. + + +(1) #Personal Pronouns.# + +72. Paradigms of #ic#, _I_; #ðū#, _thou_. For #hē#, #hēo#, #hit#, see +§ 53. + + _Sing. N._ ic ðū + _G._ mīn ðīn + _D._ mē ðē + _A._ mē (mec) ðē (ðec) + + _Dual N._ wit (_we two_) git (_ye two_) + _G._ uncer (_of us two_) incer (_of you two_) + _D._ unc (_to_ or _for us two_) inc (_to_ or _for you two_) + _A._ unc (_us two_) inc (_you two_) + + _Plur. N._ wē gē + _G._ ūser (ūre) ēower + _D._ ūs ēow + _A._ ūs (ūsic) ēow (ēowic) + + NOTE 1.--The dual number was soon absorbed by the plural. No relic + of it now remains. But when two and only two are referred to, the + dual is consistently used in O.E. An example occurs in the case of + the two blind men (_Matthew_ ix. 27-31): #Gemiltsa unc, Davīdes + sunu!# _Pity us, (thou) Son of David!_ #Sīe inc æfter incrum + gelēafan#, _Be it unto you according to your faith._ + + NOTE 2.--Mn.E. _ye_ (< gē), the nominative proper, is fast being + displaced by _you_ (< #ēow#), the old objective. The distinction + is preserved in the King James’s version of the Bible: _Ye in me, + and I in you_ (_John_ xiv. 20); but not in Shakespeare and later + writers. + + +(2) #Demonstrative Pronouns.# + +73. Paradigm of #ðēs#, #ðēos#, #ðis#, _this_. For the Definite Article +as a demonstrative, meaning _that_, see § 28, Note 3. + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ ðēs ðēos ðis + _G._ ðisses ðisse ðisses + _D._ ðissum ðisse ðissum + _A._ ðisne ðās ðis + _I._ ðȳs ---- ðȳs + + _All Genders._ + _Plur. N.A._ ðās + _G._ ðissa + _D._ ðissum + + +(3) #The Interrogative Pronoun.# + +74. Paradigm of #hwā#, #hwæt#, _who_, _what?_ + + _Masculine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ hwā hwæt + _G._ hwæs hwæs + _D._ hwǣm hwǣm + _A._ hwone hwæt + _I._ ---- hwȳ + + NOTE 1.--The derivative interrogatives, #hwæðer# (< #*hwā-ðer#), + _which of two?_ and #hwilc# (< #*hwā-līc#), _which?_ are declined + as strong adjectives (§§ 79-82). + + NOTE 2.--The instrumental case of #hwā# survives in Mn.E. _why_ = + _on what account_; the instrumental of the definite article is + seen in the adverbial _the: The sooner, the better = by how much + sooner, by so much better._ + + NOTE 3.--How were the Mn.E. relative pronouns, _who_ and _which_, + evolved from the O.E. interrogatives? The change began in early + West Saxon with #hwæt# used in indirect questions (Wülfing, _l.c._ + § 310, β): #Nū ic wāt eall hwæt ðū woldest#, _Now I know all that + thou desiredst_. The direct question was, #Hwæt woldest ðū?# But + the presence of #eall# shows that in Alfred’s mind #hwæt# was, in + the indirect form, more relative than interrogative. + + +(4) #Relative Pronouns.# + +75. O.E. had no relative pronoun proper. It used instead (1) the +Indeclinable Particle #ðe#, _who_, _whom_, _which_, _that_, (2) the +Definite Article (§ 28), (3) the Definite Article with the Indeclinable +Particle, (4) the Indeclinable Particle with a Personal Pronoun. + +The Definite Article agrees in gender and number with the antecedent. +The case depends upon the construction. _The bird which I have_ may, +therefore, be:-- + + (1) #Sē fugol ðe ic hæbbe#; + (2) #Sē fugol ðone ic hæbbe#; + (3) #Sē fugol ðone ðe# (= _the which_) #ic hæbbe#; + (4) #Sē fugol ðe hine ic hæbbe#. + + NOTE.--O.E. #ðe# agrees closely in construction with Mn.E. + relative _that_: (1) Both are indeclinable. (2) Both refer to + animate or inanimate objects. (3) Both may be used with phrasal + value: #ðȳ ylcan dæge ðe hī hine tō ðǣm āde beran wyllað#, _On the + same day that_ (= _on which_) _they intend to bear him to the + funeral pile_. (4) Neither can be preceded by a preposition. + + +(5) #Possessive Pronouns.# + +76. The Possessive Pronouns are #mīn#, _mine_; #ðīn#, _thine_; #ūre#, +_our_; #ēower#, _your_; [#sīn#, _his_, _her_, _its_]; #uncer#, +_belonging to us two_; #incer#, _belonging to you two_. They are +declined as strong adjectives. The genitives of the Third Personal +Pronoun, #his#, _his_, #hiere#, _her_, #hiera#, _their_, are +indeclinable. + + +(6) #Indefinite Pronouns.# + +77. These are #ǣlc#, _each_, _every_; #ān#, _a_, _an_, _one_; #ǣnig# (< +#ān-ig#), _any_; #nǣnig# (< #ne-ǣnig#), _none_; #ōðer#, _other_; #sum#, +_one_, _a certain one_; #swilc#, _such_. They are declined as strong +adjectives. + + NOTE.--O.E. had three established methods of converting an + interrogative pronoun into an indefinite: (1) By prefixing #ge#, + (2) by prefixing #ǣg#, (3) by interposing the interrogative + between #swā ... swā#: (1) #gehwā#, _each_; #gehwæðer#, _either_; + #gehwilc#, _each_; (2) #ǣghwā#, _each_; #ǣghwæðer#, _each_; + #ǣghwilc#, _each_; (3) #swā hwā swā#, _whosoever_; #swā hwæðer + swā#, _whichsoever of two_; #swā hwilc swā#, _whosoever_. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +ADJECTIVES, STRONG AND WEAK. + + +78. The declension of adjectives conforms in general to the declension +of nouns, though a few pronominal inflections have influenced certain +cases. Adjectives belong either to (1) the Strong Declension or to +(2) the Weak Declension. The Weak Declension is employed when the +adjective is preceded by #sē# or #ðēs#, _the_, _that_, or _this_; +otherwise, the Strong Declension is employed: #ðā gōdan cyningas#, _the +good kings_; #ðēs gōda cyning#, _this good king_; but #gōde cyningas#, +_good kings_. + + NOTE.--The Weak Declension is also frequently used when the + adjective is employed in direct address, or preceded by a + possessive pronoun: #Dryhten, ælmihtiga God ... ic bidde ðē for + ðīnre miclan mildheortnesse#, _Lord, almighty God, I pray thee, + for thy great mercy_. + + +(1) #Strong Declension of Adjectives.# + +(a) _Monosyllables._ + +79. The strong adjectives are chiefly monosyllabic with long stems: +#gōd#, _good_; #eald#, _old_; #lǫng#, _long_; #swift#, _swift_. They are +declined as follows. + + +80. Paradigm of #gōd#, _good_: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + + _Sing. N._ gōd gōd gōd + _G._ gōdes gōdre gōdes + _D._ gōdum gōdre gōdum + _A._ gōdne gōde gōd + _I._ gōde ---- gōde + + _Plur. N.A._ gōde gōda gōd + _G._ gōdra gōdra gōdra + _D.I._ gōdum gōdum gōdum + + +81. If the stem is short, -u is retained as in #giefu# (§ 39, (1)) and +#hofu# (§ 33, (1)). Thus #glæd# (§ 27, Note 1), _glad_, and #til#, +_useful_, are inflected: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ { glæd gladu glæd + { til tilu til + + _Plur. N.A._ { glade glada gladu + { tile tila tilu + + +(b) _Polysyllables._ + +82. Polysyllables follow the declension of short monosyllables. The most +common terminations are #-en#, _-en_; #-fæst#, _-fast_; #-full#, _-ful_; +#-lēas#, _-less_; #-līc#, _-ly_; #-ig#, _-y_: #hǣð-en# (#hǣð# = +_heath_), _heathen_; #stęde-fæst# (#stęde# = _place_), _steadfast_; +#sorg-full# (#sorg# = _sorrow_), _sorrowful_; #cyst-lēas# (#cyst# = +_worth_), _worthless_; #eorð-līc# (#eorðe# = _earth_), _earthly_; +#blōd-ig# (#blōd# = _blood_), _bloody_. The present and past +participles, when inflected and not as weak adjectives, may be classed +with the polysyllabic adjectives, their inflection being the same. + +Syncopation occurs as in a-stems (§ 27, (4)). Thus #hālig#, _holy_, +#blīðe#, _blithe_, #berende#, _bearing_, #geboren#, _born_, are thus +inflected: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ { hālig hālgu hālig + { blīðe blīðu blīðe + { berende berendu berende + { geboren geborenu geboren + + _Plur. N.A._ { hālge hālga hālgu + { blīðe blīða blīðu + { berende berenda berendu + { geborene geborena geborenu + + +(2) #Weak Declension of Adjectives.# + +83. The Weak Declension of adjectives, whether monosyllabic or +polysyllabic, does not differ from the Weak Declension of nouns, except +that -ena of the genitive plural is usually replaced by -ra of the +strong adjectives. + + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ +84. _Sing. N._ gōda gōde gōde + _G._ gōdan gōdan gōdan + _D.I._ gōdan gōdan gōdan + _A._ gōdan gōdan gōde + + _All Genders._ + _Plur. N.A._ gōdan + _G._ gōdra (gōdena) + _D.I._ gōdum + + +85. RULE OF SYNTAX. + +_Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case; but +participles, when used predicatively, may remain uninflected_ (§ 139, +§ 140). + + +86. VOCABULARY. + + dēad, _dead_. + eall, _all_. + hāl,[1] _whole, hale_. + heard, _hard_. + ðæt hors, _horse_. + lēof, _dear_ [as lief]. + lȳtel, _little_. + micel, _great, large_. + mǫnig, _many_. + niman, _to take_ [nimble, numb]. + nīwe, _new_. + rīce, _rich, powerful_. + sōð, _true_ [sooth-sayer]. + stælwierðe,[2] _serviceable_ [stalwart]. + swīðe, _very_. + sē tūn, _town, village_. + sē ðegn, _servant, thane, warrior_. + ðæt ðing, _thing_. + sē weg, _way_. + wīs, _wise_. + wið (with acc.), _against_, in a hostile sense [with-stand]. + sē ilca, _the same_ [of that ilk]. + + [Footnote 1: #Hālig#, _holy_, contains, of course, the same + root. “I find,” says Carlyle, “that you could not get any better + definition of what ‘holy’ really is than ‘healthy--completely + healthy.’”] + + [Footnote 2: This word has been much discussed. The older + etymologists explained it as meaning _worth stealing_. A more + improbable conjecture is that it means _worth a stall_ or + _place_. It is used of ships in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_. As + applied to men, Skeat thinks it meant _good_ or _worthy at + stealing_; but the etymology is still unsettled.] + + +87. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Ðās scipu ne sind swīðe swift, ac hīe sind swīðe stælwierðu. +2. Sēo gōde cwēn giefð ǣlcum ðegne mǫniga giefa. 3. Ðēs wīsa cyning hæfð +mǫnige micele tūnas on his rīce. 4. Nǣnig mǫn is wīs on eallum ðingum. +5. Ðȳ ilcan dæge (§ 98, (2)) mǫn fǫnd (found) ðone ðegn ðe mīnes wines +bēc hæfde. 6. Ealle ðā sęcgas ðā ðe swift hors habbað rīdað wið ðone +bǫnan. 7. Ðīne fīend sind mīne frīend. 8. Sē micela stān ðone ðe ic on +mīnum hǫndum hæbbe is swīðe heard. 9. Hīe scęððað ðǣm ealdum horsum. +10. Uton niman ðās tilan giefa ǫnd hīe beran tō ūrum lēofum bearnum. + +II. 1. These holy men are wise and good. 2. Are the little children very +dear to the servants (dat. without #tō#)? 3. Gifts are not given (§ 70, +Note 1) to rich men. 4. All the horses that are in the king’s fields are +swift. 5. These stones are very large and hard. 6. He takes the dead +man’s spear and fights against the large army. 7. This new house has +many doors. 8. My ways are not your ways. 9. Whosoever chooses me, him I +also (#ēac#) choose. 10. Every man has many friends that are not wise. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +NUMERALS. + + +88. Numerals are either (_a_) Cardinal, expressing pure number, _one_, +_two_, _three_; or (_b_) Ordinal, expressing rank or succession, +_first_, _second_, _third_. + + +(_a_) #Cardinals.# + +89. The Cardinals fall into the three following syntactic groups: + + GROUP I. + + 1. ān + 2. twēgen [twain] + 3. ðrīe + +These numerals are inflected adjectives. #Ān#, _one_, _an_, _a_, being a +long stemmed monosyllable, is declined like #gōd# (§ 80). The weak form, +#āna#, means _alone_. + +#Twēgen# and #ðrīe#, which have no singular, are thus declined: + + _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._ + _Plur. N.A._ twēgen twā twā (tū) ðrīe ðrēo ðrēo + _G._ twēgra twēgra twēgra ðrēora ðrēora ðrēora + _D._ { twǣm twǣm twǣm ðrīm ðrīm ðrīm + { (twām) (twām) (twām) + + +90. GROUP II. + + 4. fēower + 5. fīf + 6. siex + 7. seofon + 8. eahta + 9. nigon + 10. tīen + 11. ęndlefan + 12. twęlf + 13. ðrēotīene + 14. fēowertīene + 15. fīftīene + 16. siextīene + 17. seofontīene + 18. eahtatīene + 19. nigontīene + +These words are used chiefly as uninflected adjectives: #on gewitscipe +ðrēora oþþe fēower bisceopa#, _on testimony of three or four bishops_; +#on siex dagum#, _in six days_; #ān nǣdre ðe hæfde nigon hēafdu#, _a +serpent which had nine heads_; #æðeling eahtatīene wintra#, _a prince of +eighteen winters_. + + +91. GROUP III. + + 20. twēntig + 21. ān ǫnd twēntig + 30. ðrītig + 40. fēowertig + 50. fīftig + 60. siextig + 70. hundseofontig + 80. hundeahtatig + 90. hundnigontig + 100. hund + 200. twā hund + 1000. ðūsend + 2000. twā ðūsend + +All these numbers are employed as neuter singular nouns, and are +followed by the genitive plural: #Næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twēntig +hrȳðera, and twēntig scēapa, and twēntig swȳna#, _He did not have, +however, more than twenty (of) cattle, and twenty (of) sheep, and twenty +(of) swine_; #Hīe hæfdon hundeahtatig scipa#, _They had eighty ships_; +#twā hund mīla brād#, _two hundred miles broad_; #ðǣr wǣron seofon hund +gūðfanena genumen#, _there were seven hundred standards captured_; #ān +ðūsend mǫnna#, _a thousand men_; #Hannibales folces wæs twā ðūsend +ofslagen#, _Of Hannibal’s men there were two thousand slain_; #Hīe +ācuron ęndlefan ðūsend mǫnna#, _They chose eleven thousand men_. + + NOTE 1.--Group III is rarely inflected. Almost the only + inflectional endings that are added are (1) -es, a genitive + singular termination for the numerals in #-tig#, and (2) -e, a + dative singular for #hund#. (1) The first is confined to + adjectives expressing extent of space or time, as, #eald#, _old_; + #brād#, _broad_; #hēah#, _high_; and #lǫng#, _long_: #ðæt is + ðrītiges mīla lǫng#, _that is thirty miles long_; #Hē wæs ðrītiges + gēara eald#, _He was thirty years old_. (2) The second is employed + after #mid#: #mid twǣm hunde scipa#, _with two hundred ships_; + #mid ðrīm hunde mǫnna#, _with three hundred men_; #Ðǣr wearð ... + Regulus gefangen mid V hunde mǫnna#, _There was Regulus captured + with five hundred men_. + + The statement made in nearly all the grammars that #hunde# occurs + as a nominative and accusative plural is without foundation. + + NOTE 2.--Many numerals, otherwise indeclinable, are used in the + genitive plural with the indefinite pronoun #sum#, which then + means _one of_ a certain number. In this peculiar construction, + the numeral always precedes #sum#: #fēowera sum#, _one of four_ (= + _with three others_); #Hē sǣde þæt hē syxa sum ofslōge syxtig#, + _He said that he, with five others, slew sixty_ (_whales_); #Hē + wæs fēowertigra sum#, _He was one of forty_. + + NOTE 3.--These are the most common constructions with the + Cardinals. The forms in #-tig# have only recently been + investigated. A study of Wülfing’s citations shows that Alfred + occasionally uses the forms in #-tig# (1) as adjectives with + plural inflections: #mid XXXgum cyningum#, _with thirty kings_; + and (2) as nouns with plural inflections: #æfter siextigum daga#, + _after sixty days_. But both constructions are rare. + + +(b) #Ordinals.# + +92. The Ordinals, except the first two, are formed from the Cardinals. +They are: + + 1. forma, ǣresta, fyrsta + 2. ōðer, æfterra + 3. ðridda + 4. fēorða + 5. fīfta + 6. siexta + 7. seofoða + 8. eahtoða + 9. nigoða + 10. tēoða + 11. ęndlefta + 12. twęlfta + 13. ðrēotēoða + 14. fēowertēoða + 15. fīftēoða + etc. + 20. twēntigoða + 21. ān ǫnd twēntigoða + 30. ðrītigoða + etc. + + NOTE.--There are no Ordinals corresponding to #hund# and #ðūsend#. + +With the exception of #ōðer# (§ 77), all the Ordinals are declined as +Weak Adjectives; the article, however, as in Mn.E., is frequently +omitted: #Brūtus wæs sē forma consul#, _Brutus was the first consul_; +#Hēr ęndað sēo ǣreste bōc, ǫnd onginneð sēo ōðer#, _Here the first book +ends, and the second begins_; #ðȳ fīftan dæge#, _on the fifth day_; #on +ðǣm tēoðan gēare hiera gewinnes#, _in the tenth year of their strife_; +#Hēo wæs twęlfte#, _She was twelfth_; #Sē wæs fēorða frǫm Agusto#, _He +was fourth from Augustus_. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS. + + +#Adverbs.# + +93. (1) Adverbs are formed by adding -e or #-līce# to the corresponding +adjectives: #sōð#, _true_; #sōðe# or #sōðlīce#, _truly_; #earmlīc#, +_wretched_; #earmlīce#, _wretchedly_; #wīd#, _wide_; #wīde#, _widely_; +#micel#, _great_; #micle# (#micele#), _greatly, much_. + +(2) The terminations -e and #-līce# are replaced in some adverbs by +#-(l)unga# or #-(l)inga#: #eallunga#, _entirely_; #fǣringa#, _suddenly_; +#grundlunga#, _from the ground, completely_. + + NOTE 1.--In Mn.E. _headlong_, _darkling_, and _groveling_, + originally adverbs, we have survivals of these endings. + +(3) The genitive case is frequently used adverbially: #sūðeweardes#, +_southwards_; #ealles#, _altogether, entirely_; #dæges#, _by day_; +#nihtes#, _by night_; #ðæs#, _from that time, afterwards_. _Cf._ #hys# +(= #his#) #weges# in #Ðonne rīdeð ǣlc hys weges#, _Then rides each his +way_. + + NOTE 2.--The adverbial genitive is abundantly preserved in Mn.E. + _Always_, _crossways_, _sideways_, _needs_ (= _necessarily_), + _sometimes_, etc., are not plurals, but old genitive singulars. + The same construction is seen in _of course_, _of a truth_, _of an + evening_, _of old_, _of late_, and similar phrases. + +(4) Dative and instrumental plurals may be used as adverbs: #hwīlum#, +_at times, sometimes_ [whilom]; #stundum# (#stund# = _period_), _from +time to time_; #miclum#, _greatly_. Especially common is the suffix +#-mǣlum# (#mǣl# = _time_, #measure# [meal]), preserved adverbially in +Mn.E. _piecemeal_: #dropmǣlum#, _drop by drop_; #styccemǣlum# (#stycce# += _piece_), _piecemeal, here and there_. + +(5) The suffix -an usually denotes motion from: + + hēr, _here_. hider, _hither_. heonan, _hence_. + ðǣr, _there_. ðider, _thither_. ðǫnan, _thence_. + hwǣr, _where?_ hwider, _whither?_ hwǫnan, _whence?_ + norðan, _from the north_. + ēastan, _from the east_. + hindan, _from behind_. + feorran, _from far_. + ūtan, _from without_. + +(6) The adverb #rihte# (#riht# = _right, straight_) denotes _motion +toward_ in #norðrihte#, _northward, due north_; #ēastrihte#, _due east_; +#sūðrihte#, _due south_; #westrihte#, _due west_. + + +#Prepositions.# + +94. The nominative is the only case in O.E. that is never governed by a +preposition. Of the other cases, the dative and accusative occur most +frequently with prepositions. + +(1) The prepositions that are most frequently found with the dative are: + + æfter, _after_. + ǣt, _at_. + be (bī), _by, near, about_. + betwēonan (betuh), _between_. + būtan (būton), _except_. + for, _for_. + frǫm (fram), _from, by_. + mid, _with_. + of, _of, from_. + tō, _to_. + tōforan, _before_. + tōweard, _toward_. + +(2) The following prepositions require the accusative: + + geond, _throughout_ [be-yond]. + ofer, _over, upon_. + oð, _until, up to_. + ðurh, _through_. + ymbe, _about, around_ [um-while, ember-days]. + +(3) The preposition #on# (rarely #in#), meaning _into_, is usually +followed by the accusative; but meaning _in_, _on_, or _during_, it +takes the dative or instrumental. The preposition #wið#, meaning +_toward_, may be followed by the genitive, dative, or accusative; but +meaning _against_, and implying _motion_ or _hostility_, the accusative +is more common. + +(4) The following phrases are used prepositionally with the dative: + + be norðan, _north of_. + be ēastan, _east of_. + be sūðan, _south of._ + be westan, _west of_. + tō ēacan, _in addition to_. + on emnlange (efn-lang = _evenly long_), _along_. + tō emnes, _along_. + +(5) Prepositions regularly precede the noun or pronoun that they +introduce; but by their adverbial nature they are sometimes drawn in +front of the verb: #And him wæs mycel męnegu tō gegaderod#, _And there +was gathered unto him a great multitude_. In relative clauses introduced +by #ðe#, the preceding position is very common: #sēo scīr ... ðe hē on +būde#, _the district, ... which he dwelt in_ (= _which he in-habited_); +#Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on ðǣm ǣhtum ðe hiera spēda on bēoð#, _He was a +very rich man in those possessions which their riches consist in_; +#nȳhst ðǣm tūne ðe sē dēada man on līð#, _nearest the town that the dead +man lies in_. + + +#Conjunctions.# + +95. (1) The most frequently occurring conjunctions are: + + #ac, _but_. + ǣr, _before, ere_. + būtan (būton), _except that, unless_. + ēac, _also_ [eke]. + for ðǣm, } + for ðǣm ðe, } _because_. + for ðon, } + for ðon ðe, } + for ðȳ, _therefore_. + gif, _if_. + hwæðer, _whether_. + ǫnd (and), _and_. + oððe, _or_. + ðæt, _that, so that_. + ðēah, _though, however_. + +(2) The correlative conjunctions are: + + ǣgðer ge ... ge, _both ...... and_. + ǣgðer ...... ōðer } _either .... or_. + oððe ....... oððe } + nē ......... nē, _neither ... nor_. + sam ........ sam, _whether ... or_. + swā ........ swā { _the ....... the_. + { _as ........ as_. + ðā ......... ðā } _when ...... then_. + ðonne ...... ðonne } + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. + + +#Adjectives#. + +96. (1) Adjectives are regularly compared by adding -ra for the +comparative, and -ost (rarely -est) for the superlative: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + earm, _poor_ earmra earmost + rīce, _rich_ rīcra rīcost + smæl, _narrow_ smælra smalost + brād, _broad_ brādra (brǣdra) brādost + swift, _swift_ swiftra swiftost + +(2) Forms with i-umlaut usually have superlative in -est: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + eald, _old_ ieldra ieldest + lǫng, _long_ lęngra lęngest + strǫng, _strong_ stręngra stręngest + geong, _young_ giengra giengest + hēah, _high_ hīerra hīehst + +(3) The following adjectives are compared irregularly: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + gōd, _good_ bętra bętst + lȳtel, _little, small_ lǣssa lǣst + micel, _great, much_ māra mǣst + yfel, _bad_ wiersa wierst + +(4) The positive is sometimes supplied by an adverb: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + feor, _far_ fierra fierrest + nēah, _near_ nēarra nīehst + ǣr, _before_ ǣrra, _former_ ǣrest, _first_ + +(5) The comparatives all follow the Weak Declension. The superlatives, +when preceded by the definite article, are weak; but when used +predicatively they are frequently strong: #sē lǣsta dǣl#, _the least +part_; #Ðonne cymeð sē man sē ðæt swiftoste hors hafað tō ðǣm ǣrestan +dǣle and tō ðǣm mǣstan#, _Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse +to the first part and to the largest_. But, #ðæt bȳne land is ēasteweard +brādost# (not #brādoste#), _the cultivated land is broadest eastward_; +#and# (#hit#) #bið ealra wyrta mǣst#, _and it is largest of all herbs_; +#Ac hyra# (= #hiera#) #ār is mǣst on ðǣm gafole ðe ðā Finnas him +gyldað#, _But their income is greatest in the tribute that the Fins pay +them_. + +(6) The comparative is usually followed by #ðonne# and the nominative +case: #Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa ðonne ōðre hwalas#, _That whale is much +smaller than other whales_; #Ðā wunda ðæs mōdes bēoð dīgelran ðonne ðā +wunda ðæs līchaman#. _The wounds of the mind are more secret than the +wounds of the body_. + +But when #ðonne# is omitted, the comparative is followed by the dative: +#Ūre Ālīesend, ðe māra is ǫnd mǣrra eallum gesceaftum#, _Our Redeemer, +who is greater and more glorious than all created things_; #nē ongeat hē +nō hiene selfne bętran ōðrum gōdum mǫnnum#, _nor did he consider himself +better than other good men_. + + +#Adverbs.# + +97. (1) Adverbs are regularly compared by adding -or for the comparative +and -ost (rarely -est) for the superlative: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + georne, _willingly_ geornor geornost + swīðe, _very, swīðor, _more_ swīðost, _most, chiefly_ + severely_ + ǣr, _before_ ǣror, _formerly_ ǣrest, _first_ + norð, _northwards_ norðor norðmest[1] + +(2) The comparatives of a few adverbs may be found by dropping -ra of +the corresponding adjective form: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + lǫnge, _long_ lęng lęngest + micle, _much_ mā mǣst + wel, _well_ bęt bętst + + [Footnote 1: This is really a double superlative, m being itself + an old superlative suffix. _Cf._ Latin _opti-m-us_. In Mn.E. + _northmost_ and _hindmost_, _-m-est_ has been confused with + _-most_, with which etymologically it has nothing to do.] + + +#Expressions of Time.# + +98. (1) Duration of time and extent of space are usually expressed by +the accusative case: #Ealle ðā hwīle ðe ðæt līc bið inne#, _All the time +that the body is within_; #twēgen dagas#, _for two days_; #ealne weg#, +_all the way, always_. + +(2) Time when is more often expressed by the instrumental case when no +preposition is used: #ðȳ ilcan dæge#, _the same day_; #ǣlce gēare#, +_each year_; #ðȳ gēare#, _that year_; #ǣlce dæge#, _each day_. + +(3) Time or space within which is expressed by #on# and the dative: #on +sumera#, _in summer_; #on wintra#, _in winter_; #on fīf dagum#, _in five +days_; #on fīf mīlum#, _in five miles_; #on ðissum gēare#, _in this +year_; #on ðǣm tīman#, _in those times_. Sometimes by the genitive +without a preceding preposition: #ðǣs gēares#, _in that year_. + + +99. VOCABULARY. + + ðæt gefylce [folc], _troop, division_. + ðæt lǫnd (land), _land_. + sēo mīl, _mile_. + ōðer ... ōðer, _the one ... the other_; _the former ... the latter_. + sē sige, _victory_. + sige[2] habban, _to win (the) victory_. + sprecan, _to speak_. + ðæt swīn (swȳn), _swine, hog_. + wēste, _waste_. + + [Footnote 2: #Sige# usually, but not invariably, precedes + #habban#.] + + +100. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Hē hæfð ðrēo swīðe swift hors. 2. Ic hæbbe nigontīene scēap ǫnd mā +ðonne twēntig swīna. 3. Sēo gōde cwēn cīest twā hund mǫnna. 4. Uton +feohtan wið ðā Dęne mid ðrīm hunde scipa. 5. Ǫnd hīe wǣron on twǣm +gefylcum: on ōðrum wæs[3] Bāchsęcg ǫnd Halfdęne ðā hǣðnan cyningas, ǫnd +on ōðrum wǣron ðā eorlas. 6. Ðū spricst sōðlīce. 7. Ðonne rīt ǣlc mǫn +his weges. 8. Æfter mǫnigum dagum, hæfde Ælfred cyning[4] sige. 9. Ðis +lǫnd is wēste styccemǣlum. 10. Ðēs feld is fīftiges mīla brād. +11. Ælfred cyning hæfde mǫnige frīend, for ðǣm ðe hē wæs ǣgðer ge wīs ge +gōd. 12. Ðā hwalas, ðe ðū ymbe spricst, sind micle lǣssan ōðrum hwalum. +13. Hēo is ieldre ðonne hiere swuster, ac mīn brōðor is ieldra ðonne +hēo. 14. Wē cumað tō ðǣm tūne ǣlce gēare. 15. Ðā męn ðe ðā swiftostan +hors hǣfdon wǣron mid ðǣm Dęnum fēower dagas. + +II. 1. Our army (#werod#) was in two divisions: one was large, the other +was small. 2. The richest men in the kingdom have more (#mā#) than +thirty ships. 3. He was much wiser than his brother. 4. He fights +against the Northumbrians with two ships. 5. After three years King +Alfred gained the victory. 6. Whosoever chooses these gifts, chooses +well. 7. This man’s son is both wiser and better than his father. +8. When the king rides, then ride his thanes also. 9. The richest men +are not always (ā) the wisest men. + + [Footnote 3: See p. 100, note on #gefeaht#.] [[Linenote 100.8]] + + [Footnote 4: The proper noun comes first in appositive + expressions: #Ælfred cyning#, #Sidroc eorl#, #Hēahmund + bisceop#.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +STRONG VERBS: CLASS I. (See § 17.) + + +#Syntax of Moods.# + +101. Of the three hundred simple verbs belonging to the O.E. Strong +Conjugation, it is estimated[1] that seventy-eight have preserved their +strong inflections in Mn.E., that eighty-eight have become weak, and +that the remaining one hundred and thirty-four have entirely +disappeared, their places being taken in most cases by verbs of Latin +origin introduced through the Norman-French. + + NOTE.--Only the simple or primitive verbs, not the compound forms, + are here taken into consideration. The proportionate loss, + therefore, is really much greater. O.E. abounded in formative + prefixes. “Thus from the Anglo-Saxon #flōwan#, _to flow_, ten new + compounds were formed by the addition of various prefixes, of + which ten, only one, #oferflōwan#, _to overflow_, survives with + us. In a similar manner, from the verb #sittan#, _to sit_, + thirteen new verbs were formed, of which not a single one is to be + found to-day.” Lounsbury, _ib._ Part I, p. 107. + + [Footnote 1: Lounsbury, _English Language_, Part II, § 241.] + + +102. #Class I: The “Drive” Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: ī, ā, i, i. + + INFINITIVE. PRETERIT SING. PRETERIT PLUR. PAST PART. + + Drīf-an drāf drif-on gedrif-en, _to drive_. + + #Indicative.# #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic drīf-e _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū drīf-st (drīf-est) 2. ðū } drīf-e + 3. hē drīf-ð (drīf-eð) 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } (drīf-að) 2. gē } drīf-en + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic drāf _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū drif-e 2. ðū } drif-e + 3. hē drāf 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } drif-on 2. gē } drif-en + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + #Imperative.# #Infinitive.# #Present Participle.# + + _Sing._ 2. drīf drīf-an drīf-ende + _Plur._ 1. drīf-an + 2. drīf-að + + #Gerund.# #Past Participle.# + + tō drīf-anne (-enne) gedrif-en + + +#Tense Formation of Strong Verbs.# + +103. (1) It will be seen from the conjugation of #drīfan# that the +_present stem_ in all strong verbs is used throughout the present +indicative, the present subjunctive, the imperative, the infinitive, the +gerund, and the present participle. More than half of the endings, +therefore, of the Strong Conjugation are added directly to the present +stem. + +(2) That the _preterit singular stem_ is used in only two forms of the +verb, the 1st and 3d persons singular of the preterit indicative: #Ic +drāf#, #hē drāf#. + +(3) That the _preterit plural stem_ is used in the preterit plural +indicative, in the second person of the preterit singular indicative, +and in the singular and plural of the preterit subjunctive. + +(4) That the _stem of the past participle_ (#gedrif-#) is used for no +other form. + + +#Syntax of the Verb.# + +104. The Indicative Mood[2] represents the predicate _as a reality_. It +is used both in independent and in dependent clauses, its function in +O.E. corresponding with its function in Mn.E. + + [Footnote 2: Usage sanctions _mood_, but the better spelling + would be _mode_. It is from the Lat. _modus_, whereas _mood_ (= + _temper_) is O.E. _mōd_.] + + +105. The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicate _as an idea_.[3] It +is of far more frequent occurrence in O.E. than in Mn.E. + +1. When used in independent clauses it denotes desire, command, or +entreaty, and usually precedes its subject: #Sīe ðīn nama gehālgod#, +_Hallowed be Thy name_; #Ne swęrigen gē#, _Do not swear_. + +2. In dependent clauses it denotes uncertainty, possibility, or mere +futurity.[4] (_a_) Concessive clauses (introduced by #ðēah#, _though_) +and (_b_) temporal clauses (introduced by #ǣr#, #ǣr ðǣm ðe#, _before_) +are rarely found with any other mood than the subjunctive. The +subjunctive is also regularly used in Alfredian prose (_c_) after verbs +of saying, even when no suggestion of doubt or discredit attaches to the +narration.[5] “Whether the statement refer to a fact or not, whether the +subject-matter be vouched for by the reporter, as regards its objective +reality and truth, the subjunctive does not tell. It simply represents a +statement as reported”[6]: #ðēah man āsętte twēgen fǣtels full ealað +oððe wæteres#, _though one set two vessels full of ale or water_; #ǣr +ðǣm ðe hit eall forhęrgod wǣre#, _before it was all ravaged_; #Hē sǣde +ðæt Norðmanna land wǣre swȳðe lang and swȳðe smæl#, _He said that the +Norwegians’ land was very long and very narrow_. + + [Footnote 3: Gildersleeve’s _Latin Grammar_, § 255.] + + [Footnote 4: Thus when Alfred writes that an event took place + _before_ the founding of Rome, he uses the subjunctive: #ǣr ðǣm + ðe Rōmeburh getimbrod wǣre# = _before Rome were founded_; but, + #æfter ðǣm ðe Rōmeburh getimbrod wæs# = _after Rome was + founded_.] + + [Footnote 5: “By the time of Ælfric, however, the levelling + influence of the indicative [after verbs of saying] has made + considerable progress.”--Gorrell, _Indirect Discourse in + Anglo-Saxon_ (Dissertation, 1895), p. 101.] + + [Footnote 6: Hotz, _On the Use of the Subjunctive Mood in + Anglo-Saxon_ (Zürich, 1882).] + + +106. The Imperative is the mood of command or intercession: #Iōhannes, +cum tō mē#, _John, come to me_; #And forgyf ūs ūre gyltas#, _And forgive +us our trespasses_; #Ne drīf ūs fram ðē#, _Do not drive us from thee_. + + +107. (1) The Infinitive and Participles are used chiefly in verb-phrases +(§§ 138-141); but apart from this function, the Infinitive, being a +neuter noun, may serve as the subject or direct object of a verb. +#Hātan# (_to command, bid_), #lǣtan# (_to let, permit_), and onginnan +(_to begin_) are regularly followed by the Infinitive: #Hine rīdan +lyste#, _To ride pleased him_; #Hēt ðā bǣre sęttan#, _He bade set down +the bier_;[7] #Lǣtað ðā lȳtlingas tō mē cuman#, _Let the little ones +come to me_; #ðā ongann hē sprecan#, _then began he to speak_. + +(2) The Participles may be used independently in the dative absolute +construction (an imitation of the Latin ablative absolute), usually for +the expression of time:[8] #Him ðā gȳt sprecendum#, _While he was yet +speaking_; #gefylledum dagum#, _the days having been fulfilled_. + + [Footnote 7: Not, _He commanded the bier to be set down._ The + Mn.E. passive in such sentences is a loss both in force and + directness.] + + [Footnote 8: Callaway, _The Absolute Participle in Anglo-Saxon_ + (Dissertation, 1889), p. 19.] + + +108. The Gerund, or Gerundial Infinitive, is used: + +(1) To express purpose: #Ūt ēode sē sāwere his sǣd tō sāwenne#, _Out +went the sower his seed to sow_. + +(2) To expand or determine the meaning of a noun or adjective: #Sȳmōn, +ic hæbbe ðē tō sęcgenne sum ðing#, _Simon, I have something to say to +thee_; #Hit is scǫndlīc ymb swelc tō sprecanne#, _It is shameful to +speak about such things_. + +(3) After #bēon# (#wesan#) to denote duty or necessity: #Hwæt is nū mā +ymbe ðis tō sprecanne#, _What more is there now to say about this_? +#ðonne is tō geðęncenne hwaet Crīst self cwæð#, _then it behooves to +bethink what Christ himself said_. + + NOTE.--The Gerund is simply the dative case of the Infinitive + after #tō#. It began very early to supplant the simple Infinitive; + hence the use of _to_ with the Infinitive in Mn.E. As late as the + Elizabethan age the Gerund sometimes replaced the Infinitive even + after the auxiliary verbs: + + “Some pagan shore, + Where these two Christian armies _might combine_ + The blood of malice in a vein of league, + And not _to spend_ it so unneighbourly.” + _--King John_, V, ii, 39. + + When _to_ lost the meaning of purpose and came to be considered as + a merely formal prefix, _for_ was used to supplement the purpose + element: _What went ye out for to see_?[9] + + [Footnote 9: This is not the place to discuss the Gerund in + Mn.E., the so-called “infinitive in _-ing_.” The whole subject + has been befogged for the lack of an accepted nomenclature, one + that shall do violence neither to grammar nor to history.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +STRONG VERBS: CLASSES II AND III. + + +109. #Class II: The “Choose” Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: ēo, ēa, u, o. + + INFINITIVE.[1] PRET. SING. PRET. PLUR.[2] PAST PART.[2] + + cēos-an, cēas, cur-on gecor-en, _to choose_. + + #Indicative.# #Subjunctive#. + + PRESENT. PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic cēos-e _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū cīest (cēos-est) 2. ðū } cēos-e + 3. hē cīest (cēos-eð) 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } cēos-að 2. gē } cēos-en + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic cēas _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū cur-e 2. ðū } cur-e + 3. hē cēas 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } cur-on 2. gē } cur-en + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + #Imperative.# #Infinitive.# #Present Participle.# + + _Sing._ 2. cēos cēos-an cēos-ende + _Plur._ 1. cēos-an + 2. cēos-að + + #Gerund.# #Past Participle.# + + tō cēos-anne (-enne) gecor-en + + [Footnote 1: A few verbs of Class II have ū instead of ēo in the + infinitive: + + brūcan, brēac, brucon, gebrocen, _to enjoy_ [brook]. + būgan, bēag, bugon, gebogen, _to bend, bow_.] + + [Footnote 2: By a law known as Grammatical Change, final ð, s, + and h of strong verbs generally become d, r, and g, + respectively, in the preterit plural and past participle.] + + +110. #Class III: The “Bind” Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: {i,e}, a, u, {u,o}. + +The present stem ends in m, n, l, r, or h, + one or more consonants: + + m: belimp-an, { belǫmp }, belump-on, belump-en, _to belong_. + { belamp } + + n: bind-an, { bǫnd }, bund-on, gebund-en, _to bind_. + { band } + + l: help-an, healp, hulp-on, geholp-en, _to help_. + + r: weorð-an, wearð, wurd-on, geword-en, _to become_. + + h: gefeoht-an, gefeaht, gefuht-on, gefoht-en, _to fight_. + + NOTE 1.--If the present stem ends in a nasal (m, n) + a consonant, + the past participle retains the u of the pret. plur.; but if the + present stem ends in a liquid (l, r) or h, + a consonant, the past + participle has o instead of u. + + NOTE 2.--Why do we not find #*halp#, #*warð#, and #*faht# in the + pret. sing.? Because a before l, r, or h, + a consonant, underwent + “breaking” to ea. Breaking also changes every e followed by r or + h, + a consonant, to eo: #weorðan# (< #*werðan#), feohtan + (< #*fehtan#). + + +111. #Indicative.# #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic bind-e _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū bintst (bind-est) 2. ðū } bind-e + 3. hē bint (bind-eð) 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } bind-að 2. gē } bind-en + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic bǫnd _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū bund-e 2. ðū } bund-e + 3. hē bǫnd 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } bund-on 2. gē } bund-en + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + #Imperative.# #Infinitive.# #Present Participle.# + + _Sing._ 2. bind bind-an bind-ende + _Plur._ 1. bind-an + 2. bind-að + + #Gerund.# #Past Participle.# + + tō bind-anne (-enne) gebund-en + + +112. VOCABULARY. + + ðæt gefeoht, _fight, battle_. + sēo geręcednes, _narration_ [#ręccan#]. + ðæt gesceap, _creation_ [#scieppan#]. + sēo hęrgung (§ 39, (3)), _harrying, plundering_ [#hęrgian#]. + sē medu (medo) (§ 51), _mead_. + sēo meolc, _milk_. + sē middangeard, _world_ [middle-yard]. + sē munuc, _monk_ [monachus]. + sēo mȳre, mare [#mearh#]. + hē sǣde, _he said_. + hīe sǣdon, _they said_. + sēo spēd, _riches_ [speed]. + spēdig, _rich, prosperous_ [speedy]. + sēo tīd, _time_ [tide]. + unspēdig, _poor_. + sē westanwind, _west-wind_. + ðæt wīn, _wine_. + + ārīsan, ārās, ārison, ārisen, _to arise_. + bīdan, bād, bidon, gebiden, _to remain, expect_ + (with gen.) + drēogan,[3] drēag, drugon, gedrogen, _to endure, suffer_. + drincan, drǫnc, druncon, gedruncen, _to drink_. + findan, fǫnd, fundon, gefunden, _to find_. + geswīcan geswāc, geswicon, geswicen, _to cease, cease from_ + (with gen.) + iernan (yrnan), ǫrn, urnon, geurnen, _to run_. + onginnan, ongǫnn, ongunnon, ongunnen, _to begin_. + rīdan, rād, ridon, geriden, _to ride_. + singan, sǫng, sungon, gesungen, _to sing_. + wrītan, wrāt, writon, gewriten, _to write_. + + [Footnote 3: _Cf._ the Scotch “to _dree_ one’s weird” = _to + endure one’s fate_.] + + +113. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Æfter ðissum wordum, sē munuc wrāt ealle ðā geręcednesse on ānre +bēc. 2. Ðā eorlas ridon ūp ǣr ðǣm ðe ðā Dęne ðæs gefeohtes geswicen. +3. Cædmon sǫng ǣrest be middangeardes gesceape. 4. Sē cyning ǫnd ðā +rīcostan męn drincað mȳran meolc, ǫnd ðā unspēdigan drincað medu. 5. Ǫnd +hē ārās ǫnd sē wind geswāc. 6. Hīe sǣdon ðæt hīe ðǣr westwindes biden. +7. Hwæt is nū mā ymbe ðās ðing tō sprecanne? 8. Ðā sęcgas ongunnon +geswīcan ðǣre hęrgunga. 9. Ðā bēag ðæt lǫnd ðǣr ēastryhte, oððe sēo sǣ +in on ðæt lǫnd. 10. Ðās lǫnd belimpað tō, ðǣm Ęnglum. 11. Ðēah ðā Dęne +ealne dæg gefuhten, gīet hæfde Ælfred cyning sige. 12. Ǫnd ðæs +(afterwards) ymbe ānne mōnað gefeaht Ælfred cyning wið ealne ðone hęre +æt Wiltūne. + +II. 1. The most prosperous men drank mare’s milk and wine, but the poor +men drank mead. 2. I suffered many things before you began to help me +(dat.). 3. About two days afterwards (#Ðæs ymbe twēgen dagas#), the +plundering ceased. 4. The king said that he fought against all the army +(#hęre#). 5. Although the Danes remained one month (§ 98, (1)), they did +not begin to fight. 6. These gifts belonged to my brother. 7. The earls +were glad because their lord was (indicative) with them. 8. What did you +find? 9. Then wrote he about (#be#) the wise man’s deeds. 10. What more +is there to endure? + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +STRONG VERBS: CLASSES IV, V, VI, AND VII. + +CONTRACT VERBS. + +[The student can now complete the conjugation for himself (§ 103). Only +the principal parts will be given.] + + +114. #Class IV: The “Bear” Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: e, æ, ǣ, o. + +The present stem ends in l, r, or m, no consonant following: + + l: hel-an, hæl, hǣl-on, gehol-en, _to conceal_. + r: ber-an, bær, bǣr-on, gebor-en, _to bear_. + +The two following verbs are slightly irregular: + + m: { nim-an, nōm (nam), nōm-on (nām-on), genum-en, _to take_. + { cum-an, c(w)ōm, c(w)ōm-on, gecum-en, _to come_. + + +115. #Class V: The “Give” Conjugation.# + + Succession of Vowels: e (ie), æ, ǣ, e. + +The present stem ends in a single consonant, never a liquid or nasal: + + met-an, mæt, mǣton, gemet-en, _to measure, mete_. + gief-an, geaf, gēaf-on, gegief-en, _to give_. + + NOTE 1.--The palatal consonants, g, c, and sc, convert a following + e into ie, æ into ea, and ǣ into ēa. Hence #giefan# (< #*gefan#), + #geaf# (< #*gæf#), #gēafon# (< #*gǣfon#), #gegiefen# (< #*gegefen#). + This change is known as Palatalization. See § 8. + + NOTE 2.--The infinitives of the following important verbs are only + apparently exceptional: + + biddan, bæd, bǣd-on, gebed-en, _to ask for_ [bid]. + licgan, læg, lǣg-on, geleg-en, _to lie, extend_. + sittan, sæt, sǣt-on, geset-en, _to sit_. + +The original e reappears in the participial stems. It was changed to i +in the present stems on account of a former -jan in the infinitive +(#bid-jan#, etc.). See § 61. To the same cause is due the doubling of +consonants in the infinitive. All simple consonants in O.E., with the +exception of r, were doubled after a short vowel, when an original j +followed. + + +116. #Class VI: The “Shake” Conjugation.# + + Succession of Vowels: a, ō, ō, a. + + scac-an, scōc, scōc-on, gescac-en, _to shake_. + far-an, fōr, fōr-on, gefar-en, _to go_ [fare]. + + +117. #Class VII: The “Fall” Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: {ā,ǣ}, ē, ē, {ā,ǣ}; + or {ea,ēa,ō}, ēo, ēo, {ea,ēa,ō}. + + + (1) hāt-an, hēt, hēt-on, gehāt-en, _to call, name, + command_. + lǣt-an, lēt, lēt-on, gelǣt-en, _to let_. + + (2) feall-an, fēoll, fēoll-on, gefeall-en, _to fall_. + heald-an, hēold, hēold-on, geheald-en, _to hold_. + hēaw-an, hēow, hēow-on, gehēaw-en, _to hew_. + grōw-an, grēow, grēow-on, gegrōw-en, _to grow_. + + NOTE 1.--This class consists of the Reduplicating Verbs; that is, + those verbs that originally formed their preterits not by internal + vowel change (ablaut), but by prefixing to the present stem the + initial consonant + e (_cf._ Gk. λέ-λοιπα and Lat. _dĕ-di_). + Contraction then took place between the syllabic prefix and the + root, the fusion resulting in ē or ēo: #*he-hat# > #heht# > #hēt#. + + NOTE 2.--A peculiar interest attaches to #hātan#: the forms + #hātte# and #hātton# are the sole remains in O.E. of the original + Germanic passive. They are used both as presents and as preterits: + #hātte# = _I am_ or _was called_, _he is_ or _was called_. No + other verb in O.E. could have a passive sense without calling in + the aid of the verb _to be_ (§ 141). + + +#Contract Verbs.# + +118. The few Contract Verbs found in O.E. do not constitute a new class; +they fall under Classes I, II, V, VI, and VII, already treated. The +present stem ended originally in h. This was lost before -an of the +infinitive, contraction and compensatory lengthening being the result. +The following are the most important of these verbs: + + Classes. + + I. ðēon (< *ðīhan), ðāh, ðig-on, { geðig-en }, _to thrive_. + { geðung-en } + II. tēon (< *tēohan), tēah, tug-on, getog-en, _to draw, go_ + [tug]. + V. sēon (< *sehwan), seah, sāw-on, gesew-en, _to see_. + VI. slēan (< *slahan), slōh, slōg-on, geslæg-en, _to slay_. + VII. fōn (< *fōhan), fēng, fēng-on, gefǫng-en, _to seize_ + [fang]. + + +119. The Present Indicative of these verbs runs as follows (see rules of +i-umlaut, § 58): + + _Sing._ 1. Ic ðēo tēo sēo slēa fō + 2. ðū ðīhst tīehst siehst sliehst fēhst + 3. hē ðīhð tīehð siehð sliehð fēhð + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } ðēoð tēoð sēoð slēað fōð + 3. hīe } + +The other tenses and moods are regularly formed from the given stems. + + +120. VOCABULARY. + + sēo ǣht, _property, possession_ [#āgan#]. + aweg, _away_ [#on weg#]. + sēo fierd, _English army_ [#faran#]. + sē hęre, _Danish army_ [#hęrgian#]. + on gehwæðre hǫnd, _on both sides_. + sige niman (= sige habban), _to win (the) victory_. + sēo sprǣc, _speech, language_. + tō rīce fōn, _to come to the throne_.[1] + ðæt wæl [Val-halla] } _slaughter, carnage_. + sē wælsliht, } + sē weall, _wall, rampart_. + ðæt wildor, _wild beast, reindeer_. + sē wīngeard, _vineyard_. + + ābrecan,[2] ābræc, ābrǣcon, ābrocen, _to break down_. + cweðan, cwæð, cwǣdon, gecweden, _to say_ [quoth]. + gesēon, geseah, gesāwon, gesewen, _to see_. + grōwan, grēow, grēowon, gegrōwen, _to grow_. + ofslēan, ofslōh, ofslōgon, ofslægen, _to slay_. + sprecan, spræc, sprǣcon, gesprecen, _to speak_. + stelan, stæl, stǣlon, gestolen, _to steal_. + stǫndan, stōd, stōdon, gestǫnden, _to stand_. + weaxan, wēox, wēoxon, geweaxen, _to grow, increase_ [wax]. + + [Footnote 1: Literally, _to take to (the) kingdom_. _Cf._ + “Have you anything to take to?” (_Two Gentlemen of Verona_, + IV, i, 42).] + + [Footnote 2: #Brecan# belongs properly in Class V, but it has + been drawn into Class IV possibly through the influence of the r + in the root.] + + +121. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Æfter ðǣm sōðlīce (indeed) ealle męn sprǣcon āne (one) sprǣce. +2. Ǫnd hē cwæð: “Ðis is ān folc, ǫnd ealle hīe sprecað āne sprǣce.” +3. On sumum stōwum wīngeardas grōwað. 4. Hē hēt ðā nǣdran ofslēan. 5. Ðā +Ęngle ābrǣcon ðone lǫngan weall, ǫnd sige nōmon. 6. Ǫnd ðæt sǣd grēow +ǫnd wēox. 7. Ic ne geseah ðone mǫn sē ðe ðæs cnapan adesan stæl. 8. Hē +wæs swȳðe spēdig man on ðǣm ǣhtum ðe hiera spēda on[3] bēoð, ðæt is, on +wildrum. 9. Ǫnd ðǣr wearð (was) micel wælsliht on gehwæðre hǫnd. 10. Ǫnd +æfter ðissum gefeohte cōm Ælfred cyning mid his fierde, ǫnd gefeaht wið +ealne ðone hęre, ǫnd sige nōm. 11. Ðēos burg hātte[4] Æscesdūn +(Ashdown). 12. Ðǣre cwēne līc læg on ðǣm hūse. 13. Ǫnd sē dǣl ðe ðǣr +aweg cōm wæs swȳðe lȳtel. 14. Ǫnd ðæs ðrēotīene dagas Æðered tō rīce +fēng. + +II. 1. The men stood in the ships and fought against the Danes. +2. Before the thanes came, the king rode away. 3. They said (#sǣdon#) +that all the men spoke one language. 4. They bore the queen’s body to +Wilton. 5. Alfred gave many gifts to his army (dat. without #tō#) before +he went away. 6. These men are called earls. 7. God sees all things. +8. The boy held the reindeer with (#mid#) his hands. 9. About six months +afterwards, Alfred gained the victory, and came to the throne. 10. He +said that there was very great slaughter on both sides. + + [Footnote 3: See § 94, (5).] + + [Footnote 4: See § 117, Note 2.] + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +WEAK VERBS (§ 18). + + +122. The verbs belonging to the Weak Conjugation are generally of more +recent origin than the strong verbs, being frequently formed from the +roots of strong verbs. The Weak Conjugation was the growing conjugation +in O.E. as it is in Mn.E. We instinctively put our newly coined or +borrowed words into this conjugation (_telegraphed_, _boycotted_); and +children, by the analogy of weak verbs, say _runned_ for _ran_, _seed_ +for _saw_, _teared_ for _tore_, _drawed_ for _drew_, and _growed_ for +_grew_. So, for example, when Latin _dictāre_ and _breviāre_ came into +O.E., they came as weak verbs, #dihtian# and #brēfian#. + + +#The Three Classes of Weak Verbs.# + +123. There is no difficulty in telling, from the infinitive alone, to +which of the three classes a weak verb belongs. Class III has been so +invaded by Class II that but three important verbs remain to it: +#habban#, _to have_; #libban#, _to live_; and #sęcgan#, _to say_. +Distinction is to be made, therefore, only between Classes II and I. +Class II contains the verbs with infinitive in -ian not preceded +by r. Class I contains the remaining weak verbs; that is, those with +infinitive in #-r-ian# and those with infinitive in -an (not -ian). + + +#Class I.# + +124. The preterit singular and past participle of Class I end in -ede +and -ed, or -de and -ed respectively. + + NOTE.--The infinitives of this class ended originally in -jan (= + -ian). This accounts for the prevalence of i-umlaut in these + verbs, and also for the large number of short-voweled stems ending + in a double consonant (§ 115, Note 2). The weak verb is frequently + the causative of the corresponding strong verb. In such cases, the + root of the weak verb corresponds in form to the preterit singular + of the strong verb: Mn.E. _drench_ (= _to make drink_), _lay_ (= + _to make lie_), _rear_ (= _to make rise_), and _set_ (= _to make + sit_), are the umlauted forms of #drǫnc# (preterit singular of + #drincan#), #læg# (preterit singular of #licgan#), #rās# (preterit + singular of #rīsan#), and #sæt# (preterit singular of #sittan#). + + +#Preterit and Past Participle in _-ede_ and _-ed_.# + +125. Verbs with infinitive in -an preceded by ri- or the double +consonants mm, nn, ss, bb, cg (= gg), add -ede for the preterit, and -ed +for the past participle, the double consonant being always made single: + + ri: nęri-an, nęr-ede, genęr-ed, _to save_. + mm: fręmm-an, fręm-ede, gefręm-ed, _to perform_ [frame]. + nn: ðęnn-an, ðęn-ede, geðęn-ed, _to extend_. + ss: cnyss-an, cnys-ede, gecnys-ed, _to beat_. + bb: swębb-an, swęf-ede, geswęf-ed, _to put to sleep_. + cg: węcg-an, węg-ede, gewęg-ed, _to agitate_. + + NOTE.--#Lęcgan#, _to lay_, is the only one of these verbs that + syncopates the e: #lęcgan#, #lęgde# (#lēde#), #gelęgd# (#gelēd#), + instead of #lęgede#, #gelęged#. + + +#Preterit and Past Participle in _-de_ and _-ed_.# + +126. All the other verbs belonging to Class I. add -de for the preterit +and -ed for the past participle. This division includes, therefore, all +stems long by nature (§ 10, (3), (_a_)): + + dǣl-an, dǣl-de, gedǣl-ed, _to deal out, divide_ [dǣl]. + dēm-an, dēm-de, gedēm-ed, _to judge_ [dōm]. + grēt-an, grēt-te, gegrēt-ed, _to greet_. + hīer-an, hīer-de, gehīer-ed, _to hear_. + lǣd-an, lǣd-de, gelǣd-ed, _to lead_. + + NOTE 1.--A preceding voiceless consonant (§ 9, Note) changes -de + into -te: #*grēt-de# > #grēt-te#; #*mēt-de# > #mēt-te#; #*īec-de# + > #īec-te#. Syncope and contraction are also frequent in the + participles: #gegrēt-ed# > #*gegrēt-d# > #gegrēt(t)#; #gelǣd-ed# > + #gelǣd(d)#. + + NOTE 2.--#Būan#, _to dwell, cultivate_, has an admixture of + strong forms in the past participle: #būan#, #būde#, #gebūd# + (#bȳn#, #gebūn#). The present participle survives in Mn.E. + _husband_ = _house-dweller_. + + +127. It includes, also, all stems long by position (§ 10, (3), (_b_)) +except those in mm, nn, ss, bb, and cg (§ 125): + + sęnd-an, sęnd-e, gesęnd-ed, _to send_. + sętt-an, sęt-te, gesęt-ed, _to set_ [sittan]. + sigl-an, sigl-de, gesigl-ed, _to sail_. + spęnd-an, spęnd-e, gespęnd-ed, _to spend_. + trędd-an, tręd-de, getręd-ed, _to tread_. + + NOTE.--The participles frequently undergo syncope and contraction: + #gesęnded# > #gesęnd#; #gesęted# > #gesęt(t)#; #gespęnded# > + #gespęnd#; #getręded# > #getręd(d)#. + + +#Irregular Verbs of Class I.# + +128. There are about twenty verbs belonging to Class I that are +irregular in having no umlaut in the preterit and past participle. The +preterit ends in -de, the past participle in -d; but, through the +influence of a preceding voiceless consonant (§ 9, Note), -ed is +generally unvoiced to -te, and -d to -t. The most important of these +verbs are as follows: + + bring-an, brōh-te, gebrōh-t, _to bring_. + byc-gan, boh-te, geboh-t, _to buy_. + sēc-an, sōh-te, gesōh-t, _to seek_. + sęll-an, seal-de, geseal-d, _to give, sell_ [hand-sel]. + tǣc-an, tǣh-te, getǣh-t, _to teach_. + tęll-an, teal-de, geteal-d, _to count_ [tell]. + ðęnc-an, ðōh-te, geðōh-t, _to think_. + ðync-an, ðūh-te, geðūh-t, _to seem_ [methinks]. + wyrc-an, worh-te, geworh-t, _to work_. + + NOTE.--Such of these verbs as have stems in c or g are frequently + written with an inserted e: #bycgean#, #sēcean#, #tǣcean#, etc. + This e indicates that c and g have palatal value; that is, are to + be followed with a vanishing y-sound. In such cases, O.E. c + usually passes into Mn.E. _ch_: #tǣc(e)an# > _to teach_; + #rǣc(e)an# > _to reach_; #stręcc(e)an# > _to stretch_. #Sēc(e)an# + gives _beseech_ as well as _seek_. See § 8. + + +#Conjugation of Class I.# + +129. Paradigms of #nęrian#, _to save_; #fręmman#, _to perform_; #dǣlan#, +_to divide_: + + #Indicative.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic nęrie fręmme dǣle + 2. ðū nęrest fręmest dǣlst + 3. hē nęreð fręmeð dǣlð + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } nęriað fręmmað dǣlað + 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic nęrede fręmede dǣlde + 2. ðū nęredest fręmedest dǣldest + 3. hē nęrede fręmede dǣlde + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } nęredon fręmedon dǣldon + 3. hīe } + + #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } nęrie fręmme dǣle + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } nęrien fręmmen dǣlen + 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } nęrede fręmede dǣlde + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } nęreden fręmeden dǣlden + 3. hīe } + + #Imperative.# + + _Sing._ 2. nęre fręme dǣl + + _Plur._ 1. nęrian fręmman dǣlan + 2. nęriað fręmmað dǣlað + + #Infinitive.# + + nęrian fręmman dǣlan + + #Gerund.# + + tō nęrianne (-enne) tō fręmmanne (-enne) tō dǣlanne (-enne) + + #Present Participle.# + + nęriende fręmmende dǣlende + + #Past Participle.# + + genęred gefręmed gedǣled + + NOTE.--The endings of the preterit present no difficulties; in the + 2d and 3d singular present, however, the student will observe + (_a_) that double consonants in the stem are made single: + #fręmest#, #fręmeð# (not #*freęmmest#, #*freęmmeð#); #ðęnest#, + #ðęneð#; #sętest# (#sętst#), #seęteð# (#sętt#); #fylst#, #fylð#, + from #fyllan#, _to fill_; (_b_) that syncope is the rule in stems + long by nature: #dǣlst# (< #dǣlest#), #dǣlð# (< #dǣleð#); #dēmst# + (< #dēmest#), #dēmð# (< #dēmeð#); #hīerst# (< #hīerest#), #hīerð# + (< #hīereð#). Double consonants are also made single in the + imperative 2d singular and in the past participle. Stems long by + nature take no final -e in the imperative: #dǣl#, #hīer#, #dēm#. + + +#Class II.# + +130. The infinitive of verbs belonging to this class ends in -ian (not +#-r-ian#), the preterit singular in -ode, the past participle in -od. +The preterit plural usually has #-edon#, however, instead of #-odon#: + + eard-ian, eard-ode, geeard-od, _to dwell_ [eorðe]. + luf-ian, luf-ode, geluf-od, _to love_ [lufu]. + rīcs-ian, rīcs-ode, gerīcs-od, _to rule_ [rīce]. + sealf-ian, sealf-ode, gesealf-od, _to anoint_ [salve]. + segl-ian, segl-ode, gesegl-od, _to sail_ [segel]. + + NOTE.--These verbs have no trace of original umlaut, since their + -ian was once #-ōjan#. Hence, the vowel of the stem was shielded + from the influence of the j (= i) by the interposition of ō. + + +#Conjugation of Class II.# + +131. Paradigm of #lufian#, _to love_: + + #Indicative.# #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic lufie _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðu lufast 2. ðū } lufie + 3. hē lufað 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } lufiað 2. gē } lufien + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic lufode _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū lufodest 2. ðū } lufode + 3. hē lufode 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } lufedon (-odon) 2. gē } lufeden (-oden) + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + + #Imperative.# #Infinitive.# #Present Participle.# + + _Sing._ 2. lufa lufian lufiende + _Plur._ 1. lufian + 2. lufiað + + #Gerund.# #Past Participle.# + + tō lufianne (-enne) gelufod + + NOTE 1.--The -ie (-ien) occurring in the present must be + pronounced as a dissyllable. The y-sound thus interposed between + the i and e is frequently indicated by the letter g: #lufie#, or + #lufige#; #lufien#, or #lufigen#. So also for ia: #lufiað#, or + #lufigað#; #lufian#, or #lufig(e)an#. + + NOTE 2.--In the preterit singular, -ade, -ude, and -ede are not + infrequent for -ode. + + +#Class III.# + +132. The few verbs belonging here show a blending of Classes I and II. +Like certain verbs of Class I (§ 128), the preterit and past participle +are formed by adding -de and -d; like Class II, the 2d and 3d present +indicative singular end in -ast and -að, the imperative 2d singular in +-a: + + habb-an, hæf-de, gehæf-d, _to have_. + libb-an, lif-de, gelif-d, _to live_. + sęcg-an, sǣd-e (sæg-de), gesǣd (gesæg-d), _to say_. + + +#Conjugation of Class III.# + +133. Paradigms of #habban#, _to have_; #libban#, _to live_; #sęcgan#, +_to say_. + + #Indicative.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hæbbe libbe sęcge + 2. ðū hæfst (hafast) lifast sægst (sagast) + 3. hē hæfð (hafað) lifað sægð (sagað) + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } habbað libbað sęcgað + 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hæfde lifde sǣde + 2. ðū hæfdest lifdest sǣdest + 3. hē hæfde lifde sǣde + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } hæfdon lifdon sǣdon + 3. hīe } + + #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } hæbbe libbe sęcge + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } hæbben libben sęcgen + 3. hīe } + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } hæfde lifde sǣde + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } hæfden lifden sǣden + 3. hīe } + + #Imperative.# + + _Sing._ 2. hafa lifa saga + _Plur._ 1. habban libban sęcgan + 2. habbað libbað sęcgað + + #Infinitive.# + + habban libban sęcgan + + #Gerund.# + + tō habbanne (-enne) tō libbanne (-enne) tō sęcganne (-enne) + + #Present Participle.# + + hæbbende libbende sęcgende + + #Past Participle.# + + gehæfd gelifd gesǣd + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +REMAINING VERBS; VERB-PHRASES WITH #habban#, #bēon#, AND #weorðan#. + + +#Anomalous Verbs.# (See § 19.) + +134. These are: + + bēon (wesan), wæs, wǣron, ----, _to be_. + willan, wolde, woldon, ----, _to will, intend_. + dōn, dyde, dydon, gedōn, _to do, cause_. + gān, ēode, ēodon, gegān, _to go_. + + NOTE.--In the original Indo-Germanic language, the first person + of the present indicative singular ended in (1) ō or (2) mi. + _Cf._ Gk. λύ-ω, εἰ-μί, Lat. _am-ō_, _su-m_. The Strong and Weak + Conjugations of O.E. are survivals of the ō-class. The four + Anomalous Verbs mentioned above are the sole remains in O.E. of + the mi-class. Note the surviving m in #eom# _I am_, and #dōm# _I + do_ (Northumbrian form). These mi-verbs are sometimes called + non-Thematic to distinguish them from the Thematic or ō-verbs. + + +#Conjugation of Anomalous Verbs.# + +135. Only the present indicative and subjunctive are at all irregular: + + #Indicative.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic eom (bēom) wille dō gā + 2. ðū eart (bist) wilt dēst gǣst + 3. hē is (bið) wille dēð gǣð + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } sind(on) willað dōð gāð + 3. hīe } + + #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } sīe wille dō gā + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } sīen willen dōn gān + 3. hīe } + + NOTE.--The preterit subjunctive of #bēon# is formed, of course, + not from #wæs#, but from #wǣron#. See § 103, (3). + + +#Preterit-Present Verbs.# (See § 19.) + +136. These verbs are called Preterit-Present because the present tense +(indicative and subjunctive) of each of them is, in form, a strong +preterit, the old present having been displaced by the new. They all +have weak preterits. Most of the Mn.E. Auxiliary Verbs belong to this +class. + + witan, { wiste, } wiston, gewiten, _to know_ + { wisse, } [to wit, wot]. + āgan, āhte, āhton, āgen (adj.), _to possess_ [owe]. + cunnan, cūðe, cūðon, { gecunnen, } _to know_, _can_ + { cūð (adj.), } [uncouth, cunning]. + durran, dorste, dorston, ---- _to dare_. + sculan, sceolde, sceoldon, ---- _shall_. + magan, { meahte, meahton, } ---- _to be able_, _may_. + { mihte, mihton, } + mōtan, mōste, mōston, ---- _may_, _must_. + + NOTE.--The change in meaning from preterit to present, with + retention of the preterit form, is not uncommon in other + languages. Several examples are found in Latin and Greek + (cf. _nōvi_ and οἶδα, _I know_). Mn.E. has gone further still: + #āhte# and #mōste#, which had already suffered the loss of their + old preterits (#āh#, #mōt#), have been forced back again into the + present (_ought_, _must_). Having exhausted, therefore, the only + means of preterit formation known to Germanic, the strong and the + weak, it is not likely that either _ought_ or _must_ will ever + develop distinct preterit forms. + + +#Conjugation of Preterit-Present Verbs.# + +137. The irregularities occur in the present indicative and subjunctive: + + #Indicative.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic wāt āh cǫn (can) + 2. ðū wāst āhst cǫnst (canst) + 3. hē wāt āh cǫn (can) + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } witon āgon cunnon + 3. hīe } + + _Sing._ 1. Ic dear sceal mæg mōt + 2. ðū dearst scealt meaht mōst + 3. hē dear sceal mæg mōt + + _Plur._ 1. wē + 2. gē durron sculon magon mōton + 3. hīe + + #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } wite āge cunne + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } witen āgen cunnen + 3. hīe } + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. ðū } durre scule (scyle) mæge mōte + 3. hē } + + _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } durren sculen (scylen) mægen mōten + 3. hīe } + + NOTE 1.--#Willan# and #sculan# do not often connote simple + futurity in Early West Saxon, yet they were fast drifting that + way. The Mn.E. use of _shall_ only with the 1st person and _will_ + only with the 2d and 3d, to express simple futurity, was wholly + unknown even in Shakespeare’s day. The elaborate distinctions + drawn between these words by modern grammarians are not only + cumbersome and foreign to the genius of English, but equally + lacking in psychological basis. + + NOTE 2.--#Sculan# originally implied the idea of (1) _duty_, or + _compulsion_ (= _ought to_, or _must_), and this conception lurks + with more or less prominence in almost every function of #sculan# + in O.E.: #Dryhten bebēad Moyse hū hē sceolde beran ðā earce#, _The + Lord instructed Moses how he ought to bear the ark_; #Ǣlc mann + sceal be his andgietes mǣðe ... sprecan ðæt he spricð, and dōn ðæt + ðæt hē dēð#, _Every man must, according to the measure of his + intelligence, speak what he speaks, and do what he does_. Its next + most frequent use is to express (2) _custom_, the transition from + the obligatory to the customary being an easy one: #Sē byrdesta + sceall gyldan fīftȳne mearðes fell#, _The man of highest rank pays + fifteen marten skins_. + + NOTE 3.--#Willan# expressed originally (1) _pure volition_, and + this is its most frequent use in O.E. It may occur without the + infinitive: #Nylle ic ðæs synfullan dēað, ac ic wille ðæt hē + gecyrre and lybbe#, _I do not desire the sinner’s death, but I + desire that he return and live_. The wish being father to the + intention, #willan# soon came to express (2) _purpose_: #Hē sǣde + ðæt hē at sumum cirre wolde fandian hū longe ðæt land norðryhte + lǣge#, _He said that he intended, at some time, to investigate how + far that land extended northward_. + + +#Verb-Phrases with _habban_, _bēon_ (_wesan_), and _weorðan_.# + +_Verb-Phrases in the Active Voice._ + +138. The present and preterit of #habban#, combined with a past +participle, are used in O.E., as in Mn.E., to form the present perfect +and past perfect tenses: + + PRESENT PERFECT. PAST PERFECT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hæbbe gedrifen _Sing._ 1. Ic hæfde gedrifen + 2. ðū hæfst gedrifen 2. ðū hæfdest gedrifen + 3. hē hæfð gedrifen 3. hē hæfde gedrifen + + PRESENT PERFECT. PAST PERFECT. + + _Plur._ 1. wē } _Plur._ 1. wē } + 2. gē } habbað gedrifen 2. gē } hæfdon gedrifen + 3. hīe } 3. hīe } + +The past participle is not usually inflected to agree with the direct +object: #Norðymbre ǫnd Ēastęngle hæfdon Ælfrede cyninge āðas geseald# +(not #gesealde#, § 82), _The Northumbrians and East Anglians had given +king Alfred oaths_; #ǫnd hæfdon miclne dǣl ðāra horsa freten# (not +#fretenne#), _and (they) had devoured a large part of the horses_. + + NOTE.--Many sentences might be quoted in which the participle does + agree with the direct object, but there seems to be no clear line + of demarcation between them and the sentences just cited. + Originally, the participle expressed a _resultant state_, and + belonged in sense more to the object than to #habban#; but in + Early West Saxon #habban# had already, in the majority of cases, + become a pure auxiliary when used with the past participle. This + is conclusively proved by the use of #habban# with intransitive + verbs. In such a clause, therefore, as #oð ðæt hīe hine ofslægenne + hæfdon#, there is no occasion to translate _until they had him + slain_ (= _resultant state_); the agreement here is more probably + due to the proximity of #ofslægenne# to #hine#. So also #ac hī + hæfdon þā hiera stemn gesętenne#, _but they had already served + out_ (_sat out_) _their military term_. + + +139. If the verb is intransitive, and denotes _a change of condition_, +_a departure or arrival_, #bēon# (#wesan#) usually replaces #habban#. +The past participle, in such cases, partakes of the nature of an +adjective, and generally agrees with the subject: #Mīne welan þe ic īo +hæfde syndon ealle gewitene ǫnd gedrorene#, _My possessions which I once +had are all departed and fallen away_; #wǣron þā męn uppe on lǫnde of +āgāne#, _the men had gone up ashore_; #ǫnd þā ōþre wǣron hungre +ācwolen#, _and the others had perished of hunger_; #ǫnd ēac sē micla +hęre wæs þā þǣr tō cumen#, _and also the large army had then arrived +there_. + + +140. A progressive present and preterit (not always, however, with +distinctively progressive meanings) are formed by combining a present +participle with the present and preterit of #bēon# (#wesan#). The +participle remains uninflected: #ǫnd hīe alle on ðone cyning wǣrun +feohtende#, _and they all were fighting against the king_; #Symle hē bið +lōciende, nē slǣpð hē nǣfre#, _He is always looking, nor does He ever +sleep_. + + NOTE.--In most sentences of this sort, the subject is masculine + (singular or plural); hence no inference can be made as to + agreement, since -e is the participial ending for both numbers of + the nominative masculine (§ 82). By analogy, therefore, the other + genders usually conform in inflection to the masculine: #wǣron þā + ealle þā dēoflu clypigende ānre stefne#, _then were all the devils + crying with one voice_. + + +_Verb-Phrases in the Passive Voice._ + +141. Passive constructions are formed by combining #bēon# (#wesan#) or +#weorðan# with a past participle. The participle agrees regularly with +the subject: #hīe wǣron benumene ǣgðer ge þæs cēapes ge þæs cornes#, +_they were deprived both of the cattle and the corn_; #hī bēoð āblęnde +mid ðǣm þīostrum heora scylda#, _they are blinded with the darkness of +their sins_; #and sē wælhrēowa Domiciānus on ðām ylcan gēare wearð +ācweald#, _and the murderous Domitian was killed in the same year_; #ǫnd +Æþelwulf aldormǫn wearð ofslægen#, _and Æthelwulf, alderman, was slain_. + + NOTE 1.--To express agency, Mn.E. employs _by_, rarely _of_; M.E. + _of_, rarely _by_; O.E. #frǫm# (#fram#), rarely #of#: #Sē ðe Godes + bebodu ne gecnǣwð, ne bið hē oncnāwen frǫm Gode#, _He who does not + recognise God’s commands, will not be recognized by God_; #Betwux + þǣm wearð ofslagen Ēadwine ... fram Brytta cyninge#, _Meanwhile, + Edwin was slain by the king of the Britons_. + + NOTE 2.--O.E. had no progressive forms for the passive, and could + not, therefore, distinguish between _He is being wounded_ and _He + is wounded_. It was not until more than a hundred years after + Shakespeare’s death that _being_ assumed this function. #Weorðan#, + which originally denoted _a passage from one state to another_, + was ultimately driven out by #bēon# (#wesan#), and survives now + only in _Woe worth_ (= _be to_). + + +142. VOCABULARY. + + ðā Beormas, _Permians_. + ðā Dęeniscan, _the Danish (men), Danes_. + ðā Finnas, _Fins_. + ðæt gewald, _control_ [#wealdan#]. + sēo sǣ, _sea_. + sēo scīr, _shire, district_. + sēo wælstōw, _battle-field_. + āgan wælstōwe gewald, _to maintain possession of the battle-field_. + sē wealdend, _ruler, wielder_. + + geflīeman, geflīemde, geflīemed, _to put to flight_. + gestaðelian, gestaðelode, gestaðelod, _to establish, restore_. + gewissian, gewissode, gewissod, _to guide, direct_. + wīcian, wīcode, gewīcod, _to dwell_ [wīc = village]. + + +143. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Ǫnd ðær wæs micel wæl geslægen on gehwæþre hǫnd, ǫnd Æþelwulf +ealdormǫn wearþ ofslægen; ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe gewald. 2. Ǫnd +þæs ymb ānne mōnaþ gefeaht Ælfred cyning wiþ ealne þone hęre ond hine +geflīemde. 3. Hē sǣde þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang norþ þǫnan. 4. Þā +Beormas hæfdon swīþe wel gebūd (§ 126, Note 2) hiera land. 5. Ohthęre +sǣde þæt sēo scīr hātte (§ 117, Note 2) Hālgoland, þe hē on (§ 94, (5)) +būde. 6. Þā Finnas wīcedon be þǣre sǣ. 7. Dryhten, ælmihtiga (§ 78, +Note) God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra gesceafta, ic bidde ðē for ðīnre +miclan mildheortnesse ðæt ðū mē gewissie tō ðīnum willan; and gestaðela +mīn mōd tō ðīnum willan and tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe. 8. Þā sceolde hē ðǣr +bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt land bēag þǣr sūðryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ +in on ðæt land, hē nysse hwæðer. 9. For ðȳ, mē ðyncð bętre, gif ēow swā +ðyncð, ðæt wē ēac ðās bēc on ðæt geðēode węnden ðe wē ealle gecnāwan +mægen. + +II. 1. When the king heard that, he went (= then went he) westward with +his army to Ashdown. 2. Lovest thou me more than these? 3. The men said +that the shire which they lived in was called Halgoland. 4. All things +were made (#wyrcan#) by God. 5. They were fighting for two days with +(= against) the Danes. 6. King Alfred fought with the Danes, and gained +the victory; but the Danes retained possession of the battle-field. +7. These men dwelt in England before they came hither. 8. I have not +seen the book of (#ymbe#) which you speak (#sprecan#). + + + + +PART III. + + +SELECTIONS FOR READING. + + + + +PROSE. + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +I. #The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.# + +This famous work, a series of progressive annals by unknown hands, +embraces a period extending from Cæsar’s invasion of England to 1154. It +is not known when or where these annals began to be recorded in +English. + +“The annals from the year 866--that of Ethelred’s ascent of the +throne--to the year 887 seem to be the work of one mind. Not a single +year is passed over, and to several is granted considerable space, +especially to the years 871, 878, and 885. The whole has gained a +certain roundness and fulness, because the events--nearly all of them +episodes in the ever-recurring conflict with the Danes--are taken in +their connection, and the thread dropped in one year is resumed in the +next. Not only is the style in itself concise; it has a sort of nervous +severity and pithy rigor. The construction is often antiquated, and +suggests at times the freedom of poetry; though this purely historical +prose is far removed from poetry in profusion of language.” (Ten Brink, +_Early Eng. Lit._, I.) + + +II. #The Translations of Alfred.# + +Alfred’s reign (871-901) may be divided into four periods. The _first_, +the period of Danish invasion, extends from 871 to 881; the _second_, +the period of comparative quiet, from 881 to 893; the _third_, the +period of renewed strife (beginning with the incursions of Hasting), +from 893 to 897; the _fourth_, the period of peace, from 897 to 901. His +literary work probably falls in the second period.[A] + +The works translated by Alfred from Latin into the vernacular were +(1) _Consolation of Philosophy_ (_De Consolatione Philosophiae_) by +Boëthius (475-525), (2) _Compendious History of the World_ (_Historiarum +Libri VII_) by Orosius (c. 418), (3) _Ecclesiastical History of the +English_ (_Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_) by Bede (672-735), +and (4) _Pastoral Care_ (_De Cura Pastorali_) by Pope Gregory the Great +(540-604). + + The chronological sequence of these works is wholly unknown. That + given is supported by Turner, Arend, Morley, Grein, and Pauli. + Wülker argues for an exact reversal of this order. According to + Ten Brink, the order was more probably (1) _Orosius_, (2) _Bede_, + (3) _Boëthius_, and (4) _Pastoral Care_. The most recent + contribution to the subject is from Wülfing, who contends for + (1) _Bede_, (2) _Orosius_, (3) _Pastoral Care_, and (4) _Boëthius_. + + [Footnote A: There is something inexpressibly touching in this + clause from the great king’s pen: gif wē ðā stilnesse habbað. He + is speaking of how much he hopes to do, by his translations, for + the enlightenment of his people.] + + +I. THE BATTLE OF ASHDOWN. + + [From the _Chronicle_, Parker MS. The event and date are + significant. The Danes had for the first time invaded Wessex. + Alfred’s older brother, Ethelred, was king; but to Alfred belongs + the glory of the victory at Ashdown (Berkshire). Asser (_Life of + Alfred_) tells us that for a long time Ethelred remained praying + in his tent, while Alfred and his followers went forth “like a + wild boar against the hounds.”] + +[[page 99]] + + 1 871. Hēr cuōm[1] sē hęre tō Rēadingum on Westseaxe, + 2 ǫnd þæs ymb iii niht ridon ii eorlas ūp. Þa gemētte hīe + +[[page 100]] + + 1 Æþelwulf aldorman[2] on Ęnglafelda, ǫnd him þǣr wiþ gefeaht, + 2 ǫnd sige nam. Þæs ymb iiii niht Æþered cyning + 3 ǫnd Ælfred his brōþur[3] þǣr micle fierd tō Rēadingum + 4 gelǣddon, ǫnd wiþ þone hęre gefuhton; ǫnd þǣr wæs + 5 micel wæl geslægen on gehwæþre hǫnd, ǫnd Æþelwulf + 6 aldormǫn wearþ ofslægen; ǫnd þa Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe + 7 gewald. + + 8 Ǫnd þæs ymb iiii niht gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd + 9 Ælfred his brōþur wiþ alne[4] þone hęre on Æscesdūne. + 10 Ǫnd hīe wǣrun[5] on twǣm gefylcum: on ōþrum wæs + 11 Bāchsęcg ǫnd Halfdęne þā hǣþnan cyningas, ǫnd on + 12 ōþrum wǣron þā eorlas. Ǫnd þā gefeaht sē cyning + 13 Æþered wiþ þāra cyninga getruman, ǫnd þǣr wearþ sē + 14 cyning Bāgsęcg ofslægen; ǫnd Ælfred his brōþur wiþ + 15 þāra eorla getruman, ǫnd þǣr wearþ Sidroc eorl ofslægen + 16 sē alda,[6] ǫnd Sidroc eorl sē gioncga,[7] ǫnd Ōsbearn eorl, + 17 ǫnd Frǣna eorl, ǫnd Hareld eorl; ǫnd þā hęrgas[8] bēgen + 18 geflīemde, ǫnd fela þūsenda ofslægenra, ǫnd onfeohtende + 19 wǣron oþ niht. + + 20 Ǫnd þæs ymb xiiii niht gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd + 21 Ælfred his brōður wiþ þone hęre æt Basengum, ǫnd þǣr + 22 þa Dęniscan sige nāmon. + + 23 Ǫnd þæs ymb ii mōnaþ gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd + 24 Ælfred his brōþur wiþ þone hęre æt Męretūne, ǫnd hīe + 25 wǣrun on tuǣm[9] gefylcium, ǫnd hīe būtū geflīemdon, ǫnd + 26 lǫnge on dæg sige āhton; ǫnd þǣr wearþ micel wælsliht + 27 on gehwæþere hǫnd; ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe + +[[page 101]] + + 1 gewald; ǫnd þær wearþ Hēahmund bisceop ofslægen, + 2 ǫnd fela gōdra mǫnna. Ǫnd æfter þissum gefeohte cuōm[1] + 3 micel sumorlida. + + 4 Ǫnd þæs ofer Ēastron gefōr Æþered cyning; ǫnd hē + 5 rīcsode v gēar; ǫnd his līc līþ æt Wīnburnan. + + 6 Þā fēng Ælfred Æþelwulfing his brōþur tō Wesseaxna + 7 rīce. Ǫnd þæs ymb ānne mōnaþ gefeaht Ælfred cyning + 8 wiþ alne[4] þone hęre lȳtle werede[10] æt Wiltūne, ǫnd hine + 9 lǫnge on dæg geflīemde, ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe + 10 gewald. + + 11 Ǫnd þæs gēares wurdon viiii folcgefeoht gefohten wiþ + 12 þone hęre on þȳ cynerīce be sūþan Tęmese, būtan þām þe + 13 him Ælfred þæs cyninges brōþur ǫnd ānlīpig aldormǫn[2] ǫnd + 14 cyninges þegnas oft rāde onridon þe mǫn nā ne rīmde; + 15 ǫnd þæs gēares wǣrun[5] ofslægene viiii eorlas ǫnd ān cyning. + 16 Ǫnd þȳ gēare nāmon Westseaxe friþ wiþ þone hęre. + +CONSULT GLOSSARY AND PARADIGMS UNDER FORMS GIVEN BELOW. + +No note is made of such variants as y (ȳ) or i (ī) for ie (īe). See +Glossary under ie (īe); occurrences, also, of #and# for #ǫnd#, #land# +for #lǫnd#, are found on almost every page of Early West Saxon. Such +words should be sought for under the more common forms, #ǫnd#, #lǫnd#. + + [1] = cwōm. + [2] = ealdormǫn. + [3] = brōþor. + [4] = ealne. + [5] = wǣron. + [6] = ealda. + [7] = geonga. + [8] = hęras. + [9] = twǣm. + [10] = werode. + + [Linenotes: + + 100.8. #gefeaht#. Notice that the singular is used. This is the + more common construction in O.E. when a compound subject, + composed of singular members, follows its predicate. Cf. _For + thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory_. See also + p. 107, note on #wæs#.] [[Linenote 107.14-15]] + + 100.18. #ǫnd fela þūsenda ofslægenra#, _and there were many + thousands of slain_ (§ 91). + + 101.12: #būtan þām þe#, etc., _besides which, Alfred ... made + raids against them_ (#him#), _which were not counted_. See § 70, + Note.] + + +II. A PRAYER OF KING ALFRED. + + [With this characteristic prayer, Alfred concludes his translation + of Boëthius’s _Consolation of Philosophy_. Unfortunately, the only + extant MS. (Bodleian 180) is Late West Saxon. I follow, therefore, + Prof. A. S. Cook’s normalization on an Early West Saxon basis. See + Cook’s _First Book in Old English_, p. 163.] + +[[page 102]] + + 1 Dryhten, ælmihtiga God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra + 2 gesceafta, ic bidde ðē for ðīnre miclan mildheortnesse, + 3 and for ðǣre hālgan rōde tācne, and for Sanctæ Marian + 4 mægðhāde, and for Sancti Michaeles gehīersumnesse, and + 5 for ealra ðīnra hālgena lufan and hīera earnungum, ðæt + 6 ðū mē gewissie bęt ðonne ic āworhte tō ðē; and gewissa + 7 mē tō ðīnum willan, and tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe, bęt ðonne + 8 ic self cunne; and gestaðela mīn mōd tō ðinum willan and + 9 tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe; and gestranga mē wið ðæs dēofles + 10 costnungum; and āfierr fram mē ðā fūlan gālnesse and + 11 ǣlce unrihtwīsnesse; and gescield mē wið mīnum wiðerwinnum, + 12 gesewenlīcum and ungesewenlīcum; and tǣc mē + 13 ðīnne willan tō wyrceanne; ðæt ic mæge ðē inweardlīce + 14 lufian tōforan eallum ðingum, mid clǣnum geðance and + 15 mid clǣnum līchaman. For ðon ðe ðū eart mīn Scieppend, + 16 and mīn Alīesend, mīn Fultum, mīn Frōfor, mīn Trēownes, + 17 and mīn Tōhopa. Sīe ðē lof and wuldor nū and + 18 ā ā ā, tō worulde būtan ǣghwilcum ęnde. Amen. + + [Linenotes: + + 3-4: #Marian ... Michaeles#. O.E. is inconsistent in the + treatment of foreign names. They are sometimes naturalized, and + sometimes retain in part their original inflections. #Marian#, + an original accusative, is here used as a genitive; while + #Michaeles# has the O.E. genitive ending. + + 17: #Sīe ðē lof#. See § 105, 1.] + + +III. THE VOYAGES OF OHTHERE AND WULFSTAN. + + [Lauderdale and Cottonian MSS. These voyages are an original + insertion by Alfred into his translation of Orosius’s _Compendious + History of the World_. + + “They consist,” says Ten Brink, “of a complete description of all + the countries in which the Teutonic tongue prevailed at Alfred’s + time, and a full narrative of the travels of two voyagers, which + the king wrote down from their own lips. One of these, a Norwegian + named Ohthere, had quite circumnavigated the coast of Scandinavia + in his travels, and had even penetrated to the White Sea; the + other, named Wulfstan, had sailed from Schleswig to Frische Haff. + The geographical and ethnographical details of both accounts are + exceedingly interesting, and their style is attractive, clear, and + concrete.” + + Ohthere made two voyages. Sailing first northward along the + western coast of Norway, he rounded the North Cape, passed into + the White Sea, and entered the Dwina River (#ān micel ēa#). On his + second voyage he sailed southward along the western coast of + Norway, entered the Skager Rack (#wīdsǣ#), passed through the + Cattegat, and anchored at the Danish port of Haddeby (#æt Hǣþum#), + modern Schleswig. + + Wulfstan sailed only in the Baltic Sea. His voyage of seven days + from Schleswig brought him to Drausen (#Trūsō#) on the shore of + the Drausensea.] + + +[[page 103]] + +#Ohthere’s First Voyage.# + + 1 Ōthęre sǣde his hlāforde, Ælfrede cyninge, þæt hē + 2 ealra Norðmǫnna norþmest būde. Hē cwæð þæt hē būde + 3 on þǣm lande norþweardum wiþ þā Westsæ. Hē sǣde + 4 þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang norþ þonan; ac hit is + 5 eal wēste, būton on fēawum stōwum styccemælum wīciað + 6 Finnas, on huntoðe on wintra, ǫnd on sumera on fiscaþe + 7 be þǣre sǣ. Hē sǣde þæt hē æt sumum cirre wolde + 8 fandian hū lǫnge þæt land norþryhte lǣge, oþþe hwæðer + 9 ǣnig mǫn be norðan þǣm wēstenne būde. Þā fōr hē + 10 norþryhte be þǣm lande: lēt him ealne weg þæt wēste + 11 land on ðæt stēorbord, ǫnd þā wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord þrīe + 12 dagas. Þā wæs hē swā feor norþ swā þā hwælhuntan + 13 firrest faraþ. Þā fōr hē þā gīet norþryhte swā feor swā + 14 hē meahte on þǣm ōþrum þrīm dagum gesiglan. Þā bēag + 15 þæt land þǣr ēastryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt lǫnd, hē + 16 nysse hwæðer, būton hē wisse ðæt hē ðǣr bād westanwindes + 17 ǫnd hwōn norþan, ǫnd siglde ðā ēast be lande + 18 swā swā hē meahte on fēower dagum gesiglan. Þā + 19 sceolde hē ðǣr bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt + 20 land bēag þǣr sūþryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt land, hē + 21 nysse hwæþer. Þā siglde hē þǫnan sūðryhte be lande + +[[page 104]] + + 1 swā swā hē męhte[1] on fīf dagum gesiglan. Ðā læg þǣr + 2 ān micel ēa ūp in on þæt land. Þā cirdon hīe ūp in on + 3 ðā ēa, for þǣm hīe ne dorston forþ bī þǣre ēa siglan for + 4 unfriþe; for þǣm ðæt land wæs eall gebūn on ōþre healfe + 5 þǣre ēas. Ne mētte hē ǣr nān gebūn land, siþþan hē + 6 frǫm his āgnum hām fōr; ac him wæs ealne weg wēste + 7 land on þæt stēorbord, būtan fiscerum ǫnd fugelerum ōnd + 8 huntum, ǫnd þæt wǣron eall Finnas; ǫnd him wæs ā + 9 wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord. Þā Beormas hæfdon swīþe wel + 10 gebūd hira land: ac hīe ne dorston þǣr on cuman. Ac + 11 þāra Terfinna land wæs eal wēste, būton ðǣr huntan + 12 gewīcodon, oþþe fisceras, oþþe fugeleras. + + [1] = meahte, mihte. + + [Linenotes: + + 104.6: #frǫm his āgnum hām#. An adverbial dative singular + without an inflectional ending is found with #hām#, #dæg#, + #morgen#, and #ǣfen#. + + 104.8: #ǫnd þæt wǣron#. See § 40, Note 3.] + + 13 Fela spella him sǣdon þā Beormas ǣgþer ge of hiera + 14 āgnum lande ge of þǣm landum þe ymb hīe ūtan wǣron; + 15 ac hē nyste hwæt þæs sōþes wæs, for þǣm hē hit self ne + 16 geseah. Þā Finnas, him þūhte, ǫnd þā Beormas sprǣcon + 17 nēah ān geþēode. Swīþost hē fōr ðider, tō ēacan þæs + 18 landes scēawunge, for þǣm horshwælum, for ðǣm hīe + 19 habbað swīþe æþele bān on hiora[2] tōþum--þā tēð hīe brōhton + 20 sume þǣm cyninge--ǫnd hiora hȳd bið swīðe gōd tō + 21 sciprāpum. Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa þonne ōðre hwalas: + 22 ne bið hē lęngra ðonne syfan[3] ęlna lang; ac on his āgnum + 23 lande is sē bętsta hwælhuntað: þā bēoð eahta and fēowertiges + 24 ęlna lange, and þā mǣstan fīftiges ęlna lange; + 25 þāra hē sǣde þæt hē syxa sum ofslōge syxtig on twām + 26 dagum. + + [2] = hiera. + [3] = seofon. + + [Linenotes: + + 104.15: #hwæt þæs sōþes wæs#. Sweet errs in explaining #sōþes# + as attracted into the genitive by #þæs#. It is not a predicate + adjective, but a partitive genitive after #hwæt#. + + 104.25: #syxa sum#. See § 91, Note 2.] + +[[page 105]] + + 1 Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on þǣm ǣhtum þe heora[2] + 2 spēda on bēoð, þæt is, on wildrum. Hē hæfde þā gȳt, ðā + 3 hē þone cyningc[5] sōhte, tamra dēora unbebohtra syx hund. + 4 Þā dēor hī hātað ‘hrānas’; þāra wǣron syx stælhrānas; + 5 ðā bēoð swȳðe dȳre mid Finnum, for ðǣm hȳ fōð þā + 6 wildan hrānas mid. Hē wæs mid þǣm fyrstum mannum + 7 on þǣm lande: næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twēntig hrȳðera, + 8 and twēntig scēapa, and twēntig swȳna; and þæt lȳtle + 9 þæt hē ęrede, hē ęrede mid horsan.[4] Ac hyra ār is mǣst + 10 on þǣm gafole þe ðā Finnas him gyldað. Þæt gafol bið + 11 on dēora fellum, and on fugela feðerum, and hwales bāne, + 12 and on þǣm sciprāpum þe bēoð of hwæles hȳde geworht + 13 and of sēoles. Ǣghwilc gylt be hys gebyrdum. Sē byrdesta + 14 sceall gyldan fīftȳne mearðes fell, and fīf hrānes, + 15 and ān beren fel, and tȳn ambra feðra, and berenne kyrtel + 16 oððe yterenne, and twēgen sciprāpas; ǣgþer sȳ syxtig + 17 ęlna lang, ōþer sȳ of hwæles hȳde geworht, ōþer of sīoles.[6] + + [2] = hiera. + [4] = horsum. + [5] = cyning. + [6] = sēoles. + + [Linenote: + + 105.2: #on bēoð#. See § 94, (5).] + + 18 Hē sǣde ðæt Norðmanna land wǣre swȳþe lang and + 19 swȳðe smæl. Eal þæt his man āðer oððe ęttan oððe ęrian + 20 mæg, þæt līð wið ðā sǣ; and þæt is þēah on sumum + 21 stōwum swȳðe clūdig; and licgað wilde mōras wið ēastan + 22 and wið ūpp on emnlange þǣm bȳnum lande. On þǣm + 23 mōrum eardiað Finnas. And þæt bȳne land is ēasteweard + 24 brādost, and symle swā norðor swā smælre. Ēastewęrd[7] + 25 hit mæg bīon[8] syxtig mīla brād, oþþe hwēne brǣdre; + 26 and middeweard þrītig oððe brādre; and norðeweard hē + 27 cwæð, þǣr hit smalost wǣre, þæt hit mihte bēon þrēora + 28 mīla brād tō þǣm mōre; and sē mōr syðþan,[9] on sumum + +[[page 106]] + + 1 stōwum, swā brād swā man mæg on twām wucum oferfēran; + 2 and on sumum stōwum swā brād swā man mæg + 3 on syx dagum oferfēran. + + [7] = -weard. + [8] = bēon. + [9] = siððan. + + [Linenote: + + 105.19: #Eal þæt his man#. Pronominal genitives are not always + possessive in O.E.; #his# is here the partitive genitive of + #hit#, the succeeding relative pronoun being omitted: _All that + (portion) of it that may, either-of-the-two, either be grazed or + plowed_, etc. (§ 70, Note).] + + 4 Ðonne is tōemnes þǣm lande sūðeweardum, on ōðre + 5 healfe þæs mōres, Swēoland, oþ þæt land norðeweard; + 6 and tōemnes þǣm lande norðeweardum, Cwēna land. Þā + 7 Cwēnas hęrgiað hwīlum on ðā Norðmęn ofer ðone mōr, + 8 hwīlum þā Norðmęn on hȳ. And þǣr sint swīðe micle + 9 męras fersce geond þā mōras; and berað þā Cwēnas hyra + 10 scypu ofer land on ðā męras, and þanon hęrgiað on ðā + 11 Norðmęn; hȳ habbað swȳðe lȳtle scypa and swȳðe + 12 leohte. + + [Linenote: + + 106.11-12: #scypa ... leohte#. These words exhibit inflections + more frequent in Late than in Early West Saxon. The normal forms + would be #scypu#, #leoht#; but in Late West Saxon the -u of + short-stemmed neuters is generally replaced by -a; and the + nominative accusative plural neuter of adjectives takes, by + analogy, the masculine endings; #hwate#, #gōde#, #hālge#, + instead of #hwatu#, #gōd#, #hālgu#.] + + +#Ohthere’s Second Voyage.# + + 13 Ōhthęre sǣde þæt sīo[1] scīr hātte Hālgoland, þe hē on + 14 būde. Hē cwæð þæt nān man ne būde be norðan him. + 15 Þonne is ān port on sūðeweardum þǣm lande, þone man + 16 hǣt Sciringeshēal. Þyder hē cwæð þæt man ne mihte + 17 geseglian on ānum mōnðe, gyf man on niht wīcode, and + 18 ǣlce dæge hæfde ambyrne wind; and ealle ðā hwīle hē + 19 sceal seglian be lande. And on þæt stēorbord him bið + 20 ǣrest Īraland, and þonne ðā īgland þe synd betux Īralande + 21 and þissum lande. Þonne is þis land, oð hē cymð + 22 tō Scirincgeshēale, and ealne weg on þæt bæcbord Norðweg. + +[[page 107]] + + 1 Wið sūðan þone Sciringeshēal fylð swȳðe mycel + 2 sǣ ūp in on ðæt land; sēo is brādre þonne ǣnig man ofer + 3 sēon mæge. And is Gotland on ōðre healfe ongēan, and + 4 siððan Sillęnde. Sēo sǣ līð mænig[2] hund mīla ūp in on + 5 þæt land. + + [1] = sēo. + [2] = mǫnig. + + 6 And of Sciringeshēale hē cwæð ðæt hē seglode on fīf + 7 dagan[3] tō þǣm porte þe mǫn hǣt æt Hǣþum; sē stęnt + 8 betuh Winedum, and Seaxum, and Angle, and hȳrð in + 9 on Dęne. Ðā hē þiderweard seglode fram Sciringeshēale, + 10 þā wæs him on þæt bæcbord Dęnamearc and on + 11 þæt stēorbord wīdsǣ þrȳ dagas; and þā, twēgen dagas ǣr + 12 hē tō Hǣþum cōme, him wæs on þæt stēorbord Gotland, + 13 and Sillęnde, and īglanda fela. On þǣm landum eardodon + 14 Ęngle, ǣr hī hider on land cōman.[4] And hym wæs + 15 ðā twēgen dagas on ðæt bæcbord þā īgland þe in on + 16 Dęnemearce hȳrað. + + [3] = dagum. + [4] = cōmen. + + [Linenotes: + + 107.7: #æt Hǣþum#. “This pleonastic use of _æt_ with names of + places occurs elsewhere in the older writings, as in the + Chronicle (552), ‘in þǣre stōwe þe is genęmned æt Searobyrg,’ + where the _æt_ has been erased by some later hand, showing that + the idiom had become obsolete. _Cp._ the German ‘Gasthaus zur + Krone,’ Stamboul = _es tān pólin_.” (Sweet.) See, also, + _Atterbury_, § 28, Note 3. + + 107.14-15: #wæs ... þā īgland#. The singular predicate is due + again to inversion (p. 100, note on #gefeaht# [[linenote + 100.8]]). The construction is comparatively rare in O.E., but + frequent in Shakespeare and in the popular speech of to-day. Cf. + _There is_, _Here is_, _There has been_, etc., with a (single) + plural subject following.] + + +#Wulfstan’s Voyage.# + + 17 Wulfstān sǣde þæt hē gefōre of Hǣðum, þæt hē wǣre + 18 on Trūsō on syfan dagum and nihtum, þæt þæt scip wæs + 19 ealne weg yrnende under segle. Weonoðland him wæs + +[[page 108]] + + 1 on stēorbord, and on bæcbord him wæs Langaland, and + 2 Lǣland, and Falster, and Scōnēg; and þās land eall + 3 hȳrað tō Dęnemearcan. And þonne Burgenda land wæs + 4 ūs on bæcbord, and þā habbað him sylfe[1] cyning. Þonne + 5 æfter Burgenda lande wǣron ūs þās land, þā synd hātene + 6 ǣrest Blēcinga-ēg, and Mēore, and Ēowland, and Gotland + 7 on bæcbord; and þās land hȳrað tō Swēom. And Weonodland + 8 wæs ūs ealne weg on stēorbord oð Wīslemūðan. + 9 Sēo Wīsle is swȳðe mycel ēa, and hīo[2] tōlīð Wītland and + 10 Weonodland; and þæt Wītland belimpeð tō Estum; and + 11 sēo Wīsle līð ūt of Weonodlande, and līð in Estmęre; + 12 and sē Estmęre is hūru fīftēne[3] mīla brād. Þonne cymeð + 13 Ilfing ēastan in Estmęre of ðām męre, ðe Trūsō standeð + 14 in stæðe; and cumað ūt samod in Estmęre, Ilfing ēastan + 15 of Estlande, and Wīsle sūðan of Winodlande. And + 16 þonne benimð Wīsle Ilfing hire naman, and ligeð of þǣm + 17 męre west and norð on sǣ; for ðȳ hit man hǣt + 18 Wīslemūða. + + [1] = selfe. + [2] = hēo. + [3] = fīftīene. + + [Linenote: + + 108.1-4: #him ... ūs#. Note the characteristic change of person, + the transition from _indirect_ to _direct discourse_.] + + 19 Þæt Estland is swȳðe mycel, and þǣr bið swȳðe manig + 20 burh, and on ǣlcere byrig bið cyning. And þǣr bið + 21 swȳðe mycel hunig, and fiscnað; and sē cyning and þā + 22 rīcostan męn drincað mȳran meolc, and þā unspēdigan + 23 and þā þēowan drincað medo.[4] Þǣr bið swȳðe mycel + 24 gewinn betwēonan him. And ne bið ðǣr nǣnig ealo[5] + 25 gebrowen mid Estum, ac þǣr bið medo genōh. And þǣr + 26 is mid Estum ðēaw, þonne þǣr bið man dēad, þæt hē līð + 27 inne unforbærned mid his māgum and frēondum mōnað, + 28 ge hwīlum twēgen; and þā cyningas, and þā ōðre hēahðungene + 29 męn, swā micle lęncg[6] swā hī māran spēda + 30 habbað, hwīlum healf gēar þæt hī bēoð unforbærned, and + +[[page 109]] + + 1 licgað bufan eorðan on hyra hūsum. And ealle þā hwīle + 2 þe þæt līc bið inne, þǣr sceal bēon gedrync and plega, + 3 oð ðone dæg þe hī hine forbærnað. Þonne þȳ ylcan dæge + 4 þe hī hine tō þǣm āde beran wyllað, þonne tōdǣlað hī + 5 his feoh, þæt þǣr tō lāfe bið æfter þǣm gedrynce and þǣm + 6 plegan, on fīf oððe syx, hwȳlum on mā, swā swā þæs fēos + 7 andēfn bið. Ālęcgað hit ðonne forhwæga on ānre mīle + 8 þone mǣstan dǣl fram þǣm tūne, þonne ōðerne, ðonne + 9 þone þriddan, oþ þe hyt eall ālēd bið on þǣre ānre mīle; + 10 and sceall bēon sē lǣsta dǣl nȳhst þǣm tūne ðe sē dēada + 11 man on lið. Ðonne sceolon[7] bēon gesamnode ealle ðā + 12 męnn ðe swyftoste hors habbað on þǣm lande, forhwæga + 13 on fīf mīlum oððe on syx mīlum fram þǣm fēo. Þonne + 14 ærnað hȳ ealle tōweard þǣm fēo: ðonne cymeð sē man + 15 sē þæt swiftoste hors hafað tō þǣm ǣrestan dǣle and tō + 16 þǣm mǣstan, and swā ǣlc æfter ōðrum, oþ hit bið eall + 17 genumen; and sē nimð þone lǣstan dǣl sē nȳhst þǣm + 18 tūne þæt feoh geærneð. And þonne rīdeð ǣlc hys weges + 19 mid ðǣm fēo, and hyt mōtan[8] habban eall; and for ðȳ + 20 þǣr bēoð þā swiftan hors ungefōge dȳre. And þonne his + 21 gestrēon bēoð þus eall āspęnded, þonne byrð man hine ūt, + 22 and forbærneð mid his wǣpnum and hrægle; and swīðost + +[[page 110]] + + 1 ealle hys spēda hȳ forspęndað mid þǣm langan legere + 2 þæs dēadan mannes inne, and þæs þe hȳ be þǣm wegum + 3 ālęcgað, þe ðā fręmdan tō ærnað, and nimað. And þæt + 4 is mid Estum þēaw þæt þǣr sceal ǣlces geðēodes man + 5 bēon forbærned; and gyf þār[9] man ān bān findeð unforbærned, + 6 hī hit sceolan[7] miclum gebētan. And þǣr is mid + 7 Estum ān mǣgð þæt hī magon cyle gewyrcan; and þȳ + 8 þǣr licgað þā dēadan męn swā lange, and ne fūliað, þæt + 9 hȳ wyrcað þone cyle him on. And þēah man āsętte + 10 twēgen fǣtels full ealað oððe wæteres, hȳ gedōð þæt + 11 ǣgþer bið oferfroren, sam hit sȳ sumor sam winter. + + [4] = medu. + [5] = ealu. + [6] = lęng. + [7] = sculon. + [8] = mōton. + [9] = ðǣr. + + [Linenotes: + + 109.2: #sceal#. See § 137, Note 2 (2). + + 109.7: #Ālęcgað hit#. Bosworth illustrates thus: + + vi v iv iii ii i 1 2 3 4 5 6 + | | | | | | X + | | | | | | XX X X + | | | | | | XXX XX XX X X + ------------------------------- XXXX XXX XXX XX XX X + _e_ _d_ _c_ _b_ _a_ + Where the horsemen The six parts of the property + assemble. placed within one mile. + + “The horsemen assemble five or six miles from the property, at + _d_ or _e_, and run towards _c_; the man who has the swiftest + horse, coming first to 1 or _c_, takes the first and largest + part. The man who has the horse coming second takes part 2 or + _b_, and so, in succession, till the least part, 6 or _a_, is + taken.” + + 110.5-6: #man ... hī#. Here the plural #hī# refers to the + singular #man#. _Cf._ p. 109, ll. 18-19, #ǣlc ... mōtan#. In + _Exodus_ xxxii, 24, we find “_Whosoever_ hath any gold, let + _them_ break it off”; and Addison writes, “I do not mean that I + think _anyone_ to blame for taking due care of _their_ health.” + The construction, though outlawed now, has been common in all + periods of our language. Paul remarks (_Prinzipien der + Sprachgeschichte_, 3d ed., § 186) that “When a word is used as + an indefinite [one, man, somebody, etc.] it is, strictly + speaking, incapable of any distinction of number. Since, + however, in respect of the external form, a particular number + has to be chosen, it is a matter of indifference which this + is.... Hence a change of numbers is common in the different + languages.” Paul fails to observe that the change is always from + singular to plural, not from plural to singular. See _Note on + the Concord of Collectives and Indefinites_ (Anglia XI, 1901). + See p. 119, note on ll. 19-21.] + + +IV. THE STORY OF CÆDMON. + + [From the so-called Alfredian version of Bede’s _Ecclesiastical + History_. The text generally followed is that of MS. Bodley, + Tanner 10. Miller (_Early English Text Society_, No. 95, + _Introd._) argues, chiefly from the use of the prepositions, that + the original O.E. MS. was Mercian, composed possibly in Lichfield + (Staffordshire). At any rate, O.E. idiom is frequently sacrificed + to the Latin original. + + “Cædmon, as he is called, is the first Englishman whose name we + know who wrote poetry in our island of England; and the first to + embody in verse the new passions and ideas which Christianity had + brought into England.... Undisturbed by any previous making of + lighter poetry, he came fresh to the work of Christianising + English song. It was a great step to make. He built the chariot in + which all the new religious emotions of England could now drive + along.” (Brooke, _The History of Early English Literature_, + cap. XV.) There is no reason to doubt the historical existence of + Cædmon; for Bede, who relates the story, lived near Whitby, and + was seven years old when Cædmon died (A.D. 680)]. + +[[page 111]] + + 1 In ðysse abbudissan mynstre wæs sum brōðor syndriglīce + 2 mid godcundre gife gemǣred ǫnd geweorðad, for þon + 3 he gewunade gerisenlīce lēoð wyrcan, þā ðe tō ǣfęstnisse[1] + 4 ǫnd tō ārfæstnisse belumpon; swā ðætte swā hwæt swā + 5 hē of godcundum stafum þurh bōceras geleornode, þæt hē + 6 æfter medmiclum fæce in scopgereorde mid þā mǣstan + 7 swētnisse ǫnd inbryrdnisse geglęngde, ǫnd in Ęngliscgereorde + 8 wel geworht forþ brōhte. Ǫnd for his lēoþsǫngum + +[[page 112]] + + 1 mǫnigra mǫnna mōd oft to worulde forhogdnisse ǫnd tō + 2 geþēodnisse þæs heofonlīcan līfes onbærnde wǣron. Ǫnd + 3 ēac swelce[2] mǫnige ōðre æfter him in Ǫngelþēode ongunnon + 4 ǣfęste lēoð wyrcan, ac nǣnig hwæðre him þæt gelīce + 5 dōn ne meahte; for þon hē nālæs frǫm mǫnnum nē ðurh + 6 mǫn gelǣred wæs þæt hē ðone lēoðcræft leornade, ac hē + 7 wæs godcundlīce gefultumod, ǫnd þurh Godes gife þone + 8 sǫngcræft onfēng; ǫnd hē for ðon nǣfre nōht lēasunge, + 9 nē īdles lēoþes wyrcan ne meahte, ac efne þā ān ðā ðē tō + 10 ǣfęstnisse[1] belumpon ǫnd his þā ǣfęstan tungan gedafenode + 11 singan. + + [1] = ǣfæstnesse. + [2] = swilce. + + [Linenotes: + + 111.1: #ðysse abbudissan.# The abbess referred to is the famous + Hild, or Hilda, then living in the monastery at Streones-halh, + which, according to Bede, means “Bay of the Beacon.” The Danes + afterward gave it the name Whitby, or “White Town.” The + surroundings were eminently fitted to nurture England’s first + poet. “The natural scenery which surrounded him, the valley of + the Esk, on whose sides he probably lived, the great cliffs, the + billowy sea, the vast sky seen from the heights over the ocean, + played incessantly upon him.” (Brooke.) + + Note, also, in this connection, the numerous Latin words that + the introduction of Christianity (A.D. 597) brought into the + vocabulary of O.E.: #abbudisse#, #mynster#, #bisceop#, #Lǣden#, + #prēost#, #æstel#, #mancus#. + + 112.4-5: The more usual order of words would be #ac nǣnig, + hwæðre, ne meahte ðæt dōn gelīce him#. + + 112.10-11: #ǫnd his ... singan#, _and which it became his (the) + pious tongue to sing_.] + + 12 Wæs hē, sē mǫn, in weoruldhāde[3] gesęted oð þā tīde þe + 13 hē wæs gelȳfdre ylde, ǫnd nǣfre nǣnig lēoð geleornade. + 14 Ǫnd hē for þon oft in gebēorscipe, þonne þǣr wæs blisse + 15 intinga gedēmed, þæt hēo[4] ealle sceolden þurh ęndebyrdnesse + 16 be hearpan singan, þonne hē geseah þā hearpan him + 17 nēalēcan, þonne ārās hē for scǫme frǫm þǣm symble, + 18 ǫnd hām ēode tō his hūse. Þā hē þæt þā sumre tīde + 19 dyde, þæt hē forlēt þæt hūs þæs gebēorscipes, ǫnd ūt wæs + +[[page 113]] + + 1 gǫngende tō nēata scipene, þāra heord him wæs þǣre + 2 nihte beboden; þā hē ðā þǣr on gelimplīcre tīde his + 3 leomu[5] on ręste gesętte ǫnd onslēpte, þa stōd him sum + 4 mǫn æt þurh swefn, ǫnd hine hālette ǫnd grētte, ǫnd hine + 5 be his nǫman nęmnde: “Cædmǫn, sing mē hwæthwugu.” + 6 Þā ǫndswarede hē, ǫnd cwæð: “Ne cǫn ic nōht singan; + 7 ǫnd ic for þon of þyssum gebēorscipe ūt ēode ǫnd hider + 8 gewāt, for þon ic nāht singan ne cūðe.” Eft hē cwæð sē ðe + 9 wið hine sprecende wæs: “Hwæðre þū meaht mē singan.” + 10 Þā cwæð hē: “Hwæt sceal ic singan?” Cwæð hē: “Sing + 11 mē frumsceaft.” Þā hē ðā þās andsware onfēng, þā + 12 ongǫn hē sōna singan, in hęrenesse Godes Scyppendes, + 13 þā fers ǫnd þā word þe hē nǣfre ne gehȳrde, þāra ęndebyrdnes + 14 þis is: + + [3] = woruldhāde. + [4] = hīe. + [5] = limu. + + [Linenotes: + + 112.14-15: #blisse intinga#, _for the sake of joy_; but the + translator has confused _laetitiae causā_ (ablative) and + _laetitiae causa_ (nominative). The proper form would be #for + blisse# with omission of #intingan#, just as _for my sake_ is + usually #for mē#; _for his_ (_or their_) _sake_, #for him#. _Cf. + Mark_ vi, 26: “Yet _for his oath’s sake, and for their sakes + which sat with him_, he would not reject her,” #for ðǣm āðe, ǫnd + for ðǣm þe him mid sǣton#. _For his sake_ is frequently #for his + ðingon# (#ðingum#), rarely #for his intingan#. #Þingon# is + regularly used when the preceding genitive is a noun denoting a + person: _for my wife’s sake_, #for mīnes wīfes ðingon# + (_Genesis_ xx, 11), etc. + + 112.18-19: #þæt ... þæt hē forlēt#. The substantival clause + introduced by the second #þæt# amplifies by apposition the first + #þæt#: _When he then, at a certain time_ (instrumental case, + § 98, (2)), _did that, namely, when he left the house_. The + better Mn.E. would be _this ... that_: “Added yet _this_ above + all, _that_ he shut up John in prison” (_Luke_ iv, 20). + + 113.1-2: #þāra ... beboden#. This does not mean that Cædmon was + a herdsman, but that he served in turn as did the other secular + attendants at the monastery. + + 113.13-14: #þāra ęndebyrdnes þis is#. Bede writes _Hic est + sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum_, and gives in Latin prose + a translation of the hymn from the Northumbrian dialect, in + which Cædmon wrote. The O.E. version given above is, of course, + not the Northumbrian original (which, however, with some + variations is preserved in several of the Latin MSS. of Bede’s + _History_), but a West Saxon version made also from the + Northumbrian, not from the Latin.] + + 15 Nū sculon hęrigean[6] heofonrīces Weard, + 16 Metodes meahte ǫnd his mōdgeþanc, + 17 weorc Wuldorfæder, swā hē wundra gehwæs, + 18 ēce Drihten ōr onstealde. + +[[page 114]] + + 1 Hē ǣrest scēop eorðan bearnum + 2 heofon tō hrōfe, hālig Scyppend; + 3 þā middangeard mǫnncynnes Weard, + 4 ēce Drihten, æfter tēode + 5 fīrum foldan, Frēa ælmihtig. + + [6] = hęrian. + + [Linenotes: + + 113.15: #Nū sculon hęrigean#, _Now ought we to praise_. The + subject #wē# is omitted in the best MSS. Note the characteristic + use of synonyms, or epithets, in this bit of O.E. poetry. + Observe that it is not the _thought_ that is repeated, but + rather the _idea_, the _concept_, God. See p. 124. + [[Poetry: Structure]] + + 113.17: #wundra gehwæs#. See p. 140, note on #cēnra gehwylcum# + [[_Beowulf_ 769]].] + + 6 Þā ārās hē frǫm þǣm slǣpe, ǫnd eal þā þe hē slǣpende + 7 sǫng fæste in gemynde hæfde; ǫnd þǣm wordum sōna + 8 mǫnig word in þæt ilce gemet Gode wyrðes sǫnges + 9 tōgeþēodde. Þā cōm hē on morgenne tō þǣm tūngerēfan, + 10 sē þe his ealdormǫn wæs: sægde him hwylce gife hē + 11 onfēng; ǫnd hē hine sōna tō þǣre abbudissan gelǣdde, + 12 ǫnd hire þæt cȳðde ǫnd sægde. Þā heht hēo gesǫmnian + 13 ealle þā gelǣredestan męn ǫnd þā leorneras, ǫnd him + 14 ǫndweardum hēt sęcgan þæt swefn, ǫnd þæt lēoð singan, + 15 þæt ealra heora[7] dōme gecoren wǣre, hwæt oððe hwǫnan + 16 þæt cumen wǣre. Þā wæs him eallum gesewen, swā swā + 17 hit wæs, þæt him wǣre frǫm Drihtne sylfum heofonlīc + +[[page 115]] + + 1 gifu forgifen. Þā ręhton hęo[4] him ǫnd sægdon sum hālig + 2 spell ǫnd godcundre lāre word: bebudon him þā, gif hē + 3 meahte, þæt hē in swīnsunge lēoþsǫnges þæt gehwyrfde. + 4 Þā hē ðā hæfde þā wīsan onfǫngne, þā ēode hē hām tō + 5 his hūse, ǫnd cwōm eft on morgenne, ǫnd þȳ bętstan + 6 lēoðe geglęnged him āsǫng ǫnd āgeaf þæt him beboden + 7 wæs. + + [4] = hīe. + [7] = hiera. + + [Linenotes: + + 114.7-9: #ǫnd þǣm wordum ... tōgeþēodde#, _and to those words he + soon joined, in the same meter, many (other) words of song + worthy of God_. But the translator has not only blundered over + Bede’s Latin (_eis mox plura in eundem modum verba Deo digna + carminis adjunxit_), but sacrificed still more the idiom of + O.E. The predicate should not come at the end; #in# should be + followed by the dative; and for #Gode wyrðes sǫnges# the better + O.E. would be #sǫnges Godes wyrðes#. When used with the dative + #wyrð# (#weorð#) usually means _dear_ (= _of worth_) _to_. + + 114.16: #þā ... gesewen#. We should expect #frǫm him eallum#; + but the translator has again closely followed the Latin + (_visumque est omnibus_), as later (in the _Conversion of + Edwin_) he renders _Talis mihi videtur_ by #þyslīc mē is + gesewen#. _Talis_ (#þyslīc#) agreeing with a following _vita_ + (#līf#). Ælfric, however, with no Latin before him, writes that + John #wearð ðā him# [= #frǫm Drihtene#] #inweardlīce gelufod#. + It would seem that in proportion as a past participle has the + force of an adjective, the _to_ relation may supplant the _by_ + relation; just as we say _unknown to_ instead of _unknown by_, + _unknown_ being more adjectival than participial. #Gesewen#, + therefore, may here be translated _visible_, _evident_, _patent_ + (= #gesynelīc#, #sweotol#); and #gelufod#, _dear_ (= #weorð#, + #lēof#). + + A survival of adjectival #gesewen# is found in Wycliffe’s _New + Testament_ (1 _Cor._ xv, 5-8): “He was _seyn to_ Cephas, and + aftir these thingis _to_ enleuene; aftirward he was _seyn to_ mo + than fyue hundrid britheren togidere ... aftirward he was _seyn + to_ James, and aftirward _to_ alle the apostlis. And last of + alle he was _seyn to_ me, as _to_ a deed borun child.” The + construction is frequent in Chaucer.] + + 8 Ðā ongan sēo abbudisse clyppan ǫnd lufigean[8] þā Godes + 9 gife in þǣm męn, ǫnd hēo hine þā mǫnade ǫnd lǣrde + 10 þæt hē woruldhād forlēte ǫnd munuchād onfēnge: ǫnd + 11 hē þæt wel þafode. Ǫnd hēo hine in þæt mynster onfēng + 12 mid his gōdum, ǫnd hine geþēodde tō gesǫmnunge þāra + 13 Godes þēowa, ǫnd heht hine lǣran þæt getæl þæs hālgan + 14 stǣres ǫnd spelles. Ǫnd hē eal þā hē in gehȳrnesse + 15 geleornian meahte, mid hine gemyndgade, ǫnd swā swā + 16 clǣne nēten[9] eodorcende in þæt swēteste lēoð gehwyrfde. + 17 Ǫnd his sǫng ǫnd his lēoð wǣron swā wynsumu tō gehȳranne, + 18 þætte þā seolfan[10] his lārēowas æt his mūðe writon + 19 ǫnd leornodon. Sǫng hē ǣrest be middangeardes gesceape, + 20 ǫnd bī fruman mǫncynnes, ǫnd eal þæt stǣr Genesis (þæt + 21 is sēo ǣreste Moyses bōc); ǫnd eft bī ūtgǫnge Israhēla + 22 folces of Ǣgypta lǫnde, ǫnd bī ingǫnge þæs gehātlandes; + 23 ǫnd bī ōðrum mǫnegum spellum þæs hālgan gewrites + +[[page 116]] + + 1 canōnes bōca; ǫnd bī Crīstes męnniscnesse, ǫnd bī his + 2 þrōwunge, ǫnd bī his ūpāstīgnesse in heofonas; ǫnd bī + 3 þæs Hālgan Gāstes cyme, ǫnd þāra apostola lāre; ǫnd eft + 4 bī þǣm dæge þæs tōweardan dōmes, ǫnd bī fyrhtu þæs + 5 tintreglīcan wītes, ǫnd bī swētnesse þæs heofonlīcan rīces, + 6 hē monig lēoð geworhte; ǫnd swelce[2] ēac ōðer mǫnig be + 7 þǣm godcundan fręmsumnessum ǫnd dōmum hē geworhte. + 8 In eallum þǣm hē geornlīce gēmde[11] þæt hē męn ātuge + 9 frǫm synna lufan ǫnd māndǣda, ǫnd tō lufan ǫnd tō + 10 geornfulnesse āwęhte gōdra dǣda, for þon hē wæs, sē + 11 mǫn, swīþe ǣfęst ǫnd regollīcum þēodscipum ēaðmōdlīce + 12 underþēoded; ǫnd wið þǣm þā ðe in ōðre wīsan dōn woldon, + 13 hē wæs mid welme[12] micelre ęllenwōdnisse onbærned. + 14 Ǫnd hē for ðon fægre ęnde his līf betȳnde ǫnd geęndade. + + [2] = swilce. + [8] = lufian. + [9] = nīeten. + [10] = selfan. + [11] = gīemde. + [12] = wielme. + + [Linenotes: + + 115.9-10: #ǫnd hēo hine þā mǫnade ... munuchād onfēnge#. Hild’s + advice has in it the suggestion of a personal experience, for + she herself had lived half of her life (thirty-three years) + “before,” says Bede, “she dedicated the remaining half to our + Lord in a monastic life.” + + 116.6: #hē mǫnig lēoð geworhte#. The opinion is now gaining + ground that of these “many poems” only the short hymn, already + given, has come down to us. Of other poems claimed for Cædmon, + the strongest arguments are advanced in favor of a part of the + fragmentary poetical paraphrase of _Genesis_.] + + +V. ALFRED’S PREFACE TO THE PASTORAL CARE. + + [Based on the Hatton MS. Of the year 597, the _Chronicle_ says: + “In this year, Gregory the Pope sent into Britain Augustine with + very many monks, who gospelled [preached] God’s word to the + English folk.” Gregory I, surnamed “The Great,” has ever since + been considered the apostle of English Christianity, and his + _Pastoral Care_, which contains instruction in conduct and + doctrine for all bishops, was a work that Alfred could not afford + to leave untranslated. For this translation Alfred wrote a + _Preface_, the historical value of which it would be hard to + overrate. In it he describes vividly the intellectual ruin that + the Danes had wrought, and develops at the same time his plan for + repairing that ruin. + + This _Preface_ and the _Battle of Ashdown_ (p. 99) show the great + king in his twofold character of warrior and statesman, and + justify the inscription on the base of the statue erected to him + in 1877, at Wantage (Berkshire), his birth-place: “Ælfred found + Learning dead, and he restored it; Education neglected, and he + revived it; the laws powerless, and he gave them force; the Church + debased, and he raised it; the Land ravaged by a fearful Enemy, + from which he delivered it. Ælfred’s name will live as long as + mankind shall respect the Past.”] + +[[page 117]] + + 1 Ælfred kyning hāteð grētan Wærferð biscep[1] his wordum + 2 luflīce ǫnd frēondlīce; ǫnd ðē cȳðan hāte ðæt mē cōm + 3 swīðe oft on gemynd, hwelce[2] witan īu[3] wǣron giond[4] + 4 Angelcynn, ǣgðer ge godcundra hāda ge woruldcundra; + 5 ǫnd hū gesǣliglīca tīda ðā wǣron giond Angelcynn; ǫnd + 6 hū ðā kyningas ðe ðone onwald hæfdon ðæs folces on + 7 ðām dagum Gode ǫnd his ǣrendwrecum hērsumedon[5]; + 8 ǫnd hū hīe ǣgðer ge hiora sibbe ge hiora siodo[6] ge hiora + 9 onweald innanbordes gehīoldon,[4] ǫnd ēac ūt hiora ēðel + 10 gerȳmdon; ǫnd hū him ðā spēow ǣgðer ge mid wīge ge + 11 mid wīsdōme; ǫnd ēac ða godcundan hādas hū giorne + 12 hīe wǣron ǣgðer ge ymb lāre ge ymb liornunga, ge ymb + 13 ealle ðā ðīowotdōmas ðe hīe Gode dōn scoldon; ǫnd hū + 14 man ūtanbordes wīsdōm ǫnd lāre hieder on lǫnd sōhte, + 15 ǫnd hū wē hīe nū sceoldon ūte begietan, gif wē hīe habban + 16 sceoldon. Swǣ[7] clǣne hīo wæs oðfeallenu on Angelcynne + 17 ðæt swīðe fēawa wǣron behionan Humbre ðe hiora ðēninga + 18 cūðen understǫndan on Ęnglisc oððe furðum ān ǣrendgewrit + 19 of Lǣdene on Ęnglisc āręccean; ǫnd ic wēne ðætte + 20 nōht mǫnige begiondan Humbre nǣren. Swǣ[7] fēawa + 21 hiora wǣron ðæt ic furðum ānne ānlēpne[8] ne mæg geðencean + +[[page 118]] + + 1 be sūðan Tęmese, ðā ðā ic tō rīce fēng. Gode ælmihtegum + 2 sīe ðǫnc ðætte wē nū ǣnigne onstāl habbað + 3 lārēowa. Ǫnd for ðon ic ðē bebīode ðæt ðū dō swǣ[7] ic + 4 gelīefe ðæt ðū wille, ðæt ðū ðē ðissa woruldðinga tō ðǣm + 5 geǣmetige, swǣ ðū oftost mæge, ðæt ðū ðone wīsdōm ðe + 6 ðē God sealde ðǣr ðǣr ðū hiene befæstan mæge, befæste. + 7 Geðęnc hwelc[9] wītu ūs ðā becōmon for ðisse worulde, ðā + 8 ðā wē hit nōhwæðer nē selfe ne lufodon, nē ēac ōðrum + 9 mǫnnum ne lēfdon[10]: ðone naman ānne wē lufodon ðætte + 10 wē Crīstne wǣren, ǫnd swīðe fēawe ðā ðēawas. + + [1] = bisceop. + [2] = hwilce. + [3] = gīu. + [4] = For all words with _io_ (_īo_), consult Glossary under + _eo_ (_ēo_). + [5] = hīersumedon. + [6] = sidu (siodu). + [7] = swā. + [8] = ānlīpigne. + [9] = hwilc. + [10] = līefdon. + + [Linenotes: + + 117.1-2: #Ælfred kyning hāteð ... hāte#. Note the change from + the formal and official third person (#hāteð#) to the more + familiar first person (#hāte#). So Ælfric, in his _Preface to + Genesis_, writes #Ælfric munuc grēt Æðelwærd ealdormann + ēadmōdlīce. Þū bǣde mē, lēof, þæt ic#, etc.: _Ælfric, monk, + greets Æthelweard, alderman, humbly. Thou, beloved, didst bid me + that I_, etc. + + 118.5: Notice that #mæge# (l. 5) and #mæge# (l. 6) are not in + the subjunctive because the sense requires it, but because they + have been attracted by #gǣmetige# and #befæste#. #Sīen# (p. 119, + l. 15) and #hæbben# (p. 119, l. 20) illustrate the same + construction. + + 118.9-10: _We liked only the reputation of being Christians, + very few_ (_of us_) _the Christian virtues_.] + + 11 Ðā ic ðā ðis eall gemunde, ðā gemunde ic ēac hū ic + 12 geseah, ǣr ðǣm ðe hit eall forhęrgod wǣre ǫnd forbærned, + 13 hū ðā ciricean giond eall Angelcynn stōdon + 14 māðma ǫnd bōca gefylda, ǫnd ēac micel męnigeo[11] Godes + 15 ðīowa; ǫnd ðā swīðe lȳtle fiorme ðāra bōca wiston, for + 16 ðǣm ðe hīe hiora nānwuht[12] ongietan ne meahton, for + 17 ðǣm ðe hīe nǣron on hiora āgen geðīode awritene. + 18 Swelce[13] hīe cwǣden: “Ure ieldran, ðā ðe ðās stōwa ǣr + 19 hīoldon, hīe lufodon wīsdōm, ǫnd ðurh ðone hīe begēaton + 20 welan, ǫnd ūs lǣfdon. Hēr mǫn mæg gīet gesīon hiora + 21 swæð, ac wē him ne cunnon æfter spyrigean,[14] ǫnd for + 22 ðǣm wē habbað nū ǣgðer forlǣten ge ðone welan ge ðone + 23 wīsdōm, for ðǣm ðe wē noldon tō ðǣm spore mid ūre + 24 mōde onlūtan.” + + [11] = męnigu. + [12] = nānwiht. + [13] = swilce. + [14] = spyrian. + + 25 Ðā ic ðā ðis eall gemunde, ðā wundrade ic swīðe swīðe + 26 ðāra gōdena wiotona[15] ðe gīu wǣron giond Angelcynn, ǫnd + 27 ðā bēc ealla be fullan geliornod hæfdon, ðæt hīe hiora ðā + +[[page 119]] + + 1 nǣnne dǣl noldon on hiora āgen geðīode węndan. Ac + 2 ic ðā sōna eft mē selfum andwyrde, ǫnd cwæð: “Hīe ne + 3 wēndon þætte ǣfre męnn sceolden swǣ[7] reccelēase weorðan, + 4 ǫnd sīo lār swǣ oðfeallan; for ðǣre wilnunga hīe + 5 hit forlēton, ǫnd woldon ðæt hēr ðȳ māra wīsdōm on + 6 lǫnde wǣre ðȳ wē mā geðēoda cūðon.” + + [7] = swā. + [15] = witena. + + 7 Ðā gemunde ic hū sīo ǣ wæs ǣrest on Ebrēisc geðīode + 8 funden, ǫnd eft, ðā hīe Crēacas geliornodon, ðā węndon + 9 hīe hīe on hiora āgen geðīode ealle, ǫnd ēac ealle ōðre + 10 bēc. Ǫnd eft Lǣdenware swǣ same, siððan hīe hīe geliornodon, + 11 hīe hīe węndon ealla ðurh wīse wealhstōdas + 12 on hiora āgen geðīode. Ǫnd ēac ealla ōðra Crīstena + 13 ðīoda sumne dǣl hiora on hiora āgen geðīode węndon. + 14 For ðȳ mē ðyncð bętre, gif īow swǣ ðyncð, ðæt wē ēac + 15 suma bēc, ðā ðe nīedbeðearfosta sīen eallum mǫnnum + 16 tō wiotonne,[16] ðæt wē ðā on ðæt geðīode węnden ðe wē + 17 ealle gecnāwan mægen, ǫnd gedōn swǣ wē swīðe ēaðe + 18 magon mid Godes fultume, gif wē ðā stilnesse habbað, + 19 ðætte eall sīo gioguð ðe nū is on Angelcynne friora + 20 mǫnna, ðāra ðe ðā spēda hæbben ðæt hīe ðǣm befēolan + 21 mægen, sīen tō liornunga oðfæste, ðā hwīle ðe hīe tō + +[[page 120]] + + 1 nānre ōðerre note ne mægen, oð ðone first ðe hīe wel + 2 cunnen Ęnglisc gewrit ārǣdan: lǣre mǫn siððan furður + 3 on Lǣdengeðīode ðā ðe mǫn furðor lǣran wille, ǫnd tō + 4 hīerran hāde dōn wille. Ðā ic ðā gemunde hū sīo lār + 5 Lǣdengeðīodes ǣr ðissum āfeallen wæs giond Angelcynn, + 6 ǫnd ðeah mǫnige cūðon Ęnglisc gewrit ārǣdan, ðā + 7 ongan ic ongemang oðrum mislīcum ǫnd manigfealdum + 8 bisgum ðisses kynerīces ðā bōc węndan on Ęnglisc ðe is + 9 genęmned on Lǣden “Pastoralis,” ǫnd on Ęnglisc “Hierdebōc,” + 10 hwīlum word be worde, hwīlum andgit of andgiete, + 11 swǣ swǣ ic hīe geliornode æt Plegmunde mīnum + 12 ærcebiscepe, ǫnd æt Assere mīnum biscepe, ǫnd æt Grimbolde + 13 mīnum mæsseprīoste, ǫnd æt Iōhanne mīnum mæsseprēoste. + 14 Siððan ic hīe ðā geliornod hæfde, swǣ swǣ + 15 ic hīe forstōd, ǫnd swǣ ic hīe andgitfullīcost āręccean + 16 meahte, ic hīe on Ęnglisc āwęnde; ǫnd tō ǣlcum biscepstōle + 17 on mīnum rīce wille āne onsęndan; ǫnd on ǣlcre + 18 bið ān æstel, sē bið on fīftegum mancessa. Ǫnd ic bebīode + 19 on Godes naman ðæt nān mǫn ðone æstel frǫm + 20 ðǣre bēc ne dō, nē ðā bōc frǫm ðǣm mynstre; uncūð hū + 21 lǫnge ðǣr swǣ gelǣrede biscepas sīen, swǣ swǣ nū, Gode + 22 ðonc, wel hwǣr siendon. For ðȳ ic wolde ðætte hīe ealneg + +[[page 121]] + + 1 æt ðǣre stōwe wǣren, būton sē biscep hīe mid him + 2 habban wille, oððe hīo hwǣr tō lǣne sīe, oððe hwā ōðre + 3 bī wrīte. + + [16] = witanne. + + [Linenotes: + + 119.14: Alfred is here addressing the bishops collectively, and + hence uses the plural #īow# (= #ēow#), not #þē#. + + 119.16: #ðæt wē ðā#. These three words are not necessary to the + sense. They constitute the figure known as epanalepsis, in which + “the same word or phrase is repeated after one or more + intervening words.” #Þā# is the pronominal substitute for #suma + bēc#. + + 119.17: #Gedōn# is the first person plural subjunctive (from + infinitive #gedōn#). It and #węnden# are in the same + construction. Two things seem “better” to Alfred: (1) _that we + translate_, etc., (2) _that we cause_, etc. + + 119.19-21: #sīo gioguð ... is ... hīe ... sīen#. Notice how the + collective noun, #gioguð#, singular at first both in form and + function, gradually loses its oneness before the close of the + sentence is reached, and becomes plural. The construction is + entirely legitimate in Mn.E. Spanish is the only modern language + known to me that condemns such an idiom: “Spanish ideas of + congruity do not permit a collective noun, though denoting a + plurality, to be accompanied by a plural verb or adjective in + the same clause” (Ramsey, _Text-Book of Modern Spanish_, + § 1452). + + 120.2: #lǣre mǫn#. See § 105, 1. + + 120.11-13: That none of these advisers of the king, except + Plegmond, a Mercian, were natives, bears out what Alfred says + about the scarcity of learned men in England when he began to + reign. Asser, to whose Latin _Life of Alfred_, in spite of its + mutilations, we owe almost all of our knowledge of the king, + came from St. David’s (in Wales), and was made Bishop of + Sherborne. + + 121.1: Translate #ǣt ðǣre stōwe# by _each in its place_. The + change from plural #hīe# (in #hīe ... wǣren#) to singular #hīe# + (in the clauses that follow) will thus be prepared for. + + 121.2-3: #oððe hwā ōðre bī wrīte#, _or unless some one wish to + copy a new one_ (_write thereby another_).] + + + + +POETRY. + +INTRODUCTORY. + +[Transcriber’s Note: + +In Section II., Structure, the stress markers ´ and ` are intended to +display above the macron – or breve ˘: + + –́ × –̀ + +Some computers will instead show them after (to the right of) the +macron. “Resolved stress” (two short syllables acting as one long) is +shown with a double breve below the syllables: + + ˘́͜× + +If your computer does not have this character, it will probably +display a box or question mark between the two syllables.] + + +I. HISTORY. + +(a) #Old English Poetry as a Whole.# + +Northumbria was the home of Old English poetry. Beginning with Cædmon +and his school A.D. 670, Northumbria maintained her poetical supremacy +till A.D. 800, seven years before which date the ravages of the Danes +had begun. When Alfred ascended the throne of Wessex (871), the Danes +had destroyed the seats of learning throughout the whole of Northumbria. +As Whitby had been “the cradle of English poetry,” Winchester (Alfred’s +capital) became now the cradle of English prose; and the older poems +that had survived the fire and sword of the Vikings were translated from +the original Northumbrian dialect into the West Saxon dialect. It is, +therefore, in the West Saxon dialect that these poems[1] have come down +to us. + +Old English poetry contains in all only about thirty thousand lines; but +it includes epic, lyric, didactic, elegiac, and allegorical poems, +together with war-ballads, paraphrases, riddles, and charms. Of the five +elegiac poems (_Wanderer_, _Seafarer_, _Ruin_, _Wife’s Complaint_, and +_Husband’s Message_), the _Wanderer_ is the most artistic, and best +portrays the gloomy contrast between past happiness and present grief so +characteristic of the Old English lyric. + +Old English literature has no love poems. The central themes of its +poets are battle and bereavement, with a certain grim resignation on the +part of the hero to the issues of either. The movement of the thought is +usually abrupt, there being a noticeable poverty of transitional +particles, or connectives, “which,” says Ten Brink, “are the cement of +sentence-structure.” + + +(b) #Beowulf.# + +The greatest of all Old English poems is the epic, _Beowulf_.[2] It +consists of more than three thousand lines, and probably assumed +approximately its present form in Northumbria about A.D. 700. It is a +crystallization of continental myths; and, though nothing is said of +England, the story is an invaluable index to the social, political, and +ethical ideals of our Germanic ancestors before and after they settled +along the English coast. It is most poetical, and its testimony is +historically most valuable, in the character-portraits that it contains. +The fatalism that runs through it, instead of making the characters weak +and less human, serves at times rather to dignify and elevate them. +“Fate,” says Beowulf (l. 572), recounting his battle with the +sea-monsters, “often saves an undoomed man _if his courage hold out_.” + +“The ethical essence of this poetry,” says Ten Brink, “lies principally +in the conception of manly virtue, undismayed courage, the stoical +encounter with death, silent submission to fate, in the readiness to +help others, in the clemency and liberality of the prince toward his +thanes, and the self-sacrificing loyalty with which they reward him.” + + NOTE 1.--Many different interpretations have been put upon the + story of _Beowulf_ (for argument of story, see texts). Thus + Müllenhoff sees in Grendel the giant-god of the storm-tossed + equinoctial sea, while Beowulf is the Scandinavian god Freyr, who + in the spring drives back the sea and restores the land. Laistner + finds the prototype of Grendel in the noxious exhalations that + rise from the Frisian coast-marshes during the summer months; + Beowulf is the wind-hero, the autumnal storm-god, who dissipates + the effluvia. + + [Footnote 1: This does not, of course, include the few short + poems in the _Chronicle_, or that portion of _Genesis_ + (_Genesis B_) supposed to have been put directly into West Saxon + from an Old Saxon original. There still remain in Northumbrian + the version of _Cædmon’s Hymn_, fragments of the _Ruthwell + Cross_, _Bede’s Death-Song_, and the _Leiden Riddle_.] + + [Footnote 2: The word _bēowulf_, says Grimm, meant originally + _bee-wolf_, or _bee-enemy_, one of the names of the woodpecker. + Sweet thinks the bear was meant. But the word is almost + certainly a compound of _Bēow_ (cf. O.E. #bēow# = grain), + a Danish demigod, and _wulf_ used as a mere suffix.] + + +II. STRUCTURE. + +(a) #Style.# + +In the structure of Old English poetry the most characteristic feature +is the constant repetition of the idea (sometimes of the thought) with a +corresponding variation of phrase, or epithet. When, for example, the +Queen passes into the banquet hall in _Beowulf_, she is designated at +first by her name, #Wealhþēow#; she is then described in turn as #cwēn +Hrōðgāres# (_Hrothgar’s queen_), #gold-hroden# (_the gold-adorned_), +#frēolīc wīf# (_the noble woman_), #ides Helminga# (_the Helmings’ +lady_), #bēag-hroden cwēn# (_the ring-adorned queen_), #mōde geþungen# +(_the high-spirited_), and #gold-hroden frēolīcu folc-cwēn# (_the +gold-adorned, noble folk-queen_). + +And whenever the sea enters largely into the poet’s verse, not content +with simple (uncompounded) words (such as #sǣ#, #lagu#, #holm#, +#strēam#, #męre#, etc.), he will use numerous other equivalents (phrases +or compounds), such as #waþema gebind# (_the commingling of waves_), +#lagu-flōd# (_the sea-flood_), #lagu-strǣt# (_the sea-street_), +#swan-rād# (_the swan-road_), etc. These compounds are usually nouns, or +adjectives and participles used in a sense more appositive than +attributive. + +It is evident, therefore, that this abundant use of compounds, or +periphrastic synonyms, grows out of the desire to repeat the idea in +varying language. It is to be observed, also, that the Old English poets +rarely make any studied attempt to balance phrase against phrase or +clause against clause. Theirs is a repetition of idea, rather than a +parallelism of structure. + + NOTE 1.--It is impossible to tell how many of these synonymous + expressions had already become stereotyped, and were used, like + many of the epithets in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, purely as + padding. When, for example, the poet tells us that at the most + critical moment Beowulf’s sword failed him, adding in the same + breath, #īren ǣr-gōd# (_matchless blade_), we conclude that the + bard is either nodding or parroting. + + +(b) #Meter.# + +[Re-read § 10, (3).] + +_Primary Stress._ + +Old English poetry is composed of certain rhythmically ordered +combinations of accented and unaccented syllables. The accented syllable +(the arsis) is usually long, and will be indicated by the macron with +the acute accent over it (–́); when short, by the breve with the same +accent (˘́). The unaccented syllable or syllables (the thesis) may be +long or short, and will be indicated by the oblique cross (×). + +_Secondary Stress._ + +A secondary accent, or stress, is usually put upon the second member of +compound and derivative nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. This will be +indicated by the macron with the grave accent, if the secondary stress +falls on a long syllable (–̀); by the breve with the same accent, if the +secondary stress falls on a short syllable (˘̀). + +Nouns: + + Hrōðgāres (–́–̀×), fēondgrāpum (–́–̀×), frēomǣgum (–́–̀×), Ēast-Dęna (–́˘̀×), + Helminga (–́–̀×), Scyldinga (–́–̀×), ānhaga (–́˘̀×), Ecgþēowes (–́–̀×), + sinc-fato (–́˘̀×). + +Adjectives:[1] + + ǣghwylcne (–́–̀×), þrīsthȳdig (–́–̀×), gold-hroden (–́˘̀×), drēorigne (–́–̀×), + gyldenne (–́–̀×), ōðerne (–́–̀×), gǣstlīcum (–́–̀×), wynsume (–́˘̀×), + ǣnigne (–́–̀×). + +Adverbs:[2] + + unsōfte (–́–̀×), heardlīce (–́–̀×), sęmninga (–́–̀×). + +The Old English poets place also a secondary accent upon the ending of +present participles (#-ende#), and upon the penultimate of weak verbs of +the second class (§ 130), provided the root-syllable is long.[3] + +Present participles: + + slǣpendne (–́–̀×), wīs-hycgende (–́–́–̀×), flēotendra (–́–̀×), + hrēosende (–́–̀×). + +Weak verbs: + + swynsode (–́˘̀×), þancode (–́˘̀×), wānigean (–́˘̀×), scēawian (–́˘̀×), + scēawige (–́˘̀×), hlīfian (–́˘̀×). + + [Footnote 1: It will be seen that the adjectives are chiefly + derivatives in -ig, -en, -er, -līc, and -sum.] + + [Footnote 2: Most of the adverbs belonging here end in #-līce#, + #-unga#, and #-inga#, § 93, (1), (2): such words as #æt-gǽdere#, + #on-gḗan#, #on-wég#, #tō-gḗanes#, #tō-míddes#, etc., are + invariably accented as here indicated.] + + [Footnote 3: It will save the student some trouble to remember + that this means long by nature (#līcodon#), or long by position + (#swynsode#), or long by resolution of stress (#maðelode#),--see + next paragraph.] + + +_Resolved Stress._ + +A short accented syllable followed in the same word by an unaccented +syllable (usually short also) is equivalent to one long accented +syllable (˘́× = –́). This is known as a resolved stress, and will be +indicated thus, ˘́͜×; + + hæleða (˘́͜͜××), guman (˘́͜×), Gode (˘́͜×), sęle-ful (˘́͜××), ides (˘́͜×), + fyrena (˘́͜××), maðelode (˘́͜ע̀×), hogode (˘́͜××), mægen-ęllen (˘́͜×–̀×), + hige-þihtigne (˘́͜×–́–̀×), Metudes (˘́͜××), lagulāde (˘́͜×–̀×), + unlyfigendes (–́˘́͜×–̀×), biforan (ע́͜×), forþolian (ע́͜××), baðian (˘́͜××), + worolde (˘́͜–×). + +Resolution of stress may also attend secondary stresses: + + sinc-fato (–́˘̀͜×), dryht-sęle (–́˘̀͜×), ferðloca (–́˘̀͜×), forðwege (–́˘̀͜×). + + +_The Normal Line._ + +Every normal line of Old English poetry has four primary accents, two in +the first half-line and two in the second half-line. These half-lines +are separated by the cesura and united by alliteration, the alliterative +letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the second +half-line. This syllable, therefore, gives the cue to the scansion of +the whole line. It is also the only alliterating syllable in the second +half-line. The first half-line, however, usually has two alliterating +syllables, but frequently only one (the ratio being about three to two +in the following selections). When the first half-line contains but one +alliterating syllable, that syllable marks the first stress, rarely the +second. The following lines are given in the order of their frequency: + + (1) þǣr wæs _h_ǽleða _h_léahtor; _h_lýn swýnsode. + (2) _m_ṓde geþúngen, _m_édo-ful ætbǽr. + (3) sṓna þæt on_f_únde _f_ýrena hýrde. + +Any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with any other initial +vowel or diphthong; but a consonant requires the same consonant, except +st, sp, and sc, each of which alliterates only with itself. + +Remembering, now, that either half-line (especially the second) may +begin with several unaccented syllables (these syllables being known in +types A, D, and E as the _anacrusis_), but that neither half-line can +end with more than one unaccented syllable, the student may begin at +once to read and properly accentuate Old English poetry. It will be +found that the alliterative principle does not operate mechanically, but +that the poet employs it for the purpose of emphasizing the words that +are really most important. Sound is made subservient to sense. + +When, from the lack of alliteration, the student is in doubt as to what +word to stress, let him first get the exact meaning of the line, and +then put the emphasis on the word or words that seem to bear the chief +burden of the poet’s thought. + + NOTE 1.--A few lines, rare or abnormal in their alliteration or + lack of alliteration, may here be noted. In the texts to be read, + there is one line with no alliteration: _Wanderer_ 58; three of + the type _a ··· b_ | _a ··· b_: _Beowulf_ 654, 830, 2746; one of + the type _a ··· a_ | _b ··· a_: _Beowulf_ 2744; one of the type _a + ··· a_ | _b ··· c_: _Beowulf_ 2718; and one of the type _a ··· b_ + | _c ··· a_: _Beowulf_ 2738. + + +_The Five Types._ + +By an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical unit in Old English +verse, the half-line, Professor Eduard Sievers,[4] of the University of +Leipzig, has shown that there are only five types, or varieties, +employed. These he classifies as follows, the perpendicular line serving +to separate the so-called feet, or measures: + + 1. A –́ × | –́ × + + 2. B × –́ | × –́ + + 3. C × –́ | –́ × + + 4. D { D^1 –́ | –́ –̀ × + { D^2 –́ | –́ × –̀ + + 5. E { E^1 –́ –̀ × | –́ + { E^2 –́ × –̀ | –́ + +It will be seen (1) that each half-line contains two, and only two, +feet; (2) that each foot contains one, and only one, primary stress; +(3) that A is trochaic, B iambic; (4) that C is iambic-trochaic; +(5) that D and E consist of the same feet but in inverse order. + + [Footnote 4: Sievers’ two articles appeared in the _Beiträge zur + Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur_, Vols. X (1885) + and XII (1887). A brief summary, with slight modifications, is + found in the same author’s _Altgermanische Metrik_, pp. 120-144 + (1893). + + Before attempting to employ Sievers’ types, the student would do + well to read several pages of Old English poetry, taking care to + accentuate according to the principles already laid down. In + this way his ear will become accustomed to the rhythm of the + line, and he will see more clearly that Sievers’ work was one + primarily of systematization. Sievers himself says: “I had read + Old English poetry for years exactly as I now scan it, and long + before I had the slightest idea that what I did instinctively + could be formulated into a system of set rules.” + (_Altgermanische Metrik_, _Vorwort_, p. 10.)] + + +_The Five Types Illustrated._ + + [[Transcriber’s Note: In the printed book, all examples line up + vertically at the main |.]] + + [All the illustrations, as hitherto, are taken from the texts to + be read. The figures prefixed indicate whether first or second + half-line is cited. B = _Beowulf_; W = _Wanderer_.] + +1. TYPE A, –́ × | –́ × + +Two or more unaccented syllables (instead of one) may intervene between +the two stresses, but only one may follow the last stress. If the thesis +in either foot is the second part of a compound it receives, of course, +a secondary stress. + + (2) ful gesealde, B. 616, –́ × | –́ × + (1) wīdre gewindan, B. 764, –́ × × | –́ × + (1)[5] Gemunde þā sē gōda, B. 759 × | –́ × × × | –́ × + (1)[5] swylce hē on ealder-dagum, B. 758, × × × × | –́ × | ˘́ × + (1) ȳþde swā þisne eardgeard, W. 85, –́ × × × × | –́ –̀ + (1) wīs-fæst wordum, B. 627, –́ –̀ | –́ × + (1) gryre-lēoð galan, B. 787, ˘́͜× –̀ | ˘́ × + (2) sǫmod ætgædre, W. 39, ˘́͜× × | –́ × + (1) duguðe ǫnd geogoðe, B. 622, ˘́͜× × × | ˘́͜× × + (1) fǣger fold-bold, B. 774, –́ × | –́ –̀ + (1) atelīc ęgesa, B. 785, ˘́͜× –̀ | ˘́͜× × + (2) goldwine mīnne, W. 22, –́ ˘̀͜× | –́ × + (1) ęgesan þēon [> *þīhan: § 118], B. 2737, ˘́͜× × | –́ × + + NOTE.--Rare forms of A are –́ –̀ × | –́ × (does not occur in + texts), –́ –̀ × | –́ –̀ (occurs once, B. 781 (1)), and –́ × –̀ | + –́ × (once, B. 2743 (1)). + + [Footnote 5: The first perpendicular marks the limit of the + anacrusis.] + +2. TYPE B, × –́ | × –́ + +Two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables may intervene between +the stresses. The type of B most frequently occurring is × × –́ | × –́. + + (1) ǫnd þā frēolīc wīf, B. 616, × × –́ | × –́ + (2) hē on lust geþeah, B. 619, × × –́ | × –́ + (2) þā se æðeling gīong, B. 2716, × × ˘́͜× | × –́ + (2) seah on ęnta geweorc, B. 2718, × × –́ | × × –́ + (1) ofer flōda genipu, B. 2809, × × –́ | × × ˘́͜× + (1) forþam mē wītan ne þearf, B. 2742, × × × –́ | × × –́ + (2) þaes þe hire se willa gelamp, B. 627, × × × × × –́ | × × –́ + (1) forþon ne mæg weorþan wīs, W. 64, × × × × –́ | × –́ + (1) Nǣfre ic ǣnegum [= ǣn’gum] męn, B. 656, × × × –́ | × –́ + + NOTE.--In the last half-line Sievers substitutes the older form + #ǣngum#, and supposes elision of the e in #Nǣfre# (= #Nǣfr-ic#: + ××–́ | ×–́). + +3. TYPE C, × –́ | –́ × + +The conditions of this type are usually satisfied by compound and +derivative words, and the second stress (not so strong as the first) is +frequently on a short syllable. The two arses rarely alliterate. As in +B, two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more common than +one. + + (1) þæt hēo on ǣnigne, B. 628, × × × –́ | –́ × + (1) þæt ic ānunga, B. 635, × × –́ | –́ × + (2) ēode gold-hroden, B. 641, × × –́ | ˘́ × + (1) gemyne mǣrðo, B. 660, × ˘́͜× | –́ × + (1) on þisse meodu-healle, B. 639, × × × ˘́͜× | –́ × + (2) æt brimes nosan, B. 2804, × ˘́͜× | ˘́ × + (2) æt Wealhþéon [= -þēowan], B. 630, × –́ | –́ × + (1) geond lagulāde, W. 3, × ˘́͜× | –́ × + (1) Swā cwæð eardstapa, W. 6, × × –́ | ˘́ × + (2) ēalā byrnwiga, W. 94, × × –́ | ˘́ × + (2) nō þǣr fela bringeð, W. 54, × × ˘́͜× | –́ × + +4. TYPE D, { D^1 –́ | –́ –̀ × + { D^2 –́ | –́ × –̀ + +Both types of D may take one unaccented syllable between the two primary +stresses (–́ × | –́ –̀ ×, –́ × | –́ × –̀). The secondary stress in D^1 +falls usually on the second syllable of a compound or derivative word, +and this syllable (as in C) is frequently short. + +(a) D^1 –́ | –́ –̀ × + + (1) cwēn Hrōðgāres, B. 614, –́ | –́ –̀ × + (2) dǣl ǣghwylcne, B. 622, –́ | –́ –̀ × + (1) Bēowulf maðelode, B. 632, –́ × | ˘́͜× ˘̀ × + (2) slāt unwearnum, B. 742, –́ | –́ –̀ × + (1) wrāþra wælsleahta, W. 7, –́ × | –́ –̀ × + (1) wōd wintercearig [= wint’rcearig], W. 24, –́ | –́ ˘̀ × + (1) sōhte sęle drēorig, W. 25, –́ × | ˘́͜× –̀ × + (1) ne sōhte searo-nīðas, B. 2739, × | –́ × | ˘́͜× –̀ × + + NOTE.--There is one instance in the texts (B. 613, (1)) of + apparent –́ × × | –́ ˘̀ ×: #word wǣron wynsume#. (The triple + alliteration has no significance. The sense, besides, precludes + our stressing #wǣron#.) The difficulty is avoided by bringing the + line under the A type: –́ × × | –́ ˘́͜×. + +(b) D^2 –́ | –́ × –̀ + + (2) Forð nēar ætstōp, B. 746, –́ | –́ × –̀ + (2) eorl furður stōp, B. 762, –́ | –́ × –̀ + (2) Dęnum eallum wearð, B. 768, ˘́͜× | –́ × –̀ + (1) grētte Gēata lēod, B. 626, –́ × | –́ × –̀ + (1) ǣnig yrfe-weard, B. 2732, –́ × | –́ × –̀ + (1) hrēosan hrīm and snāw, W. 48, –́ × | –́ × –̀ + (2) swimmað eft on weg, W. 53, –́ × | –́ × –̀ + +Very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded. + + (2) þegn ungemete till, B. 2722, –́ | –́ × × × –̀ + (1) hrūsan heolster biwrāh, W. 23, –́ × | –́ × × –̀ + +5. TYPE E, {E^1 –́ –̀ × | –́ + {E^2 –́ × –̀ | –́ + +The secondary stress in E^1 falls frequently on a short syllable, as in +D^1. + +(a) E^1 –́ –̀ × | –́ + + (1) wyrmlīcum fāh, W. 98, –́ –̀ × | –́ + (2) medo-ful ætbær, B. 625, ˘́͜× ˘̀ × | –́ + (1) sǣ-bāt gesæt, B. 634, –́ –̀ × | –́ + (1) sige-folca swēg, B. 645, ˘́͜× –̀ × | –́ + (2) Norð-Dęnum stōd, B. 784, –́ ˘̀ × | –́ + (1) fēond-grāpum fæst, B. 637, –́ –̀ × | –́ + (2) wyn eal gedrēas, W. 36, –́ –̀ × | –́ + (2) feor oft gemǫn, W. 90, –́ –̀ × | –́ + +As in D^2, the thesis in the first foot is very rarely expanded. + + (1) wīn-ærnes geweald, B. 655, –́ –̀ × × | –́ + (1) Hafa nū ǫnd geheald, B. 659, ˘́͜× –̀ × × | –́ + (1) searo-þǫncum besmiðod, B. 776, ˘́͜× –̀ × × | ˘́͜× + + NOTE.--Our ignorance of Old English sentence-stress makes it + impossible for us to draw a hard-and-fast line in all cases + between D^2 and E^1. For example, in these half-lines (already + cited), + + wyn eal gedrēas + feor oft gemǫn + Forð nēar ætstōp + + if we throw a strong stress on the adverbs that precede their + verbs, the type is D^2. Lessen the stress on the adverbs and + increase it on the verbs, and we have E^1. The position of the + adverbs furnishes no clue; for the order of words in Old English + was governed not only by considerations of relative emphasis, but + by syntactic and euphonic considerations as well. + +(_b_) E^2 –́ × –̀ | –́ + +This is the rarest of all types. It does not occur in the texts, there +being but one instance of this type (l. 2437 (2)), and that doubtful, in +the whole of _Beowulf_. + +_Abnormal Lines._ + +The lines that fall under none of the five types enumerated are +comparatively few. They may be divided into two classes, +(1) hypermetrical lines, and (2) defective lines. + +(1) HYPERMETRICAL LINES. + +Each hypermetrical half-line has usually three stresses, thus giving six +stresses to the whole line instead of two. These lines occur chiefly in +groups, and mark increased range and dignity in the thought. Whether the +half-line be first or second, it is usually of the A type without +anacrusis. To this type belong the last five lines of the _Wanderer_. +Lines 92 and 93 are also unusually long, but not hypermetrical. The +first half-line of 65 is hypermetrical, a fusion of A and C, consisting +of (–́××ע́͜– | –́×). + +(2) DEFECTIVE LINES. + +The only defective lines in the texts are B. 748 and 2715 (the second +half-line in each). As they stand, these half-lines would have to be +scanned thus: + + rǣhte ongēan –́ × | × –́ + bealo-nīð wēoll ˘́͜× –̀ | –́ + +Sievers emends as follows: + + rǣhte tōgēanes –́ × × | –́ × = A + bealo-nīðe wēoll ˘́͜× –́ × | –́ = E^1 + +These defective half-lines are made up of syntactic combinations found +on almost every page of Old English prose. That they occur so rarely in +poetry is strong presumptive evidence, if further evidence were needed, +in favor of the adequacy of Sievers’ five-fold classification. + + NOTE.--All the lines that could possibly occasion any difficulty + to the student have been purposely cited as illustrations under + the different types. If these are mastered, the student will find + it an easy matter to scan the lines that remain. + + + + +SELECTIONS FOR READING. + + +VI. EXTRACTS FROM BEOWULF. + +THE BANQUET IN HEOROT. [Lines 612-662.] + + [The Heyne-Socin text has been closely followed. I have attempted + no original emendations, but have deviated from the Heyne-Socin + edition in a few cases where the Grein-Wülker text seemed to give + the better reading. + + The argument preceding the first selection is as follows: + Hrothgar, king of the Danes, or Scyldings, elated by prosperity, + builds a magnificent hall in which to feast his retainers; but a + monster, Grendel by name, issues from his fen-haunts, and night + after night carries off thane after thane from the banqueting + hall. For twelve years these ravages continue. At last Beowulf, + nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats (a people of South Sweden), + sails with fourteen chosen companions to Dane-land, and offers his + services to the aged Hrothgar. “Leave me alone in the hall + to-night,” says Beowulf. Hrothgar accepts Beowulf’s proffered aid, + and before the dread hour of visitation comes, the time is spent + in wassail. The banquet scene follows.] + + + Þǣr wæs hæleþa hleahtor, hlyn swynsode, + word wǣron wynsume. Ēode Wealhþēow forð, + cwēn Hrōðgāres, cynna gemyndig; + grētte gold-hroden guman on healle, [615] + ǫnd þā frēolīc wīf ful gesealde + ǣrest Ēast-Dęna ēþel-wearde, + bæd hine blīðne æt þǣre bēor-þęge, + lēodum lēofne; hē on lust geþeah + symbel ǫnd sęle-ful, sige-rōf kyning. [620] + Ymb-ēode þā ides Helminga + duguðe ǫnd geogoðe dǣl ǣghwylcne, + sinc-fato sealde, oð þæt sǣl ālamp + þæt hīo[1] Bēowulfe, bēag-hroden cwēn, + mōde geþungen, medo[2]-ful ætbær; [625] + grētte Gēata lēod, Gode þancode + wīs-fæst wordum, þæs þe hire se willa gelamp, + þæt hēo on ǣnigne eorl gelȳfde + fyrena frōfre. Hē þæt ful geþeah, + wæl-rēow wiga, æt Wealhþēon, [630] + ǫnd þā gyddode gūðe gefȳsed; + Bēowulf maðelode, bearn Ecgþēowes: + “Ic þæt hogode, þā ic on holm gestāh, + sǣ-bāt gesæt mid mīnra sęcga gedriht, + þæt ic ānunga ēowra lēoda [635] + willan geworhte, oððe on wæl crunge + fēond-grāpum fæst. Ic gefręmman sceal + eorlīc ęllen, oððe ęnde-dæg + on þisse meodu[2]-healle mīnne gebīdan.” + Þām wīfe þā word wel līcodon, [640] + gilp-cwide Gēates; ēode gold-hroden + frēolicu folc-cwēn tō hire frēan sittan. + Þā wæs eft swā ǣr inne on healle + þrȳð-word sprecen,[3] þēod on sǣlum, + sige-folca swēg, oþ þæt sęmninga [645] + sunu Healfdęnes sēcean wolde + ǣfen-ræste; wiste þǣm āhlǣcan[4] + tō þǣm hēah-sęle hilde geþinged, + siððan hīe sunnan lēoht gesēon _ne_ meahton + oððe nīpende niht ofer ealle, [650] + scadu-helma gesceapu scrīðan cwōman,[5] + wan under wolcnum. Werod eall ārās; + grētte þā _giddum_ guma ōðerne + Hrōðgār Bēowulf, ǫnd him hǣl ābēad, + wīn-ærnes geweald, ǫnd þæt word ācwæð: [655] + “Nǣfre ic ǣnegum[6] męn ǣr ālȳfde, + siððan ic hǫnd ǫnd rǫnd hębban mihte, + ðrȳþ-ærn Dęna būton þē nū þā. + Hafa nū ǫnd geheald hūsa sēlest, + gemyne mǣrþo,[7] mægen-ęllen cȳð, [660] + waca wið wrāðum. Ne bið þē wilna gād, + gif þū þæt ęllen-weorc aldre[8] gedīgest.” + + [1] = hēo. + [2] = medu-. + [3] = gesprecen. + [4] = āglǣcan. + [5] = cwōmon. + [6] = ǣnigum. + [7] = mǣrþe (acc. sing.). + [8] = ealdre (instr. sing.). + + [Linenotes: + + 623: #sinc-fato sealde#. Banning (_Die epischen Formeln im + Beowulf_) shows that the usual translation, _gave costly gifts_, + must be given up; or, at least, that the _costly gifts_ are + nothing more than _beakers of mead_. The expression is an epic + formula for _passing the cup_. + + 638-39: #ęnde-ðæg ... mīnne#. This unnatural separation of + noun and possessive is frequent in O.E. poetry, but almost + unknown in prose. + + 641-42: #ēode ... sittan#. The poet might have employed #tō + sittanne# (§ 108, (1)); but in poetry the infinitive is often + used for the gerund. Alfred himself uses the infinitive or the + gerund to express purpose after #gān#, #gǫngan#, #cuman#, and + #sęndan#. + + 647-51: #wiste ... cwōman#. A difficult passage, even with + Thorpe’s inserted #ne#; but there is no need of putting a period + after #geþinged#, or of translating #oððe# by _and_: _He + (Hrothgar) knew that battle was in store_ (#geþinged#) _for the + monster in the high hall, after_ [= _as soon as_] _they could no + longer see the sun’s light, or_ [= _that is_] _after night came + darkening over all, and shadowy figures stalking_. The subject + of #cwōman# [= #cwōmon#] is #niht# and #gesceapu#. + + The student will note that the infinitive (#scrīðan#) is here + employed as a present participle after a verb of motion + (#cwōman#). This construction with #cuman# is frequent in prose + and poetry. The infinitive expresses the kind of motion: #ic cōm + drīfan# = _I came driving_.] + + +THE FIGHT BETWEEN BEOWULF AND GRENDEL. [Lines 740-837.] + + [The warriors all retire to rest except Beowulf. Grendel + stealthily enters the hall. From his eyes gleams “a luster + unlovely, likest to fire.” The combat begins at once.] + + Ne þæt se āglǣca yldan þōhte, [740] + ac hē gefēng hraðe forman sīðe + slǣpendne rinc, slāt unwearnum, + bāt bān-locan, blōd ēdrum dranc, + syn-snǣdum swealh; sōna hæfde + unlyfigendes eal gefeormod [745] + fēt ǫnd folma. Forð nēar ætstōp, + nam þā mid handa hige-þihtigne + rinc on ræste; rǣhte ongēan + fēond mid folme; hē onfēng hraþe + inwit-þancum ǫnd wið earm gesæt. [750] + Sōna þæt onfunde fyrena hyrde, + þæt hē ne mētte middan-geardes, + eorðan scēatta, on ęlran męn + mund-gripe māran; hē on mōde wearð + forht, on ferhðe; nō þȳ ǣr fram meahte. [755] + Hyge wæs him hin-fūs, wolde on heolster flēon, + sēcan dēofla gedræg; ne wæs his drohtoð þǣr, + swylce hē on ealder[1]-dagum ǣr gemētte. + Gemunde þā se gōda mǣg Higelāces + ǣfen-sprǣce, ūp-lang āstōd [760] + ǫnd him fæste wiðfēng; fingras burston; + eoten wæs ūt-weard; eorl furþur stōp. + Mynte se mǣra, hwǣr hē meahte swā, + wīdre gewindan ǫnd on weg þanon + flēon on fęn-hopu; wiste his fingra geweald [765] + on grames grāpum. Þæt wæs gēocor sīð, + þæt se hearm-scaþa tō Heorute[2] ātēah. + Dryht-sęle dynede; Dęnum eallum wearð + ceaster-būendum, cēnra gehwylcum, + eorlum ealu-scerwen. Yrre wǣron bēgen [770] + rēþe rēn-weardas. Ręced hlynsode; + þā wæs wundor micel, þæt se wīn-sęle + wiðhæfde heaþo-dēorum, þæt hē on hrūsan ne fēol, + fǣger fold-bold; ac hē þæs fæste wæs + innan ǫnd ūtan īren-bęndum [775] + searo-þǫncum besmiðod. Þǣr fram sylle ābēag + medu-bęnc mǫnig, mīne gefrǣge, + golde geregnad, þǣr þā graman wunnon; + þæs ne wēndon ǣr witan Scyldinga, + þæt hit ā mid gemete manna ǣnig, [780] + betlīc ǫnd bān-fāg, tōbrecan meahte, + listum tōlūcan, nymþe līges fæðm + swulge on swaþule. Swēg ūp āstāg + nīwe geneahhe; Norð-Dęnum stōd + atelīc ęgesa, ānra gehwylcum, [785] + þāra þe of wealle wōp gehȳrdon, + gryre-lēoð galan Godes ǫndsacan, + sige-lēasne sang, sār wānigean + hęlle hæfton.[3] Hēold hine fæste, + sē þe manna wæs mægene stręngest [790] + on þǣm dæge þysses līfes. + Nolde eorla hlēo ǣnige þinga + þone cwealm-cuman cwicne forlǣtan, + nē his līf-dagas lēoda ǣnigum + nytte tealde. Þǣr genehost brǣgd [795] + eorl Bēowulfes ealde lāfe, + wolde frēa-drihtnes feorh ealgian, + mǣres þēodnes, ðǣr hīe meahton swā. + Hīe ðæt ne wiston, þā hīe gewin drugon, + heard-hicgende hilde-męcgas, [800] + ǫnd on healfa gehwone hēawan þōhton, + sāwle sēcan: þone syn-scaðan + ǣnig ofer eorðan īrenna cyst, + gūþ-billa nān, grētan nolde; + ac hē sige-wǣpnum forsworen hæfde, [805] + ęcga gehwylcre. Scolde his aldor[4]-gedāl + on ðǣm dæge þysses līfes + earmlīc wurðan[5] ǫnd se ęllor-gāst + on fēonda geweald feor sīðian. + Þā þæt onfunde, sē þe fela ǣror [810] + mōdes myrðe manna cynne + fyrene gefręmede (hē _wǣs_ fāg wið God), + þæt him se līc-hǫma lǣstan nolde, + ac hine se mōdega[6] mǣg Hygelāces + hæfde be hǫnda; wæs gehwæþer ōðrum [815] + lifigende lāð. Līc-sār gebād + atol ǣglǣca[7]; him on eaxle wearð + syn-dolh sweotol; seonowe onsprungon; + burston bān-locan. Bēowulfe wearð + gūð-hrēð gyfeðe. Scolde Gręndel þǫnan [820] + feorh-sēoc flēon under fęn-hleoðu,[8] + sēcean wyn-lēas wīc; wiste þē geornor, + þæt his aldres[9] wæs ęnde gegǫngen, + dōgera dæg-rīm. Dęnum eallum wearð + æfter þām wæl-rǣse willa gelumpen. [825] + Hæfde þā gefǣlsod, sē þe ǣr feorran cōm, + snotor ǫnd swȳð-ferhð, sęle Hrōðgāres, + genęred wið nīðe. Niht-weorce gefeh, + ęllen-mǣrþum; hæfde Ēast-Dęnum + Gēat-męcga lēod gilp gelǣsted; [830] + swylce oncȳððe ealle gebētte, + inwid-sorge, þe hīe ǣr drugon + ǫnd for þrēa-nȳdum þolian scoldon, + torn unlȳtel. Þæt wæs tācen sweotol, + syððan hilde-dēor hǫnd ālęgde, [835] + earm ǫnd eaxle (þǣr wæs eal geador + Gręndles grāpe) under gēapne hrōf. + + [1] = ealdor-. + [2] = Heorote. + [3] = hæftan. + [4] = ealdor-. + [5] = weorðan. + [6] = mōdiga. + [7] = āglǣca. + [8] = -hliðu. + [9] = ealdres. + + [Linenotes: + + 740: #þæt#, the direct object of #yldan#, refers to the + contest about to ensue. Beowulf, in the preceding lines, was + wondering how it would result. + + 746: #ætstōp#. The subject of this verb and of #nam# is + Grendel; the subject of the three succeeding verbs (#rǣhte#, + #onfēng#, #gesæt#) is Beowulf. + + 751-52: The O.E. poets are fond of securing emphasis or of + stimulating interest by indirect methods of statement, by + suggesting more than they affirm. This device often appears in + their use of negatives (#ne#, l. 13; p. 140, l. 3; #nō#, p. 140, + l. 1 [[lines 752, 757, 755]]), and in the unexpected prominence + that they give to some minor detail usually suppressed because + understood; as where the narrator, wishing to describe the + terror produced by Grendel’s midnight visits to Heorot, says + (ll. 138-139), “Then was it easy to find one who elsewhere, more + commodiously, sought rest for himself.” It is hard to believe + that the poet saw nothing humorous in this point of view. + + 755: #nō ... meahte#, _none the sooner could he away_. The + omission of a verb of motion after the auxiliaries #magan, + mōtan, sculan#, and #willan# is very frequent. _Cf._ Beowulf’s + last utterance, p. 147, l. 17 [[line 2817]]. + + 768: The lines that immediately follow constitute a fine bit + of description by indication of effects. The two contestants are + withdrawn from our sight; but we hear the sound of the fray + crashing through the massive old hall, which trembles as in a + blast; we see the terror depicted on the faces of the Danes as + they listen to the strange sounds that issue from their former + banqueting hall; by these sounds we, too, measure the progress + and alternations of the combat. At last we hear only the + “terror-lay” of Grendel, “lay of the beaten,” and know that + Beowulf has made good his promise at the banquet (#gilp + gelǣsted#). + + 769: #cēnra gehwylcum#. The indefinite pronouns (§ 77) may be + used as adjectives, agreeing in case with their nouns; but they + frequently, as here, take a partitive genitive: #ānra + gehwylcum#, _to each one_ (= _to each of ones_); #ǣnige# + (instrumental) #þinga#, _for any thing_ (= _for any of things_); + #on healfa gehwone#, _into halves_ (= _into each of halves_); + #ealra dōgra gehwām#, _every day_ (= _on each of all days_); + #ūhtna gehwylce#, _every morning_ (= _on each of mornings_). + + 780: Notice that #hit#, the object of #tōbrecan#, stands for + #wīn-sęle#, which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2 [[§ 55, 2]]. + #Manna# is genitive after #gemete#, not after #ǣnig#. + + 787-89: #gryre-lēoð ... hæfton# [= #hæftan#]. Note that verbs + of hearing and seeing, as in Mn.E., may be followed by the + infinitive. They heard _God’s adversary sing_ (#galan#) ... + _hell’s captive bewail_ (#wānigean#). Had the present participle + been used, the effect would have been, as in Mn.E., to emphasize + the agent (the subject of the infinitive) rather than the action + (the infinitive itself). + + 795-96: #þǣr ... lāfe#. Beowulf’s followers now seem to have + seized their swords and come to his aid, not knowing that + Grendel, having forsworn war-weapons himself, is proof against + the best of swords. _Then many an earl of Beowulf’s_ (= _an earl + of B. very often_) _brandished his sword._ That no definite earl + is meant is shown by the succeeding #hīe meahton# instead of #hē + meahte#. See p. 110, Note. [[Linenote 110.5-6] + + 799: _They did not know this_ (#ðæt#), _while they were + fighting_; but the first #Hīe# refers to the warriors who + proffered help; the second #hīe#, to the combatants, Beowulf and + Grendel. In apposition with #ðǣt#, stands the whole clause, + #þone synscaðan# (object of #grētan#) #... nolde#. The second, + or conjunctional, #ðæt# is here omitted before #þone#. See + p. 112, note on ll. 18-19. + + 837: #grāpe# = genitive singular, feminine, after #eal#.] + + +BEOWULF FATALLY WOUNDED. [Lines 2712-2752.] + + [Hrothgar, in his gratitude for the great victory, lavishes gifts + upon Beowulf; but Grendel’s mother must be reckoned with. Beowulf + finds her at the sea-bottom, and after a desperate struggle slays + her. Hrothgar again pours treasures into Beowulf’s lap. Beowulf, + having now accomplished his mission, returns to Sweden. After a + reign of fifty years, he goes forth to meet a fire-spewing dragon + that is ravaging his kingdom. In the struggle Beowulf is fatally + wounded. Wiglaf, a loyal thane, is with him.] + + Þā sīo[1] wund ongǫn, + þe him se eorð-draca ǣr geworhte, + swēlan ǫnd swellan. Hē þǣt sōna onfand, + þǣt him on brēostum bealo-nīð wēoll [2715] + āttor on innan. Þā se æðeling gīong,[2] + þæt hē bī wealle, wīs-hycgende, + gesæt on sesse; seah on ęnta geweorc, + hū þā stān-bogan stapulum fæste + ēce eorð-ręced innan healde. [2720] + Hyne þā mid handa heoro-drēorigne, + þēoden mǣrne, þegn ungemete till, + wine-dryhten his wætere gelafede, + hilde-sædne, ǫnd his helm onspēon. + Bīowulf[3] maðelode; hē ofer bęnne spræc, [2725] + wunde wæl-blēate; wisse hē gearwe, + þæt hē dæg-hwīla gedrogen hæfde + eorðan wynne; þā wæs eall sceacen + dōgor-gerīmes, dēað ungemete nēah: + “Nū ic suna mīnum syllan wolde [2730] + gūð-gewǣdu, þǣr mē gifeðe swā + ǣnig yrfe-weard æfter wurde + līce gelęnge. Ic ðās lēode hēold + fīftig wintra; næs se folc-cyning + ymbe-sittendra ænig þāra, [2735] + þe mec gūð-winum grētan dorste, + ęgesan ðēon. Ic on earde bād + mǣl-gesceafta, hēold mīn tela, + nē sōhte searo-nīðas, nē mē swōr fela + āða on unriht. Ic ðæs ealles mæg, [2740] + feorh-bęnnum sēoc, gefēan habban; + for-þām mē wītan ne ðearf Waldend[4] fīra + morðor-bealo[5] māga, þonne mīn sceaceð + līf of līce. Nū ðū lungre geong[6] + hord scēawian under hārne stān, [2745] + Wīglāf lēofa, nū se wyrm ligeð, + swefeð sāre wund, since berēafod. + Bīo[7] nū on ofoste, þæt ic ǣr-welan, + gold-ǣht ongite, gearo scēawige + swegle searo-gimmas, þæt ic ðȳ sēft mæge [2750] + æfter māððum-welan mīn ālǣtan + līf ǫnd lēod-scipe, þone ic lǫnge hēold.” + + [Linenotes: + + 2716: #se æðeling# is Beowulf. + + 2718: #ęnta geweorc# is a stereotyped phrase for anything that + occasions wonder by its size or strangeness. + + 2720: #healde#. Heyne, following Ettmüller, reads #hēoldon#, + thus arbitrarily changing mood, tense, and number of the + original. Either mood, indicative or subjunctive, would be + legitimate. As to the tense, the narrator is identifying himself + in time with the hero, whose wonder was “how the stone-arches + ... _sustain_ the ever-during earth-hall”: the construction is a + form of _oratio recta_, a sort of _miratio recta_. The singular + #healde#, instead of #healden#, has many parallels in the + dependent clauses of _Beowulf_, most of these being relative + clauses introduced by #þāra þe# (= _of those that ..._ + a + singular predicate). In the present instance, the predicate has + doubtless been influenced by the proximity of #eorð-ręced#, a + _quasi_-subject; and we have no more right to alter to #healden# + or #hēoldon# than we have to change Shakespeare’s _gives_ to + _give_ in + + “Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath _gives_.” + (_Macbeth_, II, i, 61.) + + 2722: The #þegn ungemete till# is Wiglaf, the bravest of + Beowulf’s retainers. + + 2725: #hē ofer bęnne spræc#. The editors and translators of + _Beowulf_ invariably render #ofer# in this passage by _about_; + but Beowulf says not a word about his wound. The context seems + to me to show plainly that #ofer# (cf. Latin _supra_) denotes + here opposition = _in spite of_. We read in _Genesis_, l. 594, + that Eve took the forbidden fruit #ofer Drihtenes word#. Beowulf + fears (l. 2331) that he may have ruled unjustly = #ofer ealde + riht#; and he goes forth (l. 2409) #ofer willan# to confront the + dragon. + + 2731-33: #þǣr mē ... gelęnge#, _if so be that_ (#þǣr ... swā#) + _any heir had afterwards been given me_ (#mē gifeðe ... æfter + wurde#) _belonging to my body_. + + 2744-45: #geong# [= #gǫng#] #... scēawian#. See note on #ēode + ... sittan#, p. 137, ll. 19-20 [[lines 641-42]]. In Mn.E. _Go + see, Go fetch_, etc., is the second verb imperative (coördinate + with the first), or subjunctive (_that you may see_), or + infinitive without _to_? + + 2751-52: #mīn ... līf#. See note on #ęnde-dæg ... mīnne#, + p. 137, ll. 16-17 [[lines 638-39]].] + + [1] = sēo. + [2] = gēong. + [3] = Bēowulf. + [4] = Wealdend. + [5] = morðor-bealu. + [6] = gǫng (gang). + [7] = Bēo. + + +BEOWULF’S LAST WORDS. [Lines 2793-2821.] + + [Wiglaf brings the jewels, the tokens of Beowulf’s triumph. + Beowulf, rejoicing to see them, reviews his career, and gives + advice and final directions to Wiglaf.] + + _Bīowulf[1] maðelode_, + gǫmel on giohðe (gold scēawode): + “Ic þāra frætwa Frēan ealles ðanc, [2795] + Wuldur-cyninge, wordum sęcge + ęcum Dryhtne, þe ic hēr on starie, + þæs þe ic mōste mīnum lēodum + ǣr swylt-dæge swylc gestrȳnan. + Nū ic on māðma hord mīne bebohte [2800] + frōde feorh-lęge, fręmmað gē nū + lēoda þearfe; ne mæg ic hēr lęng wesan. + Hātað heaðo-mǣre hlǣw gewyrcean, + beorhtne æfter bǣle æt brimes nosan; + sē scel[2] tō gemyndum mīnum lēodum [2805] + hēah hlīfian on Hrǫnes næsse, + þæt hit sǣ-līðend syððan hātan[3] + Bīowulfes[1] biorh[1] þā þe brentingas + ofer flōda genipu feorran drīfað.” + Dyde him of healse hring gyldenne [2810] + þīoden[1] þrīst-hȳdig; þegne gesealde, + geongum gār-wigan, gold-fāhne helm, + bēah ǫnd byrnan, hēt hyne brūcan well. + “Þū eart ęnde-lāf ūsses cynnes, + Wǣgmundinga; ealle wyrd forswēop [2815] + mīne māgas tō metod-sceafte, + eorlas on ęlne; ic him æfter sceal.” + Þæt wæs þām gǫmelan gingeste word + brēost-gehygdum, ǣr hē bǣl cure, + hāte heaðo-wylmas; him of hreðre gewāt [2820] + sāwol sēcean sōð-fæstra dōm. + + [1] īo, io = ēo, eo. + [2] = sceal. + [3] = hāten. + + [Linenotes: + + 2795-99: The expression #sęcgan þanc# takes the same + construction as #þancian#; i.e., the dative of the person + (#Frēan#) and the genitive (a genitive of cause) of the thing + (#þāra frætwa#). Cf. note on #biddan#, p. 45 [[§ 65, 3]]. The + antecedent of #þe# is #frætwa#. For the position of #on#, see + § 94, (5). The clause introduced by #þæs þe# (_because_) is + parallel in construction with #frætwa#, both being causal + modifiers of #sęcge þanc#. The Christian coloring in these lines + betrays the influence of priestly transcribers. + + 2800: _Now that I, in exchange for_ (#on#) _a hoard of + treasures, have bartered_ (#bebohte#) _the laying down_ (#-lęge# + > #licgan#) _of my old life._ The ethical codes of the early + Germanic races make frequent mention of blood-payments, or + life-barters. There seems to be here a suggestion of the + “wergild.” + + 2801: #fręmmað gē#. The plural imperative (as also in #Hātað#) + shows that Beowulf is here speaking not so much to Wiglaf in + particular as, through Wiglaf, to his retainers in general,--to + his _comitatus_. + + 2806: The desire for conspicuous burial places finds frequent + expression in early literatures. The tomb of Achilles was + situated “high on a jutting headland over wide Hellespont that + it might be seen from off the sea.” Elpenor asks Ulysses to bury + him in the same way. Æneas places the ashes of Misenus beneath a + high mound on a headland of the sea. + + 2807: #hit = hlǣw#, which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2 + [[§ 55, 2]]. + + 2810-11: #him ... þīoden#. The reference in both cases is to + Beowulf, who is disarming himself (#do-of# > _doff_) for the + last time; #þegne# = _to Wiglaf_. + + Note, where the personal element is strong, the use of the + dative instead of the more colorless possessive; #him of + healse#, not #of his healse#. + + 2817: #ic ... sceal#. See note on #nō ... meahte#, p. 140, + l. 1 [[line 755]]. + + 2820: #him of hreðre#. Cf. note on #him ... þīoden#, p. 147, + ll. 10-11 [[lines 2810-11]]. + + 2820-21: For construction of #gewāt ... sēcean#, see note on + #ēode ... sittan#, p. 137, ll. 19-20 [[lines 641-42]].] + + +VII. THE WANDERER. + + [Exeter MS. “The epic character of the ancient lyric appears + especially in this: that the song is less the utterance of a + momentary feeling than the portrayal of a lasting state, perhaps + the reflection of an entire life, generally that of one isolated, + or bereft by death or exile of protectors and friends.” (Ten + Brink, _Early Eng. Lit._, I.) I adopt Brooke’s threefold division + (_Early Eng. Lit._, p. 356): “It opens with a Christian prologue, + and closes with a Christian epilogue, but the whole body of the + poem was written, it seems to me, by a person who thought more of + the goddess Wyrd than of God, whose life and way of thinking were + uninfluenced by any distinctive Christian doctrine.” + + The author is unknown.] + + +PROLOGUE. + + Oft him ānhaga āre gebīdeð, + Metudes[1] miltse, þēah þe hē mōdcearig + geond lagulāde lǫnge sceolde + hrēran mid hǫndum hrīmcealde sǣ, + wadan wræclǣstas: wyrd bið ful ārǣd! [5] + Swā cwæð eardstapa earfeþa[2] gemyndig, + wrāþra wælsleahta, winemǣga hryres: + +PLAINT OF THE WANDERER. + + “Oft ic sceolde āna ūhtna gehwylce + mīne ceare cwīþan; nis nū cwicra nān, + þe ic him mōdsefan mīnne durre [10] + sweotule[3] āsęcgan. Ic tō sōþe wāt + þæt biþ in eorle indryhten þēaw, + þæt hē his ferðlocan fæste binde, + healde his hordcofan, hycge swā hē wille; + ne mæg wērig mōd wyrde wiðstǫndan [15] + nē sē hrēo hyge helpe gefręmman: + for ðon dōmgeorne drēorigne oft + in hyra brēostcofan bindað fæste. + Swā ic mōdsefan mīnne sceolde + oft earmcearig ēðle bidǣled, [20] + frēomǣgum feor feterum sǣlan, + siþþan gēara iū goldwine mīnne + hrūsan heolster biwrāh, and ic hēan þǫnan + wōd wintercearig ofer waþema gebind, + sōhte sęle drēorig sinces bryttan, [25] + hwǣr ic feor oþþe nēah findan meahte + þone þe in meoduhealle[4] miltse wisse + oþþe mec frēondlēasne frēfran wolde, + węnian mid wynnum. Wāt sē þe cunnað + hū slīþen bið sorg tō gefēran [30] + þām þe him lȳt hafað lēofra geholena: + warað hine wræclāst, nāles wunden gold, + ferðloca frēorig, nālæs foldan blǣd; + gemǫn hē sęlesęcgas and sincþęge, + hū hine on geoguðe his goldwine [35] + węnede tō wiste: wyn eal gedrēas! + For þon wāt sē þe sceal his winedryhtnes + lēofes lārcwidum lǫnge forþolian, + ðonne sorg and slǣp sǫmod ætgædre + earmne ānhagan oft gebindað: [40] + þinceð him on mōde þæt hē his mǫndryhten + clyppe and cysse, and on cnēo lęcge + hǫnda and hēafod, swā hē hwīlum ǣr + in gēardagum giefstōles brēac; + ðonne onwæcneð eft winelēas guma, [45] + gesihð him biforan fealwe wǣgas, + baþian brimfuglas, brǣdan feþra, + hrēosan hrīm and snāw hagle gemęnged. + Þonne bēoð þȳ hęfigran heortan bęnne, + sāre æfter swǣsne; sorg bið genīwad; [50] + þonne māga gemynd mōd geondhweorfeð, + grēteð glīwstafum, georne geondscēawað. + Sęcga geseldan swimmað eft on weg; + flēotendra ferð[5] nō þǣr fela bringeð + cūðra cwidegiedda; cearo[6] bið genīwad [55] + þām þe sęndan sceal swīþe geneahhe + ofer waþema gebind wērigne sefan. + For þon ic geþęncan ne mæg geond þās woruld + for hwan mōdsefa mīn ne gesweorce, + þonne ic eorla līf eal geondþęnce, [60] + hū hī fǣrlīce flęt ofgēafon, + mōdge maguþegnas. Swā þēs middangeard + ealra dōgra gehwām drēoseð and fealleþ; + for þon ne mæg weorþan wīs wer, ǣr hē āge + wintra dǣl in woruldrīce. Wita sceal geþyldig, [65] + ne sceal nō tō hātheort nē tō hrædwyrde, + nē tō wāc wiga nē tō wanhȳdig, + nē tō forht nē tō fægen nē tō feohgīfre, + nē nǣfre gielpes tō georn, ǣr hē geare cunne. + Beorn sceal gebīdan, þonne hē bēot spriceð, [70] + oþ þæt collenferð cunne gearwe + hwider hreþra gehygd hweorfan wille. + Ongietan sceal glēaw hæle hū gǣstlīc bið, + þonne eall þisse worulde wela wēste stǫndeð, + swā nū missenlīce geond þisne middangeard [75] + winde biwāune[7] weallas stǫndaþ, + hrīme bihrorene,[8] hryðge þā ederas. + Wōriað þā wīnsalo,[9] waldend licgað + drēame bidrorene[10]; duguð eal gecrǫng + wlǫnc bī wealle: sume wīg fornōm, [80] + fęrede in forðwege; sumne fugel[11] oþbær + ofer hēanne holm; sumne sē hāra wulf + dēaðe gedǣlde; sumne drēorighlēor + in eorðscræfe eorl gehȳdde: + ȳþde swā þisne eardgeard ælda Scyppend, [85] + oþ þæt burgwara breahtma lēase + eald ęnta geweorc īdlu stōdon. + Sē þonne þisne wealsteal wīse geþōhte, + and þis deorce līf dēope geondþęnceð, + frōd in ferðe[12] feor oft gemǫn [90] + wælsleahta worn, and þās word ācwið: + ‘Hwǣr cwōm mearg? hwǣr cwōm mago[13]? hwǣr cwōm māþþumgyfa? + hwǣr cwōm symbla gesetu? hwǣr sindon sęledrēamas? + Ēalā beorht bune! ēalā byrnwiga! + ēalā þēodnes þrym! hū sēo þrāg gewāt, [95] + genāp under nihthelm, swā hēo nō wǣre! + Stǫndeð nū on lāste lēofre duguþe + weal wundrum hēah, wyrmlīcum fāh: + eorlas fornōmon asca þrȳþe, + wǣpen wælgīfru, wyrd sēo mǣre; [100] + and þās stānhleoþu[14] stormas cnyssað; + hrīð hrēosende hrūsan bindeð, + wintres wōma, þonne wǫn cymeð, + nīpeð nihtscūa, norþan onsęndeð + hrēo hæglfare hæleþum on andan. [105] + Eall is earfoðlīc eorþan rīce, + onwęndeð wyrda gesceaft weoruld under heofonum: + hēr bið feoh lǣne, hēr bið frēond lǣne, + hēr bið mǫn lǣne, hēr bið mǣg lǣne; + eal þis eorþan gesteal īdel weorþeð!’” [110] + +EPILOGUE. + + Swā cwæð snottor on mōde, gesæt him sundor æt rune. + Til biþ sē þe his trēowe gehealdeð; + ne sceal nǣfre his torn tō rycene + beorn of his brēostum ācȳþan, nemþe hē ǣr þā bōte cunne; + eorl mid ęlne gefręmman. Wel bið þām þe him āre sēceð, + frōfre tō Fæder on heofonum, + þǣr ūs eal sēo fæstnung stǫndeð. [115] + + [1] = Metodes. + [2] = earfoþa. + [3] = sweotole. + [4] = medu-. + [5] = ferhð. + [6] = cearu. + [7] See bewāwan. + [8] See behrēosan. + [9] = wīnsalu. + [10] See bedrēosan. + [11] = fugol. + [12] = ferhðe. + [13] = magu. + [14] = -hliðu. + + [Linenotes: + + 7: The MS. reading is #hryre# (nominative), which is + meaningless. + + 8: For #ūhtna gehwylce#, see note on #cēnra gehwylcum#, + p. 140 [[_Beowulf_ 769]]. + + 10: #þe ... him#. See § 75 (4). Cf. _Merchant of Venice_, + II, v, 50-51. + + 27: For #mine# (MS. #in#), which does not satisfy metrical + requirements, I adopt Kluge’s plausible substitution of + #miltse#; #miltse witan# = _to show_ (_know, feel_), _pity_. The + #myne wisse# of _Beowulf_ (l. 169) is metrically admissible. + + 37: The object of #wāt# is #þinceð him on mōde#; but the + construction is unusual, inasmuch as both #þæt’s# (#þæt# + pronominal before #wāt# and #þæt# conjunctional before #þinceð#) + are omitted. See p. 112, ll. 18-19. + + 41: #þinceð him on mōde# (see note on #him ... þīoden#, p. 147 + [[_Beowulf_ 2810-11]]). “No more sympathetic picture has + been drawn by an Anglo-Saxon poet than where the wanderer in + exile falls asleep at his oar and dreams again of his dead lord + and the old hall and revelry and joy and gifts,--then wakes to + look once more upon the waste of ocean, snow and hail falling + all around him, and sea-birds dipping in the spray.” (Gummere, + _Germanic Origins_, p. 221.) + + 53-55: #Sęcga ... cwidegiedda# = _But these comrades of + warriors_ [= those seen in vision] _again swim away_ [= _fade + away_]; _the ghost of these fleeting ones brings not there many + familiar words_; i.e. he sees in dream and vision the old + familiar faces, but no voice is heard: they bring neither + greetings to him nor tidings of themselves. + + 65: #Wita sceal geþyldig#. Either #bēon# (#wesan#) is here + to be understood after #sceal#, or #sceal# alone means _ought to + be_. Neither construction is to be found in Alfredian prose, + though the omission of a verb of motion after #sculan# is common + in all periods of Old English. See note on #nō ... meahte#, + p. 140 [[_Beowulf_ 755]]. + + 75: #swā nū#. “The Old English lyrical feeling,” says Ten + Brink, citing the lines that immediately follow #swā nū#, “is + fond of the image of physical destruction”; but I do not think + these lines have a merely figurative import. The reference is to + a period of real devastation, antedating the Danish incursions. + “We might fairly find such a time in that parenthesis of bad + government and of national tumult which filled the years between + the death of Aldfrith in 705 and the renewed peace of + Northumbria under Ceolwulf in the years that followed 729.” + (Brooke, _Early Eng. Lit._, p. 355.) + + 93: #cwōm ... gesetu#. Ettmüller reads #cwōmon#; but see + p. 107, note on #wæs ... þā īgland# [[linenote 107.14-15]]. The + occurrence of #hwǣr cwōm# three times in the preceding line + tends also to hold #cwōm# in the singular when its plural + subject follows. Note the influence of a somewhat similar + structural parallelism in _seas hides_ of these lines (_Winter’s + Tale_, IV, iv, 500-502): + + “Not for ... all the _sun sees_ or + The close _earth wombs_ or the profound _seas hides_ + In unknown fathoms, will I break my oath.” + + 111: #gesæt ... rūne#, _sat apart to himself in silent + meditation_. + + 114: #eorl ... gefręmman#. Supply #sceal# after #eorl#.] + + + + +I. GLOSSARY. + +OLD ENGLISH--MODERN ENGLISH. + + +[The order of words is strictly alphabetical, except that ð follows t. +The combination æ follows ad. + +Gender is indicated by the abbreviations, m. (= masculine), f. +(= feminine), n. (= neuter). The usual abbreviations are employed for +the cases, nom., gen., dat., acc., and instr. Other abbreviations are +sing. (= singular), pl. (= plural), ind. (= indicative mood), sub. +(= subjunctive mood), pres. (= present tense), pret. (= preterit tense), +prep. (= preposition), adj. (= adjective), adv. (= adverb), part. +(= participle), conj. (= conjunction), pron. (= pronoun), intrans. +(= intransitive), trans. (= transitive). + +Figures not preceded by § refer to page and line of the texts.] + + [[Transcriber’s Note: + References to verse selections (pages 136-153) are followed by the + actual line number in [[double brackets]].] + + +#A.# + + ā, _ever, always, aye_. + abbudisse, f., _abbess_ [Lat. abbatissa]. + ābēodan (§ 109), _bid, offer_; + him hǣl ābēad 138, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 654]] = _bade him hail, wished him + health_. + ābrecan (§ 120, Note 2), _break down, destroy_. + ābūgan (§ 109, Note 1), _give way, start_ [bow away]. + ac, conj., _but_. + ācweðan (§ 115), _say, speak_. + ācȳðan (§ 126), _reveal, proclaim_ [cūð]. + ād, m., _funeral pile_. + adesa, m., _adze, hatchet_. + ǣ (ǣw), f., _law_. + ǣdre (ēdre), f., _stream, canal, vein_; + blōd ēdrum dranc 139, 4 [[_Beowulf_ 743]] = _drank blood in streams_ + (instr.). + ǣfæstnis, f., _piety_. + ǣfen-ræst, f., _evening rest_. + ǣfen-sprǣc, f., _evening speech_. + ǣfęst (ǣwfęst), _law-abiding, pious_. + ǣfęstnis, see ǣfæstnis. + ǣfre, _ever, always_. + ǣfter, prep. (§ 94, (1)), _after_; + ǣfter ðǣm, _after that, thereafter_; + æfter ðǣm ðe, conj., _after_. + æfter, adv., _after, afterwards_. + ǣghwā (§ 77, Note), _each, every_. + ǣghwilc (§ 77, Note), _each, any_. + ǣglǣca, see āglǣca. + ǣgðer (ǣghwæðer, āðer) (§ 77, Note), _each, either_; + ǣgðer ... ōðer ... ōðer, _either ... or ... or_; + ǣgðer ge ... ge (§ 95, (2)), _both ... and_; + ǣgðer ge ... ge ... ge, _both ... and ... and_. + ǣht, f., _property, possession_ [āgan]. + ǣlc (§ 77), _each_. + ælde (ielde) (§ 47), m. pl., _men_; gen. pl., ælda. + ælmihtig, _almighty_. + ǣmetta, m., _leisure_ [_empti_-ness]. + ǣnig (§ 77), _any_; + ǣnige ðinga 141, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 792]] = _for anything_. + (See 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]], Note.) + ǣr, adv., _before, formerly, sooner_; + nō þȳ ǣr 140, 1 [[_Beowulf_ 755]] = _none the sooner_; + ǣror, comparative, _before, formerly_; + ǣrest, superlative, _first_. + ǣr, conj. (§ 105, 2), _ere, before_ = ǣr ðǣm ðe. + ǣr, prep, with dat., _before_ (time); + ǣr ðǣm ðe, conj. (§ 105, 2), _before_. + ærcebisceop, m., _archbishop_ [Lat. archiepiscopus]. + ǣrendgewrit, n., _message, letter_. + ǣrendwreca (-raca), m., _messenger_. + ǣrest, adj. (§ 96, (4)), _first_. + ærnan (§ 127), _ride, gallop_ [iernan]. + ǣrra, adj. (§ 96, (4)), _former_. + ǣrwela, m., _ancient wealth_. + æsc, m., _ash, spear_; gen. pl., asca. + Æscesdūn, f., _Ashdown_ (in Berkshire). + æstel, m., _book-mark_ [Lat. hastula]. + æt (§ 94, (1)), _at, in_; + with leornian, _to learn_, geðicgan, _to receive_, and other verbs + of similar import, + æt = _from_: 115, 18; 137, 8 [[_Beowulf_ 630]], etc. + ætberan (§ 114), _bear to, hand_. + ætgæd(e)re, adv., _together_. + ætsteppan (§ 116), _step up, advance_; pret. sing., ætstōp. + æðele, _noble, excellent_. + æðeling, m., _a noble, prince_. + Æðelwulfing, m., _son of Ethelwulf_. + Æðered, m., _Ethelred_. + āfeallan (§ 117), _fall_. + āfierran (§ 127), _remove_ [feor]. + āgan (§ 136), _to own, possess_. + āgen, adj.-part., _own_; dat. sing., āgnum [āgan]. + āgiefan (§ 115), _give back_. + āglǣca (ǣglǣca), m., _monster, champion_. + āhton, see āgan. + ālǣtan (§ 117), _let go, leave_. + aldor, see ealdor. + ālęcgan (§ 125, Note), _lay down_ [licgan]; past part., ālēd. + Ālīesend, m., _Redeemer_ [ālīesan = _release, ransom_]. + ālimpan (§ 110), _befall, occur_. + ālȳfan (§ 126), _entrust, permit_. + ambor, m., _measure_; gen. pl., ambra (§ 27, (4)). + ambyre, _favorable_. + ān (§ 89), _one_; + āna, _alone, only_; + ānra gehwylcum 141, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 785]] = _to each one_. + (See 140, 15, Note. [[_Beowulf_ 769]]) + anda, m., _zeal, injury, indignation_; + hæleðum on andan 153, 6 [[_Wanderer_ 105]] = _harmful to men_. + andēfn, f., _proportion, amount_. + andgiet (-git), n., _sense, meaning_. + andgitfullīce, _intelligibly_; + -gitfullīcost, _superlative_. + andswaru, f., _answer_. + andwyrdan (§ 127), _to answer_; pret., andwyrde. + Angel, n., _Anglen_ (in Denmark); dat. sing., Angle (§ 27 (4)). + Angelcynn, n., _English kin, English people, England_. + ānhaga (-hoga), m., _a solitary, wanderer_ [ān + hogian, + _to meditate_]. + ānlīpig, _single, individual_. + ānunga (§ 93, (2)), _once for all_ [ān]. + apostol, m., _apostle_ [Gr. ἀπόστολος]. + ār, f., _honor, property, favor_; + āre gebīdeð 148, 3 [[_Wanderer_ 1]] = _waits for divine favor_ + (gen.). + ārǣd, adj., _inexorable_. + ārǣdan (§ 126), _read_. + āręcc(e)an (§ 128), _translate, expound_. + ārfæstnis, f., _virtue_. + ārīsan (§ 102), _arise_. + asca, see aesc. + āsęcgan (§ 132), _say, relate_. + āsęttan (§ 127), _set, place_. + āsingan (§ 110), _sing_. + āspęndan (§ 127), _spend, expend_. + āstīgan (§ 102), _ascend, arise_. + āstǫndan (§ 116), _stand up_. + ātēah, see ātēon. + atelīc, _horrible, dire_. + ātēon (§ 118), _draw, draw away, take_ (as a journey). + atol, _horrible, dire_. + āttor, n., _poison_. + ātuge, see ātēon. + āð, m., _oath_. + āðer, see ǣgðer. + āwęccan (§ 128), _awake, arouse_; pret. sing., āweahte, āwęhte. + aweg, _away_. + āwęndan (§ 127), _turn, translate_. + āwrītan (§ 102), _write, compose_. + āwyrcan (§ 128), _work, do, perform_. + + +#B.# + + Bāchsęcg, m., _Bagsac_. + bæcbord, n., _larboard, left side of a ship_. + bǣl, n., _funeral fire, funeral pile_. + bān, n., _bone_. + bān-fāg, _adorned with bones_ or _antlers_. + bān-loca, m., _flesh_ [bone-locker]. + Basengas, m. pl., _Basing_ (in Hantshire). + be (bī) (§ 94, (1)), _by, about, concerning, near, along, + according to_; + be norðan þǣm wēstenne (§ 94, (4)), _north of the waste (desert)_; + be fullan, _fully, perfectly_. + bēag, see būgan. + bēag-hroden, _ring-adorned_. + bēah (bēag), m., _ring, bracelet, collar_ [būgan]. + bealo-nīð, m., _dire hatred, poison, venom_. + bearn, n., _child, son_ [bairn]. + bebēodan (§ 109), _command, bid, entrust_ (with dat.). + bebīo-, see bebēo-. + bebohte, see bebycgan. + bebycgan (§ 128), _sell_. + bēc, see bōc. + becuman (§ 114), _come, arrive, befall_. + bedǣlan (§ 126), _separate, deprive_. + bedrēosan (§ 109), _deprive_; past part. pl., bedrorene (bidrorene) + [dross, dreary]. + befǣstan (§ 127), _fasten, implant_. + befēolan (§ 110), _apply one’s self_; + ðāra ðe ðā spēda hæbben ðǣt hīe ðǣm befēolan mægen 119, 20 = + _of those who have the means by which they may apply themselves + to it_. + beforan, prep. with dat., _before_. + bēgen (declined like twēgen, § 89), _both_. + begeondan (begiondan), prep. with dat., _beyond_. + begietan (§ 115), _get, obtain, find_. + beginnan (§ 110), _begin_. + beheonan (behionan), prep. with dat., _on this side of_. + behreōsan (§ 109), _fall upon, cover_; past part. pl., behrorene + (bihrorene). + belimpan (§ 110), _pertain, belong_. + beniman (§ 114), _take, derive_. + bęnn, f., _wound_ [bana = _murderer_]. + bēon (bīon) (§ 134), _be, consist_. + beorh (beorg, biorh), m., _mound_ [barrow]. + beorht, _bright, glorious_. + Beormas, m. pl., _Permians_. + beorn, m., _man, hero, chief_. + bēor-þęgu, f., _beer-drinking_ [þicgan = _receive_]. + bēot, n., _boast_. + beran (§ 114), _bear_. + berēafian (§ 130), _bereave_; + since berēafod 145, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 2747]] = _bereft of treasure_. + beren, adj., _of a bear, bear_. + berstan (§ 110), _burst, crack_. + besmiðian (§ 130), _make hard_ (as at the forge of a smith). + bęt, see wel (§ 97, (2)). + bētan (§ 126), _make good, requite_; past part. pl., gebētte. + bętera (bętra), see gōd (§ 96, (3)). + betlīc, _excellent_. + bętsta, see gōd (§ 96, (3)). + betuh (betux) (§ 94, (1)), _between_. + betwēonan (§ 94, (1)), _between_. + betȳnan (§ 126), _close, end_ [tūn = _enclosure_]. + bewāwan (§ 117), _blow upon_; past part. pl., bewāune (biwāune, + bewāwene). + bewrēon (§ 118, 1), _enwrap_; pret. 3d sing., bewrāh (biwrāh). + bī, see be. + bi-, see be-. + bīdan (§ 102), _bide, await, expect, endure_ (with gen.). + biddan (§ 115, Note 2), _bid, pray, request_ (§ 65, Note 3); + bæd hine blīðne 136, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 618]] = _bade him be blithe_. + bindan (§ 110), _bind_. + bīo, see bēo (imperative sing.). + bisceop (biscep), m., _bishop_ [Lat. episcopus]. + bisceop-stōl, m., _episcopal seat, bishopric_. + bisigu, f., _business, occupation_; dat. pl., bisgum. + bītan (§ 102), _bite, cut_. + biwrāh, see bewrēon. + blǣd, m., _glory, prosperity_ [blāwan = _blow, inflate_]. + Blēcinga-ēg, f., _Blekingen_. + bliss, f., _bliss_ [blīðe]. + blīðe, _blithe, happy_. + blōd, n., _blood_. + bōc (§ 68, (1), Note 1), f., _book_. + bōcere, m., _scribe_ [bōc]. + bǫna (bana), m., _murderer_ [bane]. + bōt, f., _boot, remedy, help, compensation_. + brād (§ 96, (1)), _broad_. + brǣdan (§ 126), _extend, spread_ [brād]. + brǣdra, see brād. + brægd, see bregdan. + brēac, see brūcan. + breahtm, m., _noise, revelry_; + burgwara breahtma lēase 152, 10 [[_Wanderer_ 86]] = _bereft of the + revelries of citizens_. + bregdan (§ 110), _brandish, draw_ [braid]; pret. ind. 3d sing., brægd. + brenting, m., _high ship_. + brēost, n., _breast_ (the pl. has the same meaning as the sing.). + brēost-cofa, m., _breast-chamber, heart, mind_. + brēost-gehygd, n., _breast-thought, thought of the heart, emotion_. + brim, n., _sea, ocean_. + brimfugol, m., _sea-fowl_. + bringan (§ 128), _bring_. + brōhte, brōhton, see bringan. + brōðor (brōður) (§ 68, (2)), m., _brother_. + brūcan (§ 109, Note 1), _use, enjoy_ (§ 62, Note 1; but Alfred + frequently employs the acc. with brūcan). + brycg, f., _bridge_. + brȳcð, see brūcan. + brytta, m., _distributor, dispenser_ [brēotan = _break in pieces_]. + būan (§ 126, Note 2), _dwell, cultivate_ [bower]. + būde, see būan. + bufan, prep. with dat. and acc., _above_. + būgan (§ 109, Note 1), _bow, bend, turn_. + bune, f., _cup_. + burg (burh) (§ 68, (1), Note), f., _city, borough_; dat. sing., byrig. + Burgenda, m. gen. pl., _of the Burgundians_; + Burgenda land, _Bornholm_. + burgware (§ 47), m. pl., _burghers, citizens_. + burh, see burg. + būtan (būton), prep. (§ 94, (1)), _without, except, except for, but_. + būtan (būton), conj., _except that, unless_. + būtū, _both_ (= _both_--_two_. + The word is compounded of the combined neuters of bēgen and twēgen, + but is m. and f. as well as n.). + bȳn (§ 126, Note 2), _cultivated_. + byrde, adj., _of high rank, aristocratic_. + byrig, see burg. + byrne, f., _byrnie, corselet, coat of mail_. + byrnwiga, m., _byrnie-warrior, mailed soldier_. + byrð, see beran. + + +#C.# + + canōn, m., _sacred canon, Bible_ [Lat. canon, Gr. κανών]. + cearu (cearo), f., _care_. + ceaster-būend, m., _castle-dweller_. + cēne, _keen, bold, brave_. + cēosan (§ 109), _choose, accept, encounter_. + cild, n., _child_. + cirice, f., _church_; nom. pl., ciricean. + cirr (cierr), m., _turn, time, occasion_ [char, chore, ajar = on + char, on the turn]. + cirran (§ 127), _turn_. + clǣne, _clean, pure_. + clǣne, adv., _entirely _ [“clean out of the way,” Shaks.]. + clūdig, _rocky_ [having boulders or masses like _clouds_]. + clyppan (§ 127), _embrace, accept_ [clip = clasp for letters, papers, + etc.]. + cnapa, m., _boy_ [knave]. + cnēo (cnēow), n., _knee_; acc. pl., cnēo. + cniht, m., _knight, warrior_. + cnyssan (§ 125), _beat_. + collenferð (-ferhð), _proud-minded, fierce_. + costnung, f., _temptation_. + Crēcas (Crēacas), m. pl., _Greeks_. + cringan (§ 110), _cringe, fall_. + Crīst, m., _Christ_. + Crīsten, _Christian_; nom. pl. m., Crīstene, Crīstne. + cuma, m., _new-comer, stranger_. + cuman (§ 114), _come_. (See p. 138, Note on ll. 2-6.) + cunnan (§ 137), _know, can, understand_. + cunnian (§ 130), _make trial of, experience_ [cunnan]. + cure, see cēosan. + cūð, _well-known, familiar_ [past part. of cunnan: cf. uncouth]. + cūðe, cūðen, cūðon, see cunnan. + cwǣden, cwǣdon, see cweðan. + cwalu, f., _death, murder_ [cwelan]. + cwealm-cuma, m., _murderous comer_. + cwelan (§ 114), _die_ [to quail]. + cwēn, f., _queen_. + Cwēnas, m. pl., _a Finnish tribe_. + cweðan (§ 115), _say, speak_ [quoth, bequeath]. + cwic, _living, alive_ [quicksilver; the quick and the dead]. + cwidegiedd, n., _word, utterance_ [cweðan and gieddian, both meaning + _to speak_]. + cwīðan (§ 126), _bewail_ (trans.). + cwōm, see cuman. + cyle (ciele), m., _cold_ [chill]; + cyle gewyrcan 110, 7 = _produce cold, freeze_. + cyme, m., _coming_ [cuman]. + cyn(n), n., _kin, race_. + cyn(n), adj. (used only in pl.), _fitting things, etiquette, + proprieties, courtesies_; + cynna gemyndig 136, 3 [[_Beowulf_ 614]] = _mindful of courtesies_. + cynerīce, n., _kingdom_. + cyning, m., _king_. + cyssan (§ 125), _kiss_. + cyst, f., _the choice, the pick, the best_ [cēosan]. + cȳðan (§ 126), _make known, display_, [cūð]; + 2d sing. imperative, cȳð. + + +#D.# + + dǣd, f., _deed_. + dæg, m., _day_. + dæg-hwīl, f., _day-while, day_; + hē dæg-hwīla gedrogen hæfde eorðan wynne 145, 2 [[_Beowulf_ 2727]] = + _he had spent his days of earth’s joy_. + dæg-rīm, n., number of days [day-rime]; + dōgera daeg-rīm 143, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 824]] = _the number of his days_. + dæl, n., _dale_. + dǣl, m., _part, deal, division_. + dēad, _dead_. + dēað, m., _death_. + dēman (§ 126), _deem, judge_. + Dęnamearc, see Dęnemearc. + Dęne (§ 47), m. pl., _Danes_. + Dęnemearc (Dęnemearce), f., _Denmark_; dat. sing., Dęnemearce + (strong), Dęnemearcan (weak). + Dęnisc, _Danish_; + ðā Dęniscan, _the Danes_. + dēofol, m., n., _devil_; gen. sing., dēofles (§ 27, (4)). + dēope, _deeply, profoundly_ [dēop]. + dēor, n., _wild animal_ [deer]. + deorc, _dark, gloomy_. + dōgor, n., _day_; gen. pl., dōgora, dōgera, dōgra. + dōgor-gerīm, n., _number of days, lifetime_. + dōm, m., _doom, judgment, glory_. + dōmgeorn, adj., _eager for glory_ [_doom-yearning_]. + dōn (§ 135), _do, cause, place, promote, remove_. + dorste, dorston, see durran. + drēam, m., _joy, mirth_ [dream]. + drēogan (§ 109), _endure, enjoy, spend_ [Scotch dree]. + drēorig, _dreary, sad_. + drēorighlēor, adj., _with sad face_ [hlēor = _cheek, face, leer_]. + drēosan (§ 109), _fall, perish_ [dross]. + drīfan (§ 102), _drive_. + drihten, see dryhten. + drincan (§ 110), _drink_. + drohtoð (-að), m., _mode of living, occupation_ [drēogan]. + drugon, see drēogan. + dryhten (drihten), m., _lord, Lord_; dat. sing., dryhtne. + dryht-sęle, m., _lordly hall_. + duguð, f., _warrior-band, host, retainers_ [doughtiness]. + In duguð and geogoð, the higher (older) and lower (younger) ranks + are represented, the distinction corresponding roughly to the + mediæval distinction between knights and squires. + durran (§ 137), _dare_. + duru, f., _door_. + dyde, see dōn. + dynnan (§ 125), resound [din]. + dȳre (dīere, dēore, dīore), _dear, costly_. + + +#E.# + + ēa, f., _river_; gen. sing., ēas; dat. and acc. sing., ēa. + ēac, _also, likewise_ [a nickname = an eek-name. See § 65, Note 2]; + ēac swilce (swelce) 112, 3 = _also_. + ēaca, m., _addition_ [ēac]; + tō ēacan = _in addition to_ (§ 94, (4)). + ēage, n., _eye_. + eahta, _eight_. + ēalā, _oh!_ _alas!_ + ealað, see ealu. + eald (§ 96, (2)), _old_. + ealdor (aldor), n., _life_; + gif ðū ðæt ęllenweorc aldre gedīgest 138, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 662]] = _if + thou survivest that feat with thy life_ (instr.). + ealdor-dæg (aldor-, ealder-), m., _day of life_. + ealdor-gedāl (aldor-), n., _death_ [life-deal]. + ealdormǫn, m., _alderman, chief, magistrate_. + ealgian, (§ 130), _protect, defend_. + eall (eal), _all_; + ealne weg, _all the way_ (§ 98, (1)); + ealneg (< ealne weg), _always_; + ealles (§ 98, (3)), adv., _altogether, entirely_. + Eall (eal) is frequently used with partitive gen. = _all of_: + 143, 19 [[_Beowulf_ 836]]; 145, 3 [[_Beowulf_ 2728]]. + ealu (ealo) (§ 68), n., _ale_; gen. sing., ealað. + ealu-scerwen, f., _mortal panic_ [ale-spilling]. + eard, m., _country, home_ [eorðe]. + eardgeard, m. _earth_ [earth-yard]. + eardian (§ 130), _dwell_ [eard]. + eardstapa, m., _wanderer_ [earth-stepper]. + ēare, n., _ear_. + earfoð (earfeð), n. _hardship, toil_; gen. pl., earfeða. + earfoðlīc, adj., _full of hardship, arduous_. + earm, m., _arm_. + earm, adj., _poor, wretched_. + earmcearig, _wretched, miserable_. + earmlīc, _wretched, miserable_. + earnung, f., _merit_ [earning]. + ēast, _east_. + ēastan (§ 93, (5)), _from the east_. + Ēast-Dęne (§ 47), _East-Danes_. + ēasteweard, _eastward_. + ēastrihte (ēastryhte) (§ 93, (6)), _eastward_. + Ēastron, pl., _Easter_. + ēaðe, _easily_. + ēaðmōdlīce, _humbly_. + eaxl, f., _shoulder_ [axle]. + Ebrēisc, adj., _Hebrew_. + ēce, _eternal, everlasting_. + ęcg, f., _sword_ [edge]. + edor, m., _enclosure, dwelling_; nom. pl., ederas. + ēdrum, see ǣdre. + efne, adv., _just, only_ [evenly]. + eft, adv., _again, afterwards_ [aft]. + ęgesa, m., _fear, terror_ [awe]. + ęllen, n., _strength, courage_; + mid ęlne = _boldly_; + on ęlne 147, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 2817]] = _mightily, suddenly_, or _in + their (earls’) strength (prime)_. + ęllen-mǣrðu, f. _fame for strength, feat of strength_. + ęllen-weorc, n., _feat of strength_. + ęllenwōdnis, f., _zeal, fervor_. + ęllor-gāst, m., _inhuman monster_ [alien ghost]. + ęln, f., _ell_ [el-bow]. + ęlne, _see_ ęllen. + ęlra, adj. comparative, _another_ [*ęle cognate with Lat. alius]; + on ęlran męn 139, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 753]] = _in another man_. + emnlong (-lang), _equally long_; + on emnlange = _along_ (§ 94, (4)). + ęnde, m., _end_. + ęndebyrdnes, f., _order_. + ęnde-dæg, m., _end-day, day of death_. + ęnde-lāf, f., _last remnant_ [end-leaving]. + ęngel, m., _angel_ [Lat. angelus]. + Ęnglafeld (§ 51), m., _Englefield_ (in Berkshire). + Ęngle (§ 47), m. pl., _Angles_. + Ęnglisc, adj., _English_; + on Ęnglisc 117, 18 and 19 = _in English, into English_. + Ęngliscgereord, n., _English language_. + ęnt, m., _giant_. + ēode, see gān. + eodorcan (§ 130), _ruminate_. + eorl, m., _earl, warrior, chieftain_. + eorlīc, _earl-like, noble_. + eorð-draca, m., dragon [earth-drake]. + eorðe, f., _earth_. + eorð-ręced, n., _earth-hall_. + eorðscræf, n., _earth-cave, grave_. + eoten, m., _giant, monster_. + ēow, see ðū. + Ēowland, n., _Öland_ (an island in the Baltic Sea). + ęrian (§ 125), _plow_ [to ear]. + Estland, n., _land of the Estas_ (on the eastern coast of the Baltic + Sea). + Estmęre, m., _Frische Haff_. + Estum, dat. pl., _the Estas_. + etan (§ 115), _eat_ [ort]. + ęttan (§ 127), _graze_ [etan]. + ēðel, m., _territory, native land_ [allodial]. + ēðel-weard, m., _guardian of his country_. + + +#F.# + + fæc, n., _interval, space_. + fæder (§ 68, (2)), m., _father_. + fægen, _fain, glad, exultant_. + fæger (fǣger), _fair, beautiful_. + fǣlsian (§ 130), _cleanse_. + fǣrlīce, _suddenly_ [fǣr = _fear_]. + fæst, _fast, held fast_. + fæste, adv., _fast, firmly_. + fæstnung, f., _security, safety_. + fæt, n., _vessel_ [wine-fat, vat]. + fǣtels, m., _vessel_; acc. pl., fǣtels. + fæðm, m., _embrace, bosom_ [fathom = the space _embraced_ by the + extended arms]. + fāg (fāh), _hostile_; + hē wæs fāg wið God 142, 18 [[_Beowulf_ 812]] = _he was hostile to + God_. + fāh (fāg), _variegated, ornamented_. + Falster, _Falster_ (island in the Baltic Sea). + fandian (§ 130), _try, investigate_ [findan]. + faran (§ 116), _go_ [fare]. + feallan (§ 117), _fall, flow_. + fealu, _fallow, pale, dark_; nom. pl. m., fealwe. + fēawe (fēa, fēawa), pl., _few_. + fela (indeclinable), _much, many_ (with gen.). + feld (§ 51), m., _field_. + fell (fel), n., _fell, skin, hide_. + fēng, see fōn. + fęn-hlið, n., _fen-slope_. + fęn-hop, n., _fen-retreat_. + feoh, n., _cattle, property_ [fee]; gen. and dat. sing., fēos, fēo. + feohgīfre, _greedy of property, avaricious_. + feohtan (§ 110), _fight_. + fēol, see feallan. + fēond (§ 68, (3)), m., _enemy, fiend_. + fēond-grāp, f., _fiend-grip_. + feor (§ 96, (4)), adj., _far, far from_ (with dat.). + feor, adv., _far, far back_ (time). + feorh, m., n., _life_. + feorh-bęnn, f., _life-wound, mortal wound_. + feorh-lęgu, f., _laying down of life_. (See p. 146, Note on l. 13. + [[_Beowulf_ 2800]]) + feorh-sēoc, _life-sick, mortally wounded_. + feorm (fiorm), f., _use, benefit_ (_food, provisions_) [farm]. + feormian (§ 130), _eat, devour_. + feorran, _from afar_. + fēowertig, _forty_; gen., fēowertiges (§ 91, Note 1). + ferhð (ferð), m., _heart, mind, spirit_. + fęrian (§ 125), _carry, transport_ [to ferry]; + fęrede in forðwege 152, 5 [[_Wanderer_ 81]] = _carried away_. + fers, n., _verse_ [Lat. versus]. + fersc, _fresh_. + ferðloca (ferhð-), m., _heart, mind, spirit_ [heart-locker]. + fēt, see fōt. + fetor, f., _fetter_ [fōt]; instr. pl., feterum. + feðer, f., _feather_; acc. pl., feðra. + fierd, f., _English army_ [faran]. + fīf, _five_. + fīftīene, _fifteen_. + fīftig, _fifty_; gen. sing., fīftiges (§ 91, Note 1); dat. pl., + fīftegum (§ 91, Note 3). + findan (§ 110), _find_. + finger, m., _finger_. + Finnas, m. pl., _Fins_. + fiorm, see feorm. + fīras, m. pl., _men_ [feorh]; gen. pl., fīra; dat. pl., fīrum. + firrest (fierrest), see feor (§ 96, (4)). + first, m., _time, period_. + fiscað (fiscnað), m., _fishing_. + fiscere, m., _fisherman_. + fiscnað, see fiscað. + flēon (§ 118, II.), _flee_. + flēotan (§ 109), _float_. + flęt, n., _floor of the hall_. + flōd, m., _flood, wave_. + folc, n., _folk, people_. + folc-cwēn, f., _folk-queen_. + folc-cyning, m., _folk-king_. + folcgefeoht, n., _folk-fight, battle, general engagement_. + fold-bold, n., _earth-building, hall_. + folde, f., _earth, land, country_ [feld]. + folm, f., _hand_ [fēlan = _feel_]. + fōn (§ 118), _seize, capture, take_ [fang]; + tō rīce fōn = _come to (ascend) the throne_. + for (§ 94, (1)), _for, on account of_; + for ðǣm (ðe), for ðon (ðe), _because_; + for ðon, for ðȳ, for ðǣm (for-ðām), _therefore_. + fōr, see faran. + forbærnan (§ 127), _burn thoroughly_ [for is intensive, like Lat. + per]. + forgiefan (-gifan) (§ 115), _give, grant_. + forhęrgian (§ 130), _harry, lay waste_. + forhogdnis, f., _contempt_. + forht, _fearful, afraid_. + forhwæga, _about, at least_. + forlǣtan (§ 117), _abandon, leave_. + forlēt, forlēton, see forlǣtan. + forma, _first_; + forman sīðe, _the first time_ (instr.). + forniman (§ 114), _take off, destroy_. + forspęndan (§ 127), _spend, squander_. + forstǫndan (-standan) (§ 116), _understand_. + forswāpan (§ 117), _sweep away_; pret. 3d sing. indic., forswēop. + forswęrian (§ 116), _forswear_ (with dat.); past part., forsworen. + forð, _forth, forward_. + forðolian (§ 130), _miss, go without_ (with dat.) [not to _thole_ + or experience]. + forðweg, m., _way forth_; + in forðwege, _away_. + fōt (§ 68, (1)), m. _foot_. + Frǣna, m., _Frene_. + frætwe, f. pl., _fretted armor, jewels_ [fret]. + fram, see frǫm. + frēa, m., _lord, Lord_. + frēa-drihten, m., _lord, master_. + frēfran (§ 130), _console, cheer_ [frōfor]. + fręmde, _strange, foreign_; + ðā fręmdan, _the strangers_. + fręmman (§ 125), _accomplish, perform, support_ [to frame]. + fręmsumnes (-nis), f., _kindness, benefit_. + frēo (frīo), _free_; gen. pl., frēora (frīora). + frēodōm, m., _freedom_. + frēolīc, _noble_ [free-like]. + frēomǣg, m., _free kinsman_. + frēond (§ 68, (3)), m., _friend_. + frēondlēas, _friendless_. + frēondlīce, _in a friendly manner_. + frēorig, _cold, chill_ [frēoran]. + frīora, see frēo. + frið, m., n., _peace, security_ [bel-_fry_]. + frōd, _old, sage, prudent_. + frōfor, f., _comfort, consolation, alleviation_; + fyrena frōfre 137, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 629]] = _as an alleviation of + outrages_ (dat.). + frǫm (fram) (§ 94, (1)), _from, by_. + frǫm, adv., _away, forth_. + fruma, m., _origin, beginning_ [frǫm]. + frumsceaft, f., _creation_. + fugela, see fugol. + fugelere, m., _fowler_. + fugol (fugel), m., _fowl, bird_; gen. pl., fugela. + ful, n., _cup, beaker_. + fūl, _foul_. + fūlian (§ 130), _grow foul, decompose_. + full (ful), adj., _full_ (with gen.); + be fullan, _fully, perfectly_. + full (ful) adv., _fully, very_. + fultum, m., _help_. + furðor (furður), adv., _further_. + furðum, adv., _even_. + fylð, see feallan. + fyren (firen), f., _crime, violence, outrage_. + fyrhtu, f., _fright, terror_; dat. sing., fyrhtu. + fyrst, adj., superlative, _first, chief_. + fȳsan (§ 126), _make ready, prepare_ [fūs = _ready_]; + gūðe gefȳsed 137, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 631]] = _ready for battle_. + + +#G.# + + gād, n., _lack_. + gǣst, see gāst. + gafol, n., _tax, tribute_. + galan (§ 116), _sing_ [nightingale]. + gālnes, f., _lust, impurity_. + gān (§ 134), _go_. + gār, m., _spear_ [gore, gar-fish]. + gār-wiga, m., _spear-warrior_. + gāst (gǣst), m., _spirit, ghost_. + gāstlīc (gǣstlīc), _ghastly, terrible_. + ge, _and_; see ǣgðer. + gē, _ye_; see ðū. + geador, _together_. + geǣmetigian (§ 130), _disengage from_ (with acc. of person and gen. + of thing) [empty]. + geærnan (§ 127), _gain by running_ [iernan]. + gēap, _spacious_. + gēar, n., _year_; gen. pl., gēara, is used adverbially = _of yore, + formerly_. + gēardæg, m., _day of yore_. + geare (gearo, gearwe), _readily, well, clearly_ [yarely]. + Gēat, m., _a Geat, the Geat_ (i.e. Beowulf). + Gēatas, m. pl., _the Geats_ (a people of South Sweden). + Gēat-mecgas, m. pl., _Geat men_ (= the fourteen who accompanied + Beowulf to Heorot). + gebēorscipe, m., _banquet, entertainment_. + gebētan (§ 126), _make amends for_ [bōt]. + gebīdan (§ 102), _wait, bide one’s time_ (intrans.); _endure, + experience_ (trans., with acc.). + gebind, n., _commingling_. + gebindan (§ 110), _bind_. + gebrēowan (§ 109), _brew_. + gebrowen, see gebrēowan. + gebūd, gebūn, see būan (§ 126, Note 2). + gebyrd, n., _rank, social distinction_. + gecēosan (§ 109), _choose, decide_. + gecnāwan (§ 117), _know, understand_. + gecoren, see gecēosan. + gecringan (§ 110), _fall, die_ [cringe]. + gedǣlan (§ 126), _deal out, give_; + dēaðe gedǣlde 152, 7 [[_Wanderer_ 83]] = _apportioned to death_ + (dat.), or, _tore (?) in death_ (instr.). + gedafenian (§ 130), _become, befit, suit_ (impersonal, usually with + dat., but with acc. 112, 10). + gedīgan (§ 126), _endure, survive_. + gedōn (§ 135), _do, cause, effect_. + gedræg, n., _company_. + gedrēosan (§ 109), _fall, fail_. + gedriht (gedryht), n., _band, troop_. + gedrogen, see drēogan. + gedrync, n., _drinking_. + geęndian (§ 130), _end, finish_. + gefaran (§ 116), _go, die_. + gefēa, m., joy. + gefeaht, see gefeohtan. + gefeh, see gefēon. + gefēng, see gefōn. + gefeoht, n., _fight, battle_. + gefeohtan (§ 110), _fight_. + gefēon (§ 118, v.), _rejoice at_ (with dat.); pret. 3d sing., gefeah, + gefeh. + gefēra, m., _companion, comrade_ [co-farer]. + geflīeman (§ 126), _put to flight_ [flēon]. + gefohten, see gefeohtan. + gefōn (§ 118, vii.), _seize_. + gefōr, see gefaran. + gefrǣge, n., _hearsay, report_; + mīne gefrǣge (instr.) 141, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 777]] = _as I have heard + say, according to my information_. + gefręmman (§ 125), _perform, accomplish, effect_. + gefultumian (§ 130), _help_ [fultum]. + gefylce, n., _troop, division_ [folc]; dat. pl., gefylcum, gefylcium. + gefyllan (§ 127), _fill_ (with gen.); past part. pl., f., gefylda. + geglęngan (§ 127), _adorn_. + gehātland, n., _promised land_ [gehātan = _to promise_]. + gehealdan (§ 117), _hold, maintain_. + gehīeran (gehȳran) (§ 126), _hear_. + gehīersumnes, f., _obedience_. + gehola, m., _protector_ [helan]. + gehwā (§ 77, Note), _each_; + on healfa gehwone 142, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 801]] (see Note 140, 15 + [[_Beowulf_ 769]]. Observe that the pron. may, as here, be masc. + and the gen. fem.). + gehwæðer (§ 77, Note), _each, either, both_. + gehwylc (gehwilc) (§ 77, Note), _each_ (with gen. pl. See Note + 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]]). + gehwyrfan (§ 127), _convert, change_. + gehȳdan (§ 126), _hide, conceal, consign_. + gehygd, f., n., _thought, purpose_. + gehȳran, see gehīeran. + gehȳrnes, f., _hearing_; + eal ðā hē in gehȳrnesse geleornian meahte 115, 14 = _all things + that he could learn by hearing_. + gelǣdan (§ 126), _lead_. + gelǣred, part.-adj., _learned_; superlative, gelǣredest. + gelafian (§ 130), _lave_. + gelęnge, _along of, belonging to_ (with dat.). + geleornian (-liornian) (§ 130), _learn_. + gelīce, _likewise_; _in like manner to_ (with dat.). + gelīefan (gelȳfan) (§ 126), _believe_; + ðæt hēo on ǣnigne eorl gelȳfde 137, 6 [[_Beowulf_ 628]] = _that she + believed in any earl_. + gelimpan (§ 110), _happen, be fulfilled_. + gelimplīc, _proper, fitting_. + gelȳfan, see gelīefan. + gelȳfed, _weak, infirm_ [left (hand)]. + gēmde, see gīeman. + gemet, n., _meter, measure, ability_. + gemētan (§ 126), _meet_. + gemǫn, see gemunan. + gemunan (§ 136), _remember_; indic. pres. 1st and 3d sing., gemǫn; + pret. sing., gemunde. + gemynd, n., _memory, memorial_; + tō gemyndum 147, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 2805]] = _as a memorial_. + gemyndgian (-mynian) (§ 130), _remember_; + mid hine gemyndgade 115, 15 = _he treasured in his memory_; + gemyne mǣrðo 138, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 660]] = _be mindful of glory_ + (imperative 2d sing.). + gemyndig, _mindful of_ (with gen.). + genāp, see genīpan. + geneahhe, _enough, often_; + genehost, superlative, _very often_. + genip, n., _mist, darkness_. + genīpan (§ 102), _grow dark_. + genīwian (§ 130), _renew_. + genōh, _enough_. + genumen, see niman. + geoc, n., _yoke_. + gēocor, _dire, sad_. + geogoð, f., _youth, young people, young warriors_. (See duguð.) + geond (giond) (§ 94, (2)), _throughout_ [yond]. + geondhweorfan (§ 110), _pass over, traverse, recall_; + ðonne māga gemynd mōd geondhweorfeð 150, 15 [[_Wanderer_ 51]] = + _then his mind recalls the memory of kinsmen_. + geondscēawian (§ 130), survey, review; + georne geondscēawað 150, 16 [[_Wanderer_ 52]] = _eagerly surveys + them_. + geondðęnc(e)an (§ 128), _think over, consider_. + geong (§ 96, (2)), _young_; + giengest, (gingest), superlative, _youngest, latest, last_. + geong = gǫng, see gǫngan (imperative 2d sing.). + gēong (gīong), see gǫngan (pret. 3d sing.). + georn (giorn), _eager, desirous, zealous, sure_ [yearn]. + georne, _eagerly, certainly_; + wiste ðē geornor 143, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 822]] = _knew the more + certainly_. + geornfulnes, f., _eagerness, zeal_. + geornlīce, _eagerly, attentively_. + geornor, see georne. + geręcednes, f., _narration_ [ręccan]. + gerisenlīc, _suitable, becoming_. + gerȳman (§ 126), _extend_, (trans.) [rūm]. + gesǣliglīc, _happy, blessed_ [silly]. + gesamnode, see gesǫmnian. + gesceaft, f., _creature, creation, destiny_ [scieppan]. + gesceap, n., _shape, creation, destiny_ [scieppan]. + gescieldan (§ 127), _shield, defend_. + gesealde, see gesęllan. + geseglian (§ 130), _sail_. + geselda, m., _comrade_. + gesęllan (§ 128), _give_. + gesēon (gesīon) (§ 118), _see_, observe; pres. indic. 3d sing., + gesihð. + geset, n., _habitation, seat_. + gesęttan (§ 127), _set, place, establish_. + gesewen, see sēon, gesēon (past part.). + gesewenlīc, _seen, visible_ [seen-like]. + gesiglan (§ 127), _sail_. + gesihð, see gesēon. + gesittan (§ 115, Note 2), _sit_ (trans., as _to sit a horse, to sit + a boat_, etc.); _sit, sit down_ (intrans.). + geslægen, see slēan (§ 118). + gesǫmnian (§ 130), _assemble, collect_. + gesǫmnung, f., _collection, assembly_. + gestāh, see gestīgan. + gestaðelian (§ 130), _establish, restore_ [standan]. + gesteal, n., _establishment, foundation_ [stall]. + gestīgan (§ 102), _ascend, go_ [stile, stirrup, sty (= a _rising_ + on the eye)]. + gestrangian (§ 130), _strengthen_. + gestrēon, n., _property_. + gestrȳnan (§ 126), _obtain, acquire_ [gestrēon]. + gesweorcan (§ 110), _grow dark, become sad_; + For ðon ic geðęncan ne mæg geond ðās woruld for hwan mōdsefa mīn + ne gesweorce 151, 3-4 [[lines 58-59]] = _Therefore in this world + I may not understand wherefore my mind does not grow “black as + night.”_ (Brooke.) + geswīcan (§ 102), _cease, cease from_ (with gen.). + getæl, n., _something told, narrative_. + getruma, m., _troop, division_. + geðanc, m., n., _thought_. + geðeah, see geðicgan. + geðęnc(e)an (§ 128), _think, remember, understand, consider_. + geðēodan (§ 126), _join_. + geðēode (-ðīode), n., _language, tribe_. + geðēodnis, f., _association_; + but in 112, 2 this word is used to render the Lat. _appetitus_ = + _desire_. + geðicg(e)an (§ 115, Note 2), _take, receive_; pret. indic. 3d sing., + geðeah. + geðungen, part.-adj., _distinguished, excellent_ [ðēon, _to thrive_]. + geðyldig, _patient_ [ðolian]. + geweald (gewald), n., _control, possession, power_ [wield]. + geweorc, n., _work, labor_. + geweorðian (§ 130), _honor_ [to attribute _worth_ to]. + gewīcian (§ 130), _dwell_. + gewin(n), n., _strife, struggle_. + gewindan (§ 110), _flee_ [wend]. + gewissian (§ 130), _guide, direct_. + gewītan (§ 102), _go, depart_. + geworht, see gewyrcan. + gewrit, n., _writing, Scripture_. + gewunian (§ 130), _be accustomed, be wont_. + gewyrc(e)an (§ 128), _work, create, make, produce_. + gid(d), n., _word, speech_. + giefan (§ 115), _give_. + giefstōl, m., _gift-stool, throne_. + giefu (gifu), f., _gift_. + gielp (gilp), m., n., _boast_ [yelp]. + gīeman (gēman) (§ 126), _endeavor, strive_. + gīet (gīt, gȳt), _yet, still_. + gif (gyf), _if_ [not related to _give_]. + gifeðe (gyfeðe), _given, granted_. + gilp, see gielp. + gilp-cwide, m., _boasting speech_ [_yelp_-speech]. + gingest, see geong (adj.). + giohðo (gehðu), f., _care, sorrow, grief_. + giū (iū), _formerly, of old_. + glæd (glǣd), _glad_. + glēaw, _wise, prudent_. + glīwstæf, m., _glee, joy_; instr. pl. (used adverbially), + glīwstafum 150, 16 [[_Wanderer_ 52]] = _joyfully_. + God, m., _God_. + gōd (§ 96, (3)), _good_; + mid his gōdum 115, 12 = _with his possessions (goods)_. + godcund, _divine_ [God]. + godcundlīce, _divinely_. + gold, n., _gold_. + gold-ǣht, f., _gold treasure_. + gold-fāh, _gold-adorned_. + gold-hroden, part.-adj., _gold-adorned_. + goldwine, m., _prince, giver of gold, lord_ [gold-friend]. + gomel (gomol), _old, old man_. + gǫngan (gangan) (§ 117), _go_ [gang]; imperative 2d sing., geong; + pret. sing., gēong, gīong, gēng; past part., gegǫngen, gegangen. + The most commonly used pret. is ēode, which belongs to gān (§ 134). + Gotland, n., _Jutland_ (in _Ohthere’s Second Voyage_), _Gothland_ + (in _Wulfstan’s Voyage_). + gram, _grim, angry, fierce, the angry one_. + grāp, f., _grasp, clutch, claw_. + grētan (§ 126), _greet, attack, touch_. + grōwan (§ 117, (2)), _grow_. + gryre-lēoð, n., _terrible song_ [grisly lay]. + guma, m., _man, hero_ [groom; see § 65, Note 1]. + gūð, f., _war, battle_. + gūð-bill, n., _sword_ [war-bill]. + gūð-gewǣde, n., _armor_ [war-weeds]. + gūð-hrēð, f., _war-fame_. + gūð-wine, m., _sword_ [war-friend]. + gyddian (§ 130), _speak formally_, chant [giddy; the original meaning + of _giddy_ was _mirthful_, as when one sings]. + gyf, see gif. + gyfeðe, see gifeðe. + gyldan (gieldan) (§ 110), _pay_; indic. 3d sing., gylt. + gylden, _golden_ [gold]. + + +#H.# + + habban (§ 133), _have_. + hād, m., _order, rank, office, degree_ [-hood, -head]. + hæfta, m., _captive_. + hægel (hagol), m., _hail_; instr. sing., hagle. + hæglfaru, f., _hail-storm_ [hail-faring]. + hæle, see hæleð. + hǣl, f., _hail, health, good luck_. + hæleð (hæle), m., _hero, warrior_. + hǣt, see hātan. + hǣðen, _heathen_. + Hǣðum (æt Hǣðum), _Haddeby_ (= _Schleswig_). + hāl, _hale, whole_. + hālettan (§ 127), _greet, salute_ [to hail]. + Halfdęne, _Halfdane_ (proper name). + hālga, m., _saint_. + Hālgoland, _Halgoland_ (in ancient Norway). + hālig, _holy_. + hālignes, f., _holiness_. + hām, m., _home_; dat. sing., hāme, hām (p. 104, Note); + used adverbially in hām ēode 112, 18 = _went home_. + hand, see hǫnd. + hār, _hoary, gray_. + hāt, _hot_. + hātan (§ 117, Note 2), _call, name, command_; pret. sing., heht, hēt. + hātheort, _hot-hearted_. + hātte, see hātan. + hē, hēo, hit (§ 53), _he, she, it_. + hēafod, n., _head_. + hēah (§ 96, (2)), _high_; acc. sing, m., hēanne. + hēah-sęle, m., _high hall_. + hēahðungen, _highly prosperous, aristocratic_ [hēah + past part. of + ðēon (§ 118)]. + healdan (§ 117), _hold, govern, possess_; + 144, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 2720]] = _hold up, sustain_. + healf, adj., _half_. + healf, f., _half, side, shore_. + heall, f., _hall_. + heals, m., _neck_. + hēan, _abject, miserable_. + hēanne, see hēah. + heard, _hard_. + heard-hicgende, _brave-minded_ [hard-thinking]. + hearm-scaða, m., _harmful foe_ [harm-scather]. + hearpe, f., _harp_. + heaðo-dēor, _battle-brave_. + heaðo-mǣre, _famous in battle_. + heaðo-wylm, m., _flame-surge, surging of fire_ [battle-welling]. + hēawan (§ 117), _hew, cut_. + hębban, hōf, hōfon, gehafen (§ 117), _heave, lift, raise_. + hęfig, _heavy, oppressive_. + heht, see hātan. + helan (§ 114), _conceal_. + hęll, f., _hell_. + helm, m., _helmet_. + Helmingas, m. pl., _Helmings_ (Wealtheow, Hrothgar’s queen, is a + Helming). + help, f., _help_. + helpan (§ 110), _help_ (with dat.). + heofon, m., _heaven_. + heofonlīc, _heavenly_. + heofonrīce, n., _kingdom of heaven_. + hēold, see healdan. + heolstor (-ster), n., _darkness, concealment, cover_ [holster]. + heora (hiera), see hē. + heord, f., care, guardianship [hoard]. + heoro-drēorig, _bloody_ [sword-dreary]. + Heorot, _Heorot, Hart_ (the famous hall which Hrothgar built). + heorte, f., _heart_. + hēr, _here, hither_; + in the _Chronicle_ the meaning frequently is _at this date, in this + year_: 99, 1. + hęre, m., _Danish army_. + hęrenis, f., _praise_. + hęrgian (§ 130), _raid, harry, ravage_ [hęre]. + hęrgung, f., _harrying, plundering_. + hęrian (hęrigean) (§ 125), _praise_. + hērsumedon, see hīersumian. + hēt, see hātan. + hider (hieder), _hither_. + hiera, see hē. + hīeran (hȳran) (§ 126), _hear, belong_. + hierde, m., _shepherd, instigator_ [keeper of a _herd_]. + hierdebōc, f., _pastoral treatise_ [shepherd-book, a translation of + Lat. _Cura Pastoralis_]. + hīerra, see hēah. + hīersumian (hȳr-, hēr-) (§ 130), _obey_ (with dat.). + hige (hyge), m., _mind, heart_. + hige-ðihtig, _bold-hearted_. + hild, f., _battle_. + hilde-dēor, _battle-brave_. + hilde-mecg, m., _warrior_. + hilde-sæd, _battle-sated_. + hin-fūs, _eager to be gone_ [hence-ready]. + hira, see hē. + hlǣw (hlāw), m., _mound, burial mound_ [Lud_low_ and other + place-names, _low_ meaning _hill_]. + hlāford, m., _lord, master_ [loaf-ward?]. + hleahtor, m., _laughter_. + hlēo, m., _refuge, protector_ [lee]. + hlīfian (§ 130), _rise, tower_. + hlyn, m., _din, noise_. + hlynsian (§ 130), _resound_. + hof, n., _court, abode_. + hogode, see hycgan. + holm, m., _sea, ocean_. + hǫnd (hand), f., _hand_; + on gehwæðre hǫnd, _on both sides_. + hord, m., n., _hoard, treasure_. + hordcofa, m., _breast, heart_ [hoard-chamber] + hors, n., _horse_. + horshwæl, m., _walrus_. + hrædwyrde, _hasty of speech_ [hræd = _quick_]. + hrægel, n., _garment_; dat. sing., hrægle. + hrān, m., _reindeer_. + hraðe, _quickly, soon_ [_rath_-er]. + hrēo (hrēoh), _rough, cruel, sad_. + hrēosan (§ 109), _fall_. + hrēran (§ 126), _stir_. + hreðer, m., n., _breast, purpose_; dat. sing., hreðre. + hrīm, m., _rime, hoarfrost_. + hrīmceald, _rime-cold_. + hring, m., _ring, ring-mail_. + hrīð, f. (?), _snow-storm_. + hrōf, m., _roof_. + Hrones næss, literally _Whale’s Ness, whale’s promontory_; + see næss. + hrūse, f., _earth_ [hrēosan: deposit]. + hryre, m., _fall, death_ [hrēosan]. + hrȳðer, n., _cattle_ [rinder-pest]. + hryðig, _ruined_ (?), _storm-beaten_; nom. pl. m., hryðge. + hū, _how_. + Humbre, f., _river Humber_. + hund, _hundred_. + hunig, n., _honey_. + hunta, m., _hunter_. + huntoð (-tað), m., _hunting_. + hūru, adv., _about_. + hūs, n., _house_. + hwā, hwæt (§ 74), _who?_ _what?_ swā hwæt swā (§ 77, Note), + _whatsoever_; + indefinite, _any one, anything_; + for hwan (instr.), _wherefore_. + hwæl, m., _whale_. + hwælhunta, m., _whale-hunter_. + hwælhuntað, m., _whale-fishing_. + hwǣr, _where?_ hwǣr ... swā, _wheresoever_; + wel hwǣr, _nearly everywhere_. + hwæthwugu, _something_. + hwæðer, _whether, which of two?_ + hwæðre, _however, nevertheless_. + hwēne, see hwōn. + hweorfan (§ 110), _turn, go_. + hwider, _whither_. + hwīl, f., _while, time_; + ealle ðā hwīle ðe, _all the while that_; + hwīlum (instr. pl.), _sometimes_. + hwilc (hwylc, hwelc) (§ 74, Note 1), _which?_ _what?_ + hwōn, n., _a trifle_; + hwēne (instr. sing.), _somewhat, a little_. + hwǫnan, _when_. + hȳ, see hīe. + hycgan (§ 132), _think, resolve_; pret. 3d sing., hogode. + hȳd, f., _hide, skin_. + hyge, see hige. + hyra (hiera), see hē. + hȳran, see hīeran. + hyrde, see hierde. + hys (his), see hē. + hyt (hit), see hē. + + +#I.# + + ic (§ 72), _I_. + īdel, _idle, useless, desolate_. + ides, f., _woman, lady_. + ieldra, adj., see eald. + ieldra, m., _an elder, parent, ancestor_. + iernan (yrnan) (§ 112), _run_. + īglǫnd (īgland), n., _island_. + ilca (ylca), _the same_ [of that ilk]. + Ilfing, _the Elbing_. + in, _in, into_ (with dat. and acc.); + in on, _in on, to, toward_. + inbryrdnis (-nes), f., _inspiration, ardor_. + indryhten, _very noble_. + ingǫng, m., _entrance_. + innan, adv., _within, inside_; + on innan, _within_. + innanbordes, adv.-gen., _within borders, at home_. + inne, adv., _within, inside_. + intinga, m., _cause, sake_. + inweardlīce, _inwardly, fervently_. + inwid-sorg (inwit-sorh), f., _sorrow caused by an enemy_. + inwit-ðanc, m., _hostile intent_. + Īraland, n., _Ireland_ (but in _Ohthere’s Second Voyage, Iceland_ is + probably meant). + īren, n., _iron, sword_; gen. pl., īrenna, īrena. + īren-bęnd, m., f., _iron-band_. + īu, see gīu. + + +#K.# + + kynerīce, see cynerīce. + kyning, see cyning. + kyrtel, m., _kirtle, coat_. + + +#L.# + + Lǣden, _Latin_. + Lǣdengeðēode (-ðīode), n., _Latin language_. + Lǣdenware (§ 47), m. pl., _Latin people, Romans_. + lǣfan (§ 126), _leave_. + lǣge, see licgan. + Lǣland, n., _Laaland_ (in Denmark). + lǣn, n., _loan_; + tō lǣne 121, 2 = _as a loan_. + lǣne, adj., _as a loan, transitory, perishable_. + lǣran (§ 126), _teach, advise, exhort_ [lār]. + lǣssa, lǣsta, see lȳtel. + lǣstan (§ 127), _last, hold out_ (intrans.); _perform, achieve_ + (trans.). + lǣtan (§ 117), _let, leave_. + lāf, f., _something left, remnant, heirloom_ (often a _sword_); + tō lāfe, _as a remnant, remaining_. + lagulād, f., _sea_ [lake-way, lād = _leading, direction, way_]. + land, see lǫnd. + lang, see lǫng. + Langaland, n., _Langeland_ (in Denmark). + lār, f., _lore, teaching_. + lārcwide, m., _precept, instruction_, [cwide < cweðan]. + lārēow, m., _teacher_ [lār + ðēow]. + lāst, m., _track, footprint_ [shoemaker’s last]; + on lāst(e), _in the track of, behind_ (with dat.). + lāð, _loathsome, hateful_. + lēas, _loose, free from, bereft of_ (with gen.). + lēasung, f., _leasing, deception, falsehood_. + lęcgan (§ 125, Note), _lay_. + lēfdon, see līefan. + leger, n., _lying in, illness_ [licgan]. + lęng, see lǫnge. + lęngra, see lǫng. + lēod, m., _prince, chief_. + lēod, f., _people, nation_ (the plural has the same meaning). + lēod-scipe, m., _nation_ [people-ship]. + lēof, _dear_ [lief]. + leoht, adj., _light_. + lēoht, n., _light, brightness_. + leornere, m., _learner, disciple_. + leornian (§ 130), _learn_. + leornung (liornung), f., _learning_. + lēoð, n., _song_ [lay?]. + lēoðcræft, m., _poetic skill_ [lay-craft]. + lēoðsǫng, n., _song, poem_. + lēt, see lǣtan. + libban (§ 133), _live_; pres. part., lifigende, _living, alive_. + līc, n., _body, corpse_ [lich-gate, Lichfield]. + licgan (§ 115, Note 2), _lie, extend, flow, lie dead_; 3d sing. + indic. pres., ligeð, līð. + līchama (-hǫma), m., _body_ [body-covering]. + līcian (§ 130), _please_ (with dat.) [like]. + līc-sār, n., _body-sore, wound in the body_. + līefan (lēfan) (§ 126), _permit, allow_ (with dat.) [grant _leave_ + to]. + līf, n., _life_. + līf-dagas, m. pl., _life-days_. + lifigende, see libban. + līg, m., _flame, fire_. + ligeð, see licgan. + lim, n., _limb_. + list, f., _cunning_; + dat. pl., listum, is used adverbially = _cunningly_. + līð, see licgan. + lof, m., _praise, glory_. + lǫnd (land), n., _land, country_. + lǫng (lang) (§ 96, (2)), _long_. + lǫnge (lange) (§ 97, (2)), _long_; + lǫnge on dæg, _late in the day_. + lufan, see lufu. + lufian (lufigean) (§ 131), _love_. + luflīce, _lovingly_. + lufu, f., _love_; dat. sing. (weak), lufan. + lungre, _quickly_. + lust, m., _joy_ [lust]; + on lust, _joyfully_. + lȳt, indeclinable, _little, few_ (with partitive gen.). + lȳtel (lītel) (§ 96, (2)), _little, small_. + + +#M.# + + mā, see micle (§ 97, (2)). + mæg, see magan. + mǣg, m., _kinsman_; nom. pl., māgas (§ 27, (2)). + mægen n., _strength, power_ [might and _main_]. + mægen-ęllen, n., _main strength, mighty courage_. + mǣgð, f., _tribe_. + mægðhād, m., _maidenhood, virginity_. + mǣl-gesceaft, f., _appointed time_ [mǣl = _meal, time_]. + mǣran (§ 126), _make famous, honor_. + mǣre, _famous, glorious, notorious_. + mǣrðo (mǣrðo, mǣrð), f., _glory, fame_. + mæsseprēost, m., _mass-priest_. + mǣst, see micel. + magan (§ 137), _be able, may_. + māgas, see mǣg. + magu (mago), m., _son, man_. + maguðegn, m., _vassal, retainer_. + man(n), see mǫn(n). + mancus, m., _mancus, half-crown_; gen. pl., mancessa. + māndǣd, f., _evil deed_. + manig, see mǫnig. + manigfeald, see mǫnigfeald. + māra, see micel. + maðelian (§ 130), _harangue, speak_. + māðum (māððum), m., _gift, treasure, jewel_; gen. pl., māðma. + māððumgyfa, m., _treasure-giver, lord_. + māððum-wela, m., _wealth of treasure_. + mē, see ic. + meaht, f., _might, power_. + meahte, see magan. + mearc, f., _boundary, limit_ [mark, march]. + mearg (mearh), m., _horse_; nom. pl., mēaras. + mearð, m., _marten_. + mec, see ic. + medmicel, _moderately large, short, brief_. + medu (medo), m., _mead_. + medu-bęnc, f., _mead-bench_. + medu-ful, n., _mead-cup_. + medu-heall, f., _mead-hall_. + męn, see mǫn(n). + męngan (§ 127), _mingle, mix_. + męnigu (męnigeo), f., _multitude_ [many]. + męnniscnes, f., _humanity, incarnation_ [man]. + meolc, f., _milk_. + Mēore, _Möre_ (in Sweden). + męre, m., _lake, mere, sea_ [mermaid]. + Meretūn, m., _Merton_ (in Surrey). + mētan (§ 126), _meet, find_. + Metod (Meotod, Metud), m., _Creator, God_. + metod-sceaft, f., _appointed doom, eternity_. + micel (§ 96, (3)), _great, mighty, strong, large_ [mickle]; + māra, _more, stronger, larger_. + micle (micele), _greatly, much_. + miclum, (§ 93, (4)), _greatly_. + mid, _with, amid, among_ (with dat. and acc.). + middangeard, m., _earth, world_ [middle-yard]. + middeweard, _midward, toward the middle_. + Mierce, m. pl., _Mercians_. + mihte, see _magan_. + mīl, f., _mile_ [Lat. mille]. + mildheortnes, f., _mild-heartedness, mercy_. + milts, f., _mildness, mercy_. + mīn (§ 76), _my, mine_. + mislīc, _various_. + missenlīc, _various_. + mōd, n., _mood, mind, courage_. + mōdcearig, _sorrowful of mind_. + mōdega, mōdga, see mōdig. + mōdgeðanc, m., _purpose of mind_. + mōdig, _moody, brave, proud_. + mōdor, f., _mother_. + mōdsefa, m., _mind, heart_. + mǫn(n) (man, mann) (§ 68; § 70, Note), m., _man, one, person, they_. + mōna, m., _moon_. + mōnað (§ 68, (1), Note), m., _month_ [mōna]; dat. sing., mōnðe. + mǫn(n)cynn, n., _mankind_. + mǫndryhten, m., _liege lord_. + mǫnian (manian) (§ 130), _admonish_. + mǫnig (manig, mǫneg, mænig), _many_. + mǫnigfeald (manig-), _manifold, various_. + mōnðe, see mōnað. + mōr, m., _moor_. + morgen, m., _morning_; dat. sing., morgen(n)e. + morðor-bealu (-bealo), n., _murder_ [murder-bale]; + see ðurfan. + mōste, see mōtan. + mōtan (§ 137), _may, be permitted, must_. + mund-gripe, m., _hand-grip_. + munuc, m., _monk_ [Lat. monachus]. + munuchād, m., _monkhood, monastic rank_. + mūð, m., _mouth_. + myntan (§ 127), _be minded, intend_; pret. indic. 3d sing., mynte. + mynster, n., _monastery_ [Lat. monasterium]; dat. sing., mynstre. + mȳre, f., _mare_ [mearh]. + myrð, f., _joy, mirth_; + mōdes myrðe 142, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 811]] = _with joy of heart_. + + +#N.# + + nā (nō), _not_ [ne ā = _n-ever_]; + nā ne, _not, not at all_. + nabban (p. 32, Note), _not to have_. + nǣdre, f., _serpent, adder_. + næfde, see nabban. + nǣfre, _never_. + nǣnig (§ 77), _no one, no, none_. + nǣre, nǣren, nǣron, see § 40, Note 2. + næs = ne wæs, see § 40, Note 2. + næss, m., _ness, headland_. + nāht, see nōht. + nālæs (nāles), _not at all_ [nā ealles]. + nam, see niman. + nama, see nǫma. + nāmon, see niman. + nān, _not one, no, none_ [ne ān]. + nānwuht, n., _nothing_ [no whit]. + ne, _not_. + nē, _nor_; + nē ... nē, _neither ... nor_. + nēah (§ 96, (4)), _near_. + nēah, adv., _nigh, near, nearly, almost_; comparative, nēar, _nearer_. + neaht, see niht. + nēalēcan (-lǣcan) (§ 126), _draw near to, approach_ (with dat.). + nēar, see nēah, adv. + nēat, n., _neat, cattle_. + nęmnan (§ 127), _name_. + nemðe, (nymðe), _except, unless_. + nęrian (§ 125), _save, preserve_. + nēten, see nīeten. + nīedbeðearf, _needful, necessary_. + nīehst, see nēah (§ 96, (4)). + nīeten (nēten), n., _neat, beast, cattle_. + nigontīene, _nineteen_. + niht (neaht) (§ 68, (1), Note), _night_. + nihthelm, m., _night-helm, shade of night_. + nihtscūa, m., _shadow of night_. + niht-weorc, n., _night-work_. + niman (§ 114), _take, gain_ [nimble, numb]. + nīpan (§ 102), _grow dark, darken_. + nis, see § 40, Note 2. + nīð, m., _malice, violence_. + nīwe, _new, novel, startling_. + nō, see nā. + nōht (nāht, nā-wiht), n., _not a whit, naught, nothing_; _not, not + at all_. + nōhwæðer (nāhwæðer), _neither_; + nōhwæðer nē ... ne ... nē ... ne 118, 8 = _neither ... nor_. + nolde, noldon = ne wolde, ne woldon, see willan. + nǫma (nama), m., _name_. + norð (§ 97, (1)), _north, in the north, northwards_. + norðan (§ 93, (5)), _from the north_; + be norðan, see § 94, (4). + Norð-Dęne, m. pl., _North-Danes_. + norðeweard, _northward_. + Norðhymbre, m. pl., _Northumbrians_. + Norðmanna, see Norðmǫn. + Norðmęn, see Norðmǫn. + norðmest, see norð. + Norðmǫn (-man) (§ 68, (1)), _Norwegian_. + norðor, see norð. + norðryhte, _northward_. + norðweard, _northward_. + Norðweg, _Norway_. + nose, f., _cape, naze_ [ness, nose]. + notu, f., _office, employment_. + nū, _now_; _now that, seeing that_; + nū ðā 138, 13 [[_Beowulf_ 658]] = _now then_. + nȳhst (nīehst), see nēah. + nymðe, see nemðe. + nysse, see nytan. + nyste, see nytan. + nyt(t), _useful, profitable_. + nytan (nitan < ne witan, § 136), _not to know_; 3d sing. pret., + nysse, nyste. + + +#O.# + + of (§ 94, (1)), _of, from, concerning_. + ofer (§ 94, (2)), _over, across, after, in spite of_ (see 144, 14 + [[_Beowulf_ 2725]]); + ofer eorðan 142, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 803]] = _on earth_. + ofer, adv., _over, across_. + oferfēran (§ 126), _go over, traverse_. + oferfrēosan (§ 109), _freeze over_. + oferfroren, see oferfrēosan. + ofgiefan (§ 115), _give up, relinquish_. + ofost, f., _haste_. + ofslægen, see ofslēan. + ofslēan (§ 118), _slay off, slay_. + ofslōge, see ofslēan. + oft, _oft, often_; superlative, oftost. + on (§ 94, (3)), _in, into, on, against, to, among, during_; + on fīf oððe syx 109, 6 = _into five or six parts_; + on weg 140, 10 [[_Beowulf_ 764]] = _away_; + on innan 144, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 2716]] = _within_; + on unriht 145, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 2740]] = _falsely_. + onbærnan (§ 126), _kindle, inspire_. + oncȳðð, f., _distress, suffering_. + ǫnd (and), _and_. + ǫndsaca, m., _adversary_. + ǫndswarian (§ 130), _answer_. + ǫndweard, adj., _present_. + onfēng, see onfōn. + onfeohtan (§ 110), _fight_. + onfindan (§ 110), _find out, discover_; pret. indic. 3d sing., + onfunde. + onfōn (§ 118), _receive, seize violently_. + onfunde, see onfindan. + ongēan, prep., _against, towards_ (with dat. and acc.). + ongēan, adv., _just across, opposite_. + Ǫngelcynn (Angel-), n., _Angle kin, English people, England_. + Ǫngelðēod (Angel-), f., _the English people or nation_. + ongemang (-mǫng), _among_ (with dat.). + ongietan (-gitan) (§ 115), _perceive, see, understand_. + onginnan (§ 110), _begin, attempt_. + onlūtan (§ 109), _bow, incline_ (intrans.) [lout = a stooper]. + onrīdan (§ 102), _ride against, make a raid on_. + onsęndan (§ 127), _send_. + onslǣpan (onslēpan) (§ 126), _fall asleep, sleep_. + onspǫnnan (§ 117), _loosen_ [unspan]; pret. 3d sing. indic., onspēon. + onspringan (§ 110), _spring apart, unspring_. + onstāl, m., _institution, supply_. + onstęllan (§ 128), _establish_; pret. 3d sing. indic., onstealde. + onwæcnan (§ 127), _awake_ (intrans.). + onweald (-wald), m., _power, authority_ [wield]. + onwęndan (§ 127), _change, overturn_ [to wind]. + ōr, n., _beginning_. + oð (§ 94, (2)), _until, as far as_ (of time and place); + oð ðæt, oð ðe, _until_. + oðberan (§ 114), _bear away_. + ōðer, _other, second_; + ōðer ... ōðer, _the one ... the other_. + oðfæstan (§ 127), _set to_ (a task). + oðfeallan (§ 117) _fall off, decline_. + oððe, _or_; + oððe ... oððe, _either ... or_. + + +#P.# + + plega, m., _play, festivity_. + port, m., _port_ [Lat. portus]. + + +#R.# + + rād, f., _raid_. + rǣcan (§ 126), _reach_; pret. 3d sing., rǣhte. + ræst, see ręst. + Rēadingas, m. pl., _Reading_ (in Berkshire). + ręccan (§ 128), _narrate, tell_; pret. pl. indic., ręhton, reahton. + ręccelēas, _reckless, careless_. + ręced, n., _house, hall_. + regnian (rēnian) (§ 130), _adorn, prepare_; past part., geregnad. + regollīc (-lec), _according to rule, regular_. + rēn-weard, m., _mighty warden, guard, champion_. + ręst (ræst), f., _rest, resting-place, bed_. + rēðe, _fierce, furious_. + rīce, _rich, powerful, aristocratic_. + rīce, n., _realm, kingdom_ [bishopric]. + rīcsian (§ 130), _rule_. + rīdan (§ 102), _ride_. + rīman (§ 126), _count_ [rime]. + rinc, m., _man, warrior_. + rōd, f., _rood, cross_; + rōde tācen, _sign of the cross_. + Rōmware, m. pl., _Romans_. + rǫnd (rand), m., _shield_. + rūn, f., _rune, secret meditation_ [to round = to whisper]. + rycene (ricene), _quickly, rashly_. + ryhtnorðanwind, m., _straight north-wind_. + + +#S.# + + sǣ, f., _sea_. + sǣ-bāt, m., _sea-boat_. + sǣd, n., _seed_. + sǣde, see sęcgan. + sǣl, m., f., _time, happiness_ [sil-ly]; + on sǣlum 137, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 644]] = _joyous, merry_. + sǣlan (§ 126), _bind_. + sǣ-līðend (§ 68, (3)), m., _seafarer_ (nom. and acc. pl. same as + nom. and acc. sing.). + sam ... sam, _whether ... or_. + same, _similarly_; + swā same, _just the same, in like manner_. + samod, see sǫmod. + sanct, m., f., _saint_ [Lat. sanctus]; gen. sing., sanctæ, f., + sancti, m. + sang, see sǫng. + sār, f., n., _sore, pain, wound_. + sār, adj., _sore, grievous_. + sāre, _sorely_. + sāwan (§ 117,) _sow_. + sāwol, f., _soul_; oblique cases, sing., sāwle (§ 39, Note). + scacan (sceacan) (§ 116), _shake, go, depart_; past part., scacen, + sceacen. + scadu-helm, m., _cover of night, shadow-covering_ [shadow-helm]; + scadu-helma gesceapu, see Note on 138, 2-6 [[lines 647-51]]. + sceal, see sculan. + scēap, n., _sheep_. + scēat, m., _corner, region, quarter_ [sheet]; + eorðan scēatta 139, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 753]] = _in the regions of earth_ + (gen. used as locative). + scēawi(g)an (§ 130), _view, see_ [shew]. + scēawung, f., _seeing_. + sceolde, see sculan. + scēop (scōp), see scieppan. + scēowyrhta, m., _shoe-maker_. + scęððan (§ 116), _injure, scathe_ (with dat.). + scieppan (§ 116), _create_. + Scieppend, m., _Creator_. + scīnan (§ 102), _shine_. + scip (scyp), n., _ship_. + scipen, n., _stall_. + sciprāp, m., _ship-rope, cable_. + scīr, f., _shire, district_. + Sciringeshēal, m., _Sciringesheal_ (in Norway). + scolde, see sculan. + scǫmu, f., _shame, dishonor_. + Scōnēg, f., _Skaane_ (southern district of the Scandinavian + peninsula). + scopgereord, n., _poetic language_. + scrīðan (§ 102), _stride, stalk_. + sculan (§ 136; § 137, Note 2), _shall, have to, ought_. + Scyldingas, m. pl., _Scyldings, Danes_. + scyp, see scip. + Scyppend, see Scieppend. + sē, sēo, ðæt (§ 28; § 28, Note 3), _the_; _that_; _he, she, it_; + _who, which, that_; + ðæs, _from then, afterwards, therefore_; + ðæs ðe (p. 110, l. 2), _with what_; + ðȳ ... ðæt (p. 110, ll. 7-8), _for this reason ... because_; + tō ðǣm ... swā, _to such an extent ... as_; + ðy (ðē), _the_ (adverbial, with comparatives); + ðȳ ... ðȳ, _the ... the_. + seah, see sēon. + sealde, see sęllan. + searo-gimm, m., _artistic gem, jewel_. + searo-nīð, m., _cunning hatred, plot_. + searo-ðǫnc, m., _cunning thought, device_. + Seaxe, m. pl., _Saxons, Saxony_. + sēc(e)an (§ 128), _to seek, visit, meet_. + sęcg, m., _man, warrior_. + sęcgan (§ 132), _say, tell_. + sefa, m., _mind, spirit_. + sēfte, _more easily_ (comparative of sōfte). + segel, m., n., _sail_; dat. sing. = segle. + seglian (§ 130), _sail_. + sęle, m., _hall_. + sęledrēam, m., _hall joy, festivity_. + sęle-ful, n., _hall cup_. + sęlesęcg, m., _hall warrior, retainer_. + sēlest, _best_ (no positive). + self (sylf), _self, himself_ (declined as strong or weak adjective). + sęllan (syllan) (§ 128), _give_ [sell, han(d)sel]. + sęmninga, _forthwith, straightway_. + sęndan (§ 127), _send_. + sēo, see sē. + sēoc, _sick_. + seofon (syfan), _seven_. + seolh, m., _seal_; gen. sing. = sēoles (§ 27, (3)). + sēon (§ 118), _see, look_. + seonu, f., _sinew_; nom. pl., seonowe. + sess, m., _seat_. + sibb, f., _friendship, peace_ [gos_sip_]. + sidu (siodu), m., _custom, morality, good conduct_. + sīe, see bēon. + siex, _six_; + syxa (siexa) sum, see sum. + siextig, _sixty_. + sige, m., _victory_. + sige-folc, n., _victorious people_. + sige-lēas, _victory-less, of defeat_. + sige-rōf, victory-famed, _victorious_. + sige-wǣpen, n., _victory-weapon_. + siglan (§ 127), _sail_. + Sillende, _Zealand_. + sinc, n., _treasure, prize_. + sinc-fǣt, n., see 137, 1 [[_Beowulf_ 623]] [treasure-vat]. + sinc-ðęgu, f., _receiving of treasure_ [ðicgan]. + sind, sint, sindon, see bēon. + singan (§ 110), _sing_. + sittan (§ 115, Note 2), _sit, take position_. + sīð, m., _journey, time_; + forman sīðe 139, 2 [[_Beowulf_ 741]] = _the first time_ (instr. + sing.). + sīðian (§ 130), _journey_. + siððan, _after that, afterwards, after_. + slǣp, m., _sleep_. + slǣpan (§ 117), _sleep_. + slēan (§ 118), _slay_ [slow-worm]. + slītan (§ 102), _slit, tear to pieces_. + slīðen, _savage, perilous_. + smæl, _narrow_. + smalost, see smæl. + snāw, m., _snow_. + snot(t)or, _wise, prudent_. + sōhte, see sēcan. + sǫmod (samod), _together_. + sōna, _soon_. + sǫng, m., n., _song, poem_. + sǫngcræft, m., _art of song and poetry_. + sorg (sorh), f., _sorrow_. + sōð, _true_. + sōð, n., _truth_; + tō sōðe, _for a truth, truly, verily_. + sōð-fæst, _truthful, just_. + sōðlīce, _truly_. + spēd, f., _possessions, success, riches_ [speed]. + spēdig, _rich, prosperous_. + spell, n., _story, tale_ [gospel]. + spēow, see spōwan. + spere, n., _spear_. + spor, n., _track, footprint_. + spōwan (§ 117), _succeed_ (impersonal with dat.). + sprǣc, f., _speech, language_. + sprecan (§ 115), _speak_. + spyrian (spyrigean) (§ 130), _follow_ (intrans.) [spor]. + stæf, _staff, rod_; pl. = _literature, learning_. + stælhrān, m., _decoy-reindeer_. + stælwierðe, _serviceable_ (see p. 56, Note 2). + stǣr, n., _story, narrative_ [Lat. historia]. + stæð, n., _shore_. + stān, m., _stone, rock_. + stān-boga, m., _stone-arch_ [stone-bow]. + standan, see stǫndan. + stānhlið (-hleoð), n., _stone-cliff_. + stapol, m., _column_ [staple]. + starian (§ 125), _stare, gaze_. + stęde, m., _place_. + stelan (§ 114), _steal_. + stęnt, see stǫndan. + stēorbord, n., _starboard, right side of a ship_. + stęppan (§ 116), _step, advance_; pret. indic. 3d sing., stōp. + stilnes, f., _stillness, quiet_. + stǫndan (§ 116), _stand_. + stōp, see stęppan. + storm, m., _storm_. + stōw, f., _place_ [stow, and in names of places]. + strang, see strǫng. + stręngest, see strǫng. + strǫng (§ 96, (2)), _strong_. + styccemǣlum, _here and there_. + sum (§ 91, Note 2), _some, certain, a certain one_; + hē syxa sum 104, 25 = _he with five others_. + sumera, see sumor. + sumor, m., _summer_; dat. sing. = sumera. + sumorlida, m., _summer-army_. + sundor, _apart_. + sunne, f., _sun_. + sunu, m., _son_. + sūð, _south, southwards_. + sūðan (§ 93, (5)), _from the south_; + be sūðan, _south of_ (§ 94, (4)). + sūðeweard, _southward_. + sūðryhte, _southward_. + swā (swǣ), _so, as, how, as if_; + swā swā, _just as, as far as_; + swā ... swā, _the ... the, as ... as_; + swā hwæt swā, _whatsoever_ (§ 77, Note). + swǣs, _beloved, own_. + swæð, n., _track, footprint_ [swath]. + swaðul, m.? n.?, _smoke_. + swealh, see swelgan. + swefan (§ 115), _sleep, sleep the sleep of death_. + swefn, n., _sleep, dream_. + swēg, m., _sound, noise_. + swegle, _bright, clear_. + swēlan (§ 126), _burn_ [sweal]. + swelgan (§ 110), _swallow_; pret. indic. 3d sing., swealh; subj., + swulge. + swellan (§ 110), _swell_. + Swēoland, n., _Sweden_. + Swēom, m., dat. pl., _the Swedes_. + sweotol, _clear_. + sweotole, _clearly_. + swęrian (§ 116), _swear_. + swēte, _sweet_. + swētnes (-nis), f., _sweetness_. + swift (swyft), _swift_. + swilc (swylc) (§ 77), _such_. + swilce, _in such manner, as, likewise_; _as if, as though_ (with + subj.). + swimman (§ 110), _swim_. + swīn (swȳn), n., _swine, hog_. + swīnsung, f., _melody, harmony_. + swīðe (swȳðe), _very, exceedingly, greatly_. + swīðost, _chiefly, almost_. + swōr, see swęrian. + swulge, see swelgan. + swuster (§ 68, (2)), f., _sister_. + swylce (swelce), see swilce. + swȳn, see swīn. + swynsian (§ 130), _resound_. + swȳðe, see swīðe. + swȳð-ferhð, _strong-souled_. + sylf, see self. + syll, f., _sill, floor_. + syllan, see sęllan. + symbel, n., _feast, banquet_. + symle, _always_. + synd, see bēon. + syn-dolh, n., _ceaseless wound, incurable wound_. + syndriglīce, _specially_. + synn, f., _sin_. + syn-scaða, m., _ceaseless scather, perpetual foe_. + syn-snǣd, f., _huge bit_ [ceaseless bit]. + syððan, see siððan. + syx, see siex. + syxtig, see siextig. + + +#T.# + + tācen, n., _sign, token_; dat. sing., tācne (§ 33, Note). + tǣcan (§ 128), _teach_. + tam, _tame_. + tela, _properly, well_ [til]. + tęllan (§ 128), _count, deem_ [tell]; pret. 3d sing., tealde. + Tęmes, f., _the Thames_. + tēon, _arrange, create_; pret. sing., tēode. + Terfinna, m., gen. pl., _the Terfins_. + tēð, see tōð. + tīd, f., _tide, time, hour_. + tīen (tȳn), _ten_. + til(l), _good_. + tīma, m., _time_. + tintreglīc, _full of torment_. + tō (§ 94, (1)), _to, for, according to, as_; + tō hrōfe 114, 2 = _for (as) a roof_ [cf. Biblical _to wife_, + modern _to boot_]. + tō, adv., _too_. + tōbrecan (p. 81, Note 2), _break to pieces, knock about_. + tōdǣlan (§ 126), _divide_. + tōemnes (tō emnes) (§ 94, (4)), _along, alongside_. + tōforan (§ 94, (1)), _before_. + tōgeðēodan (§ 126), _join_. + tōhopa, m., _hope_. + tōlicgan (§ 115, Note 2), _separate, lie between_; 3d sing, indic. + = tōlīð. + tōlīð, see tōlicgan. + tolūcan (§ 109, Note 1), _destroy_ [the prefix tō reverses the + meaning of lūcan, _to lock_]. + torn, m., _anger, insult_. + tōð (§ 68, (1)), m., _tooth_. + tōweard (§ 94, (1)), _toward_. + tōweard, adj., _approaching, future_. + trēow, f., _pledge, troth_. + trēownes, f., _trust_. + Trūsō, _Drausen_ (a city on the Drausensea). + tūn, m., _town, village_. + tunge, f., _tongue_. + tūngerēfa, m., _bailiff_ [town-reeve; so sheriff = shire-reeve]. + tungol, n., _star_. + twā, see twēgen. + twēgen, (§ 89), _two, twain_. + twēntig, _twenty_. + tȳn, see tīen. + + +#Ð.# + + ðā, _then, when_; + ðā ... ðā, _when ... then_; + ðā ðā, _then when_ = _when_. + ðā, see sē. + ðǣr, _there, where_; + ðǣr ðǣr, _there where_ = _where_; + ðǣr ... swā 142, 4 [[_Beowulf_ 798]] = _wheresoever_; 145, 6 + [[_Beowulf_ 2731]] = _if so be that_. + ðæs, _afterwards, therefore, thus, because_; + see sē. + ðæt (ðætte = ðæt ðe), _that, so that_. + ðafian (§ 130), _consent to_. + ðanc, see ðǫnc. + ðancian (ðǫncian) (§ 130), _thank_. + ðanon, see ðǫnan. + ðās, see ðēs. + ðē, see sē (instr. sing.) and ðū. + ðe (§ 75), _who, whom, which, that_. + ðēah, _though, although_; + ðēah ðe, _though, although_. + ðearf, see ðurfan. + ðearf, f., _need, benefit_. + ðēaw, m., _habit, custom_ [thews]. + ðegn (ðegen), m., _servant, thane, warrior_. + ðęnc(e)an (§ 128), _think, intend_. + ðening (-ung), f., _service_; + the pl. may mean _book of service_ (117, 17). + ðēod, f., _people, nation_. + ðēoden, m., _prince, lord_. + ðēodscipe, m., _discipline_. + ðēon (ðȳwan) (§ 126), _oppress_ [ðēow]. + ðēow, m., _servant_. + ðēowa, m., _servant_. + ðēowotdōm (ðīowot-), m., _service_. + ðēs (§ 73), _this_. + ðider, _thither_. + ðiderweard, _thitherward_. + ðīn (§ 76), _thine_. + ðing, n., _thing_; + ǣnige ðinga, see 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]], Note. + ðingan (§ 127), _arrange, appoint_. + ðis, see ðēs. + ðissum, see ðēs. + ðōhte, ðōhton, see ðęncean. + ðolian (§ 130), _endure_ [thole]. + ðǫnan, _thence_. + ðǫnc, m., _thanks_. + ðone, see sē. + ðonne, _than, then, when_; + ðonne ... ðonne, _when ... then_. + ðrāg, f., _time_. + ðrēa-nȳd, f., _compulsion, oppression, misery_ [throe-need]. + ðrēora, see ðrīe. + ðridda, _third_. + ðrie (ðrȳ) (§ 89), _three_. + ðrīm, see ðrīe. + ðrīst-hȳdig, _bold-minded_. + ðrītig, _thirty_. + ðrōwung, f., _suffering_. + ðrȳ, see ðrīe. + ðrym(m), m., _renown, glory, strength_. + ðrȳð, f., _power, multitude_ (pl. used in sense of sing.); + asca ðrȳðe 152, 23 [[_Wanderer_ 99]] = _the might of spears_. + ðrȳð-ærn, n., _mighty house, noble hall_. + ðrȳð-word, n., _mighty word, excellent discourse_. + ðū (§ 72), _thou_. + ðūhte, see ðyncan. + ðurfan (§ 136), _need_; pres. indic. 3d sing., ðearf; pret. 3d sing., + ðorfte; + for-ðām mē wītan ne ðearf Waldend fīra morðor-bealo māga 145, 17 + [[_Beowulf_ 2742]] = _therefore the Ruler of men need not charge + me with the murder of kinsmen_. + ðurh (§ 94, (2)), _through_. + ðus, _thus_. + ðūsend, _thousand_. + ðȳ, see sē. + ðyder, see ðider. + ðyncan (§ 128), _seem, appear_ (impersonal); + mē ðyncð, _methinks, it seems to me_; + him ðūhte, _it seemed to him_. + + +#U.# + + ūhta, m., _dawn_; gen. pl., ūhtna. + unbeboht, _unsold_ [bebycgan = _to sell_]. + uncūð, _unknown, uncertain_ [uncouth]. + under, _under_ (with dat. and acc.). + understǫndan (§ 116), _understand_. + underðēodan (-ðīedan) (§ 126), _subject to_; + past part. underðēoded = _subjected to, obedient to_ (with dat.). + unforbærned, _unburned_. + unfrið, m., _hostility_. + ungefōge, _excessively_. + ungemete, _immeasurably, very_. + ungesewenlīc, _invisible_ [past part. of sēon + līc]. + unlyfigend, _dead, dead man_ [unliving]. + unlȳtel, _no little, great_. + unriht, n., _wrong_; + on unriht, see on. + unrihtwīsnes, f., _unrighteousness_. + unspēdig, _poor_. + unwearnum, _unawares_. + ūp (ūpp), _up_. + ūpāstīgnes, f., _ascension_ [stīgan]. + ūp-lang, _upright_. + ūre (§ 76), _our_. + usses = gen. sing. neut. of ūser, see ic. + ūt, _out, outside_. + ūtan, _from without, outside_. + ūtanbordes, _abroad_. + ūtgǫng, m., _exodus_. + uton, _let us_ (with infin.) [literally _let us go_ with infin. of + purpose (see 137, 19-20, Note [[lines 641-42]]); uton = wuton, + corrupted form of 1st pl. subj. of wītan, _to go_]. + ūt-weard, _outward bound, moving outwards_. + + +#W.# + + wāc, _weak, insignificant_. + wacian (§ 130), _watch, be on guard_; imperative sing., waca. + wadan (§ 116), _go, tread_ [wade]. + wǣg, m., _wave_. + Wǣgmundigas, m. _Wægmundings_ (family to which Beowulf and Wiglaf + belonged). + wæl, n., _slaughter, the slain_. + wæl-blēat, _deadly_ [slaughter-pitiful]. + wælgīfre, _greedy for slaughter_. + wæl-rǣs, m., _mortal combat_ [slaughter-race]. + wæl-rēow, _fierce in strife_. + wælsliht (-sleaht), m., _slaughter_. + wælstōw, f., _battle-field_ [slaughter-place]; + wælstōwe gewald, _possession of the battle-field_. + wǣpen, n., _weapon_. + wǣre, see bēon. + wæs, see bēon. + wæter, n., _water_. + waldend, see _wealdend_. + wan (wǫn), _wan, dark_. + wanhȳdig, _heedless, rash_. + wānigean (wānian) (§ 130), _bewail, lament_ (trans.) [whine]. + warian (§ 130), _attend, accompany_. + wāt, see witan. + waðum, m., _wave_; gen. pl., waðema. + weal(l), m., _wall, rampart_. + wealdend (§ 68, (3)), _wielder, ruler, lord_. + wealh, m., _foreigner, Welshman_. + wealhstōd, m., _interpreter, translator_. + weallan (§ 117), _well up, boil, be agitated_; pret. 3d. sing. + indic., wēoll. + wealsteal(l), m., _wall-place, foundation_. + weard, m., _ward, keeper_. + wearð, see weorðan. + weaxan (§ 117), _wax, grow_. + weg, m., _way_; + hys weges, see § 93, (3); + on weg, see on. + wel(l), _well, readily_. + wela, m., _weal, prosperity, riches_. + welm, see wielm. + wēnan (§ 126), _ween, think, expect_. + węndan (§ 127), _change, translate_ [wend, windan]. + węnian (§ 130), _entertain_; + węnian mid wynnum 149, 20 [[_Wanderer_ 29]] = _entertain joyfully_; + węnede tō wiste 149, 27 [[_Wanderer_ 36]] = _feasted_ (trans.). + Weonodland (Weonoðland), n., _Wendland_. + weorc, n., _work, deed_. + weorold (weoruld), see woruld. + weorpan (§ 110), _throw_. + weorðan (§ 110), _be, become_. + wer, m., _man_ [werwulf]. + wērig, _weary, dejected_. + werod, n., _army, band_. + wesan, see bēon. + Wesseaxe, m. pl., _West Saxons_; gen. pl. = Wesseaxna. + west, _west, westward_. + westanwind, m., _west wind_. + wēste, _waste_. + wēsten, n., _waste, desert_. + Westsǣ, f., _West Sea_ (west of Norway). + Westseaxe, m. pl., _West Saxons, Wessex_. + wīc, n., _dwelling_ [bailiwick]. + wīcian (§ 130), _stop, lodge, sojourn_ [wīc]. + wīdre, adv., _farther, more widely_ (comparative of wīde). + wīdsǣ, f., _open sea_. + wielm (welm), m., _welling, surging flood_ [weallan]. + wīf, n., _wife, woman_. + wīg, m., n., _war, battle_. + wiga, m., _warrior_. + wild, _wild_. + wildor, n., _wild beast, reindeer_; dat. pl. = wildrum (§ 33, Note). + willa, m., _will, pleasure_; gen. pl., wilna (138, 16 [[_Beowulf_ + 661]]). + willan (§ 134; § 137, Note 3), _will, intend, desire_. + wilnung, f., _wish, desire_; + for ðǣre wilnunga 119, 4 = _purposely_. + Wiltūn, m., _Wilton_ (in Wiltshire). + wīn, n., _wine_. + wīn-ærn, n., _wine-hall_. + Wīnburne, f., _Wimborne_ (in Dorsetshire). + wind, m., _wind_. + wine, m., _friend_. + Winedas, m. pl., _the Wends, the Wend country_. + wine-dryhten, m., _friendly lord_. + winelēas, _friendless_. + winemǣg, m., _friendly kinsman_. + wīngeard, m., _vineyard_. + winnan (§ 110), _strive, fight_ [win]. + wīnsæl, n., _wine-hall_. + wīn-sęle, m., _wine-hall_. + winter, m., _winter_; dat. sing. = wintra. + wintercearig, _winter-sad, winter-worn_. + wīs, _wise_. + wīsdōm, m., _wisdom_. + wīse, _wisely_. + wīse, f., _manner, matter, affair_ [in this wise]. + wīs-fæst, _wise_ [wise-fast; cf. shame-faced = shamefast]. + wīs-hycgende, _wise-thinking_. + Wīsle, f., _the Vistula_. + Wīslemūða, m., _the mouth of the Vistula_. + wisse, see witan. + wist, f., _food, feast_. + wita, m., _wise man, councillor_. + witan (§ 136), _know, show, experience_. + wītan (§ 102), _reproach, blame_ (with acc. of thing, dat. of person). + wīte, n., _punishment_. + Wītland, n., _Witland_ (in Prussia). + wið (§ 94, (3)), _against, toward, with_; + wið ēastan and wið ūpp on emnlange ðǣm bȳnum lande, _toward the + east, and upwards along the cultivated land_; + wið earm gesæt 139, 11 [[_Beowulf_ 750]] = _supported himself on his + arm_; + genęred wið nīðe (dat.) 143, 11 [[_Beowulf_ 828]] = _had preserved + it from (against) violence_. + wiðerwinna, m., _adversary_. + wiðfōn (§ 118), _grapple with_ (with dat.). + wiðhabban (§ 133), _withstand, resist_ (with dat.). + wiðstǫndan (§ 116), _withstand, resist_ (with dat.). + wlǫnc, _proud_. + wōd, see wadan. + wolcen, n., _cloud_ [welkin]; dat. pl., wolcnum. + wolde, see willan. + wōma, m., _noise, alarm, terror_. + wǫn, see wan. + wōp, n., _weeping_. + word, n., _word_. + wōrian (§ 130), _totter, crumble_. + worn, m., _large number, multitude_. + woruld, f., _world_; + tō worulde būtan ǣghwilcum ęnde 102, 18 = _world without end_. + woruldcund, _worldly, secular_. + woruldhād, m., _secular life_ [world-hood]. + woruldrīce, n., _world-kingdom, world_. + woruldðing, n., _worldly affair_. + wræclāst, m., _track or path of an exile_. + wrāð, _wroth, angry_; _foe, enemy_. + wrītan (§ 102), _write_. + wucu, f., _week_. + wudu, m., _wood, forest_. + wuldor, n., _glory_. + Wuldorfæder (§ 68, (2)), m., _Father of glory_; gen. sing., + Wuldorfæder. + Wuldur-cyning, m., _King of glory_. + wulf, m., _wolf_. + wund, f., _wound_. + wund, _wounded_. + wunden, _twisted, woven, convolute_ (past part. of windan). + wundor, n., _wonder, marvel_. + wundrian (§ 130), _wonder at_ (with gen.). + wurdon, see weorðan. + wurðan, see weorðan. + wylf, f., _she wolf_. + wyllað, see willan. + wyn-lēas, _joyless_. + wynn, f., _joy, delight_. + wynsum, _winsome, delightful_. + wyrc(e)an (§ 128), _work, make, compose_. + wyrd, f., _weird, fate, destiny_. + wyrhta, m., _worker, creator_ [-wright]. + wyrm, m., _worm, dragon, serpent_. + wyrmlīca, m., _serpentine ornamentation_. + wyrð (weorð), _worthy_; see 114, 7-9, Note. + +#Y.# + + ylca, see ilca. + yldan (§ 127), _delay, postpone_ [eald]. + yldu, f., _age_ [eld]. + ymbe (ymb) (§ 94, (2)), _about, around, concerning_ [_um_while]; + ðæs ymb iii niht 99, 2 = _about three nights afterwards_. + ymb-ēode, see ymb-gān. + ymbe-sittend, _one who sits (dwells) round about another, neighbor_. + ymb-gān (§ 134), _go about, go around, circle_ (with acc.). + yrfe-weard, m., _heir_. + yrnan, see iernan. + yrre, _ireful, angry_. + yteren, _of an otter_ [_otor_]. + ȳðan (§ 126), _lay waste_ (as by a deluge) [ȳð = _wave_]. + + +II. GLOSSARY. + +MODERN ENGLISH--OLD ENGLISH. + + +#A.# + + a, _ān_ (§ 77). + abide, _bīdan_ (§ 102), _ābīdan_. + about, _be_ (§ 94, (1)), _ymbe_ (§ 94, (2)); + to write about, _wrītan be_; + to speak about (= of), _sprecan ymbe_; + about two days afterwards, _ðæs ymbe twēgen dagas_. + adder, _nǣdre_ (§ 64). + afterwards, _ðæs_ (§ 93, (3)). + against, _wið_ (§ 94, (3)), _on_ (§ 94, (3)). + Alfred, _Ælfred_ (§ 26). + all, _eall_ (§ 80). + also, _ēac_. + although, _ðēah_ (§ 105, 2). + always, _ā_; _ealne weg_ (§ 98, (1)). + am, _eom_ (§ 40). + an, see a. + and, _ǫnd_ (_and_). + angel, ęngel (§ 26). + animal, _dēor_ (§ 32). + are, _sind, sint, sindon_ (§ 40). + army, _werod_ (§ 32); + Danish army, _hęre_ (§ 26); + English army, _fierd_ (§ 38). + art, _eart_ (§ 40). + Ashdown, _Æscesdūn_ (§ 38). + ask, _biddan_ (§ 65, Note 3; § 115, Note 2). + away, _aweg_. + + +#B.# + + battle-field, _wælstōw_ (§ 38). + be, _bēon_ (§ 40); + not to be, see § 40, Note 2. + bear, _beran_ (§ 114). + because, _for ðǣm (ðe), for ðon (ðe)_. + become, _weorðan_ (§ 110). + before (temporal conjunction), _ǣr, ǣr ðǣm ðe_ (§ 105, 2). + begin, _onginnan_ (§ 107, (1); § 110). + belong to, _belimpan tō_ + dative (§ 110). + best, see good. + better, see good. + bind, _bindan_ (§ 110). + bird, _fugol_ (§ 26). + bite, _bītan_ (§ 102). + body, _līc_ (§ 32). + bone, _bān_ (§ 32). + book, _bōc_ (§ 68). + both ... and, _ǣgðer ge ... ge_. + boundary, _mearc_ (§ 38). + boy, _cnapa_ (§ 64). + break, _brēotan_ (§ 109), _brecan, ābrecan_ (§ 114). + brother, _brōðor_ (§ 68, (2)). + but, _ac_. + by, _frǫm_ (_fram_) (§ 94, (1); § 141, Note 1). + + +#C.# + + Cædmon, _Cædmǫn_ (§ 68, (1)). + call, _hātan_ (§ 117, (1)). + cease, cease from, _geswīcan_ (§ 102). + child, _bearn_ (§ 32). + choose, _cēosan_ (§ 109). + Christ, _Crīst_ (§ 26). + church, _cirice_ (§ 64). + come, _cuman_ (§ 114). + comfort, _frōfor_ (§ 38). + companion, _gefēra_ (§ 64). + consolation, _frōfor_ (§ 38). + create, _gescieppan_ (§ 116). + + +#D.# + + Danes, _Dęne_ (§ 47). + day, _dæg_ (§ 26). + dead, _dēad_ (§ 80). + dear (= beloved), _lēof_ (§ 80). + deed, _dǣd_ (§ 38). + die, _cwelan_ (§ 114). + division (of troops), _gefylce_ (§ 32), _getruma_ (§ 64). + do, _dōn_ (§ 134). + door, _dor_ (§ 32), _duru_ (§ 52). + drink, _drincan_ (§ 110). + during, _on_ (§ 94, (3)). See also § 98. + dwell in, _būan on_ (§ 126, Note 2). + +#E.# + + earl, _eorl_ (§ 26). + endure, _drēogan_ (§ 109). + England, _Ęnglalǫnd_ (§ 32). + enjoy, _brūcan_ (§ 62, Note 1; § 109, Note 1). + every, _ǣlc_ (§ 77). + eye, _ēage_ (§ 64). + + +#F.# + + father, _fæder_ (§ 68, (2)). + field, _feld_ (§ 51). + fight, _feohtan, gefeohtan_ (§ 110). + find, _findan_ (§ 110). + finger, _finger_ (§ 26). + fire, _fȳr_ (§ 32). + fisherman, _fiscere_ (§ 26). + foreigner, _wealh_ (§ 26). + freedom, _frēodōm_ (§ 26). + friend, _wine_ (§ 45), _frēond_ (§ 68, (3)). + friendship, _frēondscipe_ (§ 45). + full, _full_ (with genitive) (§ 80). + + +#G.# + + gain the victory, _sige habban, sige niman_. + gift, _giefu_ (§ 38). + give, _giefan_ (with dative of indirect object) (§ 115). + glad, _glæd_ (§ 81). + glove, _glōf_ (§ 38). + go, _gān_ (§ 134), _faran_ (§ 116). + God, _God_ (§ 26). + good, _gōd_ (§ 80). + + +#H.# + + Halgoland, _Hālgoland_ (§ 32). + hall, _heall_ (§ 38). + hand, _hǫnd_ (§ 52). + hard, _heard_ (§ 80). + have, _habban_ (§ 34); + not to have, _nabban_ (p. 32, Note). + he, _hē_ (§ 53). + head, _hēafod_ (§ 32). + hear, _hīeran_ (§ 126). + heaven, _heofon_ (§ 26). + help, _helpan_ (with dative) (§ 110). + herdsman, _hierde_ (§ 26). + here, _hēr_. + hither, _hider_. + hold, _healdan_ (§ 117, (2)). + holy, _hālig_ (§ 82). + horse, _mearh_ (§ 26), _hors_ (§ 32). + house, _hūs_ (§ 32). + + +#I.# + + I, _ic_ (§ 72). + in, _on_ (§ 94, (3)). + indeed, _sōðlīce_. + injure, _scęððan_ (with dative) (§ 116). + it, _hit_ (§ 53). + + +#K.# + + king, _cyning_ (§ 26). + kingdom, _rīce_ (§ 32), _cynerīce_ (§ 32). + + +#L.# + + land, _lǫnd_ (§ 32). + language, _sprǣc_ (§ 38), _geðēode_ (§ 32). + large, _micel_ (§ 82). + leisure, _ǣmetta_ (§ 64). + let us, _uton_ (with infinitive). + limb, _lim_ (§ 32). + little, _lytel_ (§ 82). + live in, _būan on_ (§ 126, Note 2). + lord, _hlāford_ (§ 26). + love, _lufian_ (§ 131). + love (noun), _lufu_ (§ 38). + + +#M.# + + make, _wyrcan_ (§ 128). + man, _sęcg_ (§ 26), _mǫn_ (§ 68, (1)). + many, _mǫnig_ (§ 82). + mare, _mȳre_ (§ 64). + mead, _medu_ (§ 51). + Mercians, _Mierce_ (§ 47). + milk, _meolc_ (§ 38). + month, _mōnað_ (§ 68, (1), Note 1). + mouth, _mūð_ (§ 26). + much, _micel_ (§ 96, (3)), _micle_ (§ 97, (2)). + murderer, _bǫna_ (§ 64). + my, _mīn_ (§ 76). + + +#N.# + + natives, _lǫndlēode_ (§ 47). + nephew, _nefa_ (§ 64). + new, _nīwe_ (§ 82). + Northumbrians, _Norðymbre_ (§ 47). + not, _ne_. + + +#O.# + + of, see about. + on, _on_ (§ 94, (3)), _ofer_ (§ 94, (2)). + one, _ān_ (§ 89); + the one ... the other, _ōðer ... ōðer_. + other, _ōðer_ (§ 77). + our, _ūre_ (§ 76). + ox, _oxa_ (§ 64). + + +#P.# + + place, _stōw_ (§ 38). + plundering, _hęrgung_ (§ 38). + poor, _earm_ (§ 80), _unspēdig_ (§ 82). + prosperous, _spēdig_ (§ 82). + + +#Q.# + + queen, _cwēn_ (§ 49). + + +#R.# + + reindeer, _hrān_ (§ 26). + remain, _bīdan_ (§ 102), _ābīdan_. + retain possession of the battle-field, _āgan wælstōwe gewald_. + rich, _rīce_ (§ 82), _spēdig_ (§ 82). + ride, _rīdan_ (§ 102). + + +#S.# + + say, _cweðan_ (§ 115), _sęcgan_ (§ 133). + scribe, _bōcere_ (§ 26). + seal, _seolh_ (§ 26). + see, _sēon_ (§ 118), _gesēon_. + serpent, _nǣdre_ (§ 64). + servant, _ðēowa_ (§ 64), _ðegn_ (§ 26). + shall, _sculan_ (§ 136; § 137, Note 2). + she, _hēo_ (§ 53). + shepherd, _hierde_ (§ 26). + ship, _scip_ (§ 32). + shire, _scīr_ (§ 38). + shoemaker, _scēowyrhta_ (§ 64). + side, on both sides, _on gehwæðre hǫnd_. + six, _siex_ (§ 90). + slaughter, _wæl_ (§ 32), _wælsliht_ (§ 45). + small, _lȳtel_ (§ 82). + son, _sunu_ (§ 51). + soul, _sāwol_ (§ 38). + speak, _sprecan_ (§ 115). + spear, _gār_ (§ 26), _spere_ (§ 32). + stand, _stǫndan_ (§ 116). + stone, _stān_ (§ 26). + stranger, _wealh_ (§ 26), _cuma_ (§ 64). + suffer, _drēogan_ (§ 109). + sun, _sunne_ (§ 64). + swift, _swift_ (§ 80). + + +#T.# + + take, _niman_ (§ 110). + than, _ðonne_ (§ 96, (6)). + thane, _ðegn_ (§ 26). + that (conjunction), _ðæt_. + that (demonstrative), _sē, sēo, ðæt_ (§ 28). + that (relative), _ðe_ (§ 75). + the, _se, sēo, ðæt_ (§ 28). + then, _ðā, ðonne_. + these, see this. + they, _hīe_ (§ 53). + thing, _ðing_ (§ 32). + thirty, _ðrītig_. + this, _ðēs, ðēos, ðis_ (§ 73). + those, see that (demonstrative). + thou, _ðū_ (§ 72). + though, _ðēah_ (§ 105, 2). + three, _ðrīe_ (§ 89). + throne, ascend the throne, _tō rīce fōn_. + throw, _weorpan_ (§ 110). + to, _tō_ (§ 94, (1)). + tongue, _tunge_ (§ 64). + track, _spor_ (§ 32). + true, _sōð_ (§ 80). + truly, _sōðlīce_. + two, _twēgen_ (§ 89). + + +#V.# + + very, _swīðe_. + vessel, _fæt_ (§ 32). + victory, _sige_ (§ 45). + +#W.# + + wall, _weall_ (§ 26). + warrior, _sęcg_ (§ 26), _eorl_ (§ 26). + way, _weg_ (§ 26). + weapon, _wǣpen_ (§ 32). + well, _wel_ (§ 97, (2)). + Welshman, _Wealh_ (§ 26). + went, see go. + westward, _west, westrihte_. + whale, _hwæl_ (§ 26). + what? _hwæt_ (§ 74). + when, _ðā, ðonne_. + where? _hwǣr_. + which, _ðe_ (§ 75). + who? _hwā_ (§ 74). + who (relative), _ðe_ (§ 75). + whosoever, _swā hwā swā_ (§ 77, Note). + will, _willan_ (§ 134; § 137, Note 3). + Wilton, _Wiltūn_ (§ 26). + win, see gain. + wine, _wīn_ (§ 32). + wisdom, _wīsdōm_ (§ 26). + wise, _wīs_ (§ 80). + with, _mid_ (§ 94, (1)); + to fight with (= against), _gefeohtan wið_ (§ 94, (3)). + withstand, _wiðstǫndan_ (with dative) (§ 116). + wolf, _wulf_ (§ 26), _wylf_ (§ 38). + woman, _wīf_ (§ 32). + word, _word_ (§ 32). + worm, _wyrm_ (§ 45). + + +#Y.# + + ye, _gē_ (§ 72). + year, _gēar_ (§ 32). + yoke, _geoc_ (§ 32). + you, _ðū_ (singular), _gē_ (plural) (§ 72). + your, _ðīn_ (singular), _ēower_ (plural) (§ 76). + + * * * * * + * * * * + * * * * * + +Errata + +The spelling “Fins” (translating “ðā Finnas”) is used consistently. +Errors were trivial, generally missing punctuation. Shakespeare +citations have been silently regularized to “I, ii, 3” form. The Old +English text was not checked for misprints. + + +Numbered Sections: + + 9 Note + to t.: #sęttan#, _to set_ [to t.] + 39 + NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems. + [_final . missing_] + 41 + sēo hālignes[1], _holiness_. [_comma missing_] + 95 + for ðǣm, } [_comma missing_] + 104 + corresponding with its function in Mn.E. [_final . missing_] + 130 + eard-ian, eard-ode ... [_first comma missing_] + 131 + NOTE 1. [NOTE. 1.] + 132 + hæf-de, lif-de, sęcg-an, [_all commas missing_] + +Readings: + + Poetry: Structure: Meter: Type B: + The type of B most frequently occurring is × × –́ | × –́. + [_final . missing_] + + Beowulf: The Banquet in Heorot (page 138). + [8] = ealdre (instr. sing.). [_final . missing_] + +Glossary: + + ābūgan (§ 109, Note 1) [Note, 1] + dēofol, m., n., _devil_; [m. n.,] + intinga, m., _cause, sake_. [intinga.] + lagulād, f., _sea_ [lake-way, lād = _leading, direction, way_]. + [_closing bracket printed as parenthesis_] + norðan (§ 93, (5)), _from the north_; + [_second closing parenthesis missing_] + sǣl, m., f., _time, happiness_ [sil-ly]; [m. f.,] + sēfte, _more easily_ (comparative of sōfte). + [_closing parenthesis missing_] + Swēom, m., dat. pl., _the Swedes_. [_final . missing_] + tolūcan (§ 109, Note 1), _destroy_ ... [_section mark § missing_] + wið (§ 94, (3)), ... [_section mark § missing_] + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book, by +C. Alphonso Smith + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR *** + +***** This file should be named 31277-0.txt or 31277-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/2/7/31277/ + +Produced by Louise Hope, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/31277-0.zip b/31277-0.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..282f9f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-0.zip diff --git a/31277-8.txt b/31277-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..313c9d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9580 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book, by +C. Alphonso Smith + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book + with Inflections, Syntax, Selections for Reading, and Glossary + +Author: C. Alphonso Smith + +Release Date: February 15, 2010 [EBook #31277] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Louise Hope, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +[Transcriber's Note: + +This text is intended for users whose text readers cannot use the "real" +(Unicode/UTF-8) version of the file. Characters that could not be fully +displayed are shown in alternative forms: + + (circumflex in place of macron or "long" mark; + the circumflex in its own right does not occur) + y: : : (long y and ; the sequence "y:" does not occur in the + Old English material, and ":" does not occur at all) + +Characters with more than one diacritic (rare), and some less common +combinations such as accented , are shown "top to bottom" in brackets: +[] [] (long a with accent, with accent). Greek words (also rare) +have been transliterated and shown between +marks+; there should be no +confusion between this and the + as printed. + +The short vowels e and o are sometimes shown with ogonek (reversed +cedilla). In the introductory section on vowel sounds, and in the +overall Glossary, these are shown as [E,] [e,] [O,] [o,]. Elsewhere the +ogonek was simply omitted; there are no minimal pairs (different words +distinguished only by this sign). + +See the Poetry section (between V and VI in Part III, Readings) for +display of characters specific to that section. + +Italics are shown with _lines_. Boldface is shown with #hash marks#. +In the printed book, boldface was used for all Anglo-Saxon other than +exercises and reading passages; it has been omitted from the e-text +except when necessary for clarity. + +In references to numbered Sections, "Note" may mean either an inset Note +or a footnote. + +In the prose reading selections (pages 99-121), page numbers and line +breaks have been retained for use with the linenotes and Glossary. Page +numbers are shown in [[double brackets]]. In the verse selections, line +numbers in the notes have been replaced with line numbers from the +original texts, printed in brackets as shown. The distinction between +linenotes and numbered footnotes is in the original. + +Single brackets [] and asterisks * are in the original, as are the +symbols + = < >. Text in [[double brackets]] was added by the +transcriber.] + + + + + ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR + + AND EXERCISE BOOK + + + With Inflections, Syntax, Selections + for Reading, and Glossary + + + By + + C. ALPHONSO SMITH, Ph.D., LL.D. + + Late Professor of English in the + United States Naval Academy + + + + + ALLYN and BACON + Boston New York Chicago + Atlanta San Francisco + + + + + Copyright, 1896, by + C. ALPHONSO SMITH. + + + IAI + + + Norwood Press + J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith + Norwood Mass. U.S.A. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The scope of this book is indicated in 5. It is intended for +beginners, and in writing it, these words of Sir Thomas Elyot have not +been forgotten: "Grammer, beinge but an introduction to the +understandinge of autors, if it be made to longe or exquisite to the +lerner, it in a maner mortifieth his corage: And by that time he cometh +to the most swete and pleasant redinge of olde autors, the sparkes of +fervent desire of lernynge are extincte with the burdone of grammer, +lyke as a lyttell fyre is sone quenched with a great heape of small +stickes." --_The Governour_, Cap.X. + +Only the essentials, therefore, are treated in this work, which is +planned more as a foundation for the study of Modern English grammar, of +historical English grammar, and of the principles of English etymology, +than as a general introduction to Germanic philology. + +The Exercises in translation will, it is believed, furnish all the drill +necessary to enable the student to retain the forms and constructions +given in the various chapters. + +The Selections for Reading relate to the history and literature of King +Alfred's day, and are sufficient to give the student a first-hand, +though brief, acquaintance with the native style and idiom of Early West +Saxon prose in its golden age. Most of the words and constructions +contained in them will be already familiar to the student through their +intentional employment in the Exercises. + +For the inflectional portion of this grammar, recourse has been had +chiefly to Sievers' _Abriss der angelschsischen Grammatik_ (1895). +Constant reference has been made also to the same author's earlier and +larger _Angelschsishe Grammatik_, translated by Cook. Amore sparing +use has been made of Cosijn's _Altwestschsische Grammatik_. + +For syntax and illustrative sentences, Dr. J. E. Wlfing's _Syntax in +den Werken Alfreds des Grossen, Part I._ (Bonn, 1894) has proved +indispensable. Advance sheets of the second part of this great work lead +one to believe that when completed the three parts will constitute the +most important contribution to the study of English syntax that has yet +been made. Old English sentences have also been cited from Sweet's +_Anglo-Saxon Reader_, Bright's _Anglo-Saxon Reader_, and Cook's _First +Book in Old English_. + +The short chapter on the Order of Words has been condensed from my +_Order of Words in Anglo-Saxon Prose_ (Publications of the Modern +Language Association of America, New Series, Vol. I, No.2). + +Though assuming sole responsibility for everything contained in this +book, Itake pleasure in acknowledging the kind and efficient assistance +that has been so generously given me in its preparation. To none do I +owe more than to Dr. J.E. Wlfing, of the University of Bonn; Prof. +James A.Harrison, of the University of Virginia; Prof. W.S. Currell, +of Washington and Lee University; Prof. J.Douglas Bruce, of Bryn Mawr +College; and Prof. L.M. Harris, of the University of Indiana. They have +each rendered material aid, not only in the tedious task of detecting +typographical errors in the proof-sheets, but by the valuable criticisms +and suggestions which they have made as this work was passing through +the press. + + C. ALPHONSO SMITH. + + Louisiana State University, + Baton Rouge, September, 1896. + + + + +PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. + + +In preparing this enlarged edition, a few minor errors in the first +edition have been corrected and a few sentences added. The chief +difference between the two editions, however, consists in the +introduction of more reading matter and the consequent exposition of Old +English meter. Both changes have been made at the persistent request of +teachers and students of Old English. + +Uniformity of treatment has been studiously preserved in the new +material and the old, the emphasis in both being placed on syntax and +upon the affinities that Old English shares with Modern English. + +Many obligations have been incurred in preparing this augmented edition. +Ihave again to thank Dr. J.E. Wlfing, Prof. James A.Harrison, Prof. +W.S. Currell, and Prof. J.Douglas Bruce. To the scholarly criticisms +also of Prof. J.M. Hart, of Cornell; Prof. Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., of +Williams College; and Prof. Frederick Tupper, Jr., of the University of +Vermont, Iam indebted for aid as generously given as it is genuinely +appreciated. + + C. ALPHONSO SMITH. + + August, 1898. + + + + +PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. + + +Among those who have kindly aided in making this edition free from +error, Iwish to thank especially my friend Dr. John M.McBryde, Jr., of +Hollins Institute, Virginia. + + C. ALPHONSO SMITH. + + University of North Carolina, + Chapel Hill, February, 1903. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + +PART I.--INTRODUCTION. + +Chapters Pages + + I. History ( 1-5) 1 + II. Sounds ( 6-11) 4 + III. Inflections ( 12-19) 10 + IV. Order of Words ( 20-21) 18 + V. Practical Suggestions ( 22-24) 21 + +PART II.--ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. + + VI. The a-Declension: Masculine a-Stems ( 25-30) 27 + VII. Neuter a-Stems ( 31-36) 30 + VIII. The -Declension ( 37-42) 33 + IX. The i-Declension and the u-Declension ( 43-55) 35 + X. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs ( 56-62) 39 + XI. The Weak or n-Declension ( 63-66) 44 + XII. Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions ( 67-71) 47 + XIII. Pronouns ( 72-77) 50 + XIV. Adjectives, Strong and Weak ( 78-87) 53 + XV. Numerals ( 88-92) 57 + XVI. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions ( 93-95) 60 + XVII. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs ( 96-100) 64 + XVIII. Strong Verbs: Class I, Syntax of Moods ( 101-108) 68 + XIX. Classes II and III ( 109-113) 74 + XX. Classes IV, V, VI, and VII; Contract Verbs ( 114-121) 78 + XXI. Weak Verbs ( 122-133) 82 + XXII. Remaining Verbs; Verb Phrases with #habban#, #bon#, + and #weoran# (134-143) 90 + +PART III.--SELECTIONS FOR READING. + + PROSE. + + Introductory 98 + I. The Battle of Ashdown 99 + II. A Prayer of King Alfred 101 + III. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan 102 + Ohthere's First Voyage 103 + Ohthere's Second Voyage 106 + Wulfstan's Voyage 107 + IV. The Story of Cdmon 111 + V. Alfred's Preface to the Pastoral Care 116 + + POETRY. + + Introductory 122 + VI. Extracts from Beowulf 136 + VII. The Wanderer 148 + +GLOSSARIES. + + I. Old English--Modern English 155 + II. Modern English--Old English 190 + + + * * * * * + * * * * + + OLD ENGLISH + + GRAMMAR AND EXERCISES + + * * * * + * * * * * + + +OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND EXERCISE BOOK. + + + + +PART I. + +INTRODUCTION. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +HISTORY. + + +1. The history of the English language falls naturally into three +periods; but these periods blend into one another so gradually that too +much significance must not be attached to the exact dates which +scholars, chiefly for convenience of treatment, have assigned as their +limits. Our language, it is true, has undergone many and great changes; +but its continuity has never been broken, and its individuality has +never been lost. + + +2. The first of these periods is that of OLD ENGLISH, or ANGLO-SAXON,[1] +commonly known as the period of _full inflections_. _E.g._ #stn-as#, +_stones_; #car-u#, _care_; #will-a#, _will_; #bind-an#, _to bind_; +#help-a# (=#ath#), _they help_. + +It extends from the arrival of the English in Great Britain to about one +hundred years after the Norman Conquest,--from A.D. 449 to 1150; but +there are no literary remains of the earlier centuries of this period. +There were four[2] distinct dialects spoken at this time. These were the +Northumbrian, spoken north of the river Humber; the Mercian, spoken in +the midland region between the Humber and the Thames; the West Saxon, +spoken south and west of the Thames; and the Kentish, spoken in the +neighborhood of Canterbury. Of these dialects, Modern English is most +nearly akin to the Mercian; but the best known of them is the West +Saxon. It was in the West Saxon dialect that King Alfred (849-901) wrote +and spoke. His writings belong to the period of Early West Saxon as +distinguished from the period of Late West Saxon, the latter being best +represented in the writings of Abbot lfric (955?-1025?). + + [Footnote 1: This unfortunate nomenclature is due to the term + _Angli Saxones_, which Latin writers used as a designation for + the English Saxons as distinguished from the continental or Old + Saxons. But Alfred and lfric both use the term _Englisc_, not + Anglo-Saxon. The Angles spread over Northumbria and Mercia, far + outnumbering the other tribes. Thus _Englisc_ (=_Angel_ + + _isc_) became the general name for the language spoken.] + + [Footnote 2: As small as England is, there are six distinct + dialects spoken in her borders to-day. Of these the Yorkshire + dialect is, perhaps, the most peculiar. It preserves many + Northumbrian survivals. See Tennyson's _Northern Farmer_.] + + +3. The second period is that of MIDDLE ENGLISH, or the period of +_leveled inflections_, the dominant vowel of the inflections being e. +_E.g._ #ston-es#, #car-e#, #will-e#, #bind-en# (or#bind-e#), +#help-eth#, each being, as in the earlier period, adissyllable. + +The Middle English period extends from A.D. 1150 to 1500. Its greatest +representatives are Chaucer (1340-1400) in poetry and Wiclif (1324-1384) +in prose. There were three prominent dialects during this period: the +Northern, corresponding to the older Northumbrian; the Midland (divided +into East Midland and West Midland), corresponding to the Mercian; and +the Southern, corresponding to the West Saxon and Kentish. London, +situated in East Midland territory, had become the dominant speech +center; and it was this East Midland dialect that both Chaucer and +Wiclif employed. + + NOTE.--It is a great mistake to think that Chaucer shaped our + language from crude materials. His influence was conservative, not + plastic. The popularity of his works tended to crystalize and thus + to perpetuate the forms of the East Midland dialect, but that + dialect was ready to his hand before he began to write. The speech + of London was, in Chaucer's time, amixture of Southern and + Midland forms, but the Southern forms (survivals of the West Saxon + dialect) had already begun to fall away; and this they continued + to do, so that "Chaucer's language," as Dr. Murray says, "is more + Southern than standard English eventually became." See also + Morsbach, _Ueber den Ursprung der neuenglischen Schriftsprache_ + (1888). + + +4. The last period is that of MODERN ENGLISH, or the period of _lost +inflections_. _E.g._ _stones_, _care_, _will_, _bind_, _help_, each +being a monosyllable. Modern English extends from A.D. 1500 to the +present time. It has witnessed comparatively few grammatical changes, +but the vocabulary of our language has been vastly increased by +additions from the classical languages. Vowels, too, have shifted their +values. + + +5. It is the object of this book to give an elementary knowledge of +Early West Saxon, that is, the language of King Alfred. With this +knowledge, it will not be difficult for the student to read Late West +Saxon, or any other dialect of the Old English period. Such knowledge +will also serve as the best introduction to the structure both of Middle +English and of Modern English, besides laying a secure foundation for +the scientific study of any other Germanic tongue. + + NOTE.--The Germanic, or Teutonic, languages constitute a branch of + the great Aryan, or Indo-Germanic (known also as the + Indo-European) group. They are subdivided as follows: + + { North Germanic: Scandinavian, or Norse. + { + { { Old High German, + Germanic { East Germanic: Gothic. { (to A.D. 1100,) + { { + { { High German { Middle High German, + { { { (A.D. 1100-1500,) + { { { + { West Germanic { { New High German. + { { (A.D. 1500-.) + { + { Low German { Dutch, + { Old Saxon, + { Frisian, + { English. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +SOUNDS. + + +#Vowels and Diphthongs.# + +6. The long vowels and diphthongs will in this book be designated by the +macron (). Vowel length should in every case be associated by the +student with each word learned: quantity alone sometimes distinguishes +words meaning wholly different things: #fr#, _he went_, #for#, _for_; +#gd#, _good_, #God#, _God_; #mn#, _crime_, #man#, _man_. + +Long vowels and diphthongs: + + as in f_a_ther: #stn#, _a stone_. + : as in m_a_n (prolonged): #sl:pan#, _to sleep_. + as in th_e_y: #hr#, _here_. + as in mach_i_ne: #mn#, _mine_. + as in n_o_te (pure, not diphthongal): #bc#, _book_. + as in r_u_le: #tn#, _town_. + y: as in German gr__n, or English gr_ee_n (with lips rounded):[1] + #bry:d#, _bride_. + +The diphthongs, long and short, have the stress upon the first vowel. +The second vowel is obscured, and represents approximately the sound of +_er_ in _sooner_, _faster_ (=_soon-uh_, _fast-uh_). The long diphthongs +(: is not a diphthong proper) are o, e, and a. The sound of o is +approximately reproduced in _mayor_ (=_m-uh_); that of e in the +dissyllabic pronunciation of _fear_ (=_f-uh_). But a = _:-uh_. This +diphthong is hardly to be distinguished from _ea_ in _pear_, _bear_, +etc., as pronounced in the southern section of the United States +(=_b-uh_, _p-uh_). + + +7. The short sounds are nothing more than the long vowels and diphthongs +shortened; but the student must at once rid himself of the idea that +Modern English _red_, for example, is the shortened form of _reed_, or +that _mat_ is the shortened form of _mate_. Pronounce these long sounds +with increasing rapidity, and _reed_ will approach _rid_, while _mate_ +will approach _met_. The Old English short vowel sounds are: + + a as in _a_rtistic: #habban#, _to have_. + as in m_a_nkind: #dg#, _day_. + e, [e,] as in l_e_t: #stelan#, _to steal_, #s[e,]ttan#, _to set_. + i as in s_i_t: #hit#, _it_. + o as in br_oa_d (but shorter): #God#, _God_. + [o,] as in n_o_t: #l[o,]mb#, _lamb_. + u as in f_u_ll: #sunu#, _son_. + y as in m_i_ller (with lips rounded)[1]: #gylden#, _golden_. + + NOTE.--The symbol [e,] is known as _umlaut_-e ( 58). It stands for + Germanic _a_, while e (without the cedilla) represents Germanic + _e_. The symbol [o,] is employed only before m and n. It, too, + represents Germanic _a_. But Alfred writes #manig# or #monig#, + _many_; #lamb# or #lomb#, _lamb_; #hand# or #hond#, _hand_, etc. + The cedilla is an etymological sign added by modern grammarians. + + [Transcriber's Note: + The diacritic is not a cedilla (open to the left) but an ogonek (open + to the right).] + + [Footnote 1: Vowels are said to be round, or rounded, when the + lip-opening is rounded; that is, when the lips are thrust out + and puckered as if preparing to pronounce _w_. Thus _o_ and _u_ + are round vowels: add _-ing_ to each, and phonetically you have + added _-wing_. _E.g. go^{w}ing_, _su^{w}ing_.] + + +#Consonants.# + +8. There is little difference between the values of Old English +consonants and those of Modern English. The following distinctions, +however, require notice: + +The digraph #th# is represented in Old English texts by and , no +consistent distinction being made between them. In the works of Alfred, + (capital, ) is the more common: #s#, _those_; #t#, _that_; +#binde#, _he binds_. + +The consonant #c# had the hard sound of _k_, the latter symbol being +rare in West Saxon: #cyning#, _king_; #cwn#, _queen_; #c#, _known_. +When followed by a palatal vowel sound,--_e_, _i_, __, _ea_, _eo_, +long or short,--a vanishing _y_ sound was doubtless interposed (_cf._ +dialectic _k^{y}ind_ for _kind_). In Modern English the combination +has passed into _ch_: #cealc#, _chalk_; #cdan#, _to chide_; #l:ce#, +_leech_; #cild#, _child_; #cowan#, _to chew_. This change (_c_ > _ch_) +is known as Palatalization. The letter g, pronounced as in Modern +English _gun_, has also a palatal value before the palatal vowels +(_cf._ dialectic _g^{y}irl_ for _girl_). + +The combination #cg#, which frequently stands for #gg#, had probably the +sound of _dge_ in Modern English _edge_: #ecg#, _edge_; #secgan#, _to +say_; #brycg#, _bridge_. Initial #h# is sounded as in Modern English: +#habban#, _to have_; #hlga#, _saint_. When closing a syllable it has +the sound of German _ch_: #slh#, _he slew_; #hah#, _high_; #urh#, +_through_. + + +9. An important distinction is that between voiced (orsonant) and +voiceless (orsurd) consonants.[2] In Old English they are as follows: + + VOICED. VOICELESS. + + g h, c + d t + , (as in _th_ough) , (asin _th_in) + b p + f (= v) f + s (= z) s + +It is evident, therefore, that (), f, and s have double values in Old +English. If voiced, they are equivalent to _th_ (in_th_ough), _v_, and +_z_. Otherwise, they are pronounced as _th_ (in_th_in), _f_ (in_f_in), +and _s_ (in_s_in). The syllabic environment will usually compel the +student to give these letters their proper values. When occurring +between vowels, they are always voiced: #er#, _other_; #ofer#, _over_; +#rsan#, _to rise_. + + NOTE.--The general rule in Old English, as in Modern English, is, + that voiced consonants have a special affinity for other voiced + consonants, and voiceless for voiceless. This is the law of + Assimilation. Thus when _de_ is added to form the preterit of a + verb whose stem ends in a voiceless consonant, the d is unvoiced, + or assimilated, to t: #settan#, _to set_, #sette# (but #treddan#, + _to tread_, has #tredde#); #sl:pan#, _to sleep_, #sl:pte#; + #drencan#, _to drench_, #drencte#; #cyssan#, _to kiss_, #cyste#. + See 126, Note1. + + [Footnote 2: A little practice will enable the student to see + the appropriateness of calling these consonants voiced and + voiceless. Try to pronounce a voiced consonant,--_d_ in _den_, + for example, but without the assistance of _en_,--and there will + be heard a gurgle, or _vocal_ murmur. But in _t_, of _ten_, + there is no sound at all, but only a feeling of tension in the + organs.] + + +#Syllables.# + +10. A syllable is usually a vowel, either alone or in combination with +consonants, uttered with a single impulse of stress; but certain +consonants may form syllables: _oven_ (=_ov-n_), _battle_ (=_bt-l_); +(_cf._ also the vulgar pronunciation of _elm_). + +A syllable may be (1)weak or strong, (2)open or closed, (3)long or +short. + +(1) A weak syllable receives a light stress. Its vowel sound is often +different from that of the corresponding strong, or stressed, syllable. +_Cf._ weak and strong _my_ in "Iwant my lrge hat" and "Iwant m[y] +hat." + +(2) An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong: #d-man#, _to deem_; +##, _thou_; #sca-can#, _to shake_; #d-ges#, _by day_. A closed +syllable ends in one or more consonants: #ing#, _thing_; #gd#, _good_; +#gld#, _glad_. + +(3) A syllable is long (_a_) if it contains a long vowel or a long +diphthong: #dr-fan#, _to drive_; #l-can#, _to lock_; #sl:-pan#, _to +sleep_; #co-san#, _to choose_; (_b_) if its vowel or diphthong is +followed by more than one consonant:[3] #crft#, _strength_; #heard#, +_hard_; #lib-ban#, _to live_; #feal-lan#, _to fall_. Otherwise, the +syllable is short: #e#, _which_; #be-ran#, _to bear_; #t#, _that_; +#gie-fan#, _to give_. + + NOTE 1.--A single consonant belongs to the following syllable: + #h-lig#, _holy_ (not #hl-ig#); #wr-tan#, _to write_; #f-der#, + _father_. + + NOTE 2.--The student will notice that the syllable may be long and + the vowel short; but the vowel cannot be long and the syllable + short. + + NOTE 3.--Old English short vowels, occurring in open syllables, + have regularly become long in Modern English: #we-fan#, _to + weave_; #e-tan#, _to eat_; #ma-cian#, _to make_; #na-cod#, + _naked_; #a-can#, _to ache_; #o-fer#, _over_. And Old English long + vowels, preceding two or more consonants, have generally been + shortened: #brost#, _breast_; #h:l#, _health_; #sl:pte#, + _slept_; #l:dde#, _led_. + + [Footnote 3: Taken separately, every syllable ending in a single + consonant is long. It may be said, therefore, that all closed + syllables are long; but in the natural flow of language, the + single final consonant of a syllable so often blends with a + following initial vowel, the syllable thus becoming open and + short, that such syllables are not recognized as prevailingly + long. _Cf._ Modern English _at all_ (=_a-tall_).] + + +#Accentuation.# + +11. The accent in Old English falls usually on the radical syllable, +never on the inflectional ending: #brngan#, _to bring_; #st[]nas#, +_stones_; #brende#, _bearing_; #[]delnes#, _idleness_; +#fr[]ondscipe#, _friendship_. + +But in the case of compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbs the first +member of the compound (unless it be ge- or be-) receives the stronger +stress: #hofon-rce#, _heaven-kingdom_; #nd-giet#, _intelligence_; +#s-fst#, _truthful_; #gd-cund#, _divine_; #all-unga#, _entirely_; +#bl[]e-lce#, _blithely_. But #be-h[]t#, _promise_; #ge-bd#, +_prayer_; #ge-f[]alc#, _joyous_; #be-sne#, _immediately_. + +Compound verbs, however, have the stress on the radical syllable: +#for-gefan#, _to forgive_; #of-lnnan#, _to cease_; #-cn[]wan#, _to +know_; #wi-stndan#, _to withstand_; #on-scan#, _to resist_. + + NOTE.--The tendency of nouns to take the stress on the prefix, + while verbs retain it on the root, is exemplified in many Modern + English words: _prference_, _prefr_; _cntract_ (noun), + _contrct_ (verb); _bstinence_, _abstan_; _prfume_ (noun), + _perfme_ (verb). + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +INFLECTIONS. + + +#Cases.# + +12. There are five cases in Old English: the nominative, the genitive, +the dative, the accusative, and the instrumental.[1] Each of them, +except the nominative, may be governed by prepositions. When used +without prepositions, they have, in general, the following functions: + +(_a_) The nominative, as in Modern English, is the case of the subject +of a finite verb. + +(_b_) The genitive (the possessive case of Modern English) is the case +of the possessor or source. It may be called the _of_ case. + +(_c_) The dative is the case of the indirect object. It may be called +the _to_ or _for_ case. + +(_d_) The accusative (the objective case of Modern English) is the case +of the direct object. + +(_e_) The instrumental, which rarely differs from the dative in form, is +the case of the means or the method. It may be called the _with_ or _by_ +case. + +The following paradigm of #m#, _the mouth_, illustrates the several +cases (the article being, for the present, gratuitously added in the +Modern English equivalents): + + _Singular._ _Plural._ + + _N._ m = _the mouth._ m-as = _the mouths._ + + _G._ m-es[2] = _of the mouth_ m-a = _of the mouths_ + (= _the mouth's_). (= _the mouths'_). + + _D._ m-e = _to_ or _for the m-um = _to_ or _for the mouths._ + mouth._ + + _A._ m = _the mouth._ m-as = _the mouths._ + + _I._ me = _with_ or _by means m-um = _with_ or _by means + of the mouth._ of the mouths._ + + [Footnote 1: Most grammars add a sixth case, the vocative. But + it seems best to consider the vocative as only a _function_ of + the nominative _form_.] + + [Footnote 2: Of course our "apostrophe and _s_" (= _'s_) comes + from the Old English genitive ending -es. The _e_ is preserved + in _Wednesday_ (= Old English #Wdnes dg#). But at a very early + period it was thought that _John's book_, for example, was a + shortened form of _John his book_. Thus Addison (_Spectator_, + No. 135) declares _'s_ a survival of _his_. How, then, would he + explain the _s_ of _his_? And how would he dispose of _Mary's + book_?] + + +#Gender.# + +13. The gender of Old English nouns, unlike that of Modern English, +depends partly on meaning and partly on form, or ending. Thus #m#, +_mouth_, is masculine; #tunge#, _tongue_, feminine; #age#, _eye_, +neuter. + +No very comprehensive rules, therefore, can be given; but the gender of +every noun should be learned with its meaning. Gender will be indicated +in the vocabularies by the different gender forms of the definite +article, #s# for the masculine, #so# for the feminine, and #t# for +the neuter: #s m#, #so tunge#, #t age# = _the mouth_, _the +tongue_, _the eye_. + +All nouns ending in #-dm#, #-hd#, #-scipe#, or #-ere# are masculine +(_cf._ Modern English wis_dom_, child_hood_, friend_ship_, work_er_). +Masculine, also, are nouns ending in -a. + +Those ending in #-nes# or #-ung# are feminine (_cf._ Modern English +good_ness_, and gerundial forms in _-ing_: see_ing_ is believ_ing_). + +Thus #s wsdm#, _wisdom_; #s cildhd#, _childhood_; #s frondscipe#, +_friendship_; #s fiscere#, _fisher(man)_; #s hunta#, _hunter_; #so +gelcnes#, _likeness_; #so leornung#, _learning_. + + +#Declensions.# + +14. There are two great systems of declension in Old English, the Vowel +Declension and the Consonant Declension. Anoun is said to belong to the +Vowel Declension when the final letter of its stem is a vowel, this +vowel being then known as the _stem-characteristic_; but if the +stem-characteristic is a consonant, the noun belongs to the Consonant +Declension. There might have been, therefore, as many subdivisions of +the Vowel Declension in Old English as there were vowels, and as many +subdivisions of the Consonant Declension as there were consonants. All +Old English nouns, however, belonging to the Vowel Declension, ended +their stems originally in a, , i, or u. Hence there are but four +subdivisions of the Vowel Declension: a-stems, -stems, i-stems, and +u-stems. + +The Vowel Declension is commonly called the Strong Declension, and its +nouns Strong Nouns. + + NOTE.--The terms Strong and Weak were first used by Jacob Grimm + (1785-1863) in the terminology of verbs, and thence transferred to + nouns and adjectives. By a Strong Verb, Grimm meant one that could + form its preterit out of its own resources; that is, without + calling in the aid of an additional syllable: Modern English + _run_, _ran_; _find_, _found_; but verbs of the Weak Conjugation + had to borrow, as it were, an inflectional syllable: _gain_, + _gained_; _help_, _helped_. + + +15. The stems of nouns belonging to the Consonant Declension ended, +with but few exceptions, in the letter n (_cf._ Latin _homin-em_, +_ration-em_, Greek +poimen-a+). They are called, therefore, n-stems, +the Declension itself being known as the n-Declension, or the Weak +Declension. The nouns, also, are called Weak Nouns. + + +16. If every Old English noun had preserved the original Germanic +stem-characteristic (orfinal letter of the stem), there would be no +difficulty in deciding at once whether any given noun is an a-stem, +-stem, i-stem, u-stem, or n-stem; but these final letters had, for the +most part, either been dropped, or fused with the case-endings, long +before the period of historic Old English. It is only, therefore, by a +rigid comparison of the Germanic languages with one another, and with +the other Aryan languages, that scholars are able to reconstruct a +single Germanic language, in which the original stem-characteristics may +be seen far better than in any one historic branch of the Germanic group +(5, Note). + +This hypothetical language, which bears the same ancestral relation to +the historic Germanic dialects that Latin bears to the Romance tongues, +is known simply as _Germanic_ (Gmc.), or as _Primitive Germanic_. +Ability to reconstruct Germanic forms is not expected of the students of +this book, but the following table should be examined as illustrating +the basis of distinction among the several Old English declensions (O.E. += Old English, Mn.E. = Modern English): + + { {Gmc. _staina-z_, + {(1)a-stems {O.E. #stn#, + { {Mn.E. _stone_. + { + { {Gmc. _hall_, + {(2)-stems {O.E. #heall#, + I. Strong or Vowel { {Mn.E. _hall_. + Declensions { + { {Gmc. _bni-z_, + {(3)i-stems {O.E. #bn#, + { {Mn.E. _boon_. + { + { {Gmc. _sunu-z_, + {(4)u-stems {O.E. #sunu#, + { {Mn.E. _son_. + + {(1)n-stems {Gmc. _tungn-iz_, + { (Weak {O.E. #tung-an#, + { Declension) {Mn.E. _tongue-s_. + { + { { {Gmc. _ft-iz_, + { {(_a_) {O.E. #ft#, + II. Consonant {(2)Remnants { {Mn.E. _feet_. + Declensions { of other { + { Consonant { {Gmc. _frijnd-iz_, + { Declensions {(_b_) {O.E. #frend#, + { { {Mn.E. _friend-s_. + { { + { { {Gmc. _brr-iz_, + { {(_c_) {O.E. #bror#, + { { {Mn.E. _brother-s_. + + + NOTE.--"It will be seen that if Old English #age#, _eye_, is said + to be an n-stem, what is meant is this, that at some former period + the kernel of the word ended in -n, while, as far as the Old + English language proper is concerned, all that is implied is that + the word is inflected in a certain manner." (Jespersen, _Progress + in Language_, 109). + + This is true of all Old English stems, whether Vowel or Consonant. + The division, therefore, into a-stems, -stems, etc., is made in + the interests of grammar as well as of philology. + + +#Conjugations.# + +17. There are, likewise, two systems of conjugation in Old English: the +Strong or Old Conjugation, and the Weak or New Conjugation. + +The verbs of the Strong Conjugation (the so-called Irregular Verbs of +Modern English) number about three hundred, of which not one hundred +remain in Modern English (101, Note). They form their preterit and +frequently their past participle by changing the radical vowel of the +present stem. This vowel change or modification is called _ablaut_ +(pronounced _hp-lowt_): Modern English _sing, sang, sung_; _rise, rose, +risen_. As the radical vowel of the preterit plural is often different +from that of the preterit singular, there are four _principal parts_ or +_tense stems_ in an Old English strong verb, instead of the three of +Modern English. The four principal parts in the conjugation of a strong +verb are (1)the present indicative, (2)the preterit indicative +singular, (3)the preterit indicative plural, and (4)the past +participle. + +Strong verbs fall into seven groups, illustrated in the following table: + + PRESENT. + PRET. SING. + PRET. PLUR. + PAST PARTICIPLE. + + I. Btan, _to bite_: + + Ic bt-e, _I bite_ or _shall bite_.[3] + Ic bt, _I bit_. + W bit-on, _we bit_. + Ic hbbe ge[4]-biten, _I have bitten_. + + II. Bodan, _to bid_: + + Ic bod-e, _I bid_ or _shall bid_. + Ic bad, _I bade_. + W bud-on, _we bade_. + Ic hbbe ge-boden, _I have bidden_. + + III. Bindan, _to bind_: + + Ic bind-e, _I bind_ or _shall bind_. + Ic bond, _I bound_. + W bund-on, _we bound_. + Ic hbbe ge-bund-en, _I have bound_. + + IV. Beran, _to bear_: + + Ic ber-e, _I bear_ or _shall bear_. + Ic br, _I bore_. + W b:r-on, _we bore_. + Ic hbbe ge-bor-en, _I have borne_. + + V. Metan, _to measure_: + + Ic met-e, _I measure_ or _shall measure_. + Ic mt, _I measured_. + W m:t-on, _we measured_. + Ic hbbe ge-met-en, _I have measured_. + + VI. Faran, _to go_: + + Ic far-e, _I go_ or _shall go_. + Ic fr, _I went_. + W fr-on, _we went_. + Ic eom[5] ge-far-en, _I have (am) gone_. + + VII. Feallan, _to fall_: + + Ic feall-e, _I fall_ or _shall fall_. + Ic foll, _I fell_. + W foll-on, _we fell_. + Ic eom[5] ge-feall-en, _I have (am) fallen_. + + [Footnote 3: Early West Saxon had no distinctive form for the + future. The present was used both as present proper and as + future. _Cf._ Modern English "Igo home tomorrow," or "Iam + going home tomorrow" for "Ishall go home tomorrow."] + + [Footnote 4: The prefix ge- (Middle English _y-_), cognate with + Latin _co_ (_con_) and implying completeness of action, was not + always used. It never occurs in the past participles of compound + verbs: #o-feallan#, _to fall off_, past participle #o-feallen# + (not #o-gefeallen#). Milton errs in prefixing it to a present + participle: + + "What needs my Shakespeare, for his honour'd bones, + The labour of an age in piled stones? + Or that his hallow'd reliques should be hid + Under a star-_ypointing_ pyramid." + --_Epitaph on William Shakespeare_. + + And Shakespeare misuses it in "Y-ravished," apreterit + (_Pericles_ III, _Prologue_ l.35). + + It survives in the archaic _y-clept_ (Old English #ge-clypod#, + called). It appears as _a_ in _aware_ (Old English #ge-wr#), + as _e_ in _enough_ (Old English #ge-nh#), and as _i_ in + _handiwork_ (Old English #hand-ge-weorc#).] + + [Footnote 5: With intransitive verbs denoting _change of + condition_, the Old English auxiliary is usually some form of + _to be_ rather than _to have_. See 139.] + + +18. The verbs of the Weak Conjugation (the so-called Regular Verbs of +Modern English) form their preterit and past participle by adding to the +present stem a suffix[6] with _d_ or _t_: Modern English _love_, +_loved_; _sleep_, _slept_. + +The stem of the preterit plural is never different from the stem of the +preterit singular; hence these verbs have only three distinctive +tense-stems, or principal parts: _viz._, (1)the present indicative, +(2)the preterit indicative, and (3)the past participle. + +Weak verbs fall into three groups, illustrated in the following table: + + PRESENT. + PRETERIT. + PAST PARTICIPLE. + + I. Fremman, _to perform_: + + Ic fremm-e, _I perform_ or _shall perform_. + Ic frem-ede, _I performed_. + Ic hbbe ge-frem-ed, _I have performed_. + + II. Bodian, _to proclaim_: + + Ic bodi-e, _I proclaim_ or _shall proclaim_. + Ic bod-ode, _I proclaimed_. + Ic hbbe ge-bod-od, _I have proclaimed_. + + III. Habban, _to have_: + + Ic hbbe, _I have_ or _shall have_. + Ic hf-de, _I had_. + Ic hbbe ge-hf-d, _I have had_. + + [Footnote 6: The theory that _loved_, for example, is a fused + form of _love-did_ has been generally given up. The dental + ending was doubtless an Indo-Germanic suffix, which became + completely specialized only in the Teutonic languages.] + + +19. There remain a few verbs (chiefly the Auxiliary Verbs of Modern +English) that do not belong entirely to either of the two conjugations +mentioned. The most important of them are, #Ic mg# _I may_, #Ic mihte# +_I might_; #Ic con# _I can_, #Ic ce# _I could_; #Ic mt# _I must_, #Ic +mste# _I must_; #Ic sceal# _I shall_, #Ic sceolde# _I should_; #Ic eom# +_I am_, #Ic ws# _I was_; #Ic wille# _I will_, #Ic wolde# _I would_; #Ic +d# _I do_, #Ic dyde# _I did_; #Ic g# _I go_, #Ic ode# _I went_. + +All but the last four of these are known as Preterit-Present Verbs. The +present tense of each of them is _in origin_ a preterit, _in function_ a +present. _Cf._ Modern English _ought_ (=_owed_). + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +ORDER OF WORDS. + + +20. The order of words in Old English is more like that of Modern German +than of Modern English. Yet it is only the Transposed order that the +student will feel to be at all un-English; and the Transposed order, +even before the period of the Norman Conquest, was fast yielding place +to the Normal order. + +The three divisions of order are (1)Normal, (2)Inverted, and +(3)Transposed. + +(1) Normal order = subject + predicate. In Old English, the Normal order +is found chiefly in independent clauses. The predicate is followed by +its modifiers: #S hwl bi micle l:ssa onne re hwalas#, _That whale +is much smaller than other whales_; #Ond h geseah tw scipu#, _And he +saw two ships_. + +(2) Inverted order = predicate + subject. This order occurs also in +independent clauses, and is employed (_a_) when some modifier of the +predicate precedes the predicate, the subject being thrown behind. The +words most frequently causing Inversion in Old English prose are ## +_then_, #onne# _then_, and #:r# _there_: # fr h#, _Then went he_; +#onne rna hy: ealle tweard :m fo#, _Then gallop they all toward +the property_; #ac :r bi medo genh#, _but there is mead enough_. + +Inversion is employed (_b_) in interrogative sentences: #Lufast m?# +_Lovest thou me?_ and (_c_) in imperative sentences: #Cume n rce#, +_Thy kingdom come_. + +(3) Transposed order = subject ... predicate. That is, the predicate +comes last in the sentence, being preceded by its modifiers. This is the +order observed in dependent clauses:[1] #onne cyme s man s t +swiftoste hors hafa#, _Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse_ +(literally, _that the swiftest horse has_); #Ne mtte h :r nn gebn +land, sian h from his gnum hm fr#, _Nor did he before find any +cultivated land, after he went from his own home_ (literally, _after he +from his own home went_). + + [Footnote 1: But in the _Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan_, in + which the style is apparently more that of oral than of written + discourse, the Normal is more frequent than the Transposed order + in dependent clauses. In his other writings Alfred manifests a + partiality for the Transposed order in dependent clauses, except + in the case of substantival clauses introduced by #t#. Such + clauses show a marked tendency to revert to their Normal _oratio + recta_ order. The norm thus set by the indirect affirmative + clause seems to have proved an important factor in the ultimate + disappearance of Transposition from dependent clauses. The + influence of Norman French helped only to consummate forces that + were already busily at work.] + + +21. Two other peculiarities in the order of words require a brief +notice. + +(1) Pronominal datives and accusatives usually precede the predicate: +#H hine oferwann#, _He overcame him_ (literally, _He him overcame_); +#Dryhten him andwyrde#, _The Lord answered him_. But substantival +datives and accusatives, as in Modern English, follow the predicate. The +following sentence illustrates both orders: #Hy: genmon Ioseph, ond +hine gesealdon cpemonnum, ond hy: hine gesealdon in gypta lond#, _They +took Joseph, and sold him to merchants, and they sold him into Egypt_ +(literally, _They took Joseph, and him sold to merchants, and they him +sold into Egyptians' land_). + + NOTE.--The same order prevails in the case of pronominal + nominatives used as predicate nouns: #Ic hit eom#, _It is I_ + (literally, _Iitam_); # hit eart#, _It is thou_ (literally, + _Thou it art_). + +(2) The attributive genitive, whatever relationship it expresses, +usually precedes the noun which it qualifies: #Breoton is grsecges +gland#, _Britain is an island of the ocean_ (literally, _ocean's +island_); #Swilce hit is ac berende on wecga rum#, _Likewise it is +also rich in ores of metals_ (literally, _metals' ores_); #Cyninga +cyning#, _King of kings_ (literally, _Kings' king_); #G witon Godes +rces gery:ne#, _Ye know the mystery of the kingdom of God_ (literally, +_Ye know God's kingdom's mystery_). + +A preposition governing the word modified by the genitive, precedes the +genitive:[2] #On ealdra manna sgenum#, _In old men's sayings_; #t +:ra str:ta endum#, _At the ends of the streets_ (literally, _At the +streets' ends_); #For ealra nra hlgena lufan#, _For all thy saints' +love_. See, also, 94,(5). + + [Footnote 2: The positions of the genitive are various. It + frequently follows its noun: # bearn ra Aeniensa#, _The + children of the Athenians_. It may separate an adjective and a + noun: #n ly:tel s:s earm#, _A little arm of (the) sea_. The + genitive may here be construed as an adjective, or part of a + compound = _A little sea-arm_; #Mid monegum Godes gifum#, _With + many God-gifts_ = _many divine gifts_.] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. + + +22. In the study of Old English, the student must remember that he is +dealing not with a foreign or isolated language but with the earlier +forms of his own mother tongue. The study will prove profitable and +stimulating in proportion as close and constant comparison is made of +the old with the new. The guiding principles in such a comparison are +reducible chiefly to two. These are (1)the regular operation of +phonetic laws, resulting especially in certain Vowel Shiftings, and +(2)the alterations in form and syntax that are produced by Analogy. + +(1) "The former of these is of physiological or _natural_ origin, and is +perfectly and inflexibly regular throughout the same period of the same +language; and even though different languages show different phonetic +habits and predilections, there is a strong general resemblance between +the changes induced in one language and in another; many of the +particular laws are true for many languages. + +(2) "The other principle is psychical, or mental, or _artificial_, +introducing various more or less capricious changes that are supposed to +be emendations; and its operation is, to some extent, uncertain and +fitful."[1] + + [Footnote 1: Skeat, _Principles of English Etymology_, Second + Series, 342. But Jespersen, with Collitz and others, stoutly + contests "the theory of sound laws and analogy sufficing between + them to explain everything in linguistic development."] + + +(1) #Vowel-Shiftings.# + +23. It will prove an aid to the student in acquiring the inflections and +vocabulary of Old English to note carefully the following shiftings that +have taken place in the gradual growth of the Old English vowel system +into that of Modern English. + +(1) As stated in 3, the Old English inflectional vowels, which were +all short and unaccented, weakened in early Middle English to _e_. This +_e_ in Modern English is frequently dropped: + + OLD ENGLISH. MIDDLE ENGLISH. MODERN ENGLISH. + stn-as ston-es stones + sun-u sun-e son + sun-a sun-e sons + ox-an ox-en oxen + swift-ra swift-er swifter + swift-ost swift-est swiftest + lc-ode lok-ede looked + +(2) The Old English long vowels have shifted their phonetic values with +such uniform regularity that it is possible in almost every case to +infer the Modern English sound; but our spelling is so chaotic that +while the student may infer the modern sound, he cannot always infer the +modern symbol representing the sound. + + OLD MODERN ENGLISH. + ENGLISH. + + _o_[2] { n = _no_; stn = _stone_; bn = _bone_; + (as in _no_) { rd = _road_; c = _oak_; hl = _whole_; + { hm = _home_; swan = _to sow_; gst = + { _ghost_. + + _e_ { h = _he_; w = _we_; = _thee_; m = + (as in _he_) { _me_; g = _ye_; hl = _heel_; wrig = + { _weary_; gelfan = _to believe_; gs = + { _geese_. + + (y:) _i_ (_y_) { mn = _mine_; n = _thine_; wr = _wire_; + (as in _mine_) { my:s = _mice_; rm = _rime_ (wrongly spelt + { _rhyme_); ly:s = _lice_; b = _by_; + { scnan = _to shine_; stig-rp = _sty-rope_ + { (shortened to _stirrup_, stgan meaning + { _to mount_). + + _o_ { d = _I do_; t = _too, to_; gs = _goose_; + (as in _do_) { t = _tooth_; mna = _moon_; m = + { _doom_; md = _mood_; wgian = _to woo_; + { slh = _I slew_. + + _ou_ (_ow_) { = _thou_; fl = _foul_; hs = _house_; + (as in _thou_) { n = _now_; h = _how_; tn = _town_; + { re = our; t = _out_; hld = _loud_; + { send = _thousand_. + + + :, _ea_ { :: s: = _sea_; m:l = _meal_; d:lan = + a, (as in _sea_) { _to deal_; cl:ne = _clean_; gr:dig = + o { _greedy_. + { + { a: are = _ear_; ast = _east_; dram = + { _dream_; gar = _year_; batan = + { _to beat_. + { + { o: ro = _three_; drorig = _dreary_; + { so = _she_, hrod = _reed_; dop = + { _deep_. + + [Footnote 2: But Old English preceded by w sometimes gives + Modern English _o_ as in _two_: #tw# = _two_; #hw# = _who_; + #hwm# = _whom_.] + + +(2) #Analogy.# + +24. But more important than vowel shifting is the great law of Analogy, +for Analogy shapes not only words but constructions. It belongs, +therefore, to Etymology and to Syntax, since it influences both form and +function. By this law, minorities tend to pass over to the side of the +majorities. "The greater mass of cases exerts an assimilative influence +upon the smaller."[3] The effect of Analogy is to simplify and to +regularize. "The main factor in getting rid of irregularities is +group-influence, or Analogy--the influence exercised by the members of +an association-group on one another.... Irregularity consists in partial +isolation from an association-group through some formal difference."[4] + +Under the influence of Analogy, entire declensions and conjugations have +been swept away, leaving in Modern English not a trace of their former +existence. There are in Old English, for example, five plural endings +for nouns, -as, -a, -e, -u, and -an. No one could well have predicted[5] +that -as (Middle English _-es_) would soon take the lead, and become the +norm to which the other endings would eventually conform, for there were +more an-plurals than as-plurals; but the as-plurals were doubtless more +often employed in everyday speech. _Oxen_ (Old English #oxan#) is the +sole pure survival of the hundreds of Old English an-plurals. No group +of feminine nouns in Old English had -es as the genitive singular +ending; but by the close of the Middle English period all feminines +formed their genitive singular in _-es_ (or_-s_, Modern English _'s_) +after the analogy of the Old English masculine and neuter nouns with +es-genitives. The weak preterits in -ode have all been leveled under the +ed-forms, and of the three hundred strong verbs in Old English more than +two hundred have become weak. + +These are not cases of derivation (as are the shifted vowels): Modern +English _-s_ in _sons_, for example, could not possibly be derived from +Old English -a in #suna#, or Middle English _-e_ in _sune_ (23, (1)). +They are cases of replacement by Analogy. + +A few minor examples will quicken the student's appreciation of the +nature of the influence exercised by Analogy: + +(_a_) The intrusive _l_ in _could_ (Chaucer always wrote _coud_ or +_coude_) is due to association with _would_ and _should_, in each of +which _l_ belongs by etymological right. + +(_b_) _He need not_ (for _He needs not_) is due to the assimilative +influence of the auxiliaries _may_, _can_, etc., which have never added +_-s_ for their third person singular (137). + +(_c_) _I am friends with him_, in which _friends_ is a crystalized form +for _on good terms_, may be traced to the influence of such expressions +as _He and I are friends_, _They are friends_, etc. + +(_d_) Such errors as are seen in _runned_, _seed_, _gooses_, _badder_, +_hisself_, _says I_ (usually coupled with _sayshe_) are all analogical +formations. Though not sanctioned by good usage, it is hardly right to +call these forms the products of "false analogy." The grammar involved +is false, because unsupported by literary usages and traditions; but the +analogy on which these forms are built is no more false than the law of +gravitation is false when it makes a dress sit unconventionally. + + [Footnote 3: Whitney, _Life and Growth of Language_, Chap.IV.] + + [Footnote 4: Sweet, _A New English Grammar_, Part I., 535.] + + [Footnote 5: As Skeat says ( 22, (2)), Analogy is "fitful." It + enables us to explain many linguistic phenomena, but not to + anticipate them. The multiplication of books tends to check its + influence by perpetuating the forms already in use. Thus Chaucer + employed nine _en-_plurals, and his influence served for a time + to check the further encroachment of the _es-_plurals. As soon + as there is an acknowledged standard in any language, the + operation of Analogy is fettered.] + + + + +PART II. + +ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. + + + + +THE STRONG OR VOWEL DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS. + +THE a-DECLENSION. + +CHAPTER VI. + + +(_a_) #Masculine _a_-Stems.# + +[O.E., M.E., and Mn.E. will henceforth be used for Old English, Middle +English, and Modern English. Other abbreviations employed are +self-explaining.] + +25. The a-Declension, corresponding to the Second or _o_-Declension of +Latin and Greek, contains only (_a_) masculine and (_b_) neuter nouns. +To this declension belong most of the O.E. masculine and neuter nouns of +the Strong Declension. At a very early period, many of the nouns +belonging properly to the i- and u-Declensions began to pass over to the +a-Declension. This declension may therefore be considered the _normal +declension_ for all masculine and neuter nouns belonging to the Strong +Declension. + + +26. Paradigms of #s m#, _mouth_; #s fiscere#, _fisherman_; #s +hwl#, _whale_; #s mearh#, _horse_; #s finger#, _finger_: + + _Sing. N.A._ m fiscer-e hwl mearh finger + _G._ m-es fiscer-es hwl-es mar-es fingr-es + _D.I._ m-e fiscer-e hwl-e mar-e fingr-e + + _Plur. N.A._ m-as fiscer-as hwal-as mar-as fingr-as + _G._ m-a fiscer-a hwal-a mar-a fingr-a + _D.I._ m-um fiscer-um hwal-um mar-um fingr-um + + NOTE.--For meanings of the cases, see 12. The dative and + instrumental are alike in all nouns. + + +27. The student will observe (1)that nouns whose nominative ends in -e +(#fiscere#) drop this letter before adding the case endings; (2)that +before a consonant (#hwl#) changes to a in the plural;[1] (3)that h, +preceded by r (#mearh#) or l (#seolh#, _seal_), is dropped before an +inflectional vowel, the stem diphthong being then lengthened by way of +compensation; (4)that dissyllables (#finger#) having the first syllable +long, usually syncopate the vowel of the second syllable before adding +the case endings.[2] + + [Footnote 1: Adjectives usually retain in closed syllables, + changing it to a in open syllables: #hwt# (_active_), #gld# + (_glad_), #wr# (_wary_) have G. #hwates#, #glades#, #wares#; D. + #hwatum#, #gladum#, #warum#; but A. #hwtne#, #gldne#, #wrne#. + Nouns, however, change to a only in open syllables followed by a + guttural vowel, a or u. The in the open syllables of the + singular is doubtless due to the analogy of the N.A. singular, + both being closed syllables.] + + [Footnote 2: _Cf._ Mn.E. _drizz'ling_, _rememb'ring_, _abysmal_ + (_abysm_ = _abiz^{u}m_), _sick'ning_, in which the principle of + syncopation is precisely the same.] + + +28. Paradigm of the Definite Article[3] #s#, #so#, #t# = _the_: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + + _Sing. N._ s (se) so t + _G._ s :re s + _D._ :m (m) :re :m (m) + _A._ one t + _I._ y:, on ---- y:, on + + _All Genders._ + + _Plur. N.A._ + _G._ ra + _D._ :m (m) + + [Footnote 3: This may mean four things: (1)_The_, (2)_That_ + (demonstrative), (3)_He_, _she_, _it_, (4)_Who_, _which_, + _that_ (relative pronoun). Mn.E. demonstrative _that_ is, of + course, the survival of O.E. neuter #t# in its demonstrative + sense. Professor Victor Henry (_Comparative Grammar of English + and German_, 160,3) sees a survival of dative plural + demonstrative #:m# in such an expression as _in them days_. It + seems more probable, however, that _them_ so used has followed + the leadof _this_ and _these_, _that_ and _those_, in their + double function of pronoun and adjective. There was doubtless + some such evolution as, _Isaw them. Them what? Them boys._ + + An unquestioned survival of the dative singular feminine of the + article is seen in the _-ter_ of _Atterbury_ (= #t :re byrig#, + _at the town_); and #:m# survives in the _-ten_ of + _Attenborough_, the word _borough_ having become an uninflected + neuter. Skeat, _Principles_, First Series, 185.] + + +29. VOCABULARY.[4] + + s bcere, _scribe_ [bc]. + s cyning, _king_. + s dg, _day_. + s ende, _end_. + s engel, _angel_ [angelus]. + s frodm, _freedom_. + s fugol (G. sometimes #fugles#), _bird_ [fowl]. + s gr, _spear_ [gore, gar-fish]. + s heofon, _heaven_. + s hierde, _herdsman_ [shep-herd]. + ond (and), _and_. + s secg, _man, warrior_. + s seolh, _seal_. + s stn, _stone_. + s wealh, _foreigner, Welshman_ [wal-nut]. + s weall, _wall_. + s wsdm, _wisdom_. + s wulf, _wolf_. + + [Footnote 4: The brackets contain etymological hints that may + help the student to discern relationships otherwise overlooked. + The genitive is given only when not perfectly regular.] + + +30. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. ra wulfa mas. 2. s fisceres fingras. 3. ra Wala cyninge. +4.:m englum ond :m hierdum. 5.ra daga ende. 6.:m bcerum ond +:m secgum s cyninges. 7.:m sole ond :m fuglum. 8. stnas +ond gras. 9.Hwala ond mara. 10.ra engla wsdm. 11.s +cyninges bceres frodm. 12.ra hierda fuglum. 13.y: stne. +14.:m wealle. + +II. 1. For the horses and the seals. 2. For the Welshmen's freedom. +3.Of the king's birds. 4.By the wisdom of men and angels. 5.With the +spear and the stone. 6.The herdsman's seal and the warriors' spears. +7.To the king of heaven. 8.By means of the scribe's wisdom. 9.The +whale's mouth and the foreigner's spear. 10.For the bird belonging to +(=of) the king's scribe. 11.Of that finger. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +(_b_) #Neuter _a-_Stems.# + + +31. The neuter nouns of the a-Declension differ from the masculines only +in the N.A. plural. + + +32. Paradigms of #t hof#, _court, dwelling_; #aet bearn#, _child_; +#t bn#, _bone_; #t rce#, _kingdom_; #t spere#, _spear_; #t +werod#, _band of men_; #t tungol#, _star_: + + _Sing. N.A._ hof bearn bn rc-e + _G._ hof-es bearn-es bn-es rc-es + _D.I._ hof-e bearn-e bn-e rc-e + + _Plur. N.A._ hof-u bearn bn rc-u + _G._ hof-a bearn-a bn-a rc-a + _D.I._ hof-um bearn-um bn-um rc-um + + _Sing. N.A._ sper-e werod tungol + _G._ sper-es werod-es tungl-es + _D.I._ sper-e werod-e tungl-e + + _Plur. N.A._ sper-u werod tungl-u + _G._ sper-a werod-a tungl-a + _D.I._ sper-um werod-um tungl-um + + +33. The paradigms show (1)that monosyllables with short stems (#hof#) +take -u in the N.A. plural; (2)that monosyllables with long stems +(#bearn#, #bn#) do not distinguish the N.A. plural from the N.A. +singular;[1] (3)that dissyllables in -e, whether the stem be long or +short (#rce#, #spere#), have -u in the N.A. plural; (4)that +dissyllables ending in a consonant and having the first syllable +short[2] (#werod#) do not usually distinguish the N.A. plural from the +N.A. singular; (5)that dissyllables ending in a consonant and having +the first syllable long (#tungol#) more frequently take -u in the N.A. +plural. + + NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in the masculine a-stems. See + 27,(4). + + [Footnote 1: Note the many nouns in Mn.E. that are unchanged in + the plural. These are either survivals of O.E. long stems, + _swine_, _sheep_, _deer_, _folk_, or analogical forms, _fish_, + _trout_, _mackerel_, _salmon_, etc.] + + [Footnote 2: Dissyllables whose first syllable is a prefix are, + of course, excluded. They follow the declension of their last + member: #gebed#, _prayer_, #gebedu#, _prayers_; #gefeoht#, + _battle_, #gefeoht#, _battles_.] + + +34. Present and Preterit Indicative of #habban#, _to have_: + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hbbe, _I have_, or _shall have_.[3] + 2. hfst (hafast), _thou hast_, or _wilt have_. + 3. h, ho, hit hf (hafa), + _he, she, it has_, or _will have_. + + _Plur._ 1. w habba, _we have_, or _shall have_. + 2. g habba, _ye have_, or _will have_. + 3. he habba, _they have_, or _will have_. + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hfde _I had_. + 2. hfdest, _thou hadst_. + 3. h, ho, hit hfde, _he, she, it had_. + + _Plur._ 1. w hfdon, _we had_. + 2. g hfdon, _ye had_. + 3. he hfdon, _they had_. + + NOTE.--The negative #ne#, _not_, which always precedes its verb, + contracts with all the forms of #habban#. The negative loses its + e, #habban# its h. #Ne# + #habban# = #nabban#; #Ic ne hbbe = Ic + nbbe#; #Ic ne hfde = Ic nfde#, etc. The negative forms may be + got, therefore, by simply substituting in each case n for h. + + [Footnote 3: See 17, Note 1. Note that (as in #hwl#, 27, + (2)) changes to a when the following syllable contains a: + #hbbe#, but #hafast#.] + + +35. VOCABULARY. + + t dl, _dale_. + t dor, _animal_ [deer[4]]. + t dor, _door_. + t ft, _vessel_ [vat]. + t fy:r, _fire_. + t gar, _year_. + t geoc, _yoke_. + t geset, _habitation_ [settlement]. + t hafod, _head_. + t hs, _house_. + t lc, _body_ [lich-gate]. + t lim, _limb_. + on (with dat.) _in_. + t spor, _track_. + t w:pen, _weapon_. + t wf, _wife, woman_. + t wte, _punishment_. + t word, _word_. + + [Footnote 4: The old meaning survives in Shakespeare's "Rats and + mice and such small deer," _King Lear_, III, iv, 144.] + + +36. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. H hafa s cyninges bearn. 2. Walas habba speru. 3. +wf habba ra secga w:pnu. 4. hfst one fugol ond t hs s +hierdes. 5.Hf[5] ho fatu[6]? 6.Hfde h s wfes lc on :m +hofe? 7.H nfde s wfes lc; h hfde s dores hafod. 8.Hf s +cyning gesetu on :m dle? 9.S bcere hf solas on :m hse. +10.G habba frodm. + +II. 1. They have yokes and spears. 2. We have not the vessels in the +house. 3.He had fire in the vessel. 4.Did the woman have (=Had the +woman) the children? 5.The animal has the body of the woman's child. +6. Ishall have the heads of the wolves. 7.He and she have the king's +houses. 8.Have not (=#Nabba#) the children the warrior's weapons? + + [Footnote 5: See 20, (2), (b).] + + [Footnote 6: See 27, (2).] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE -DECLENSION. + + +37. The -Declension, corresponding to the First or _-_Declension of +Latin and Greek, contains only feminine nouns. Many feminine i-stems and +u-stems soon passed over to this Declension. The -Declension may, +therefore, be considered the _normal declension_ for all strong feminine +nouns. + + +38. Paradigms of #so giefu#, _gift_; #so wund#, _wound_; #so rd#, +_cross_; #so leornung#, _learning_; #so swol#, _soul_: + + _Sing. N._ gief-u wund rd leornung swol + _G._ gief-e wund-e rd-e leornung-a (e) swl-e + _D.I._ gief-e wund-e rd-e leornung-a (e) swl-e + _A._ gief-e wund-e rd-e leornung-a (e) swl-e + + _Plur. N.A._ gief-a wund-a rd-a leornung-a swl-a + _G._ gief-a wund-a rd-a leornung-a swl-a + _D.I._ gief-um wund-um rd-um leornung-um swl-um + + +39. Note (1) that monosyllables with short stems (#giefu#) take u in the +nominative singular; (2)that monosyllables with long stems (#wund#, +#rd#) present the unchanged stem in the nominative singular; (3)that +dissyllables are declined as monosyllables, except that abstract nouns +in -ung prefer a to e in the singular. + + NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems. See + 27,(4). + + +40. Present and Preterit Indicative of #bon# (#wesan#) _tobe_: + + PRESENT (first form). PRESENT PRETERIT. + (second form). + + _Sing._ 1. Ic eom 1. Ic bom 1.Ic ws + 2. eart 2. bist 2. w:re + 3. h is 3. h bi 3. h ws + + _Plur._ 1. w } 1. w } 1.w } + 2. g } sind(on), sint 2. g } bo 2. g } w:ron + 3. he } 3. he } 3. he } + + NOTE 1.--The forms #bom#, #bist#, etc. are used chiefly as future + tenses in O.E.They survive to-day only in dialects and in poetry. + Farmer Dobson, for example, in Tennyson's _Promise of May_, uses + _be_ for all persons of the present indicative, both singular and + plural; and _there be_ is frequent in Shakespeare for _there are_. + The Northern dialect employed #aron# as well as #sindon# and + #sind# for the present plural; hence Mn.E. _are_. + + NOTE 2.--Fusion with #ne# gives #neom#, #neart#, #nis# for the + present; #ns#, #n:re#, #n:ron# for the preterit. + + NOTE 3.--The verb _to be_ is followed by the nominative case, as + in Mn.E.; but when the predicate noun is plural, and the subject a + neuter pronoun in the singular, the verb agrees in number with the + predicate noun. The neuter singular #t# is frequently employed + in this construction: #aet w:ron eall Finnas#, _They were all + Fins_; #t sind englas#, _They are angels_; #:t w:ron engla + gstas#, _They were angels' spirits_. + + Notice, too, that O.E. writers do not say _It is I_, _It is thou_, + but _I it am_, _Thou it art_: #Ic hit eom#, # hit eart#. See + 21, (1), Note1. + + +41. VOCABULARY. + + so brycg, _bridge_. + so costnung, _temptation_. + so cwalu, _death_ [quail, quell]. + so fr, _journey_ [faran]. + so frfor, _consolation, comfort_. + so geogu, _youth_. + so glf, _glove_. + so hlignes[1], _holiness_. + so heall, _hall_. + hr, _here_. + hw, _who_? + hw:r, _where_? + so lufu, _love_. + so mearc, _boundary_ [mark, marches[2]]. + so md, _meed, reward_. + so mildheortnes, _mild-heartedness, mercy_. + so stw, _place_ [stow away]. + :r, _there_. + so earf, _need_. + so wylf, _she wolf_. + + [Footnote 1: All words ending in -nes double the -s before + adding the case endings.] + + [Footnote 2: As in _warden of the marches_.] + + +42. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Hw:r is :re brycge ende? 2. Hr sind ra rca mearca. 3.Hw +hf glfa? 4.:r bi :m cyninge frfre earf. 5.So wund is on +:re wylfe hafde. 6.W habba costnunga. 7.He n:ron on :re +healle. 8.Ic hit neom. 9.t w:ron Walas. 10.t sind s wfes +bearn. + +II. 1. We shall have the women's gloves. 2. Where is the place? 3.He +will be in the hall. 4.Those (#t#) were not the boundaries of the +kingdom. 5.It was not I. 6.Ye are not the king's scribes. 7.The +shepherd's words are full (#full# + gen.) of wisdom and comfort. +8.Where are the bodies of the children? 9.The gifts are not here. +10.Who has the seals and the birds? + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +THE i-DECLENSION AND THE u-DECLENSION. + + +#The _i-_Declension.# (See 58.) + +43. The i-Declension, corresponding to the group of _i-_stems in the +classical Third Declension, contains chiefly (_a_) masculine and (_b_) +feminine nouns. The N.A. plural of these nouns ended originally in -e +(from older i). + + +(_a_) #Masculine _i-_Stems.# + +44. These stems have almost completely gone over to the a-Declension, so +that -as is more common than -e as the N.A. plural ending, whether the +stem is long or short. The short stems all have -e in the N.A. singular. + + +45. Paradigms of #s wyrm#, _worm_; #s wine#, _friend_. + + _Sing. N.A._ wyrm win-e + _G._ wyrm-es win-es + _D.I._ wyrm-e win-e + + _Plur. N.A._ wyrm-as win-as (e) + _G._ wyrm-a win-a + _D.I._ wyrm-um win-um + + +#Names of Peoples.# + +46. The only i-stems that regularly retain -e of the N.A. plural are +certain names of tribes or peoples used only in the plural. + + +47. Paradigms of # Engle#, _Angles_; # Norymbre#, _Northumbrians_; +# lode#, _people_: + + _Plur. N.A._ Engle Norymbre lode + _G._ Engla Norymbra loda + _D.I._ Englum Norymbrum lodum + + +(_b_) #Feminine _i-_Stems.# + +48. The short stems (#frem-u#) conform entirely to the declension of +short -stems; long stems (#cwn#, #wyrt#) differ from long -stems in +having no ending for the A. singular. They show, also, apreference for +-e rather than -a in the N.A. plural. + + +49. Paradigms of #so frem-u#, _benefit_; #so cwn#, _woman, queen_ +[quean]; #so wyrt#, _root_ [wort]: + + _Sing. N._ frem-u cwn wyrt + _G._ frem-e cwn-e wyrt-e + _D.I._ frem-e cwn-e wyrt-e + _A._ frem-e cwn wyrt + + _Plur. N.A._ frem-a cwn-e (a) wyrt-e (a) + _G._ frem-a cwn-a wyrt-a + _D.I._ frem-um cwn-um wyrt-um + + +#The _u-_Declension.# + +50. The u-Declension, corresponding to the group of u-stems in the +classical Third Declension, contains no neuters, and but few (_a_) +masculines and (_b_) feminines. The short-stemmed nouns of both genders +(#sun-u#, #dur-u#) retain the final u of the N.A. singular, while the +long stems (#feld#, #hond#) drop it. The influence of the masculine +a-stems is most clearly seen in the long-stemmed masculines of the +u-Declension (#feld#, #feld-es#, etc.). + + NOTE.--Note the general aversion of all O.E. long stems to final + -u: _cf._ N.A. plural #hof-u#, but #bearn#, #bn#; N. singular + #gief-u#, but #wund#, #rd#; N. singular #frem-u#, but #cwn#, + #wyrt#; N.A. singular #sun-u#, #dur-u#, but #feld#, #hond#. + + +(_a_) #Masculine _u-_Stems.# + +51. Paradigms of #s sun-u#, _son_; #s feld#, _field_: + + _Sing. N.A._ sun-u feld + _G._ sun-a feld-a (es) + _D.I._ sun-a feld-a (e) + + _Plur. N.A._ sun-a feld-a (as) + _G._ sun-a feld-a + _D.I._ sun-um feld-um + + +(b) #Feminine _u-_Stems.# + +52. Paradigms of #so dur-u#, _door_; #so hond#, _hand_: + + _Sing. N.A._ dur-u hond + _G._ dur-a hond-a + _D.I._ dur-a hond-a + + _Plur. N.A._ dur-a hond-a + _G._ dur-a hond-a + _D.I._ dur-um hond-um + + +53. Paradigm of the Third Personal Pronoun, #h#, #ho#, #hit# = _he_, +_she_, _it_: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ h ho hit + _G._ his hiere his + _D._ him hiere him + _A._ hine, hiene he hit + + _All Genders._ + _Plur. N.A._ he + _G._ hiera + _D._ him + + +54. VOCABULARY. + + (i-STEMS.) + + s cierr, _turn, time_ [char, chare, chore]. + so d:d, _deed_. + s d:l, _part_ [a great deal]. + Dene, _Danes_. + s frondscipe, _friendship_. + so hy:d, _skin, hide_. + londlode, _natives_. + Mierce, _Mercians_. + Rmware, _Romans_. + Seaxe, _Saxons_. + s stede, _place_ [in-stead of]. + + (u-STEMS.) + + so flr, _floor_. + so nosu, _nose_. + s sumor (_G._ sumeres, _D._ sumera), _summer_. + s winter (_G._ wintres, _D._ wintra), _winter_. + s wudu, _wood, forest_. + + NOTE.--The numerous masculine nouns ending in -hd,--#cildhd# + (_childhood_), #wfhd# (_womanhood_),--belong to the u-stems + historically; but they have all passed over to the a-Declension. + + +55. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Seaxe habba s dores hy:d on :m wuda. 2. Hw hf +giefa? 3. Mierce he[1] habba. 4.Hw:r is s Wales fugol? 5. +Dene hiene habba. 6.Hw:r sindon hiera winas? 7.He sindon on s +cyninges wuda. 8. Rmware ond Seaxe hfdon gras ond geocu. +9.Ho is on :m hse on wintra, ond on :m feldum on sumera. +10.Hw:r is s hofes duru? 11.Ho[2] (=so duru) nis hr. + +II. 1. His friends have the bones of the seals and the bodies of the +Danes. 2.Art thou the king's son? 3.Has she her[3] gifts in her[3] +hands? 4.Here are the fields of the natives. 5.Who had the bird? +6.Ihad it.[2] 7.The child had the worm in his[3] fingers. 8.The +Mercians were here during (the) summer (#on# + dat.). + + [Footnote 1: See 21, (1).] + + [Footnote 2: Pronouns agree in gender with the nouns for which + they stand. #Hit#, however, sometimes stands for inanimate + things of both masculine and feminine genders. See Wlfing + (_l.c._) I, 238.] + + [Footnote 3: See 76 (last sentence).] + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +PRESENT INDICATIVE ENDINGS OF STRONG VERBS. + + +56. The unchanged stem of the present indicative may always be found by +dropping -an of the infinitive: #feall-an#, _to fall_; #cos-an#, _to +choose_; #bd-an#, _to abide_. + + +57. The personal endings are: + + _Sing._ 1. -e _Plur._ 1. } + 2. -est 2. } -a + 3. -e 3. } + + +#_i-_Umlaut.# + +58. The 2d and 3d singular endings were originally not -est and -e, but +-is and -i; and the i of these older endings has left its traces upon +almost every page of Early West Saxon literature. This i, though +unaccented and soon displaced, exerted a powerful back influence upon +the vowel of the preceding accented syllable. This influence, aform of +regressive assimilation, is known as i-umlaut (pronounced _om-lowt_). +The vowel i or j (=_y_), being itself a palatal, succeeded in +palatalizing every guttural vowel that preceded it, and in imposing +still more of the i-quality upon diphthongs that were already +palatal.[1] The changes produced were these: + + a became e (): menn (< *mann-iz), _men_. + " : :nig (< *n-ig), _any_. + u " y wyllen (< *wull-in), _woollen_. + " y: my:s (< *ms-iz), _mice_. + o " e dehter (< *dohtr-i), _to_ or _for the daughter_. + " ft (< *ft-iz), _feet_. + ea " ie wiex (< *weax-i), _he grows_ (weaxan = _to grow_). + a " e hew (< *haw-i), _he hews_ (hawan = to _hew_). + eo " ie wiercan (< *weorc-jan), _to work_. + o " e lehtan (< *loht-jan), _to light_. + + [Footnote 1: The _palatal_ vowels and diphthongs were long or + short , e, i, (ie), y, ea, eo; the _guttural_ vowels were long + or short a, o, u.] + + +#The Unchanged Present Indicative.# + +59. In the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects, as well as in the dialect +of Late West Saxon, the 2d and 3d singular endings were usually joined +to the present stem without modification either of the stem itself or of +the personal endings. The complete absence of umlauted forms in the +present indicative of Mn.E. is thus accounted for. + +In Early West Saxon, however, such forms as the following are +comparatively rare in the 2d and 3d singular: + + _Sing._ 1. Ic feall-e cos-e bd-e + (_I fall_) (_I choose_) (_Iabide_) + 2. feall-est cos-est bd-est + 3. h feall-e cos-e bd-e + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } feall-a cos-a bd-a + 3. he } + + +#The Present Indicative with i-Umlaut and Contraction.# + +60. The 2d and 3d persons singular are distinguished from the other +forms of the present indicative in Early West Saxon by (1)i-umlaut of +the vowel of the stem, (2)syncope of the vowel of the ending, giving +-st and - for -est and -e, and (3)contraction of -st and - with the +final consonant or consonants of the stem. + + +#Contraction.# + +61. The changes produced by i-umlaut have been already discussed. By +these changes, therefore, the stems of the 2d and 3d singular indicative +of such verbs as (1)#stondan# (=#standan#), _to stand_, (2)#cuman#, +_to come_, (3)#grwan#, _to grow_, (4)#brcan#, _to enjoy_, +(5)#blwan#, _to blow_, (6)#feallan#, _to fall_, (7)#hawan#, _to +hew_, (8)#weorpan#, _to throw_, and (9)#cosan#, _to choose_, become +respectively (1)#stend-#,[2] (2)#cym-#, (3)#grw-#, (4)#bry:c-#, +(5)#bl:w-#, (6)#fiell-#, (7)#hew-#, (8)#wierp-#, and (9)#ces-#. + +If the unchanged stem contains the vowel e, this is changed in the 2d +and 3d singular to i (ie): #cwean# _to say_, stem #cwi-#; #beran# _to +bear_, stem #bier-#. But this mutation[3] had taken place long before +the period of O.E., and belongs to the Germanic languages in general. It +is best, however, to class the change of e to i or ie with the changes +due to umlaut, since it occurs consistently in the 2d and 3d singular +stems of Early West Saxon, and outlasted almost all of the umlaut forms +proper. + +If, now, the syncopated endings -st and - are added directly to the +umlauted stem, there will frequently result such a massing of consonants +as almost to defy pronunciation: #cwi-st#, _thou sayest_; #stend-st#, +_thou standest_, etc. Some sort of contraction, therefore, is demanded +for the sake of euphony. The ear and eye will, by a little practice, +become a sure guide in these contractions. The following rules, however, +must be observed. They apply only to the 2d and 3d singular of the +present indicative: + +(1) If the stem ends in a double consonant, one of the consonants is +dropped: + + 1. feall-e (_I fall_) 1. winn-e (_I fight_) 1. swimm-e (_Iswim_) + 2. fiel-st 2. win-st 2. swim-st + 3. fiel- 3. win- 3. swim- + +(2) If the stem ends in -, this is dropped: + + 1. cwe-e (_I say_) 1. weor-e (_I become_) + 2. cwi-st 2. wier-st + 3. cwi- 3. wier- + +(3) If the stem ends in -d, this is changed to -t. The - of the ending +is then also changed to -t, and usually absorbed. Thus the stem of the +2d singular serves as stem and ending for the 3d singular: + + 1. stond-e (= stand-e) (_I stand_) 1. bind-e (_I bind_) + 2. stent-st 2. bint-st + 3. stent 3. bint + + 1. bd-e (_I abide_) 1. rd-e (_I ride_) + 2. bt-st 2. rt-st + 3. bt (-t) 3. rt (-t) + +(4) If the stem ends already in -t, the endings are added as in (3), - +being again changed to -t and absorbed: + + 1. brot-e (_I break_) 1. feoht-e (_I fight_) 1. bt-e (_Ibite_) + 2. bret-st 2. fieht-st 2. bt-st + 3. bret (-t) 3. fieht 3. bt (-t) + +(5) If the stem ends in -s, this is dropped before -st (toavoid -sst), +but is retained before -, the latter being changed to -t. Thus the 2d +and 3d singulars are identical:[4] + + 1. cos-e (_I choose_) 1. rs-e (_I rise_) + 2. ce-st 2. r-st + 3. ces-t 3. rs-t + + [Footnote 2: The more common form for stems with a is rather + than e: #faran#, _to go_, 2d and 3d singular stem #fr-#; + #sacan#, _to contend_, stem #sc-#. Indeed, a changes to e _via_ + (Cosijn, _Altwestschsische Grammatik_, I, 32).] + + [Footnote 3: Umlaut is frequently called Mutation. Metaphony is + still another name for the same phenomenon. The term Metaphony + has the advantage of easy adjectival formation (metaphonic). It + was proposed by Professor Victor Henry (_Comparative Grammar of + English and German_, Paris, 1894), but has not been + naturalized.] + + [Footnote 4: This happens also when the infinitive stem ends + in #st#: + + 1. berst-e (_I burst_) + 2. bier-st + 3. bierst.] + + +62. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. S cyning fiel. 2. wf cosa giefa. 3. stentst on :m +hse. 4.H wierp t w:pen. 5.S secg hew lc. 6.t s:d +grw ond wiex (_Mark_ iv.27). 7.Ic stonde hr, ond stentst :r. +8. "Ic hit eom," cwi h. 9.He bera s wulfes bn. 10.H he bint, +ond ic hine binde. 11.Ne rtst? + +II. 1. We shall bind him. 2. Who chooses the child's gifts? 3. "He was +not here," says she. 4.Wilt thou remain in the hall? 5.The wolves are +biting (=bite) the fishermen. 6.He enjoys[5] the love of his children. +7.Do you enjoy (=Enjoyest thou) the consolation and friendship of the +scribe? 8.Will he come? 9. Ishall throw the spear, and thou wilt bear +the weapons. 10.The king's son will become king. 11.The army (#werod#) +is breaking the doors and walls of the house. + + [Footnote 5: #Brcan#, _to enjoy_, usually takes the genitive + case, not the accusative. It means "to have joy of any thing."] + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +THE CONSONANT DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS. + + +#The Weak or _n-_Declension.# + +63. The n-Declension contains almost all of the O.E. nouns belonging to +the Consonant Declensions. The stem characteristic n has been preserved +in the oblique cases, so that there is no difficulty in distinguishing +n-stems from the preceding vowel stems. + +The n-Declension includes (_a_) masculines, (_b_) feminines, and (_c_) +neuters. The masculines far outnumber the feminines, and the neuters +contain only #age#, _eye_ and #are#, _ear_. The masculines end in -a, +the feminines and neuters in -e. + + +64. Paradigms of (_a_) #s hunta#, _hunter_; (_b_) #so tunge#, +_tongue_; (_c_) #t age#, _eye_: + + _Sing. N._ hunt-a tung-e ag-e + _G.D.I._ hunt-an tung-an ag-an + _A._ hunt-an tung-an ag-e + + _Plur. N.A._ hunt-an tung-an ag-an + _G._ hunt-ena tung-ena ag-ena + _D.I._ hunt-um tung-um ag-um + + +65. VOCABULARY. + + s adesa, _hatchet, adze_. + s :metta, _leisure_ [empt-iness]. + s bona (bana), _murderer_ [bane]. + so cirice, _church_ [Scotch kirk]. + s cnapa (later, #cnafa#), _boy_ [knave]. + s cuma, _stranger_ [comer]. + t are, _ear_. + so eore, _earth_. + s gefra, _companion_ [co-farer]. + s guma, _man_ [bride-groom[1]]. + so heorte, _heart_. + s mna, _moon_. + so n:dre, _adder_ [a nadder > an adder[2]]. + s oxa, _ox_. + s scowyrhta, _shoe-maker_ [shoe-wright]. + so sunne, _sun_. + s tona, _injury_ [teen]. + biddan (with dat. of person and gen. of thing[3]), _to request, ask +for_. + cwelan, _to die_ [quail]. + gescieppan, _to create_ [shape, land-scape, friend-ship]. + giefan (with dat. of indirect object), _to give_. + healdan, _to hold_. + helpan (with dat.), _to help_. + scean[4] (with dat.), _to injure_ [scathe]. + wistondan (-standan) (with dat.), _to withstand_. + wrtan, _to write_. + + [Footnote 1: The _r_ is intrusive in _-groom_, as it is in + _cart-r-idge_, _part-r-idge_, _vag-r-ant_, and _hoa-r-se_.] + + [Footnote 2: The _n_ has been appropriated by the article. Cf. + _an apron_ (< _a napron_), _an auger_ (< _a nauger_), _an + orange_ (< _a norange_), _an umpire_ (< _a numpire_).] + + [Footnote 3: In Mn.E. we say "I request a favor of you"; but in + O.E. it was "Irequest you (dative) of a favor" (genitive). Cf. + _Cymbeline_, III, vi, 92: "We'll mannerly demand thee of thy + story." See Franz's _Shakespeare-Grammatik_, 361 (1900).] + + [Footnote 4: #Scean# is conjugated through the present + indicative like #fremman#. See 129.] + + +66. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. S scowyrhta bry:c his :mettan. 2. guman bidda :m cnapan +s adesan. 3.Hw is s cuma? 4.Hielpst :m bonan? 5.Ic him ne +helpe. 6. bearn scea s bonan agum ond arum. 7.S cuma cwiel +on :re cirican. 8.S hunta wistent :m wulfum. 9. oxan bera s +cnapan gefran. 10.S mna ond tunglu sind on :m heofonum. 11. +huntan healda :re n:dran tungan. 12.H hiere gief giefa. 13. +werod scea s cyninges feldum. + +II. 1. Who will bind the mouths of the oxen? 2. Who gives him the +gifts? 3.Thou art helping him, and I am injuring him. 4.The boy's +companion is dying. 5.His nephew does not enjoy his leisure. 6.The +adder's tongue injures the king's companion. 7.The sun is the day's +eye. 8.She asks the strangers for the spears. 9.The men's bodies are +not here. 10.Is he not (#Nish#) the child's murderer? 11.Who creates +the bodies and the souls of men? 12.Thou withstandest her. 13.He is +not writing. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + +#Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions.# + +67. The nouns belonging here are chiefly masculines and feminines. Their +stem ended in a consonant other than n. The most important of them may +be divided as follows: (1)The _foot_ Declension, (2)r-Stems, and +(3)nd-Stems. These declensions are all characterized by the prevalence, +wherever possible, of i-umlaut in certain cases, the case ending being +then dropped. + + +68. (1) The nouns belonging to the _foot_ Declension exhibit umlaut most +consistently in the N.A. plural. + + _Sing. N.A._ s ft s mon s t so c + _Sing. N.A._ (_foot_) (_man_) (_tooth_) (_cow_) + _Plur. N.A._ ft men t cy: + + NOTE.--The dative singular usually has the same form as the N.A. + plural. Here belong also #so bc# (_book_), #so burg# + (_borough_), #so gs# (_goose_), #so ls# (_louse_), and #so + ms# (_mouse_), all with umlauted plurals. Mn.E. preserves only + six of the _foot_ Declension plurals: _feet_, _men_, _teeth_, + _geese_, _lice_, and _mice_. The _c_ in the last two is an + artificial spelling, intended to preserve the sound of voiceless + _s_. Mn.E. _kine_ (= _cy-en_) is a double plural formed after the + analogy of weak stems; Burns in _The Twa Dogs_ uses _kye_. + + No umlaut is possible in #so niht# (_night_) and #s mna# + (_month_), plural #niht# and #mna# (preserved in Mn.E. + _twelvemonth_ and _fortnight_). + +(2) The r-Stems contain nouns expressing kinship, and exhibit umlaut of +the dative singular. + + _Sing. N.A._ s fder s bror so mdor + (_father_) (_brother_) (_mother_) + _D._ fder brer mder + + _Sing. N.A._ so dohtor (_daughter_) so swuster (_sister_) + _D._ dehter swyster + + NOTE.--The N.A. plural is usually the same as the N.A. singular. + These umlaut datives are all due to the presence of a former i. + Cf. Lat. dative singular _patri_, _frtri_, _mtri_, _sorori_ + (< _*sosori_), and Greek +thugatri+. + +(3) The nd-Stems show umlaut both in the N.A. plural and in the dative +singular: + + _Sing. N.A._ s frond (_friend_) s fond (_enemy_) + _D._ frend fend + + _Plur. N.A._ frend fend + + NOTE.--Mn.E. _friend_ and _fiend_ are interesting analogical + spellings. When s had been added by analogy to the O.E. plurals + #frend# and #fend#, thus giving the double plurals _friends_ and + _fiends_, a second singular was formed by dropping the s. Thus + _friend_ and _fiend_ displaced the old singulars _frend_ and + _fend_, both of which occur in the M.E. _Ormulum_, written about + the year 1200. + + +#Summary of O.E. Declensions.# + +69. A brief, working summary of the O.E. system of declensions may now +be made on the basis of gender. + +All O.E. nouns are (1)masculine, (2)feminine, or (3)neuter. + +(1) The masculines follow the declension of #m# ( 26), except those +ending in -a, which are declined like #hunta# (64): + + _Sing. N.A._ m _N._ hunta + _G._ mes _G.D.A._ huntan + _D.I._ me _I._ huntan + + _Plur. N.A._ mas huntan + _G._ ma huntena + _D.I._ mum huntum + +(2) The short-stemmed neuters follow the declension of #hof# (32); the +long-stemmed, that of #bearn# (32): + + _Sing. N.A._ hof bearn + _G._ hofes bearnes + _D.I._ hofe bearne + + _Plur. N.A._ hofu bearn + _G._ hofa bearna + _D.I._ hofum bearnum + +(3) The feminines follow the declensions of #giefu# and #wund# (38) +(the only difference being in the N. singular), except those ending in +-e, which follow the declension of #tunge# (64): + + _Sing. N._ giefu wund tunge + _G._ giefe wunde tungan + _D.I._ giefe wunde tungan + _A._ giefe wunde tungan + + _Plur. N.A._ giefa wunda tungan + _G._ giefa wunda tungena + _D.I._ giefum wundum tungum + + +70. VOCABULARY. + + ac, _but_. + btan (with dat.), _except, but, without_. + s Crst, _Christ_. + s eorl, _earl, alderman, warrior_. + t Englalond, _England_ [Angles' land]. + faran, _to go_ [fare]. + findan, _to find_. + s God, _God_. + htan, _to call, name_. + s hlford, _lord_ [#hlf-weard#]. + mid (with dat.), _with_. + on (with acc.), _on, against, into_. + t (with dat.), _to_. + uton (with infin.), _let us_. + + NOTE.--O.E. #mon# (#man#) is frequently used in an indefinite sense + for _one_, _people_, _they_. It thus takes the place of a passive + construction proper: #And man nam gebrotu e r belifon, twelf + cy:pan fulle#, _And there were taken up of fragments that remained + there twelve baskets full_; but more literally, _And one_ (or + _they_) _took the fragments_, etc.; #Ond Hstenes wf ond hs suna + twgen mon brhte t :m cyninge#, _And Hsten's wife and his two + sons were brought to the king_. + + +71. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Mn hine h:t lfred. 2. Uton faran on t scip. 3. God is cyninga +cyning ond hlforda hlford. 4.S eorl ne gief giefa his fend. 5.Ic +ns mid his frend. 6.So mdor fr mid hiere dehter on burg. +7.Fintst s bceres bc? 8.H bint ealle (all) dor btan :m +wulfum. 9. eart Crst, Godes sunu. 10. "Uton bindan s bonan ft," +cwih. + +II. 1. Christ is the son of God. 2. Let us call him Cdmon. 3. He throws +his spear against the door. 4.Thou art not the earl's brother. 5.He +will go with his father to England, but I shall remain (abide) here. +6.Gifts are not given to murderers. 7.Who will find the tracks of the +animals? 8.They ask their lord for his weapons (65, Note3). + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +PRONOUNS. + + +(1) #Personal Pronouns.# + +72. Paradigms of #ic#, _I_; ##, _thou_. For #h#, #ho#, #hit#, see +53. + + _Sing. N._ ic + _G._ mn n + _D._ m + _A._ m (mec) (ec) + + _Dual N._ wit (_we two_) git (_yetwo_) + _G._ uncer (_of us two_) incer (_ofyou two_) + _D._ unc (_to_ or _for us two_) inc (_to_ or _for you two_) + _A._ unc (_us two_) inc (_you two_) + + _Plur. N._ w g + _G._ ser (re) ower + _D._ s ow + _A._ s (sic) ow (owic) + + NOTE 1.--The dual number was soon absorbed by the plural. No relic + of it now remains. But when two and only two are referred to, the + dual is consistently used in O.E.An example occurs in the case of + the two blind men (_Matthew_ ix. 27-31): #Gemiltsa unc, Davdes + sunu!# _Pity us, (thou) Son of David!_ #Se inc fter incrum + gelafan#, _Be it unto you according to your faith._ + + NOTE 2.--Mn.E. _ye_ (< g), the nominative proper, is fast being + displaced by _you_ (< #ow#), the old objective. The distinction + is preserved in the King James's version of the Bible: _Ye in me, + and I in you_ (_John_ xiv.20); but not in Shakespeare and later + writers. + + +(2) #Demonstrative Pronouns.# + +73. Paradigm of #s#, #os#, #is#, _this_. For the Definite Article +as a demonstrative, meaning _that_, see 28, Note3. + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ s os is + _G._ isses isse isses + _D._ issum isse issum + _A._ isne s is + _I._ y:s ---- y:s + + _All Genders._ + _Plur. N.A._ s + _G._ issa + _D._ issum + + +(3) #The Interrogative Pronoun.# + +74. Paradigm of #hw#, #hwt#, _who_, _what?_ + + _Masculine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ hw hwt + _G._ hws hws + _D._ hw:m hw:m + _A._ hwone hwt + _I._ ---- hwy: + + NOTE 1.--The derivative interrogatives, #hwer# (< #*hw-er#), + _which of two?_ and #hwilc# (< #*hw-lc#), _which?_ are declined + as strong adjectives (79-82). + + NOTE 2.--The instrumental case of #hw# survives in Mn.E. _why_ = + _on what account_; the instrumental of the definite article is + seen in the adverbial _the: The sooner, the better = by how much + sooner, by so much better._ + + NOTE 3.--How were the Mn.E. relative pronouns, _who_ and _which_, + evolved from the O.E. interrogatives? The change began in early + West Saxon with #hwt# used in indirect questions (Wlfing, _l.c._ + 310,[beta]): #N ic wt eall hwt woldest#, _Now I know all + that thou desiredst_. The direct question was, #Hwt woldest ?# But + the presence of #eall# shows that in Alfred's mind #hwt# was, in + the indirect form, more relative than interrogative. + + +(4) #Relative Pronouns.# + +75. O.E. had no relative pronoun proper. It used instead (1)the +Indeclinable Particle #e#, _who_, _whom_, _which_, _that_, (2)the +Definite Article (28), (3)the Definite Article with the Indeclinable +Particle, (4)the Indeclinable Particle with a Personal Pronoun. + +The Definite Article agrees in gender and number with the antecedent. +The case depends upon the construction. _The bird which I have_ may, +therefore,be:-- + + (1) #S fugol e ic hbbe#; + (2) #S fugol one ic hbbe#; + (3) #S fugol one e# (= _the which_) #ic hbbe#; + (4) #S fugol e hine ic hbbe#. + + NOTE.--O.E. #e# agrees closely in construction with Mn.E. + relative _that_: (1)Both are indeclinable. (2)Both refer to + animate or inanimate objects. (3)Both may be used with phrasal + value: #y: ylcan dge e h hine t :m de beran wylla#, _On the + same day that_ (= _on which_) _they intend to bear him to the + funeral pile_. (4)Neither can be preceded by a preposition. + + +(5) #Possessive Pronouns.# + +76. The Possessive Pronouns are #mn#, _mine_; #n#, _thine_; #re#, +_our_; #ower#, _your_; [#sn#, _his_, _her_, _its_]; #uncer#, +_belonging to us two_; #incer#, _belonging to you two_. They are +declined as strong adjectives. The genitives of the Third Personal +Pronoun, #his#, _his_, #hiere#, _her_, #hiera#, _their_, are +indeclinable. + + +(6) #Indefinite Pronouns.# + +77. These are #:lc#, _each_, _every_; #n#, _a_, _an_, _one_; #:nig# +(< #n-ig#), _any_; #n:nig# (< #ne-:nig#), _none_; #er#, _other_; +#sum#, _one_, _a certain one_; #swilc#, _such_. They are declined as +strong adjectives. + + NOTE.--O.E. had three established methods of converting an + interrogative pronoun into an indefinite: (1)By prefixing #ge#, + (2) by prefixing #:g#, (3)by interposing the interrogative + between #sw ... sw#: (1)#gehw#, _each_; #gehwer#, _either_; + #gehwilc#, _each_; (2)#:ghw#, _each_; #:ghwer#, _each_; + #:ghwilc#, _each_; (3)#sw hw sw#, _whosoever_; #sw hwer + sw#, _whichsoever of two_; #sw hwilc sw#, _whosoever_. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +ADJECTIVES, STRONG AND WEAK. + + +78. The declension of adjectives conforms in general to the declension +of nouns, though a few pronominal inflections have influenced certain +cases. Adjectives belong either to (1)the Strong Declension or to +(2)the Weak Declension. The Weak Declension is employed when the +adjective is preceded by #s# or #s#, _the_, _that_, or _this_; +otherwise, the Strong Declension is employed: # gdan cyningas#, _the +good kings_; #s gda cyning#, _this good king_; but #gde cyningas#, +_good kings_. + + NOTE.--The Weak Declension is also frequently used when the + adjective is employed in direct address, or preceded by a + possessive pronoun: #Dryhten, lmihtiga God ... ic bidde for + nre miclan mildheortnesse#, _Lord, almighty God, Ipray thee, + for thy great mercy_. + + +(1) #Strong Declension of Adjectives.# + +(a) _Monosyllables._ + +79. The strong adjectives are chiefly monosyllabic with long stems: +#gd#, _good_; #eald#, _old_; #long#, _long_; #swift#, _swift_. They are +declined as follows. + + +80. Paradigm of #gd#, _good_: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + + _Sing. N._ gd gd gd + _G._ gdes gdre gdes + _D._ gdum gdre gdum + _A._ gdne gde gd + _I._ gde ---- gde + + _Plur. N.A._ gde gda gd + _G._ gdra gdra gdra + _D.I._ gdum gdum gdum + + +81. If the stem is short, -u is retained as in #giefu# (39, (1)) and +#hofu# (33, (1)). Thus #gld# (27, Note1), _glad_, and #til#, +_useful_, are inflected: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ { gld gladu gld + { til tilu til + + _Plur. N.A._ { glade glada gladu + { tile tila tilu + + +(b) _Polysyllables._ + +82. Polysyllables follow the declension of short monosyllables. The most +common terminations are #-en#, _-en_; #-fst#, _-fast_; #-full#, _-ful_; +#-las#, _-less_; #-lc#, _-ly_; #-ig#, _-y_: #h:-en# (#h:# = +_heath_), _heathen_; #stede-fst# (#stede# = _place_), _steadfast_; +#sorg-full# (#sorg# = _sorrow_), _sorrowful_; #cyst-las# (#cyst# = +_worth_), _worthless_; #eor-lc# (#eore# = _earth_), _earthly_; +#bld-ig# (#bld# = _blood_), _bloody_. The present and past +participles, when inflected and not as weak adjectives, may be classed +with the polysyllabic adjectives, their inflection being the same. + +Syncopation occurs as in a-stems ( 27, (4)). Thus #hlig#, _holy_, +#ble#, _blithe_, #berende#, _bearing_, #geboren#, _born_, are thus +inflected: + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ + _Sing. N._ { hlig hlgu hlig + { ble blu ble + { berende berendu berende + { geboren geborenu geboren + + _Plur. N.A._ { hlge hlga hlgu + { ble bla blu + { berende berenda berendu + { geborene geborena geborenu + + +(2) #Weak Declension of Adjectives.# + +83. The Weak Declension of adjectives, whether monosyllabic or +polysyllabic, does not differ from the Weak Declension of nouns, except +that -ena of the genitive plural is usually replaced by -ra of the +strong adjectives. + + + _Masculine._ _Feminine._ _Neuter._ +84. _Sing. N._ gda gde gde + _G._ gdan gdan gdan + _D.I._ gdan gdan gdan + _A._ gdan gdan gde + + _All Genders._ + _Plur. N.A._ gdan + _G._ gdra (gdena) + _D.I._ gdum + + +85. RULE OF SYNTAX. + +_Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case; but +participles, when used predicatively, may remain uninflected_ (139, +140). + + +86. VOCABULARY. + + dad, _dead_. + eall, _all_. + hl,[1] _whole, hale_. + heard, _hard_. + t hors, _horse_. + lof, _dear_ [as lief]. + ly:tel, _little_. + micel, _great, large_. + monig, _many_. + niman, _to take_ [nimble, numb]. + nwe, _new_. + rce, _rich, powerful_. + s, _true_ [sooth-sayer]. + stlwiere,[2] _serviceable_ [stalwart]. + swe, _very_. + s tn, _town, village_. + s egn, _servant, thane, warrior_. + t ing, _thing_. + s weg, _way_. + ws, _wise_. + wi (with acc.), _against_, in a hostile sense [with-stand]. + s ilca, _the same_ [of that ilk]. + + [Footnote 1: #Hlig#, _holy_, contains, of course, the same + root. "Ifind," says Carlyle, "that you could not get any better + definition of what 'holy' really is than 'healthy--completely + healthy.'"] + + [Footnote 2: This word has been much discussed. The older + etymologists explained it as meaning _worth stealing_. A more + improbable conjecture is that it means _worth a stall_ or + _place_. It is used of ships in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_. As + applied to men, Skeat thinks it meant _good_ or _worthy at + stealing_; but the etymology is still unsettled.] + + +87. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. s scipu ne sind swe swift, ac he sind swe stlwieru. +2.So gde cwn gief :lcum egne moniga giefa. 3.s wsa cyning +hf monige micele tnas on his rce. 4.N:nig mon is ws on eallum +ingum. 5.y: ilcan dge (98, (2)) mon fond (found) one egn e +mnes wines bc hfde. 6.Ealle secgas e swift hors habba rda +wi one bonan. 7.ne fend sind mne frend. 8.S micela stn one +e ic on mnum hondum hbbe is swe heard. 9.He scea :m ealdum +horsum. 10.Uton niman s tilan giefa ond he beran t rum lofum +bearnum. + +II. 1. These holy men are wise and good. 2. Are the little children very +dear to the servants (dat. without #t#)? 3.Gifts are not given (70, +Note1) to rich men. 4.All the horses that are in the king's fields are +swift. 5.These stones are very large and hard. 6.He takes the dead +man's spear and fights against the large army. 7.This new house has +many doors. 8.My ways are not your ways. 9.Whosoever chooses me, him I +also (#ac#) choose. 10.Every man has many friends that are not wise. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +NUMERALS. + + +88. Numerals are either (_a_) Cardinal, expressing pure number, _one_, +_two_, _three_; or (_b_) Ordinal, expressing rank or succession, +_first_, _second_, _third_. + + +(_a_) #Cardinals.# + +89. The Cardinals fall into the three following syntactic groups: + + GROUP I. + + 1. n + 2. twgen [twain] + 3. re + +These numerals are inflected adjectives. #n#, _one_, _an_, _a_, being a +long stemmed monosyllable, is declined like #gd# (80). The weak form, +#na#, means _alone_. + +#Twgen# and #re#, which have no singular, are thus declined: + + _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._ _Masc._ _Fem._ _Neut._ + _Plur. N.A._ twgen tw tw (t) re ro ro + _G._ twgra twgra twgra rora rora rora + _D._ { tw:m tw:m tw:m rm rm rm + { (twm) (twm) (twm) + + +90. GROUP II. + + 4. fower + 5. ff + 6. siex + 7. seofon + 8. eahta + 9. nigon + 10. ten + 11. endlefan + 12. twelf + 13. rotene + 14. fowertene + 15. fftene + 16. siextene + 17. seofontene + 18. eahtatene + 19. nigontene + +These words are used chiefly as uninflected adjectives: #on gewitscipe +rora oe fower bisceopa#, _on testimony of three or four bishops_; +#on siex dagum#, _in six days_; #n n:dre e hfde nigon hafdu#, _a +serpent which had nine heads_; #eling eahtatene wintra#, _a prince of +eighteen winters_. + + +91. GROUP III. + + 20. twntig + 21. n ond twntig + 30. rtig + 40. fowertig + 50. fftig + 60. siextig + 70. hundseofontig + 80. hundeahtatig + 90. hundnigontig + 100. hund + 200. tw hund + 1000. send + 2000. tw send + +All these numbers are employed as neuter singular nouns, and are +followed by the genitive plural: #Nfde h ah m onne twntig +hry:era, and twntig scapa, and twntig swy:na#, _He did not have, +however, more than twenty (of) cattle, and twenty (of) sheep, and twenty +(of) swine_; #He hfdon hundeahtatig scipa#, _They had eighty ships_; +#tw hund mla brd#, _two hundred miles broad_; #:r w:ron seofon +hund gfanena genumen#, _there were seven hundred standards captured_; +#n send monna#, _a thousand men_; #Hannibales folces ws tw send +ofslagen#, _Of Hannibal's men there were two thousand slain_; #He +curon endlefan send monna#, _They chose eleven thousand men_. + + NOTE 1.--Group III is rarely inflected. Almost the only + inflectional endings that are added are (1)-es, a genitive + singular termination for the numerals in #-tig#, and (2)-e, a + dative singular for #hund#. (1)The first is confined to + adjectives expressing extent of space or time, as, #eald#, _old_; + #brd#, _broad_; #hah#, _high_; and #long#, _long_: #t is + rtiges mla long#, _that is thirty miles long_; #H ws rtiges + gara eald#, _He was thirty years old_. (2)The second is employed + after #mid#: #mid tw:m hunde scipa#, _with two hundred ships_; + #mid rm hunde monna#, _with three hundred men_; #:r wear ... + Regulus gefangen mid V hunde monna#, _There was Regulus captured + with five hundred men_. + + The statement made in nearly all the grammars that #hunde# occurs + as a nominative and accusative plural is without foundation. + + NOTE 2.--Many numerals, otherwise indeclinable, are used in the + genitive plural with the indefinite pronoun #sum#, which then + means _one of_ a certain number. In this peculiar construction, + the numeral always precedes #sum#: #fowera sum#, _one of four_ (= + _with three others_); #H s:de t h syxa sum ofslge syxtig#, + _He said that he, with five others, slew sixty_ (_whales_); #H + ws fowertigra sum#, _He was one of forty_. + + NOTE 3.--These are the most common constructions with the + Cardinals. The forms in #-tig# have only recently been + investigated. Astudy of Wlfing's citations shows that Alfred + occasionally uses the forms in #-tig# (1)as adjectives with + plural inflections: #mid XXXgum cyningum#, _with thirty kings_; + and (2) as nouns with plural inflections: #fter siextigum daga#, + _after sixty days_. But both constructions are rare. + + +(b) #Ordinals.# + +92. The Ordinals, except the first two, are formed from the Cardinals. +They are: + + 1. forma, :resta, fyrsta + 2. er, fterra + 3. ridda + 4. fora + 5. ffta + 6. siexta + 7. seofoa + 8. eahtoa + 9. nigoa + 10. toa + 11. endlefta + 12. twelfta + 13. rotoa + 14. fowertoa + 15. fftoa + etc. + 20. twntigoa + 21. n ond twntigoa + 30. rtigoa + etc. + + NOTE.--There are no Ordinals corresponding to #hund# and #send#. + +With the exception of #er# ( 77), all the Ordinals are declined as +Weak Adjectives; the article, however, as in Mn.E., is frequently +omitted: #Brtus ws s forma consul#, _Brutus was the first consul_; +#Hr enda so :reste bc, ond onginne so er#, _Here the first book +ends, and the second begins_; #y: fftan dge#, _on the fifth day_; #on +:m toan gare hiera gewinnes#, _in the tenth year of their strife_; +#Ho ws twelfte#, _She was twelfth_; #S ws fora from Agusto#, _He +was fourth from Augustus_. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS. + + +#Adverbs.# + +93. (1) Adverbs are formed by adding -e or #-lce# to the corresponding +adjectives: #s#, _true_; #se# or #slce#, _truly_; #earmlc#, +_wretched_; #earmlce#, _wretchedly_; #wd#, _wide_; #wde#, _widely_; +#micel#, _great_; #micle# (#micele#), _greatly, much_. + +(2) The terminations -e and #-lce# are replaced in some adverbs +by #-(l)unga# or #-(l)inga#: #eallunga#, _entirely_; #f:ringa#, +_suddenly_; #grundlunga#, _from the ground, completely_. + + NOTE 1.--In Mn.E. _headlong_, _darkling_, and _groveling_, + originally adverbs, we have survivals of these endings. + +(3) The genitive case is frequently used adverbially: #seweardes#, +_southwards_; #ealles#, _altogether, entirely_; #dges#, _by day_; +#nihtes#, _by night_; #s#, _from that time, afterwards_. _Cf._ #hys# +(=#his#) #weges# in #onne rde :lc hys weges#, _Then rides each his +way_. + + NOTE 2.--The adverbial genitive is abundantly preserved in Mn.E. + _Always_, _crossways_, _sideways_, _needs_ (= _necessarily_), + _sometimes_, etc., are not plurals, but old genitive singulars. + The same construction is seen in _of course_, _of a truth_, _of an + evening_, _of old_, _of late_, and similar phrases. + +(4) Dative and instrumental plurals may be used as adverbs: #hwlum#, +_at times, sometimes_ [whilom]; #stundum# (#stund# = _period_), _from +time to time_; #miclum#, _greatly_. Especially common is the suffix +#-m:lum# (#m:l# = _time_, #measure# [meal]), preserved adverbially in +Mn.E. _piecemeal_: #dropm:lum#, _drop by drop_; #styccem:lum# +(#stycce# = _piece_), _piecemeal, here and there_. + +(5) The suffix -an usually denotes motion from: + + hr, _here_. hider, _hither_. heonan, _hence_. + :r, _there_. ider, _thither_. onan, _thence_. + hw:r, _where?_ hwider, _whither?_ hwonan, _whence?_ + noran, _from the north_. + astan, _from the east_. + hindan, _from behind_. + feorran, _from far_. + tan, _from without_. + +(6) The adverb #rihte# (#riht# = _right, straight_) denotes _motion +toward_ in #norrihte#, _northward, due north_; #astrihte#, _due east_; +#srihte#, _due south_; #westrihte#, _due west_. + + +#Prepositions.# + +94. The nominative is the only case in O.E. that is never governed by a +preposition. Of the other cases, the dative and accusative occur most +frequently with prepositions. + +(1) The prepositions that are most frequently found with the dative are: + + fter, _after_. + :t, _at_. + be (b), _by, near, about_. + betwonan (betuh), _between_. + btan (bton), _except_. + for, _for_. + from (fram), _from, by_. + mid, _with_. + of, _of, from_. + t, _to_. + tforan, _before_. + tweard, _toward_. + +(2) The following prepositions require the accusative: + + geond, _throughout_ [be-yond]. + ofer, _over, upon_. + o, _until, up to_. + urh, _through_. + ymbe, _about, around_ [um-while, ember-days]. + +(3) The preposition #on# (rarely #in#), meaning _into_, is usually +followed by the accusative; but meaning _in_, _on_, or _during_, it +takes the dative or instrumental. The preposition #wi#, meaning +_toward_, may be followed by the genitive, dative, or accusative; but +meaning _against_, and implying _motion_ or _hostility_, the accusative +is more common. + +(4) The following phrases are used prepositionally with the dative: + + be noran, _north of_. + be astan, _east of_. + be san, _south of._ + be westan, _west of_. + t acan, _in addition to_. + on emnlange (efn-lang = _evenly long_), _along_. + t emnes, _along_. + +(5) Prepositions regularly precede the noun or pronoun that they +introduce; but by their adverbial nature they are sometimes drawn in +front of the verb: #And him ws mycel menegu t gegaderod#, _And there +was gathered unto him a great multitude_. In relative clauses introduced +by #e#, the preceding position is very common: #so scr ... e h on +bde#, _the district, ... which he dwelt in_ (=_which he in-habited_); +#H ws swy:e spdig man on :m :htum e hiera spda on bo#, _He +was a very rich man in those possessions which their riches consist in_; +#ny:hst :m tne e s dada man on l#, _nearest the town that the +dead man liesin_. + + +#Conjunctions.# + +95. (1) The most frequently occurring conjunctions are: + + #ac, _but_. + :r, _before, ere_. + btan (bton), _except that, unless_. + ac, _also_ [eke]. + for :m, } + for :m e, } _because_. + for on, } + for on e, } + for y:, _therefore_. + gif, _if_. + hwer, _whether_. + ond (and), _and_. + oe, _or_. + t, _that, so that_. + ah, _though, however_. + +(2) The correlative conjunctions are: + + :ger ge ... ge, _both ...... and_. + :ger ...... er } _either .... or_. + oe ....... oe } + n ......... n, _neither ... nor_. + sam ........ sam, _whether ... or_. + sw ........ sw { _the ....... the_. + { _as ........ as_. + ......... } _when ...... then_. + onne ...... onne } + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. + + +#Adjectives#. + +96. (1) Adjectives are regularly compared by adding -ra for the +comparative, and -ost (rarely -est) for the superlative: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + earm, _poor_ earmra earmost + rce, _rich_ rcra rcost + sml, _narrow_ smlra smalost + brd, _broad_ brdra (br:dra) brdost + swift, _swift_ swiftra swiftost + +(2) Forms with i-umlaut usually have superlative in -est: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + eald, _old_ ieldra ieldest + long, _long_ lengra lengest + strong, _strong_ strengra strengest + geong, _young_ giengra giengest + hah, _high_ herra hehst + +(3) The following adjectives are compared irregularly: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + gd, _good_ betra betst + ly:tel, _little, small_ l:ssa l:st + micel, _great, much_ mra m:st + yfel, _bad_ wiersa wierst + +(4) The positive is sometimes supplied by an adverb: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + feor, _far_ fierra fierrest + nah, _near_ narra nehst + :r, _before_ :rra, _former_ :rest, _first_ + +(5) The comparatives all follow the Weak Declension. The superlatives, +when preceded by the definite article, are weak; but when used +predicatively they are frequently strong: #s l:sta d:l#, _the least +part_; #onne cyme s man s t swiftoste hors hafa t :m :restan +d:le and t :m m:stan#, _Then comes the man that has the swiftest +horse to the first part and to the largest_. But, #t by:ne land is +asteweard brdost# (not #brdoste#), _the cultivated land is broadest +eastward_; #and# (#hit#) #bi ealra wyrta m:st#, _and it is largest of +all herbs_; #Ac hyra# (=#hiera#) #r is m:st on :m gafole e +Finnas him gylda#, _But their income is greatest in the tribute that +the Fins pay them_. + +(6) The comparative is usually followed by #onne# and the nominative +case: #S hwl bi micle l:ssa onne re hwalas#, _That whale is much +smaller than other whales_; # wunda s mdes bo dgelran onne +wunda s lchaman#. _The wounds of the mind are more secret than the +wounds of the body_. + +But when #onne# is omitted, the comparative is followed by the dative: +#re lesend, e mra is ond m:rra eallum gesceaftum#, _Our Redeemer, +who is greater and more glorious than all created things_; #n ongeat h +n hiene selfne betran rum gdum monnum#, _nor did he consider himself +better than other good men_. + + +#Adverbs.# + +97. (1) Adverbs are regularly compared by adding -or for the comparative +and -ost (rarely -est) for the superlative: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + georne, _willingly_ geornor geornost + swe, _very, swor, _more_ swost, _most, chiefly_ + severely_ + :r, _before_ :ror, _formerly_ :rest, _first_ + nor, _northwards_ noror normest[1] + +(2) The comparatives of a few adverbs may be found by dropping -ra of +the corresponding adjective form: + + _Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._ + longe, _long_ leng lengest + micle, _much_ m m:st + wel, _well_ bet betst + + [Footnote 1: This is really a double superlative, m being itself + an old superlative suffix. _Cf._ Latin _opti-m-us_. In Mn.E. + _northmost_ and _hindmost_, _-m-est_ has been confused with + _-most_, with which etymologically it has nothing todo.] + + +#Expressions of Time.# + +98. (1) Duration of time and extent of space are usually expressed by +the accusative case: #Ealle hwle e t lc bi inne#, _All the time +that the body is within_; #twgen dagas#, _for two days_; #ealne weg#, +_all the way, always_. + +(2) Time when is more often expressed by the instrumental case when no +preposition is used: #y: ilcan dge#, _the same day_; #:lce gare#, +_each year_; #y: gare#, _that year_; #:lce dge#, _each day_. + +(3) Time or space within which is expressed by #on# and the dative: #on +sumera#, _in summer_; #on wintra#, _in winter_; #on ff dagum#, _in five +days_; #on ff mlum#, _in five miles_; #on issum gare#, _in this +year_; #on :m tman#, _in those times_. Sometimes by the genitive +without a preceding preposition: #:s gares#, _in that year_. + + +99. VOCABULARY. + + t gefylce [folc], _troop, division_. + t lond (land), _land_. + so ml, _mile_. + er ... er, _the one ... the other_; _the former ... the latter_. + s sige, _victory_. + sige[2] habban, _to win (the) victory_. + sprecan, _to speak_. + t swn (swy:n), _swine, hog_. + wste, _waste_. + + [Footnote 2: #Sige# usually, but not invariably, precedes + #habban#.] + + +100. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. H hf ro swe swift hors. 2. Ic hbbe nigontene scap ond m +onne twntig swna. 3.So gde cwn cest tw hund monna. 4.Uton +feohtan wi Dene mid rm hunde scipa. 5.Ond he w:ron on tw:m +gefylcum: on rum ws[3] Bchsecg ond Halfdene h:nan cyningas, ond +on rum w:ron eorlas. 6. spricst slce. 7.onne rt :lc mon +his weges. 8.fter monigum dagum, hfde lfred cyning[4] sige. 9.is +lond is wste styccem:lum. 10.s feld is fftiges mla brd. +11.lfred cyning hfde monige frend, for :m e h ws :ger ge ws +ge gd. 12. hwalas, e ymbe spricst, sind micle l:ssan rum +hwalum. 13.Ho is ieldre onne hiere swuster, ac mn bror is ieldra +onne ho. 14.W cuma t :m tne :lce gare. 15. men e +swiftostan hors h:fdon w:ron mid :m Denum fower dagas. + +II. 1. Our army (#werod#) was in two divisions: one was large, the other +was small. 2.The richest men in the kingdom have more (#m#) than +thirty ships. 3.He was much wiser than his brother. 4.He fights +against the Northumbrians with two ships. 5.After three years King +Alfred gained the victory. 6.Whosoever chooses these gifts, chooses +well. 7.This man's son is both wiser and better than his father. +8.When the king rides, then ride his thanes also. 9.The richest men +are not always () the wisest men. + + [Footnote 3: See p.100, note on #gefeaht#.] [[Linenote 100.8]] + + [Footnote 4: The proper noun comes first in appositive + expressions: #lfred cyning#, #Sidroc eorl#, #Hahmund + bisceop#.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +STRONG VERBS: CLASS I. (See 17.) + + +#Syntax of Moods.# + +101. Of the three hundred simple verbs belonging to the O.E.Strong +Conjugation, it is estimated[1] that seventy-eight have preserved their +strong inflections in Mn.E., that eighty-eight have become weak, and +that the remaining one hundred and thirty-four have entirely +disappeared, their places being taken in most cases by verbs of Latin +origin introduced through the Norman-French. + + NOTE.--Only the simple or primitive verbs, not the compound forms, + are here taken into consideration. The proportionate loss, + therefore, is really much greater. O.E. abounded in formative + prefixes. "Thus from the Anglo-Saxon #flwan#, _to flow_, ten new + compounds were formed by the addition of various prefixes, of + which ten, only one, #oferflwan#, _to overflow_, survives with + us. In a similar manner, from the verb #sittan#, _to sit_, + thirteen new verbs were formed, of which not a single one is to be + found to-day." Lounsbury, _ib._ Part I, p.107. + + [Footnote 1: Lounsbury, _English Language_, Part II, 241.] + + +102. #Class I: The "Drive" Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: , , i, i. + + INFINITIVE. PRETERIT SING. PRETERIT PLUR. PAST PART. + + Drf-an drf drif-on gedrif-en, _to drive_. + + #Indicative.# #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic drf-e _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. drf-st (drf-est) 2. } drf-e + 3. h drf- (drf-e) 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } (drf-a) 2. g } drf-en + 3. he } 3. he } + + PRETERIT. PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic drf _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. drif-e 2. } drif-e + 3. h drf 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } drif-on 2. g } drif-en + 3. he } 3. he } + + #Imperative.# #Infinitive.# #Present Participle.# + + _Sing._ 2. drf drf-an drf-ende + _Plur._ 1. drf-an + 2. drf-a + + #Gerund.# #Past Participle.# + + t drf-anne (-enne) gedrif-en + + +#Tense Formation of Strong Verbs.# + +103. (1) It will be seen from the conjugation of #drfan# that the +_present stem_ in all strong verbs is used throughout the present +indicative, the present subjunctive, the imperative, the infinitive, the +gerund, and the present participle. More than half of the endings, +therefore, of the Strong Conjugation are added directly to the present +stem. + +(2) That the _preterit singular stem_ is used in only two forms of the +verb, the 1st and 3d persons singular of the preterit indicative: #Ic +drf#, #h drf#. + +(3) That the _preterit plural stem_ is used in the preterit plural +indicative, in the second person of the preterit singular indicative, +and in the singular and plural of the preterit subjunctive. + +(4) That the _stem of the past participle_ (#gedrif-#) is used for no +other form. + + +#Syntax of the Verb.# + +104. The Indicative Mood[2] represents the predicate _as a reality_. It +is used both in independent and in dependent clauses, its function in +O.E. corresponding with its function in Mn.E. + + [Footnote 2: Usage sanctions _mood_, but the better spelling + would be _mode_. It is from the Lat. _modus_, whereas _mood_ (= + _temper_) is O.E. _md_.] + + +105. The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicate _as an idea_.[3] It +is of far more frequent occurrence in O.E. than in Mn.E. + +1. When used in independent clauses it denotes desire, command, or +entreaty, and usually precedes its subject: #Se n nama gehlgod#, +_Hallowed be Thy name_; #Ne swerigen g#, _Do not swear_. + +2. In dependent clauses it denotes uncertainty, possibility, or mere +futurity.[4] (_a_) Concessive clauses (introduced by #ah#, _though_) +and (_b_) temporal clauses (introduced by #:r#, #:r :m e#, +_before_) are rarely found with any other mood than the subjunctive. The +subjunctive is also regularly used in Alfredian prose (_c_) after verbs +of saying, even when no suggestion of doubt or discredit attaches to the +narration.[5] "Whether the statement refer to a fact or not, whether the +subject-matter be vouched for by the reporter, as regards its objective +reality and truth, the subjunctive does not tell. It simply represents a +statement as reported"[6]: #ah man sette twgen f:tels full eala +oe wteres#, _though one set two vessels full of ale or water_; #:r +:m e hit eall forhergod w:re#, _before it was all ravaged_; #H +s:de t Normanna land w:re swy:e lang and swy:e sml#, _He said +that the Norwegians' land was very long and very narrow_. + + [Footnote 3: Gildersleeve's _Latin Grammar_, 255.] + + [Footnote 4: Thus when Alfred writes that an event took place + _before_ the founding of Rome, he uses the subjunctive: #:r :m + e Rmeburh getimbrod w:re# = _before Rome were founded_; but, + #fter :m e Rmeburh getimbrod ws# = _after Rome was + founded_.] + + [Footnote 5: "By the time of lfric, however, the levelling + influence of the indicative [after verbs of saying] has made + considerable progress."--Gorrell, _Indirect Discourse in + Anglo-Saxon_ (Dissertation, 1895), p.101.] + + [Footnote 6: Hotz, _On the Use of the Subjunctive Mood in + Anglo-Saxon_ (Zrich, 1882).] + + +106. The Imperative is the mood of command or intercession: #Ihannes, +cum t m#, _John, come to me_; #And forgyf s re gyltas#, _And forgive +us our trespasses_; #Ne drf s fram #, _Do not drive us from thee_. + + +107. (1) The Infinitive and Participles are used chiefly in verb-phrases +(138-141); but apart from this function, the Infinitive, being a +neuter noun, may serve as the subject or direct object of a verb. +#Htan# (_tocommand, bid_), #l:tan# (_tolet, permit_), and onginnan +(_tobegin_) are regularly followed by the Infinitive: #Hine rdan +lyste#, _To ride pleased him_; #Ht b:re settan#, _He bade set down +the bier_;[7] #L:ta ly:tlingas t m cuman#, _Let the little ones +come to me_; # ongann h sprecan#, _then began he to speak_. + +(2) The Participles may be used independently in the dative absolute +construction (animitation of the Latin ablative absolute), usually for +the expression of time:[8] #Him gy:t sprecendum#, _While he was yet +speaking_; #gefylledum dagum#, _the days having been fulfilled_. + + [Footnote 7: Not, _He commanded the bier to be set down._ The + Mn.E. passive in such sentences is a loss both in force and + directness.] + + [Footnote 8: Callaway, _The Absolute Participle in Anglo-Saxon_ + (Dissertation, 1889), p.19.] + + +108. The Gerund, or Gerundial Infinitive, is used: + +(1) To express purpose: #t ode s swere his s:d t swenne#, _Out +went the sower his seed to sow_. + +(2) To expand or determine the meaning of a noun or adjective: #Sy:mn, +ic hbbe t secgenne sum ing#, _Simon, Ihave something to say to +thee_; #Hit is scondlc ymb swelc t sprecanne#, _It is shameful to +speak about such things_. + +(3) After #bon# (#wesan#) to denote duty or necessity: #Hwt is n m +ymbe is t sprecanne#, _What more is there now to say about this_? +#onne is t geencenne hwaet Crst self cw#, _then it behooves to +bethink what Christ himself said_. + + NOTE.--The Gerund is simply the dative case of the Infinitive + after #t#. It began very early to supplant the simple Infinitive; + hence the use of _to_ with the Infinitive in Mn.E.As late as the + Elizabethan age the Gerund sometimes replaced the Infinitive even + after the auxiliary verbs: + + "Some pagan shore, + Where these two Christian armies _might combine_ + The blood of malice in a vein of league, + And not _to spend_ it so unneighbourly." + _--King John_, V, ii, 39. + + When _to_ lost the meaning of purpose and came to be considered as + a merely formal prefix, _for_ was used to supplement the purpose + element: _What went ye out for to see_?[9] + + [Footnote 9: This is not the place to discuss the Gerund in + Mn.E., the so-called "infinitive in _-ing_." The whole subject + has been befogged for the lack of an accepted nomenclature, one + that shall do violence neither to grammar nor to history.] + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +STRONG VERBS: CLASSES II AND III. + + +109. #Class II: The "Choose" Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: o, a, u, o. + + INFINITIVE.[1] PRET. SING. PRET. PLUR.[2] PAST PART.[2] + + cos-an, cas, cur-on gecor-en, _to choose_. + + #Indicative.# #Subjunctive#. + + PRESENT. PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic cos-e _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. cest (cos-est) 2. } cos-e + 3. h cest (cos-e) 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } cos-a 2. g } cos-en + 3. he } 3. he } + + PRETERIT. PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic cas _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. cur-e 2. } cur-e + 3. h cas 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } cur-on 2. g } cur-en + 3. he } 3. he } + + #Imperative.# #Infinitive.# #Present Participle.# + + _Sing._ 2. cos cos-an cos-ende + _Plur._ 1. cos-an + 2. cos-a + + #Gerund.# #Past Participle.# + + t cos-anne (-enne) gecor-en + + [Footnote 1: A few verbs of Class II have instead of o in the + infinitive: + + brcan, brac, brucon, gebrocen, _to enjoy_ [brook]. + bgan, bag, bugon, gebogen, _to bend, bow_.] + + [Footnote 2: By a law known as Grammatical Change, final , s, + and h of strong verbs generally become d, r, and g, + respectively, in the preterit plural and past participle.] + + +110. #Class III: The "Bind" Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: {i,e}, a, u, {u,o}. + +The present stem ends in m, n, l, r, or h, + one or more consonants: + + m: belimp-an, { belomp }, belump-on, belump-en, _to belong_. + { belamp } + + n: bind-an, { bond }, bund-on, gebund-en, _to bind_. + { band } + + l: help-an, healp, hulp-on, geholp-en, _to help_. + + r: weor-an, wear, wurd-on, geword-en, _to become_. + + h: gefeoht-an, gefeaht, gefuht-on, gefoht-en, _to fight_. + + NOTE 1.--If the present stem ends in a nasal (m, n) + a consonant, + the past participle retains the u of the pret. plur.; but if the + present stem ends in a liquid (l, r) or h, + a consonant, the past + participle has o instead of u. + + NOTE 2.--Why do we not find #*halp#, #*war#, and #*faht# in the + pret. sing.? Because a before l, r, or h, + a consonant, underwent + "breaking" to ea. Breaking also changes every e followed by r or + h, + a consonant, to eo: #weoran# (< #*weran#), feohtan + (< #*fehtan#). + + +111. #Indicative.# #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic bind-e _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. bintst (bind-est) 2. } bind-e + 3. h bint (bind-e) 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } bind-a 2. g } bind-en + 3. he } 3. he } + + PRETERIT. PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic bond _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. bund-e 2. } bund-e + 3. h bond 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } bund-on 2. g } bund-en + 3. he } 3. he } + + #Imperative.# #Infinitive.# #Present Participle.# + + _Sing._ 2. bind bind-an bind-ende + _Plur._ 1. bind-an + 2. bind-a + + #Gerund.# #Past Participle.# + + t bind-anne (-enne) gebund-en + + +112. VOCABULARY. + + t gefeoht, _fight, battle_. + so gerecednes, _narration_ [#reccan#]. + t gesceap, _creation_ [#scieppan#]. + so hergung ( 39, (3)), _harrying, plundering_ [#hergian#]. + s medu (medo) ( 51), _mead_. + so meolc, _milk_. + s middangeard, _world_ [middle-yard]. + s munuc, _monk_ [monachus]. + so my:re, mare [#mearh#]. + h s:de, _he said_. + he s:don, _they said_. + so spd, _riches_ [speed]. + spdig, _rich, prosperous_ [speedy]. + so td, _time_ [tide]. + unspdig, _poor_. + s westanwind, _west-wind_. + t wn, _wine_. + + rsan, rs, rison, risen, _to arise_. + bdan, bd, bidon, gebiden, _to remain, expect_ + (with gen.) + drogan,[3] drag, drugon, gedrogen, _to endure, suffer_. + drincan, dronc, druncon, gedruncen, _to drink_. + findan, fond, fundon, gefunden, _to find_. + geswcan geswc, geswicon, geswicen, _to cease, cease from_ + (with gen.) + iernan (yrnan), orn, urnon, geurnen, _to run_. + onginnan, ongonn, ongunnon, ongunnen, _to begin_. + rdan, rd, ridon, geriden, _to ride_. + singan, song, sungon, gesungen, _to sing_. + wrtan, wrt, writon, gewriten, _to write_. + + [Footnote 3: _Cf._ the Scotch "to _dree_ one's weird" = _to + endure one's fate_.] + + +113. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. fter issum wordum, s munuc wrt ealle gerecednesse on nre +bc. 2. eorlas ridon p :r :m e Dene s gefeohtes geswicen. +3.Cdmon song :rest be middangeardes gesceape. 4.S cyning ond +rcostan men drinca my:ran meolc, ond unspdigan drinca medu. +5.Ond h rs ond s wind geswc. 6.He s:don t he :r westwindes +biden. 7.Hwt is n m ymbe s ing t sprecanne? 8. secgas +ongunnon geswcan :re hergunga. 9. bag t lond :r astryhte, +oe so s: in on t lond. 10.s lond belimpa t, :m Englum. +11.ah Dene ealne dg gefuhten, get hfde lfred cyning sige. +12.Ond s (afterwards) ymbe nne mna gefeaht lfred cyning wi ealne +one here t Wiltne. + +II. 1. The most prosperous men drank mare's milk and wine, but the poor +men drank mead. 2. Isuffered many things before you began to help me +(dat.). 3.About two days afterwards (#s ymbe twgen dagas#), the +plundering ceased. 4.The king said that he fought against all the army +(#here#). 5.Although the Danes remained one month (98, (1)), they did +not begin to fight. 6.These gifts belonged to my brother. 7.The earls +were glad because their lord was (indicative) with them. 8.What did you +find? 9.Then wrote he about (#be#) the wise man's deeds. 10.What more +is there to endure? + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +STRONG VERBS: CLASSES IV, V, VI, AND VII. + +CONTRACT VERBS. + +[The student can now complete the conjugation for himself ( 103). Only +the principal parts will be given.] + + +114. #Class IV: The "Bear" Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: e, , :, o. + +The present stem ends in l, r, or m, no consonant following: + + l: hel-an, hl, h:l-on, gehol-en, _to conceal_. + r: ber-an, br, b:r-on, gebor-en, _to bear_. + +The two following verbs are slightly irregular: + + m: { nim-an, nm (nam), nm-on (nm-on), genum-en, _to take_. + { cum-an, c(w)m, c(w)m-on, gecum-en, _to come_. + + +115. #Class V: The "Give" Conjugation.# + + Succession of Vowels: e (ie), , :, e. + +The present stem ends in a single consonant, never a liquid or nasal: + + met-an, mt, m:ton, gemet-en, _to measure, mete_. + gief-an, geaf, gaf-on, gegief-en, _to give_. + + NOTE 1.--The palatal consonants, g, c, and sc, convert a following + e into ie, into ea, and : into a. Hence #giefan# (< #*gefan#), + #geaf# (< #*gf#), #gafon# (< #*g:fon#), #gegiefen# (<#*gegefen#). + This change is known as Palatalization. See 8. + + NOTE 2.--The infinitives of the following important verbs are only + apparently exceptional: + + biddan, bd, b:d-on, gebed-en, _to ask for_ [bid]. + licgan, lg, l:g-on, geleg-en, _to lie, extend_. + sittan, st, s:t-on, geset-en, _to sit_. + +The original e reappears in the participial stems. It was changed to i +in the present stems on account of a former -jan in the infinitive +(#bid-jan#, etc.). See 61. To the same cause is due the doubling of +consonants in the infinitive. All simple consonants in O.E., with the +exception of r, were doubled after a short vowel, when an original j +followed. + + +116. #Class VI: The "Shake" Conjugation.# + + Succession of Vowels: a, , , a. + + scac-an, scc, scc-on, gescac-en, _to shake_. + far-an, fr, fr-on, gefar-en, _to go_ [fare]. + + +117. #Class VII: The "Fall" Conjugation.# + + Vowel Succession: {,:}, , , {,:}; + or {ea,a,}, o, o, {ea,a,}. + + + (1) ht-an, ht, ht-on, geht-en, _to call, name, + command_. + l:t-an, lt, lt-on, gel:t-en, _to let_. + + (2) feall-an, foll, foll-on, gefeall-en, _to fall_. + heald-an, hold, hold-on, geheald-en, _to hold_. + haw-an, how, how-on, gehaw-en, _to hew_. + grw-an, grow, grow-on, gegrw-en, _to grow_. + + NOTE 1.--This class consists of the Reduplicating Verbs; that is, + those verbs that originally formed their preterits not by internal + vowel change (ablaut), but by prefixing to the present stem the + initial consonant + e (_cf._ Gk. #le-loipa# and Lat. _d[)e]-di_). + Contraction then took place between the syllabic prefix and the + root, the fusion resulting in or o: #*he-hat# > #heht# > #ht#. + + NOTE 2.--A peculiar interest attaches to #htan#: the forms + #htte# and #htton# are the sole remains in O.E. of the original + Germanic passive. They are used both as presents and as preterits: + #htte# = _I am_ or _was called_, _he is_ or _was called_. No + other verb in O.E. could have a passive sense without calling in + the aid of the verb _to be_ (141). + + +#Contract Verbs.# + +118. The few Contract Verbs found in O.E. do not constitute a new class; +they fall under Classes I, II, V, VI, and VII, already treated. The +present stem ended originally in h. This was lost before -an of the +infinitive, contraction and compensatory lengthening being the result. +The following are the most important of these verbs: + + Classes. + + I. on (< *han), h, ig-on, { geig-en }, _to thrive_. + { geung-en } + II. ton (< *tohan), tah, tug-on, getog-en, _to draw, go_ + [tug]. + V. son (< *sehwan), seah, sw-on, gesew-en, _to see_. + VI. slan (< *slahan), slh, slg-on, geslg-en, _to slay_. + VII. fn (< *fhan), fng, fng-on, gefong-en, _to seize_ + [fang]. + + +119. The Present Indicative of these verbs runs as follows (see rules of +i-umlaut, 58): + + _Sing._ 1. Ic o to so sla f + 2. hst tehst siehst sliehst fhst + 3. h h teh sieh slieh fh + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } o to so sla f + 3. he } + +The other tenses and moods are regularly formed from the given stems. + + +120. VOCABULARY. + + so :ht, _property, possession_ [#gan#]. + aweg, _away_ [#on weg#]. + so fierd, _English army_ [#faran#]. + s here, _Danish army_ [#hergian#]. + on gehwre hond, _on both sides_. + sige niman (= sige habban), _to win (the) victory_. + so spr:c, _speech, language_. + t rce fn, _to come to the throne_.[1] + t wl [Val-halla] } _slaughter, carnage_. + s wlsliht, } + s weall, _wall, rampart_. + t wildor, _wild beast, reindeer_. + s wngeard, _vineyard_. + + brecan,[2] brc, br:con, brocen, _to break down_. + cwean, cw, cw:don, gecweden, _to say_ [quoth]. + geson, geseah, geswon, gesewen, _to see_. + grwan, grow, growon, gegrwen, _to grow_. + ofslan, ofslh, ofslgon, ofslgen, _to slay_. + sprecan, sprc, spr:con, gesprecen, _to speak_. + stelan, stl, st:lon, gestolen, _to steal_. + stondan, std, stdon, gestonden, _to stand_. + weaxan, wox, woxon, geweaxen, _to grow, increase_ [wax]. + + [Footnote 1: Literally, _to take to (the) kingdom_. _Cf._ + "Have you anything to take to?" (_Two Gentlemen of Verona_, + IV, i,42).] + + [Footnote 2: #Brecan# belongs properly in Class V, but it has + been drawn into Class IV possibly through the influence of the r + in the root.] + + +121. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. fter :m slce (indeed) ealle men spr:con ne (one) spr:ce. +2.Ond h cw: "is is n folc, ond ealle he spreca ne spr:ce." +3.On sumum stwum wngeardas grwa. 4.H ht n:dran ofslan. +5. Engle br:con one longan weall, ond sige nmon. 6.Ond t s:d +grow ond wox. 7.Ic ne geseah one mon s e s cnapan adesan stl. +8.H ws swy:e spdig man on :m :htum e hiera spda on[3] bo, +t is, on wildrum. 9.Ond :r wear (was) micel wlsliht on gehwre +hond. 10.Ond fter issum gefeohte cm lfred cyning mid his fierde, +ond gefeaht wi ealne one here, ond sige nm. 11.os burg htte[4] +scesdn (Ashdown). 12.:re cwne lc lg on :m hse. 13.Ond s +d:l e :r aweg cm ws swy:e ly:tel. 14.Ond s rotene dagas +ered t rce fng. + +II. 1. The men stood in the ships and fought against the Danes. +2.Before the thanes came, the king rode away. 3.They said (#s:don#) +that all the men spoke one language. 4.They bore the queen's body to +Wilton. 5.Alfred gave many gifts to his army (dat. without #t#) before +he went away. 6.These men are called earls. 7.God sees all things. +8.The boy held the reindeer with (#mid#) his hands. 9.About six months +afterwards, Alfred gained the victory, and came to the throne. 10.He +said that there was very great slaughter on both sides. + + [Footnote 3: See 94, (5).] + + [Footnote 4: See 117, Note 2.] + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +WEAK VERBS ( 18). + + +122. The verbs belonging to the Weak Conjugation are generally of more +recent origin than the strong verbs, being frequently formed from the +roots of strong verbs. The Weak Conjugation was the growing conjugation +in O.E. as it is in Mn.E.We instinctively put our newly coined or +borrowed words into this conjugation (_telegraphed_, _boycotted_); and +children, by the analogy of weak verbs, say _runned_ for _ran_, _seed_ +for _saw_, _teared_ for _tore_, _drawed_ for _drew_, and _growed_ for +_grew_. So, for example, when Latin _dictre_ and _brevire_ came into +O.E., they came as weak verbs, #dihtian# and #brfian#. + + +#The Three Classes of Weak Verbs.# + +123. There is no difficulty in telling, from the infinitive alone, to +which of the three classes a weak verb belongs. Class III has been so +invaded by Class II that but three important verbs remain to it: +#habban#, _to have_; #libban#, _to live_; and #secgan#, _to say_. +Distinction is to be made, therefore, only between Classes II andI. +Class II contains the verbs with infinitive in -ian not preceded +by r. Class I contains the remaining weak verbs; that is, those with +infinitive in #-r-ian# and those with infinitive in -an (not -ian). + + +#Class I.# + +124. The preterit singular and past participle of Class I end in -ede +and -ed, or -de and -ed respectively. + + NOTE.--The infinitives of this class ended originally in -jan (= + -ian). This accounts for the prevalence of i-umlaut in these + verbs, and also for the large number of short-voweled stems ending + in a double consonant (115, Note2). The weak verb is frequently + the causative of the corresponding strong verb. In such cases, the + root of the weak verb corresponds in form to the preterit singular + of the strong verb: Mn.E. _drench_ (= _to make drink_), _lay_ (= + _to make lie_), _rear_ (= _to make rise_), and _set_ (= _to make + sit_), are the umlauted forms of #dronc# (preterit singular of + #drincan#), #lg# (preterit singular of #licgan#), #rs# (preterit + singular of #rsan#), and #st# (preterit singular of #sittan#). + + +#Preterit and Past Participle in _-ede_ and _-ed_.# + +125. Verbs with infinitive in -an preceded by ri- or the double +consonants mm, nn, ss, bb, cg (=gg), add -ede for the preterit, and -ed +for the past participle, the double consonant being always made single: + + ri: neri-an, ner-ede, gener-ed, _to save_. + mm: fremm-an, frem-ede, gefrem-ed, _to perform_ [frame]. + nn: enn-an, en-ede, geen-ed, _to extend_. + ss: cnyss-an, cnys-ede, gecnys-ed, _to beat_. + bb: swebb-an, swef-ede, geswef-ed, _to put to sleep_. + cg: wecg-an, weg-ede, geweg-ed, _to agitate_. + + NOTE.--#Lecgan#, _to lay_, is the only one of these verbs that + syncopates the e: #lecgan#, #legde# (#lde#), #gelegd# (#geld#), + instead of #legede#, #geleged#. + + +#Preterit and Past Participle in _-de_ and _-ed_.# + +126. All the other verbs belonging to Class I. add -de for the preterit +and -ed for the past participle. This division includes, therefore, all +stems long by nature (10, (3), (_a_)): + + d:l-an, d:l-de, ged:l-ed, _to deal out, divide_ [d:l]. + dm-an, dm-de, gedm-ed, _to judge_ [dm]. + grt-an, grt-te, gegrt-ed, _to greet_. + her-an, her-de, geher-ed, _to hear_. + l:d-an, l:d-de, gel:d-ed, _to lead_. + + NOTE 1.--A preceding voiceless consonant (9, Note) changes -de + into -te: #*grt-de# > #grt-te#; #*mt-de# > #mt-te#; #*ec-de# + > #ec-te#. Syncope and contraction are also frequent in the + participles: #gegrt-ed# > #*gegrt-d# > #gegrt(t)#; #gel:d-ed# > + #gel:d(d)#. + + NOTE 2.--#Ban#, _to dwell, cultivate_, has an admixture of + strong forms in the past participle: #ban#, #bde#, #gebd# + (#by:n#, #gebn#). The present participle survives in Mn.E. + _husband_ = _house-dweller_. + + +127. It includes, also, all stems long by position ( 10, (3), (_b_)) +except those in mm, nn, ss, bb, and cg (125): + + send-an, send-e, gesend-ed, _to send_. + sett-an, set-te, geset-ed, _to set_ [sittan]. + sigl-an, sigl-de, gesigl-ed, _to sail_. + spend-an, spend-e, gespend-ed, _to spend_. + tredd-an, tred-de, getred-ed, _to tread_. + + NOTE.--The participles frequently undergo syncope and contraction: + #gesended# > #gesend#; #geseted# > #geset(t)#; #gespended# > + #gespend#; #getreded# > #getred(d)#. + + +#Irregular Verbs of Class I.# + +128. There are about twenty verbs belonging to Class I that are +irregular in having no umlaut in the preterit and past participle. The +preterit ends in -de, the past participle in -d; but, through the +influence of a preceding voiceless consonant (9, Note), -ed is +generally unvoiced to -te, and -d to -t. The most important of these +verbs are as follows: + + bring-an, brh-te, gebrh-t, _to bring_. + byc-gan, boh-te, geboh-t, _to buy_. + sc-an, sh-te, gesh-t, _to seek_. + sell-an, seal-de, geseal-d, _to give, sell_ [hand-sel]. + t:c-an, t:h-te, get:h-t, _to teach_. + tell-an, teal-de, geteal-d, _to count_ [tell]. + enc-an, h-te, geh-t, _to think_. + ync-an, h-te, geh-t, _to seem_ [methinks]. + wyrc-an, worh-te, geworh-t, _to work_. + + NOTE.--Such of these verbs as have stems in c or g are frequently + written with an inserted e: #bycgean#, #scean#, #t:cean#, etc. + This e indicates that c and g have palatal value; that is, are to + be followed with a vanishing y-sound. In such cases, O.E. c + usually passes into Mn.E. _ch_: #t:c(e)an# > _to teach_; + #r:c(e)an# > _to reach_; #strecc(e)an# > _to stretch_. #Sc(e)an# + gives _beseech_ as well as _seek_. See 8. + + +#Conjugation of Class I.# + +129. Paradigms of #nerian#, _to save_; #fremman#, _to perform_; +#d:lan#, _to divide_: + + #Indicative.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic nerie fremme d:le + 2. nerest fremest d:lst + 3. h nere freme d:l + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } neria fremma d:la + 3. he } + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic nerede fremede d:lde + 2. neredest fremedest d:ldest + 3. h nerede fremede d:lde + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } neredon fremedon d:ldon + 3. he } + + #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. } nerie fremme d:le + 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } nerien fremmen d:len + 3. he } + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. } nerede fremede d:lde + 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } nereden fremeden d:lden + 3. he } + + #Imperative.# + + _Sing._ 2. nere freme d:l + + _Plur._ 1. nerian fremman d:lan + 2. neria fremma d:la + + #Infinitive.# + + nerian fremman d:lan + + #Gerund.# + + t nerianne (-enne) t fremmanne (-enne) t d:lanne (-enne) + + #Present Participle.# + + neriende fremmende d:lende + + #Past Participle.# + + genered gefremed ged:led + + NOTE.--The endings of the preterit present no difficulties; in the + 2d and 3d singular present, however, the student will observe + (_a_) that double consonants in the stem are made single: + #fremest#, #freme# (not #*freemmest#, #*freemme#); #enest#, + #ene#; #setest# (#setst#), #seete# (#sett#); #fylst#, #fyl#, + from #fyllan#, _to fill_; (_b_) that syncope is the rule in stems + long by nature: #d:lst# (< #d:lest#), #d:l# (< #d:le#); #dmst# + (< #dmest#), #dm# (< #dme#); #herst# (< #herest#), #her# + (< #here#). Double consonants are also made single in the + imperative 2d singular and in the past participle. Stems long by + nature take no final -e in the imperative: #d:l#, #her#, #dm#. + + +#Class II.# + +130. The infinitive of verbs belonging to this class ends in -ian (not +#-r-ian#), the preterit singular in -ode, the past participle in -od. +The preterit plural usually has #-edon#, however, instead of #-odon#: + + eard-ian, eard-ode, geeard-od, _to dwell_ [eore]. + luf-ian, luf-ode, geluf-od, _to love_ [lufu]. + rcs-ian, rcs-ode, gercs-od, _to rule_ [rce]. + sealf-ian, sealf-ode, gesealf-od, _to anoint_ [salve]. + segl-ian, segl-ode, gesegl-od, _to sail_ [segel]. + + NOTE.--These verbs have no trace of original umlaut, since their + -ian was once #-jan#. Hence, the vowel of the stem was shielded + from the influence of the j (= i) by the interposition of . + + +#Conjugation of Class II.# + +131. Paradigm of #lufian#, _to love_: + + #Indicative.# #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic lufie _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. u lufast 2. } lufie + 3. h lufa 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } lufia 2. g } lufien + 3. he } 3. he } + + PRETERIT. PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic lufode _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. lufodest 2. } lufode + 3. h lufode 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } lufedon (-odon) 2. g } lufeden (-oden) + 3. he } 3. he } + + #Imperative.# #Infinitive.# #Present Participle.# + + _Sing._ 2. lufa lufian lufiende + _Plur._ 1. lufian + 2. lufia + + #Gerund.# #Past Participle.# + + t lufianne (-enne) gelufod + + NOTE 1.--The -ie (-ien) occurring in the present must be + pronounced as a dissyllable. The y-sound thus interposed between + the i and e is frequently indicated by the letter g: #lufie#, or + #lufige#; #lufien#, or #lufigen#. So also for ia: #lufia#, or + #lufiga#; #lufian#, or #lufig(e)an#. + + NOTE 2.--In the preterit singular, -ade, -ude, and -ede are not + infrequent for -ode. + + +#Class III.# + +132. The few verbs belonging here show a blending of Classes I and II. +Like certain verbs of Class I (128), the preterit and past participle +are formed by adding -de and -d; like Class II, the 2d and 3d present +indicative singular end in -ast and -a, the imperative 2d singular in +-a: + + habb-an, hf-de, gehf-d, _to have_. + libb-an, lif-de, gelif-d, _to live_. + secg-an, s:d-e (sg-de), ges:d (gesg-d), _to say_. + + +#Conjugation of Class III.# + +133. Paradigms of #habban#, _to have_; #libban#, _to live_; #secgan#, +_to say_. + + #Indicative.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hbbe libbe secge + 2. hfst (hafast) lifast sgst (sagast) + 3. h hf (hafa) lifa sg (saga) + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } habba libba secga + 3. he } + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hfde lifde s:de + 2. hfdest lifdest s:dest + 3. h hfde lifde s:de + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } hfdon lifdon s:don + 3. he } + + #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. } hbbe libbe secge + 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } hbben libben secgen + 3. he } + + PRETERIT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. } hfde lifde s:de + 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } hfden lifden s:den + 3. he } + + #Imperative.# + + _Sing._ 2. hafa lifa saga + _Plur._ 1. habban libban secgan + 2. habba libba secga + + #Infinitive.# + + habban libban secgan + + #Gerund.# + + t habbanne (-enne) t libbanne (-enne) t secganne (-enne) + + #Present Participle.# + + hbbende libbende secgende + + #Past Participle.# + + gehfd gelifd ges:d + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +REMAINING VERBS; VERB-PHRASES WITH #habban#, #bon#, AND #weoran#. + + +#Anomalous Verbs.# (See 19.) + +134. These are: + + bon (wesan), ws, w:ron, ----, _tobe_. + willan, wolde, woldon, ----, _to will, intend_. + dn, dyde, dydon, gedn, _to do, cause_. + gn, ode, odon, gegn, _togo_. + + NOTE.--In the original Indo-Germanic language, the first person + of the present indicative singular ended in (1) or (2)mi. + _Cf._ Gk. +lu-+, +ei-mi+, Lat. _am-_, _su-m_. The Strong and Weak + Conjugations of O.E. are survivals of the -class. The four + Anomalous Verbs mentioned above are the sole remains in O.E. of + the mi-class. Note the surviving m in #eom# _I am_, and #dm# _I + do_ (Northumbrian form). These mi-verbs are sometimes called + non-Thematic to distinguish them from the Thematic or -verbs. + + +#Conjugation of Anomalous Verbs.# + +135. Only the present indicative and subjunctive are at all irregular: + + #Indicative.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic eom (bom) wille d g + 2. eart (bist) wilt dst g:st + 3. h is (bi) wille d g: + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } sind(on) willa d g + 3. he } + + #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. } se wille d g + 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } sen willen dn gn + 3. he } + + NOTE.--The preterit subjunctive of #bon# is formed, of course, + not from #ws#, but from #w:ron#. See 103,(3). + + +#Preterit-Present Verbs.# (See 19.) + +136. These verbs are called Preterit-Present because the present tense +(indicative and subjunctive) of each of them is, in form, astrong +preterit, the old present having been displaced by the new. They all +have weak preterits. Most of the Mn.E.Auxiliary Verbs belong to this +class. + + witan, { wiste, } wiston, gewiten, _to know_ + { wisse, } [to wit, wot]. + gan, hte, hton, gen (adj.), _to possess_ [owe]. + cunnan, ce, con, { gecunnen, } _to know_, _can_ + { c (adj.), } [uncouth, cunning]. + durran, dorste, dorston, ---- _to dare_. + sculan, sceolde, sceoldon, ---- _shall_. + magan, { meahte, meahton, } ---- _to be able_, _may_. + { mihte, mihton, } + mtan, mste, mston, ---- _may_, _must_. + + NOTE.--The change in meaning from preterit to present, with + retention of the preterit form, is not uncommon in other + languages. Several examples are found in Latin and Greek + (cf._nvi_ and +oida+, _Iknow_). Mn.E. has gone further still: + #hte# and #mste#, which had already suffered the loss of their + old preterits (#h#, #mt#), have been forced back again into the + present (_ought_, _must_). Having exhausted, therefore, the only + means of preterit formation known to Germanic, the strong and the + weak, it is not likely that either _ought_ or _must_ will ever + develop distinct preterit forms. + + +#Conjugation of Preterit-Present Verbs.# + +137. The irregularities occur in the present indicative and subjunctive: + + #Indicative.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic wt h con (can) + 2. wst hst const (canst) + 3. h wt h con (can) + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } witon gon cunnon + 3. he } + + _Sing._ 1. Ic dear sceal mg mt + 2. dearst scealt meaht mst + 3. h dear sceal mg mt + + _Plur._ 1. w + 2. g durron sculon magon mton + 3. he + + #Subjunctive.# + + PRESENT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. } wite ge cunne + 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } witen gen cunnen + 3. he } + + _Sing._ 1. Ic } + 2. } durre scule (scyle) mge mte + 3. h } + + _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } durren sculen (scylen) mgen mten + 3. he } + + NOTE 1.--#Willan# and #sculan# do not often connote simple + futurity in Early West Saxon, yet they were fast drifting that + way. The Mn.E. use of _shall_ only with the 1st person and _will_ + only with the 2d and 3d, to express simple futurity, was wholly + unknown even in Shakespeare's day. The elaborate distinctions + drawn between these words by modern grammarians are not only + cumbersome and foreign to the genius of English, but equally + lacking in psychological basis. + + NOTE 2.--#Sculan# originally implied the idea of (1)_duty_, or + _compulsion_ (= _ought to_, or _must_), and this conception lurks + with more or less prominence in almost every function of #sculan# + in O.E.: #Dryhten bebad Moyse h h sceolde beran earce#, _The + Lord instructed Moses how he ought to bear the ark_; #:lc mann + sceal be his andgietes m:e ... sprecan t he spric, and dn t + t h d#, _Every man must, according to the measure of his + intelligence, speak what he speaks, and do what he does_. Its next + most frequent use is to express (2)_custom_, the transition from + the obligatory to the customary being an easy one: #S byrdesta + sceall gyldan ffty:ne meares fell#, _The man of highest rank pays + fifteen marten skins_. + + NOTE 3.--#Willan# expressed originally (1)_pure volition_, and + this is its most frequent use in O.E.It may occur without the + infinitive: #Nylle ic s synfullan da, ac ic wille t h + gecyrre and lybbe#, _I do not desire the sinner's death, but I + desire that he return and live_. The wish being father to the + intention, #willan# soon came to express (2)_purpose_: #H s:de + t h at sumum cirre wolde fandian h longe t land norryhte + l:ge#, _He said that he intended, at some time, to investigate how + far that land extended northward_. + + +#Verb-Phrases with _habban_, _bon_ (_wesan_), and _weoran_.# + +_Verb-Phrases in the Active Voice._ + +138. The present and preterit of #habban#, combined with a past +participle, are used in O.E., as in Mn.E., to form the present perfect +and past perfect tenses: + + PRESENT PERFECT. PAST PERFECT. + + _Sing._ 1. Ic hbbe gedrifen _Sing._ 1. Ic hfde gedrifen + 2. hfst gedrifen 2. hfdest gedrifen + 3. h hf gedrifen 3. h hfde gedrifen + + PRESENT PERFECT. PAST PERFECT. + + _Plur._ 1. w } _Plur._ 1. w } + 2. g } habba gedrifen 2. g } hfdon gedrifen + 3. he } 3. he } + +The past participle is not usually inflected to agree with the direct +object: #Norymbre ond astengle hfdon lfrede cyninge as geseald# +(not #gesealde#, 82), _The Northumbrians and East Anglians had given +king Alfred oaths_; #ond hfdon miclne d:l ra horsa freten# (not +#fretenne#), _and (they) had devoured a large part of the horses_. + + NOTE.--Many sentences might be quoted in which the participle does + agree with the direct object, but there seems to be no clear line + of demarcation between them and the sentences just cited. + Originally, the participle expressed a _resultant state_, and + belonged in sense more to the object than to #habban#; but in + Early West Saxon #habban# had already, in the majority of cases, + become a pure auxiliary when used with the past participle. This + is conclusively proved by the use of #habban# with intransitive + verbs. In such a clause, therefore, as #o t he hine ofslgenne + hfdon#, there is no occasion to translate _until they had him + slain_ (= _resultant state_); the agreement here is more probably + due to the proximity of #ofslgenne# to #hine#. So also #ac h + hfdon hiera stemn gesetenne#, _but they had already served + out_ (_sat out_) _their military term_. + + +139. If the verb is intransitive, and denotes _a change of condition_, +_a departure or arrival_, #bon# (#wesan#) usually replaces #habban#. +The past participle, in such cases, partakes of the nature of an +adjective, and generally agrees with the subject: #Mne welan e ic o +hfde syndon ealle gewitene ond gedrorene#, _My possessions which I once +had are all departed and fallen away_; #w:ron men uppe on londe of +gne#, _the men had gone up ashore_; #ond re w:ron hungre +cwolen#, _and the others had perished of hunger_; #ond ac s micla +here ws :r t cumen#, _and also the large army had then arrived +there_. + + +140. A progressive present and preterit (not always, however, with +distinctively progressive meanings) are formed by combining a present +participle with the present and preterit of #bon# (#wesan#). The +participle remains uninflected: #ond he alle on one cyning w:run +feohtende#, _and they all were fighting against the king_; #Symle h bi +lciende, n sl:p h n:fre#, _He is always looking, nor does He ever +sleep_. + + NOTE.--In most sentences of this sort, the subject is masculine + (singular or plural); hence no inference can be made as to + agreement, since -e is the participial ending for both numbers of + the nominative masculine (82). By analogy, therefore, the other + genders usually conform in inflection to the masculine: #w:ron + ealle doflu clypigende nre stefne#, _then were all the devils + crying with one voice_. + + +_Verb-Phrases in the Passive Voice._ + +141. Passive constructions are formed by combining #bon# (#wesan#) or +#weoran# with a past participle. The participle agrees regularly with +the subject: #he w:ron benumene :ger ge s capes ge s cornes#, +_they were deprived both of the cattle and the corn_; #h bo blende +mid :m ostrum heora scylda#, _they are blinded with the darkness of +their sins_; #and s wlhrowa Domicinus on m ylcan gare wear +cweald#, _and the murderous Domitian was killed in the same year_; #ond +elwulf aldormon wear ofslgen#, _and thelwulf, alderman, was slain_. + + NOTE 1.--To express agency, Mn.E. employs _by_, rarely _of_; M.E. + _of_, rarely _by_; O.E. #from# (#fram#), rarely #of#: #S e Godes + bebodu ne gecn:w, ne bi h oncnwen from Gode#, _He who does not + recognise God's commands, will not be recognized by God_; #Betwux + :m wear ofslagen adwine ... fram Brytta cyninge#, _Meanwhile, + Edwin was slain by the king of the Britons_. + + NOTE 2.--O.E. had no progressive forms for the passive, and could + not, therefore, distinguish between _He is being wounded_ and _He + is wounded_. It was not until more than a hundred years after + Shakespeare's death that _being_ assumed this function. #Weoran#, + which originally denoted _a passage from one state to another_, + was ultimately driven out by #bon# (#wesan#), and survives now + only in _Woe worth_ (= _beto_). + + +142. VOCABULARY. + + Beormas, _Permians_. + Deeniscan, _the Danish (men), Danes_. + Finnas, _Fins_. + t gewald, _control_ [#wealdan#]. + so s:, _sea_. + so scr, _shire, district_. + so wlstw, _battle-field_. + gan wlstwe gewald, _to maintain possession of the battle-field_. + s wealdend, _ruler, wielder_. + + gefleman, geflemde, geflemed, _to put to flight_. + gestaelian, gestaelode, gestaelod, _to establish, restore_. + gewissian, gewissode, gewissod, _to guide, direct_. + wcian, wcode, gewcod, _to dwell_ [wc = village]. + + +143. EXERCISES. + +I. 1. Ond r ws micel wl geslgen on gehwre hond, ond elwulf +ealdormon wear ofslgen; ond Deniscan hton wlstwe gewald. 2.Ond +s ymb nne mna gefeaht lfred cyning wi ealne one here ond hine +geflemde. 3.H s:de ah t t land se swe lang nor onan. +4. Beormas hfdon swe wel gebd (126, Note2) hiera land. +5.Ohthere s:de t so scr htte (117, Note2) Hlgoland, e h on +(94, (5)) bde. 6. Finnas wcedon be :re s:. 7.Dryhten, +lmihtiga (78, Note) God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra gesceafta, ic +bidde for nre miclan mildheortnesse t m gewissie t num +willan; and gestaela mn md t num willan and t mnre swle earfe. +8. sceolde h :r bdan ryhtnoranwindes, for :m t land bag +:r sryhte, oe so s: in on t land, h nysse hwer. 9.For y:, +m ync betre, gif ow sw ync, t w ac s bc on t geode +wenden e w ealle gecnwan mgen. + +II. 1. When the king heard that, he went (= then went he) westward with +his army to Ashdown. 2.Lovest thou me more than these? 3.The men said +that the shire which they lived in was called Halgoland. 4.All things +were made (#wyrcan#) by God. 5.They were fighting for two days with +(=against) the Danes. 6.King Alfred fought with the Danes, and gained +the victory; but the Danes retained possession of the battle-field. +7.These men dwelt in England before they came hither. 8. Ihave not +seen the book of (#ymbe#) which you speak (#sprecan#). + + + + +PART III. + + +SELECTIONS FOR READING. + + + + +PROSE. + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +I. #The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.# + +This famous work, a series of progressive annals by unknown hands, +embraces a period extending from Csar's invasion of England to 1154. It +is not known when or where these annals began to be recorded in +English. + +"The annals from the year 866--that of Ethelred's ascent of the +throne--to the year 887 seem to be the work of one mind. Not a single +year is passed over, and to several is granted considerable space, +especially to the years 871, 878, and 885. The whole has gained a +certain roundness and fulness, because the events--nearly all of them +episodes in the ever-recurring conflict with the Danes--are taken in +their connection, and the thread dropped in one year is resumed in the +next. Not only is the style in itself concise; it has a sort of nervous +severity and pithy rigor. The construction is often antiquated, and +suggests at times the freedom of poetry; though this purely historical +prose is far removed from poetry in profusion of language." (Ten Brink, +_Early Eng. Lit._,I.) + + +II. #The Translations of Alfred.# + +Alfred's reign (871-901) may be divided into four periods. The _first_, +the period of Danish invasion, extends from 871 to 881; the _second_, +the period of comparative quiet, from 881 to 893; the _third_, the +period of renewed strife (beginning with the incursions of Hasting), +from 893 to 897; the _fourth_, the period of peace, from 897 to 901. His +literary work probably falls in the second period.[A] + +The works translated by Alfred from Latin into the vernacular were +(1)_Consolation of Philosophy_ (_DeConsolatione Philosophiae_) by +Bothius (475-525), (2)_Compendious History of the World_ (_Historiarum +Libri VII_) by Orosius (c.418), (3)_Ecclesiastical History of the +English_ (_Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_) by Bede (672-735), +and (4)_Pastoral Care_ (_DeCura Pastorali_) by Pope Gregory the Great +(540-604). + + The chronological sequence of these works is wholly unknown. That + given is supported by Turner, Arend, Morley, Grein, and Pauli. + Wlker argues for an exact reversal of this order. According to + Ten Brink, the order was more probably (1)_Orosius_, (2)_Bede_, + (3) _Bothius_, and (4)_Pastoral Care_. The most recent + contribution to the subject is from Wlfing, who contends for + (1) _Bede_, (2)_Orosius_, (3)_Pastoral Care_, and (4)_Bothius_. + + [Footnote A: There is something inexpressibly touching in this + clause from the great king's pen: gif w stilnesse habba. He + is speaking of how much he hopes to do, by his translations, for + the enlightenment of his people.] + + +I. THE BATTLE OF ASHDOWN. + + [From the _Chronicle_, Parker MS. The event and date are + significant. The Danes had for the first time invaded Wessex. + Alfred's older brother, Ethelred, was king; but to Alfred belongs + the glory of the victory at Ashdown (Berkshire). Asser (_Life of + Alfred_) tells us that for a long time Ethelred remained praying + in his tent, while Alfred and his followers went forth "like a + wild boar against the hounds."] + +[[page 99]] + + 1 871. Hr cum[1] s here t Radingum on Westseaxe, + 2 ond s ymb iii niht ridon ii eorlas p. a gemtte he + +[[page 100]] + + 1 elwulf aldorman[2] on Englafelda, ond him :r wi gefeaht, + 2 ond sige nam. s ymb iiii niht ered cyning + 3 ond lfred his brur[3] :r micle fierd t Radingum + 4 gel:ddon, ond wi one here gefuhton; ond :r ws + 5 micel wl geslgen on gehwre hond, ond elwulf + 6 aldormon wear ofslgen; ond a Deniscan hton wlstwe + 7 gewald. + + 8 Ond s ymb iiii niht gefeaht ered cyning ond + 9 lfred his brur wi alne[4] one here on scesdne. + 10 Ond he w:run[5] on tw:m gefylcum: on rum ws + 11 Bchsecg ond Halfdene h:nan cyningas, ond on + 12 rum w:ron eorlas. Ond gefeaht s cyning + 13 ered wi ra cyninga getruman, ond :r wear s + 14 cyning Bgsecg ofslgen; ond lfred his brur wi + 15 ra eorla getruman, ond :r wear Sidroc eorl ofslgen + 16 s alda,[6] ond Sidroc eorl s gioncga,[7] ond sbearn eorl, + 17 ond Fr:na eorl, ond Hareld eorl; ond hergas[8] bgen + 18 geflemde, ond fela senda ofslgenra, ond onfeohtende + 19 w:ron o niht. + + 20 Ond s ymb xiiii niht gefeaht ered cyning ond + 21 lfred his brur wi one here t Basengum, ond :r + 22 a Deniscan sige nmon. + + 23 Ond s ymb ii mna gefeaht ered cyning ond + 24 lfred his brur wi one here t Meretne, ond he + 25 w:run on tu:m[9] gefylcium, ond he bt geflemdon, ond + 26 longe on dg sige hton; ond :r wear micel wlsliht + 27 on gehwere hond; ond Deniscan hton wlstwe + +[[page 101]] + + 1 gewald; ond r wear Hahmund bisceop ofslgen, + 2 ond fela gdra monna. Ond fter issum gefeohte cum[1] + 3 micel sumorlida. + + 4 Ond s ofer astron gefr ered cyning; ond h + 5 rcsode v gar; ond his lc l t Wnburnan. + + 6 fng lfred elwulfing his brur t Wesseaxna + 7 rce. Ond s ymb nne mna gefeaht lfred cyning + 8 wi alne[4] one here ly:tle werede[10] t Wiltne, ond hine + 9 longe on dg geflemde, ond Deniscan hton wlstwe + 10 gewald. + + 11 Ond s gares wurdon viiii folcgefeoht gefohten wi + 12 one here on y: cynerce be san Temese, btan m e + 13 him lfred s cyninges brur ond nlpig aldormon[2] ond + 14 cyninges egnas oft rde onridon e mon n ne rmde; + 15 ond s gares w:run[5] ofslgene viiii eorlas ond n cyning. + 16 Ond y: gare nmon Westseaxe fri wi one here. + +CONSULT GLOSSARY AND PARADIGMS UNDER FORMS GIVEN BELOW. + +No note is made of such variants as y (y:) or i () for ie (e). See +Glossary under ie (e); occurrences, also, of #and# for #ond#, #land# +for #lond#, are found on almost every page of Early West Saxon. Such +words should be sought for under the more common forms, #ond#, #lond#. + + [1] = cwm. + [2] = ealdormon. + [3] = bror. + [4] = ealne. + [5] = w:ron. + [6] = ealda. + [7] = geonga. + [8] = heras. + [9] = tw:m. + [10] = werode. + + [Linenotes: + + 100.8. #gefeaht#. Notice that the singular is used. This is the + more common construction in O.E. when a compound subject, + composed of singular members, follows its predicate. Cf. _For + thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory_. See also + p.107, note on #ws#.] [[Linenote 107.14-15]] + + 100.18. #ond fela senda ofslgenra#, _and there were many + thousands of slain_ (91). + + 101.12: #btan m e#, etc., _besides which, Alfred ... made + raids against them_ (#him#), _which were not counted_. See 70, + Note.] + + +II. A PRAYER OF KING ALFRED. + + [With this characteristic prayer, Alfred concludes his translation + of Bothius's _Consolation of Philosophy_. Unfortunately, the only + extant MS. (Bodleian 180) is Late West Saxon. Ifollow, therefore, + Prof. A.S. Cook's normalization on an Early West Saxon basis. See + Cook's _First Book in Old English_, p.163.] + +[[page 102]] + + 1 Dryhten, lmihtiga God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra + 2 gesceafta, ic bidde for nre miclan mildheortnesse, + 3 and for :re hlgan rde tcne, and for Sanct Marian + 4 mghde, and for Sancti Michaeles gehersumnesse, and + 5 for ealra nra hlgena lufan and hera earnungum, t + 6 m gewissie bet onne ic worhte t ; and gewissa + 7 m t num willan, and t mnre swle earfe, bet onne + 8 ic self cunne; and gestaela mn md t inum willan and + 9 t mnre swle earfe; and gestranga m wi s dofles + 10 costnungum; and fierr fram m flan glnesse and + 11 :lce unrihtwsnesse; and gescield m wi mnum wierwinnum, + 12 gesewenlcum and ungesewenlcum; and t:c m + 13 nne willan t wyrceanne; t ic mge inweardlce + 14 lufian tforan eallum ingum, mid cl:num geance and + 15 mid cl:num lchaman. For on e eart mn Scieppend, + 16 and mn Alesend, mn Fultum, mn Frfor, mn Trownes, + 17 and mn Thopa. Se lof and wuldor n and + 18 , t worulde btan :ghwilcum ende. Amen. + + [Linenotes: + + 3-4: #Marian ... Michaeles#. O.E. is inconsistent in the + treatment of foreign names. They are sometimes naturalized, and + sometimes retain in part their original inflections. #Marian#, + an original accusative, is here used as a genitive; while + #Michaeles# has the O.E. genitive ending. + + 17: #Se lof#. See 105, 1.] + + +III. THE VOYAGES OF OHTHERE AND WULFSTAN. + + [Lauderdale and Cottonian MSS. These voyages are an original + insertion by Alfred into his translation of Orosius's _Compendious + History of the World_. + + "They consist," says Ten Brink, "of a complete description of all + the countries in which the Teutonic tongue prevailed at Alfred's + time, and a full narrative of the travels of two voyagers, which + the king wrote down from their own lips. One of these, aNorwegian + named Ohthere, had quite circumnavigated the coast of Scandinavia + in his travels, and had even penetrated to the White Sea; the + other, named Wulfstan, had sailed from Schleswig to Frische Haff. + The geographical and ethnographical details of both accounts are + exceedingly interesting, and their style is attractive, clear, and + concrete." + + Ohthere made two voyages. Sailing first northward along the + western coast of Norway, he rounded the North Cape, passed into + the White Sea, and entered the Dwina River (#nmicela#). On his + second voyage he sailed southward along the western coast of + Norway, entered the Skager Rack (#wds:#), passed through the + Cattegat, and anchored at the Danish port of Haddeby (#tH:um#), + modern Schleswig. + + Wulfstan sailed only in the Baltic Sea. His voyage of seven days + from Schleswig brought him to Drausen (#Trs#) on the shore of + the Drausensea.] + + +[[page 103]] + +#Ohthere's First Voyage.# + + 1 there s:de his hlforde, lfrede cyninge, t h + 2 ealra Normonna normest bde. H cw t h bde + 3 on :m lande norweardum wi Wests. H s:de + 4 ah t t land se swe lang nor onan; ac hit is + 5 eal wste, bton on fawum stwum styccemlum wcia + 6 Finnas, on huntoe on wintra, ond on sumera on fiscae + 7 be :re s:. H s:de t h t sumum cirre wolde + 8 fandian h longe t land norryhte l:ge, oe hwer + 9 :nig mon be noran :m wstenne bde. fr h + 10 norryhte be :m lande: lt him ealne weg t wste + 11 land on t storbord, ond wds: on t bcbord re + 12 dagas. ws h sw feor nor sw hwlhuntan + 13 firrest fara. fr h get norryhte sw feor sw + 14 h meahte on :m rum rm dagum gesiglan. bag + 15 t land :r astryhte, oe so s: in on t lond, h + 16 nysse hwer, bton h wisse t h :r bd westanwindes + 17 ond hwn noran, ond siglde ast be lande + 18 sw sw h meahte on fower dagum gesiglan. + 19 sceolde h :r bdan ryhtnoranwindes, for :m t + 20 land bag :r sryhte, oe so s: in on t land, h + 21 nysse hwer. siglde h onan sryhte be lande + +[[page 104]] + + 1 sw sw h mehte[1] on ff dagum gesiglan. lg :r + 2 n micel a p in on t land. cirdon he p in on + 3 a, for :m he ne dorston for b :re a siglan for + 4 unfrie; for :m t land ws eall gebn on re healfe + 5 :re as. Ne mtte h :r nn gebn land, sian h + 6 from his gnum hm fr; ac him ws ealne weg wste + 7 land on t storbord, btan fiscerum ond fugelerum nd + 8 huntum, ond t w:ron eall Finnas; ond him ws + 9 wds: on t bcbord. Beormas hfdon swe wel + 10 gebd hira land: ac he ne dorston :r on cuman. Ac + 11 ra Terfinna land ws eal wste, bton :r huntan + 12 gewcodon, oe fisceras, oe fugeleras. + + [1] = meahte, mihte. + + [Linenotes: + + 104.6: #from his gnum hm#. An adverbial dative singular + without an inflectional ending is found with #hm#, #dg#, + #morgen#, and #:fen#. + + 104.8: #ond t w:ron#. See 40, Note 3.] + + 13 Fela spella him s:don Beormas :ger ge of hiera + 14 gnum lande ge of :m landum e ymb he tan w:ron; + 15 ac h nyste hwt s ses ws, for :m h hit self ne + 16 geseah. Finnas, him hte, ond Beormas spr:con + 17 nah n geode. Swost h fr ider, t acan s + 18 landes scawunge, for :m horshwlum, for :m he + 19 habba swe ele bn on hiora[2] tum-- t he brhton + 20 sume :m cyninge--ond hiora hy:d bi swe gd t + 21 sciprpum. S hwl bi micle l:ssa onne re hwalas: + 22 ne bi h lengra onne syfan[3] elna lang; ac on his gnum + 23 lande is s betsta hwlhunta: bo eahta and fowertiges + 24 elna lange, and m:stan fftiges elna lange; + 25 ra h s:de t h syxa sum ofslge syxtig on twm + 26 dagum. + + [2] = hiera. + [3] = seofon. + + [Linenotes: + + 104.15: #hwt s ses ws#. Sweet errs in explaining #ses# + as attracted into the genitive by #s#. It is not a predicate + adjective, but a partitive genitive after #hwt#. + + 104.25: #syxa sum#. See 91, Note 2.] + +[[page 105]] + + 1 H ws swy:e spdig man on :m :htum e heora[2] + 2 spda on bo, t is, on wildrum. H hfde gy:t, + 3 h one cyningc[5] shte, tamra dora unbebohtra syx hund. + 4 dor h hta 'hrnas'; ra w:ron syx stlhrnas; + 5 bo swy:e dy:re mid Finnum, for :m hy: f + 6 wildan hrnas mid. H ws mid :m fyrstum mannum + 7 on :m lande: nfde h ah m onne twntig hry:era, + 8 and twntig scapa, and twntig swy:na; and t ly:tle + 9 t h erede, h erede mid horsan.[4] Ac hyra r is m:st + 10 on :m gafole e Finnas him gylda. t gafol bi + 11 on dora fellum, and on fugela feerum, and hwales bne, + 12 and on :m sciprpum e bo of hwles hy:de geworht + 13 and of soles. :ghwilc gylt be hys gebyrdum. S byrdesta + 14 sceall gyldan ffty:ne meares fell, and ff hrnes, + 15 and n beren fel, and ty:n ambra fera, and berenne kyrtel + 16 oe yterenne, and twgen sciprpas; :ger sy: syxtig + 17 elna lang, er sy: of hwles hy:de geworht, er of soles.[6] + + [2] = hiera. + [4] = horsum. + [5] = cyning. + [6] = soles. + + [Linenote: + + 105.2: #on bo#. See 94, (5).] + + 18 H s:de t Normanna land w:re swy:e lang and + 19 swy:e sml. Eal t his man er oe ettan oe erian + 20 mg, t l wi s:; and t is ah on sumum + 21 stwum swy:e cldig; and licga wilde mras wi astan + 22 and wi pp on emnlange :m by:num lande. On :m + 23 mrum eardia Finnas. And t by:ne land is asteweard + 24 brdost, and symle sw noror sw smlre. astewerd[7] + 25 hit mg bon[8] syxtig mla brd, oe hwne br:dre; + 26 and middeweard rtig oe brdre; and noreweard h + 27 cw, :r hit smalost w:re, t hit mihte bon rora + 28 mla brd t :m mre; and s mr syan,[9] on sumum + +[[page 106]] + + 1 stwum, sw brd sw man mg on twm wucum oferfran; + 2 and on sumum stwum sw brd sw man mg + 3 on syx dagum oferfran. + + [7] = -weard. + [8] = bon. + [9] = sian. + + [Linenote: + + 105.19: #Eal t his man#. Pronominal genitives are not always + possessive in O.E.; #his# is here the partitive genitive of + #hit#, the succeeding relative pronoun being omitted: _All that + (portion) of it that may, either-of-the-two, either be grazed or + plowed_, etc. (70, Note).] + + 4 onne is temnes :m lande seweardum, on re + 5 healfe s mres, Swoland, o t land noreweard; + 6 and temnes :m lande noreweardum, Cwna land. + 7 Cwnas hergia hwlum on Normen ofer one mr, + 8 hwlum Normen on hy:. And :r sint swe micle + 9 meras fersce geond mras; and bera Cwnas hyra + 10 scypu ofer land on meras, and anon hergia on + 11 Normen; hy: habba swy:e ly:tle scypa and swy:e + 12 leohte. + + [Linenote: + + 106.11-12: #scypa ... leohte#. These words exhibit inflections + more frequent in Late than in Early West Saxon. The normal forms + would be #scypu#, #leoht#; but in Late West Saxon the -u of + short-stemmed neuters is generally replaced by -a; and the + nominative accusative plural neuter of adjectives takes, by + analogy, the masculine endings; #hwate#, #gde#, #hlge#, + instead of #hwatu#, #gd#, #hlgu#.] + + +#Ohthere's Second Voyage.# + + 13 hthere s:de t so[1] scr htte Hlgoland, e h on + 14 bde. H cw t nn man ne bde be noran him. + 15 onne is n port on seweardum :m lande, one man + 16 h:t Sciringeshal. yder h cw t man ne mihte + 17 geseglian on num mne, gyf man on niht wcode, and + 18 :lce dge hfde ambyrne wind; and ealle hwle h + 19 sceal seglian be lande. And on t storbord him bi + 20 :rest raland, and onne gland e synd betux ralande + 21 and issum lande. onne is is land, o h cym + 22 t Scirincgeshale, and ealne weg on t bcbord Norweg. + +[[page 107]] + + 1 Wi san one Sciringeshal fyl swy:e mycel + 2 s: p in on t land; so is brdre onne :nig man ofer + 3 son mge. And is Gotland on re healfe ongan, and + 4 sian Sillende. So s: l mnig[2] hund mla p in on + 5 t land. + + [1] = so. + [2] = monig. + + 6 And of Sciringeshale h cw t h seglode on ff + 7 dagan[3] t :m porte e mon h:t t H:um; s stent + 8 betuh Winedum, and Seaxum, and Angle, and hy:r in + 9 on Dene. h iderweard seglode fram Sciringeshale, + 10 ws him on t bcbord Denamearc and on + 11 t storbord wds: ry: dagas; and , twgen dagas :r + 12 h t H:um cme, him ws on t storbord Gotland, + 13 and Sillende, and glanda fela. On :m landum eardodon + 14 Engle, :r h hider on land cman.[4] And hym ws + 15 twgen dagas on t bcbord gland e in on + 16 Denemearce hy:ra. + + [3] = dagum. + [4] = cmen. + + [Linenotes: + + 107.7: #t H:um#. "This pleonastic use of _t_ with names of + places occurs elsewhere in the older writings, as in the + Chronicle (552), 'in :re stwe e is genemned t Searobyrg,' + where the _t_ has been erased by some later hand, showing that + the idiom had become obsolete. _Cp._ the German 'Gasthaus zur + Krone,' Stamboul = _es tn plin_." (Sweet.) See, also, + _Atterbury_, 28, Note3. + + 107.14-15: #ws ... gland#. The singular predicate is due + again to inversion (p.100, note on #gefeaht# [[linenote + 100.8]]). The construction is comparatively rare in O.E., but + frequent in Shakespeare and in the popular speech of to-day. Cf. + _There is_, _Here is_, _There has been_, etc., with a (single) + plural subject following.] + + +#Wulfstan's Voyage.# + + 17 Wulfstn s:de t h gefre of H:um, t h w:re + 18 on Trs on syfan dagum and nihtum, t t scip ws + 19 ealne weg yrnende under segle. Weonoland him ws + +[[page 108]] + + 1 on storbord, and on bcbord him ws Langaland, and + 2 L:land, and Falster, and Scng; and s land eall + 3 hy:ra t Denemearcan. And onne Burgenda land ws + 4 s on bcbord, and habba him sylfe[1] cyning. onne + 5 fter Burgenda lande w:ron s s land, synd htene + 6 :rest Blcinga-g, and More, and owland, and Gotland + 7 on bcbord; and s land hy:ra t Swom. And Weonodland + 8 ws s ealne weg on storbord o Wsleman. + 9 So Wsle is swy:e mycel a, and ho[2] tl Wtland and + 10 Weonodland; and t Wtland belimpe t Estum; and + 11 so Wsle l t of Weonodlande, and l in Estmere; + 12 and s Estmere is hru fftne[3] mla brd. onne cyme + 13 Ilfing astan in Estmere of m mere, e Trs stande + 14 in ste; and cuma t samod in Estmere, Ilfing astan + 15 of Estlande, and Wsle san of Winodlande. And + 16 onne benim Wsle Ilfing hire naman, and lige of :m + 17 mere west and nor on s:; for y: hit man h:t + 18 Wslema. + + [1] = selfe. + [2] = ho. + [3] = fftene. + + [Linenote: + + 108.1-4: #him ... s#. Note the characteristic change of person, + the transition from _indirect_ to _direct discourse_.] + + 19 t Estland is swy:e mycel, and :r bi swy:e manig + 20 burh, and on :lcere byrig bi cyning. And :r bi + 21 swy:e mycel hunig, and fiscna; and s cyning and + 22 rcostan men drinca my:ran meolc, and unspdigan + 23 and owan drinca medo.[4] :r bi swy:e mycel + 24 gewinn betwonan him. And ne bi :r n:nig ealo[5] + 25 gebrowen mid Estum, ac :r bi medo genh. And :r + 26 is mid Estum aw, onne :r bi man dad, t h l + 27 inne unforbrned mid his mgum and frondum mna, + 28 ge hwlum twgen; and cyningas, and re hahungene + 29 men, sw micle lencg[6] sw h mran spda + 30 habba, hwlum healf gar t h bo unforbrned, and + +[[page 109]] + + 1 licga bufan eoran on hyra hsum. And ealle hwle + 2 e t lc bi inne, :r sceal bon gedrync and plega, + 3 o one dg e h hine forbrna. onne y: ylcan dge + 4 e h hine t :m de beran wylla, onne td:la h + 5 his feoh, t :r t lfe bi fter :m gedrynce and :m + 6 plegan, on ff oe syx, hwy:lum on m, sw sw s fos + 7 andfn bi. lecga hit onne forhwga on nre mle + 8 one m:stan d:l fram :m tne, onne erne, onne + 9 one riddan, o e hyt eall ld bi on :re nre mle; + 10 and sceall bon s l:sta d:l ny:hst :m tne e s dada + 11 man on li. onne sceolon[7] bon gesamnode ealle + 12 menn e swyftoste hors habba on :m lande, forhwga + 13 on ff mlum oe on syx mlum fram :m fo. onne + 14 rna hy: ealle tweard :m fo: onne cyme s man + 15 s t swiftoste hors hafa t :m :restan d:le and t + 16 :m m:stan, and sw :lc fter rum, o hit bi eall + 17 genumen; and s nim one l:stan d:l s ny:hst :m + 18 tne t feoh gerne. And onne rde :lc hys weges + 19 mid :m fo, and hyt mtan[8] habban eall; and for y: + 20 :r bo swiftan hors ungefge dy:re. And onne his + 21 gestron bo us eall spended, onne byr man hine t, + 22 and forbrne mid his w:pnum and hrgle; and swost + +[[page 110]] + + 1 ealle hys spda hy: forspenda mid :m langan legere + 2 s dadan mannes inne, and s e hy: be :m wegum + 3 lecga, e fremdan t rna, and nima. And t + 4 is mid Estum aw t :r sceal :lces geodes man + 5 bon forbrned; and gyf r[9] man n bn finde unforbrned, + 6 h hit sceolan[7] miclum gebtan. And :r is mid + 7 Estum n m:g t h magon cyle gewyrcan; and y: + 8 :r licga dadan men sw lange, and ne flia, t + 9 hy: wyrca one cyle him on. And ah man sette + 10 twgen f:tels full eala oe wteres, hy: ged t + 11 :ger bi oferfroren, sam hit sy: sumor sam winter. + + [4] = medu. + [5] = ealu. + [6] = leng. + [7] = sculon. + [8] = mton. + [9] = :r. + + [Linenotes: + + 109.2: #sceal#. See 137, Note 2 (2). + + 109.7: #lecga hit#. Bosworth illustrates thus: + + vi v iv iii ii i 1 2 3 4 5 6 + | | | | | | X + | | | | | | XX X X + | | | | | | XXX XX XX X X + ------------------------------- XXXX XXX XXX XX XX X + _e_ _d_ _c_ _b_ _a_ + Where the horsemen The six parts of the property + assemble. placed within one mile. + + "The horsemen assemble five or six miles from the property, at + _d_ or _e_, and run towards _c_; the man who has the swiftest + horse, coming first to 1 or _c_, takes the first and largest + part. The man who has the horse coming second takes part 2 or + _b_, and so, in succession, till the least part, 6or _a_, is + taken." + + 110.5-6: #man ... h#. Here the plural #h# refers to the + singular #man#. _Cf._ p.109, ll.18-19, #:lc ... mtan#. In + _Exodus_ xxxii, 24, we find "_Whosoever_ hath any gold, let + _them_ break it off"; and Addison writes, "Ido not mean that I + think _anyone_ to blame for taking due care of _their_ health." + The construction, though outlawed now, has been common in all + periods of our language. Paul remarks (_Prinzipien der + Sprachgeschichte_, 3d ed., 186) that "When a word is used as + an indefinite [one, man, somebody, etc.] it is, strictly + speaking, incapable of any distinction of number. Since, + however, in respect of the external form, aparticular number + has to be chosen, it is a matter of indifference which this + is.... Hence a change of numbers is common in the different + languages." Paul fails to observe that the change is always from + singular to plural, not from plural to singular. See _Note on + the Concord of Collectives and Indefinites_ (Anglia XI, 1901). + See p.119, note on ll.19-21.] + + +IV. THE STORY OF CDMON. + + [From the so-called Alfredian version of Bede's _Ecclesiastical + History_. The text generally followed is that of MS. Bodley, + Tanner 10.Miller (_Early English Text Society_, No. 95, + _Introd._) argues, chiefly from the use of the prepositions, that + the original O.E.MS. was Mercian, composed possibly in Lichfield + (Staffordshire). At any rate, O.E. idiom is frequently sacrificed + to the Latin original. + + "Cdmon, as he is called, is the first Englishman whose name we + know who wrote poetry in our island of England; and the first to + embody in verse the new passions and ideas which Christianity had + brought into England.... Undisturbed by any previous making of + lighter poetry, he came fresh to the work of Christianising + English song. It was a great step to make. He built the chariot in + which all the new religious emotions of England could now drive + along." (Brooke, _The History of Early English Literature_, + cap.XV.) There is no reason to doubt the historical existence of + Cdmon; for Bede, who relates the story, lived near Whitby, and + was seven years old when Cdmon died (A.D. 680)]. + +[[page 111]] + + 1 In ysse abbudissan mynstre ws sum bror syndriglce + 2 mid godcundre gife gem:red ond geweorad, for on + 3 he gewunade gerisenlce lo wyrcan, e t :festnisse[1] + 4 ond t rfstnisse belumpon; sw tte sw hwt sw + 5 h of godcundum stafum urh bceras geleornode, t h + 6 fter medmiclum fce in scopgereorde mid m:stan + 7 swtnisse ond inbryrdnisse geglengde, ond in Engliscgereorde + 8 wel geworht for brhte. Ond for his losongum + +[[page 112]] + + 1 monigra monna md oft to worulde forhogdnisse ond t + 2 geodnisse s heofonlcan lfes onbrnde w:ron. Ond + 3 ac swelce[2] monige re fter him in Ongelode ongunnon + 4 :feste lo wyrcan, ac n:nig hwre him t gelce + 5 dn ne meahte; for on h nls from monnum n urh + 6 mon gel:red ws t h one locrft leornade, ac h + 7 ws godcundlce gefultumod, ond urh Godes gife one + 8 songcrft onfng; ond h for on n:fre nht lasunge, + 9 n dles loes wyrcan ne meahte, ac efne n t + 10 :festnisse[1] belumpon ond his :festan tungan gedafenode + 11 singan. + + [1] = :fstnesse. + [2] = swilce. + + [Linenotes: + + 111.1: #ysse abbudissan.# The abbess referred to is the famous + Hild, or Hilda, then living in the monastery at Streones-halh, + which, according to Bede, means "Bay of the Beacon." The Danes + afterward gave it the name Whitby, or "White Town." The + surroundings were eminently fitted to nurture England's first + poet. "The natural scenery which surrounded him, the valley of + the Esk, on whose sides he probably lived, the great cliffs, the + billowy sea, the vast sky seen from the heights over the ocean, + played incessantly upon him." (Brooke.) + + Note, also, in this connection, the numerous Latin words that + the introduction of Christianity (A.D. 597) brought into the + vocabulary of O.E.: #abbudisse#, #mynster#, #bisceop#, #L:den#, + #prost#, #stel#, #mancus#. + + 112.4-5: The more usual order of words would be #ac n:nig, + hwre, ne meahte t dn gelce him#. + + 112.10-11: #ond his ... singan#, _and which it became his (the) + pious tongue to sing_.] + + 12 Ws h, s mon, in weoruldhde[3] geseted o tde e + 13 h ws gely:fdre ylde, ond n:fre n:nig lo geleornade. + 14 Ond h for on oft in geborscipe, onne :r ws blisse + 15 intinga gedmed, t ho[4] ealle sceolden urh endebyrdnesse + 16 be hearpan singan, onne h geseah hearpan him + 17 nalcan, onne rs h for scome from :m symble, + 18 ond hm ode t his hse. h t sumre tde + 19 dyde, t h forlt t hs s geborscipes, ond t ws + +[[page 113]] + + 1 gongende t nata scipene, ra heord him ws :re + 2 nihte beboden; h :r on gelimplcre tde his + 3 leomu[5] on reste gesette ond onslpte, a std him sum + 4 mon t urh swefn, ond hine hlette ond grtte, ond hine + 5 be his noman nemnde: "Cdmon, sing m hwthwugu." + 6 ondswarede h, ond cw: "Ne con ic nht singan; + 7 ond ic for on of yssum geborscipe t ode ond hider + 8 gewt, for on ic nht singan ne ce." Eft h cw s e + 9 wi hine sprecende ws: "Hwre meaht m singan." + 10 cw h: "Hwt sceal ic singan?" Cw h: "Sing + 11 m frumsceaft." h s andsware onfng, + 12 ongon h sna singan, in herenesse Godes Scyppendes, + 13 fers ond word e h n:fre ne gehy:rde, ra endebyrdnes + 14 is is: + + [3] = woruldhde. + [4] = he. + [5] = limu. + + [Linenotes: + + 112.14-15: #blisse intinga#, _for the sake of joy_; but the + translator has confused _laetitiae caus_ (ablative) and + _laetitiae causa_ (nominative). The proper form would be #for + blisse# with omission of #intingan#, just as _for my sake_ is + usually #for m#; _for his_ (_ortheir_) _sake_, #for him#. _Cf. + Mark_ vi, 26: "Yet _for his oath's sake, and for their sakes + which sat with him_, he would not reject her," #for :m e, ond + for :m e him mid s:ton#. _For his sake_ is frequently #for his + ingon# (#ingum#), rarely #for his intingan#. #ingon# is + regularly used when the preceding genitive is a noun denoting a + person: _for my wife's sake_, #for mnes wfes ingon# + (_Genesis_ xx,11), etc. + + 112.18-19: #t ... t h forlt#. The substantival clause + introduced by the second #t# amplifies by apposition the first + #t#: _When he then, at a certain time_ (instrumental case, + 98, (2)), _did that, namely, when he left the house_. The + better Mn.E. would be _this ... that_: "Added yet _this_ above + all, _that_ he shut up John in prison" (_Luke_ iv,20). + + 113.1-2: #ra ... beboden#. This does not mean that Cdmon was + a herdsman, but that he served in turn as did the other secular + attendants at the monastery. + + 113.13-14: #ra endebyrdnes is is#. Bede writes _Hic est + sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum_, and gives in Latin prose + a translation of the hymn from the Northumbrian dialect, in + which Cdmon wrote. The O.E. version given above is, of course, + not the Northumbrian original (which, however, with some + variations is preserved in several of the Latin MSS. of Bede's + _History_), but a West Saxon version made also from the + Northumbrian, not from the Latin.] + + 15 N sculon herigean[6] heofonrces Weard, + 16 Metodes meahte ond his mdgeanc, + 17 weorc Wuldorfder, sw h wundra gehws, + 18 ce Drihten r onstealde. + +[[page 114]] + + 1 H :rest scop eoran bearnum + 2 heofon t hrfe, hlig Scyppend; + 3 middangeard monncynnes Weard, + 4 ce Drihten, fter tode + 5 frum foldan, Fra lmihtig. + + [6] = herian. + + [Linenotes: + + 113.15: #N sculon herigean#, _Now ought we to praise_. The + subject #w# is omitted in the best MSS. Note the characteristic + use of synonyms, or epithets, in this bit of O.E. poetry. + Observe that it is not the _thought_ that is repeated, but + rather the _idea_, the _concept_, God. See p.124. + [[Poetry: Structure]] + + 113.17: #wundra gehws#. See p.140, note on #cnra gehwylcum# + [[_Beowulf_ 769]].] + + 6 rs h from :m sl:pe, ond eal e h sl:pende + 7 song fste in gemynde hfde; ond :m wordum sna + 8 monig word in t ilce gemet Gode wyres songes + 9 tgeodde. cm h on morgenne t :m tngerfan, + 10 s e his ealdormon ws: sgde him hwylce gife h + 11 onfng; ond h hine sna t :re abbudissan gel:dde, + 12 ond hire t cy:de ond sgde. heht ho gesomnian + 13 ealle gel:redestan men ond leorneras, ond him + 14 ondweardum ht secgan t swefn, ond t lo singan, + 15 t ealra heora[7] dme gecoren w:re, hwt oe hwonan + 16 t cumen w:re. ws him eallum gesewen, sw sw + 17 hit ws, t him w:re from Drihtne sylfum heofonlc + +[[page 115]] + + 1 gifu forgifen. rehton heo[4] him ond sgdon sum hlig + 2 spell ond godcundre lre word: bebudon him , gif h + 3 meahte, t h in swnsunge losonges t gehwyrfde. + 4 h hfde wsan onfongne, ode h hm t + 5 his hse, ond cwm eft on morgenne, ond y: betstan + 6 loe geglenged him song ond geaf t him beboden + 7 ws. + + [4] = he. + [7] = hiera. + + [Linenotes: + + 114.7-9: #ond :m wordum ... tgeodde#, _and to those words he + soon joined, in the same meter, many (other) words of song + worthy of God_. But the translator has not only blundered over + Bede's Latin (_eis mox plura in eundem modum verba Deo digna + carminis adjunxit_), but sacrificed still more the idiom of + O.E.The predicate should not come at the end; #in# should be + followed by the dative; and for #Gode wyres songes# the better + O.E. would be #songes Godes wyres#. When used with the dative + #wyr# (#weor#) usually means _dear_ (=_of worth_) _to_. + + 114.16: # ... gesewen#. We should expect #from him eallum#; + but the translator has again closely followed the Latin + (_visumque est omnibus_), as later (inthe _Conversion of + Edwin_) he renders _Talis mihi videtur_ by #yslc m is + gesewen#. _Talis_ (#yslc#) agreeing with a following _vita_ + (#lf#). lfric, however, with no Latin before him, writes that + John #wear him# [= #from Drihtene#] #inweardlce gelufod#. + It would seem that in proportion as a past participle has the + force of an adjective, the _to_ relation may supplant the _by_ + relation; just as we say _unknown to_ instead of _unknown by_, + _unknown_ being more adjectival than participial. #Gesewen#, + therefore, may here be translated _visible_, _evident_, _patent_ + (=#gesynelc#, #sweotol#); and #gelufod#, _dear_ (=#weor#, + #lof#). + + A survival of adjectival #gesewen# is found in Wycliffe's _New + Testament_ (1_Cor._ xv, 5-8): "He was _seyn to_ Cephas, and + aftir these thingis _to_ enleuene; aftirward he was _seyn to_ mo + than fyue hundrid britheren togidere ... aftirward he was _seyn + to_ James, and aftirward _to_ alle the apostlis. And last of + alle he was _seyn to_ me, as _to_ a deed borun child." The + construction is frequent in Chaucer.] + + 8 ongan so abbudisse clyppan ond lufigean[8] Godes + 9 gife in :m men, ond ho hine monade ond l:rde + 10 t h woruldhd forlte ond munuchd onfnge: ond + 11 h t wel afode. Ond ho hine in t mynster onfng + 12 mid his gdum, ond hine geodde t gesomnunge ra + 13 Godes owa, ond heht hine l:ran t getl s hlgan + 14 st:res ond spelles. Ond h eal h in gehy:rnesse + 15 geleornian meahte, mid hine gemyndgade, ond sw sw + 16 cl:ne nten[9] eodorcende in t swteste lo gehwyrfde. + 17 Ond his song ond his lo w:ron sw wynsumu t gehy:ranne, + 18 tte seolfan[10] his lrowas t his me writon + 19 ond leornodon. Song h :rest be middangeardes gesceape, + 20 ond b fruman moncynnes, ond eal t st:r Genesis (t + 21 is so :reste Moyses bc); ond eft b tgonge Israhla + 22 folces of :gypta londe, ond b ingonge s gehtlandes; + 23 ond b rum monegum spellum s hlgan gewrites + +[[page 116]] + + 1 cannes bca; ond b Crstes menniscnesse, ond b his + 2 rwunge, ond b his pstgnesse in heofonas; ond b + 3 s Hlgan Gstes cyme, ond ra apostola lre; ond eft + 4 b :m dge s tweardan dmes, ond b fyrhtu s + 5 tintreglcan wtes, ond b swtnesse s heofonlcan rces, + 6 h monig lo geworhte; ond swelce[2] ac er monig be + 7 :m godcundan fremsumnessum ond dmum h geworhte. + 8 In eallum :m h geornlce gmde[11] t h men tuge + 9 from synna lufan ond mnd:da, ond t lufan ond t + 10 geornfulnesse wehte gdra d:da, for on h ws, s + 11 mon, swe :fest ond regollcum odscipum amdlce + 12 underoded; ond wi :m e in re wsan dn woldon, + 13 h ws mid welme[12] micelre ellenwdnisse onbrned. + 14 Ond h for on fgre ende his lf bety:nde ond geendade. + + [2] = swilce. + [8] = lufian. + [9] = neten. + [10] = selfan. + [11] = gemde. + [12] = wielme. + + [Linenotes: + + 115.9-10: #ond ho hine monade ... munuchd onfnge#. Hild's + advice has in it the suggestion of a personal experience, for + she herself had lived half of her life (thirty-three years) + "before," says Bede, "she dedicated the remaining half to our + Lord in a monastic life." + + 116.6: #h monig lo geworhte#. The opinion is now gaining + ground that of these "many poems" only the short hymn, already + given, has come down to us. Of other poems claimed for Cdmon, + the strongest arguments are advanced in favor of a part of the + fragmentary poetical paraphrase of _Genesis_.] + + +V. ALFRED'S PREFACE TO THE PASTORAL CARE. + + [Based on the Hatton MS. Of the year 597, the _Chronicle_ says: + "In this year, Gregory the Pope sent into Britain Augustine with + very many monks, who gospelled [preached] God's word to the + English folk." Gregory I, surnamed "The Great," has ever since + been considered the apostle of English Christianity, and his + _Pastoral Care_, which contains instruction in conduct and + doctrine for all bishops, was a work that Alfred could not afford + to leave untranslated. For this translation Alfred wrote a + _Preface_, the historical value of which it would be hard to + overrate. In it he describes vividly the intellectual ruin that + the Danes had wrought, and develops at the same time his plan for + repairing that ruin. + + This _Preface_ and the _Battle of Ashdown_ (p.99) show the great + king in his twofold character of warrior and statesman, and + justify the inscription on the base of the statue erected to him + in 1877, at Wantage (Berkshire), his birth-place: "lfred found + Learning dead, and he restored it; Education neglected, and he + revived it; the laws powerless, and he gave them force; the Church + debased, and he raised it; the Land ravaged by a fearful Enemy, + from which he delivered it. lfred's name will live as long as + mankind shall respect the Past."] + +[[page 117]] + + 1 lfred kyning hte grtan Wrfer biscep[1] his wordum + 2 luflce ond frondlce; ond cy:an hte t m cm + 3 swe oft on gemynd, hwelce[2] witan u[3] w:ron giond[4] + 4 Angelcynn, :ger ge godcundra hda ge woruldcundra; + 5 ond h ges:liglca tda w:ron giond Angelcynn; ond + 6 h kyningas e one onwald hfdon s folces on + 7 m dagum Gode ond his :rendwrecum hrsumedon[5]; + 8 ond h he :ger ge hiora sibbe ge hiora siodo[6] ge hiora + 9 onweald innanbordes geholdon,[4] ond ac t hiora el + 10 gery:mdon; ond h him spow :ger ge mid wge ge + 11 mid wsdme; ond ac a godcundan hdas h giorne + 12 he w:ron :ger ge ymb lre ge ymb liornunga, ge ymb + 13 ealle owotdmas e he Gode dn scoldon; ond h + 14 man tanbordes wsdm ond lre hieder on lond shte, + 15 ond h w he n sceoldon te begietan, gif w he habban + 16 sceoldon. Sw:[7] cl:ne ho ws ofeallenu on Angelcynne + 17 t swe fawa w:ron behionan Humbre e hiora ninga + 18 cen understondan on Englisc oe furum n :rendgewrit + 19 of L:dene on Englisc reccean; ond ic wne tte + 20 nht monige begiondan Humbre n:ren. Sw:[7] fawa + 21 hiora w:ron t ic furum nne nlpne[8] ne mg geencean + +[[page 118]] + + 1 be san Temese, ic t rce fng. Gode lmihtegum + 2 se onc tte w n :nigne onstl habba + 3 lrowa. Ond for on ic bebode t d sw:[7] ic + 4 gelefe t wille, t issa woruldinga t :m + 5 ge:metige, sw: oftost mge, t one wsdm e + 6 God sealde :r :r hiene befstan mge, befste. + 7 Geenc hwelc[9] wtu s becmon for isse worulde, + 8 w hit nhwer n selfe ne lufodon, n ac rum + 9 monnum ne lfdon[10]: one naman nne w lufodon tte + 10 w Crstne w:ren, ond swe fawe awas. + + [1] = bisceop. + [2] = hwilce. + [3] = gu. + [4] = For all words with _io_ (_o_), consult Glossary under + _eo_ (_o_). + [5] = hersumedon. + [6] = sidu (siodu). + [7] = sw. + [8] = nlpigne. + [9] = hwilc. + [10] = lefdon. + + [Linenotes: + + 117.1-2: #lfred kyning hte ... hte#. Note the change from + the formal and official third person (#hte#) to the more + familiar first person (#hte#). So lfric, in his _Preface to + Genesis_, writes #lfric munuc grt elwrd ealdormann + admdlce. b:de m, lof, t ic#, etc.: _lfric, monk, + greets thelweard, alderman, humbly. Thou, beloved, didst bid me + that I_, etc. + + 118.5: Notice that #mge# (l.5) and #mge# (l.6) are not in + the subjunctive because the sense requires it, but because they + have been attracted by #g:metige# and #befste#. #Sen# (p.119, + l.15) and #hbben# (p.119, l.20) illustrate the same + construction. + + 118.9-10: _We liked only the reputation of being Christians, + very few_ (_ofus_) _the Christian virtues_.] + + 11 ic is eall gemunde, gemunde ic ac h ic + 12 geseah, :r :m e hit eall forhergod w:re ond forbrned, + 13 h ciricean giond eall Angelcynn stdon + 14 mma ond bca gefylda, ond ac micel menigeo[11] Godes + 15 owa; ond swe ly:tle fiorme ra bca wiston, for + 16 :m e he hiora nnwuht[12] ongietan ne meahton, for + 17 :m e he n:ron on hiora gen geode awritene. + 18 Swelce[13] he cw:den: "Ure ieldran, e s stwa :r + 19 holdon, he lufodon wsdm, ond urh one he begaton + 20 welan, ond s l:fdon. Hr mon mg get geson hiora + 21 sw, ac w him ne cunnon fter spyrigean,[14] ond for + 22 :m w habba n :ger forl:ten ge one welan ge one + 23 wsdm, for :m e w noldon t :m spore mid re + 24 mde onltan." + + [11] = menigu. + [12] = nnwiht. + [13] = swilce. + [14] = spyrian. + + 25 ic is eall gemunde, wundrade ic swe swe + 26 ra gdena wiotona[15] e gu w:ron giond Angelcynn, ond + 27 bc ealla be fullan geliornod hfdon, t he hiora + +[[page 119]] + + 1 n:nne d:l noldon on hiora gen geode wendan. Ac + 2 ic sna eft m selfum andwyrde, ond cw: "He ne + 3 wndon tte :fre menn sceolden sw:[7] reccelase weoran, + 4 ond so lr sw: ofeallan; for :re wilnunga he + 5 hit forlton, ond woldon t hr y: mra wsdm on + 6 londe w:re y: w m geoda con." + + [7] = sw. + [15] = witena. + + 7 gemunde ic h so : ws :rest on Ebrisc geode + 8 funden, ond eft, he Cracas geliornodon, wendon + 9 he he on hiora gen geode ealle, ond ac ealle re + 10 bc. Ond eft L:denware sw: same, sian he he geliornodon, + 11 he he wendon ealla urh wse wealhstdas + 12 on hiora gen geode. Ond ac ealla ra Crstena + 13 oda sumne d:l hiora on hiora gen geode wendon. + 14 For y: m ync betre, gif ow sw: ync, t w ac + 15 suma bc, e nedbeearfosta sen eallum monnum + 16 t wiotonne,[16] t w on t geode wenden e w + 17 ealle gecnwan mgen, ond gedn sw: w swe ae + 18 magon mid Godes fultume, gif w stilnesse habba, + 19 tte eall so giogu e n is on Angelcynne friora + 20 monna, ra e spda hbben t he :m befolan + 21 mgen, sen t liornunga ofste, hwle e he t + +[[page 120]] + + 1 nnre erre note ne mgen, o one first e he wel + 2 cunnen Englisc gewrit r:dan: l:re mon sian furur + 3 on L:dengeode e mon furor l:ran wille, ond t + 4 herran hde dn wille. ic gemunde h so lr + 5 L:dengeodes :r issum feallen ws giond Angelcynn, + 6 ond eah monige con Englisc gewrit r:dan, + 7 ongan ic ongemang orum mislcum ond manigfealdum + 8 bisgum isses kynerces bc wendan on Englisc e is + 9 genemned on L:den "Pastoralis," ond on Englisc "Hierdebc," + 10 hwlum word be worde, hwlum andgit of andgiete, + 11 sw: sw: ic he geliornode t Plegmunde mnum + 12 rcebiscepe, ond t Assere mnum biscepe, ond t Grimbolde + 13 mnum msseproste, ond t Ihanne mnum msseproste. + 14 Sian ic he geliornod hfde, sw: sw: + 15 ic he forstd, ond sw: ic he andgitfullcost reccean + 16 meahte, ic he on Englisc wende; ond t :lcum biscepstle + 17 on mnum rce wille ne onsendan; ond on :lcre + 18 bi n stel, s bi on fftegum mancessa. Ond ic bebode + 19 on Godes naman t nn mon one stel from + 20 :re bc ne d, n bc from :m mynstre; unc h + 21 longe :r sw: gel:rede biscepas sen, sw: sw: n, Gode + 22 onc, wel hw:r siendon. For y: ic wolde tte he ealneg + +[[page 121]] + + 1 t :re stwe w:ren, bton s biscep he mid him + 2 habban wille, oe ho hw:r t l:ne se, oe hw re + 3 b wrte. + + [16] = witanne. + + [Linenotes: + + 119.14: Alfred is here addressing the bishops collectively, and + hence uses the plural #ow# (=#ow#), not ##. + + 119.16: #t w #. These three words are not necessary to the + sense. They constitute the figure known as epanalepsis, in which + "the same word or phrase is repeated after one or more + intervening words." ## is the pronominal substitute for #suma + bc#. + + 119.17: #Gedn# is the first person plural subjunctive (from + infinitive #gedn#). It and #wenden# are in the same + construction. Two things seem "better" to Alfred: (1)_that we + translate_, etc., (2)_that we cause_, etc. + + 119.19-21: #so giogu ... is ... he ... sen#. Notice how the + collective noun, #giogu#, singular at first both in form and + function, gradually loses its oneness before the close of the + sentence is reached, and becomes plural. The construction is + entirely legitimate in Mn.E. Spanish is the only modern language + known to me that condemns such an idiom: "Spanish ideas of + congruity do not permit a collective noun, though denoting a + plurality, to be accompanied by a plural verb or adjective in + the same clause" (Ramsey, _Text-Book of Modern Spanish_, + 1452). + + 120.2: #l:re mon#. See 105, 1. + + 120.11-13: That none of these advisers of the king, except + Plegmond, aMercian, were natives, bears out what Alfred says + about the scarcity of learned men in England when he began to + reign. Asser, to whose Latin _Life of Alfred_, in spite of its + mutilations, we owe almost all of our knowledge of the king, + came from St. David's (inWales), and was made Bishop of + Sherborne. + + 121.1: Translate #:t :re stwe# by _each in its place_. The + change from plural #he# (in#he ... w:ren#) to singular #he# + (inthe clauses that follow) will thus be prepared for. + + 121.2-3: #oe hw re b wrte#, _or unless some one wish to + copy a new one_ (_write thereby another_).] + + + + +POETRY. + +INTRODUCTORY. + + [Transcriber's Note: + + In Section II., Structure, the stress markers and ` are intended + to display above the macron () or breve (u or [)]). In this + simplified Latin-1 text, they are shown before (to the left of) the + macron: + + ` + + "Resolved stress" (two short syllables acting as one long) is shown + with braces: + + {u } + + Where there is no risk of ambiguity, the breve is shown as the + letter u; elsewhere it is shown in brackets as [)].] + + +I. HISTORY. + +(a) #Old English Poetry as a Whole.# + +Northumbria was the home of Old English poetry. Beginning with Cdmon +and his school A.D. 670, Northumbria maintained her poetical supremacy +till A.D. 800, seven years before which date the ravages of the Danes +had begun. When Alfred ascended the throne of Wessex (871), the Danes +had destroyed the seats of learning throughout the whole of Northumbria. +As Whitby had been "the cradle of English poetry," Winchester (Alfred's +capital) became now the cradle of English prose; and the older poems +that had survived the fire and sword of the Vikings were translated from +the original Northumbrian dialect into the West Saxon dialect. It is, +therefore, in the West Saxon dialect that these poems[1] have come down +tous. + +Old English poetry contains in all only about thirty thousand lines; but +it includes epic, lyric, didactic, elegiac, and allegorical poems, +together with war-ballads, paraphrases, riddles, and charms. Of the five +elegiac poems (_Wanderer_, _Seafarer_, _Ruin_, _Wife's Complaint_, and +_Husband's Message_), the _Wanderer_ is the most artistic, and best +portrays the gloomy contrast between past happiness and present grief so +characteristic of the Old English lyric. + +Old English literature has no love poems. The central themes of its +poets are battle and bereavement, with a certain grim resignation on the +part of the hero to the issues of either. The movement of the thought is +usually abrupt, there being a noticeable poverty of transitional +particles, or connectives, "which," says Ten Brink, "are the cement of +sentence-structure." + + +(b) #Beowulf.# + +The greatest of all Old English poems is the epic, _Beowulf_.[2] It +consists of more than three thousand lines, and probably assumed +approximately its present form in Northumbria about A.D. 700. It is a +crystallization of continental myths; and, though nothing is said of +England, the story is an invaluable index to the social, political, and +ethical ideals of our Germanic ancestors before and after they settled +along the English coast. It is most poetical, and its testimony is +historically most valuable, in the character-portraits that it contains. +The fatalism that runs through it, instead of making the characters weak +and less human, serves at times rather to dignify and elevate them. +"Fate," says Beowulf (l.572), recounting his battle with the +sea-monsters, "often saves an undoomed man _if his courage hold out_." + +"The ethical essence of this poetry," says Ten Brink, "lies principally +in the conception of manly virtue, undismayed courage, the stoical +encounter with death, silent submission to fate, in the readiness to +help others, in the clemency and liberality of the prince toward his +thanes, and the self-sacrificing loyalty with which they reward him." + + NOTE 1.--Many different interpretations have been put upon the + story of _Beowulf_ (for argument of story, see texts). Thus + Mllenhoff sees in Grendel the giant-god of the storm-tossed + equinoctial sea, while Beowulf is the Scandinavian god Freyr, who + in the spring drives back the sea and restores the land. Laistner + finds the prototype of Grendel in the noxious exhalations that + rise from the Frisian coast-marshes during the summer months; + Beowulf is the wind-hero, the autumnal storm-god, who dissipates + the effluvia. + + [Footnote 1: This does not, of course, include the few short + poems in the _Chronicle_, or that portion of _Genesis_ + (_GenesisB_) supposed to have been put directly into West Saxon + from an Old Saxon original. There still remain in Northumbrian + the version of _Cdmon's Hymn_, fragments of the _Ruthwell + Cross_, _Bede's Death-Song_, and the _Leiden Riddle_.] + + [Footnote 2: The word _bowulf_, says Grimm, meant originally + _bee-wolf_, or _bee-enemy_, one of the names of the woodpecker. + Sweet thinks the bear was meant. But the word is almost + certainly a compound of _Bow_ (cf.O.E. #bow# = grain), + aDanish demigod, and _wulf_ used as a mere suffix.] + + +II. STRUCTURE. + +(a) #Style.# + +In the structure of Old English poetry the most characteristic feature +is the constant repetition of the idea (sometimes of the thought) with a +corresponding variation of phrase, or epithet. When, for example, the +Queen passes into the banquet hall in _Beowulf_, she is designated at +first by her name, #Wealhow#; she is then described in turn as #cwn +Hrgres# (_Hrothgar's queen_), #gold-hroden# (_the gold-adorned_), +#frolc wf# (_the noble woman_), #ides Helminga# (_the Helmings' +lady_), #bag-hroden cwn# (_the ring-adorned queen_), #mde geungen# +(_the high-spirited_), and #gold-hroden frolcu folc-cwn# (_the +gold-adorned, noble folk-queen_). + +And whenever the sea enters largely into the poet's verse, not content +with simple (uncompounded) words (such as #s:#, #lagu#, #holm#, +#stram#, #mere#, etc.), he will use numerous other equivalents (phrases +or compounds), such as #waema gebind# (_the commingling of waves_), +#lagu-fld# (_the sea-flood_), #lagu-str:t# (_the sea-street_), +#swan-rd# (_the swan-road_), etc. These compounds are usually nouns, or +adjectives and participles used in a sense more appositive than +attributive. + +It is evident, therefore, that this abundant use of compounds, or +periphrastic synonyms, grows out of the desire to repeat the idea in +varying language. It is to be observed, also, that the Old English poets +rarely make any studied attempt to balance phrase against phrase or +clause against clause. Theirs is a repetition of idea, rather than a +parallelism of structure. + + NOTE 1.--It is impossible to tell how many of these synonymous + expressions had already become stereotyped, and were used, like + many of the epithets in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, purely as + padding. When, for example, the poet tells us that at the most + critical moment Beowulf's sword failed him, adding in the same + breath, #ren :r-gd# (_matchless blade_), we conclude that the + bard is either nodding or parroting. + + +(b) #Meter.# + +[Re-read 10, (3).] + +_Primary Stress._ + +Old English poetry is composed of certain rhythmically ordered +combinations of accented and unaccented syllables. The accented syllable +(the arsis) is usually long, and will be indicated by the macron with +the acute accent over it (); when short, by the breve with the same +accent (u). The unaccented syllable or syllables (the thesis) may be +long or short, and will be indicated by the oblique cross (). + +_Secondary Stress._ + +A secondary accent, or stress, is usually put upon the second member of +compound and derivative nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. This will be +indicated by the macron with the grave accent, if the secondary stress +falls on a long syllable (`); by the breve with the same accent, if the +secondary stress falls on a short syllable (`u). + +Nouns: + + Hrgres ( ` ), fondgrpum ( ` ), from:gum ( ` ), + ast-Dena ( `u ), Helminga ( ` ), Scyldinga ( ` ), + nhaga ( `u ), Ecgowes ( ` ), sinc-fato ( `u ). + +Adjectives:[1] + + :ghwylcne ( ` ), rsthy:dig ( ` ), gold-hroden ( `u ), + drorigne ( ` ), gyldenne ( ` ), erne ( ` ), + g:stlcum ( ` ), wynsume ( `u ), :nigne ( ` ). + +Adverbs:[2] + + unsfte ( ` ), heardlce ( ` ), semninga ( ` ). + +The Old English poets place also a secondary accent upon the ending of +present participles (#-ende#), and upon the penultimate of weak verbs of +the second class (130), provided the root-syllable is long.[3] + +Present participles: + + sl:pendne ( ` ), ws-hycgende ( ` ), flotendra ( ` ), + hrosende ( ` ). + +Weak verbs: + + swynsode ( `u ), ancode ( `u ), wnigean ( `u ), + scawian ( `u ), scawige ( `u ), hlfian ( `u ). + + [Footnote 1: It will be seen that the adjectives are chiefly + derivatives in -ig, -en, -er, -lc, and -sum.] + + [Footnote 2: Most of the adverbs belonging here end in #-lce#, + #-unga#, and #-inga#, 93, (1), (2): such words as #t-g[]dere#, + #on-g[]an#, #on-wg#, #t-g[]anes#, #t-mddes#, etc., are + invariably accented as here indicated.] + + [Footnote 3: It will save the student some trouble to remember + that this means long by nature (#lcodon#), or long by position + (#swynsode#), or long by resolution of stress (#maelode#),--see + next paragraph.] + + +_Resolved Stress._ + +A short accented syllable followed in the same word by an unaccented +syllable (usually short also) is equivalent to one long accented +syllable (u =). This is known as a resolved stress, and will be +indicated thus, {u }; + + hlea ({u }), guman ({u }), Gode ({u }), sele-ful ({u }), + ides ({u }), fyrena ({u }), maelode ({u }`u ), + hogode ({u }), mgen-ellen ({u }` ), + hige-ihtigne ({u } ` ), Metudes ({u }), + lagulde ({u }` ), unlyfigendes ({u }` ), + biforan ({u }), forolian ({u }), baian ({u }), + worolde ({u } ). + +Resolution of stress may also attend secondary stresses: + + sinc-fato ( {`u }), dryht-sele ( {`u }), ferloca ( {`u }), + forwege ( {`u }). + + +_The Normal Line._ + +Every normal line of Old English poetry has four primary accents, two in +the first half-line and two in the second half-line. These half-lines +are separated by the cesura and united by alliteration, the alliterative +letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the second +half-line. This syllable, therefore, gives the cue to the scansion of +the whole line. It is also the only alliterating syllable in the second +half-line. The first half-line, however, usually has two alliterating +syllables, but frequently only one (the ratio being about three to two +in the following selections). When the first half-line contains but one +alliterating syllable, that syllable marks the first stress, rarely the +second. The following lines are given in the order of their frequency: + + (1) :r ws _h_[]lea _h_lahtor; _h_l[y]n sw[y]nsode. + (2) _m_[]de gengen, _m_do-ful tb[]r. + (3) s[]na t on_f_nde _f_[y]rena h[y]rde. + +Any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with any other initial +vowel or diphthong; but a consonant requires the same consonant, except +st, sp, and sc, each of which alliterates only with itself. + +Remembering, now, that either half-line (especially the second) may +begin with several unaccented syllables (these syllables being known in +types A, D, and E as the _anacrusis_), but that neither half-line can +end with more than one unaccented syllable, the student may begin at +once to read and properly accentuate Old English poetry. It will be +found that the alliterative principle does not operate mechanically, but +that the poet employs it for the purpose of emphasizing the words that +are really most important. Sound is made subservient to sense. + +When, from the lack of alliteration, the student is in doubt as to what +word to stress, let him first get the exact meaning of the line, and +then put the emphasis on the word or words that seem to bear the chief +burden of the poet's thought. + + NOTE 1.--A few lines, rare or abnormal in their alliteration or + lack of alliteration, may here be noted. In the texts to be read, + there is one line with no alliteration: _Wanderer_ 58; three of + the type _a b_ | _a b_: _Beowulf_ 654, 830, 2746; one of + the type _a a_ | _b a_: _Beowulf_ 2744; one of the type _a + a_ | _b c_: _Beowulf_ 2718; and one of the type _a b_ + | _c a_: _Beowulf_ 2738. + + +_The Five Types._ + +By an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical unit in Old English +verse, the half-line, Professor Eduard Sievers,[4] of the University of +Leipzig, has shown that there are only five types, or varieties, +employed. These he classifies as follows, the perpendicular line serving +to separate the so-called feet, or measures: + + 1. A | + + 2. B | + + 3. C | + + 4. D { D^1 | ` + { D^2 | ` + + 5. E { E^1 ` | + { E^2 ` | + +It will be seen (1)that each half-line contains two, and only two, +feet; (2)that each foot contains one, and only one, primary stress; +(3)that A is trochaic, Biambic; (4)that C is iambic-trochaic; +(5)that D and E consist of the same feet but in inverse order. + + [Footnote 4: Sievers' two articles appeared in the _Beitrge zur + Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur_, Vols. X(1885) + and XII (1887). Abrief summary, with slight modifications, is + found in the same author's _Altgermanische Metrik_, pp.120-144 + (1893). + + Before attempting to employ Sievers' types, the student would do + well to read several pages of Old English poetry, taking care to + accentuate according to the principles already laid down. In + this way his ear will become accustomed to the rhythm of the + line, and he will see more clearly that Sievers' work was one + primarily of systematization. Sievers himself says: "Ihad read + Old English poetry for years exactly as I now scan it, and long + before I had the slightest idea that what I did instinctively + could be formulated into a system of set rules." + (_Altgermanische Metrik_, _Vorwort_, p.10.)] + + +_The Five Types Illustrated._ + + [[Transcriber's Note: In the printed book, all examples line up + vertically at the main |.]] + + [All the illustrations, as hitherto, are taken from the texts to + be read. The figures prefixed indicate whether first or second + half-line is cited. B= _Beowulf_; W = _Wanderer_.] + +1. TYPE A, | + +Two or more unaccented syllables (instead of one) may intervene between +the two stresses, but only one may follow the last stress. If the thesis +in either foot is the second part of a compound it receives, of course, +asecondary stress. + + (2) ful gesealde, B. 616, | + (1) wdre gewindan, B. 764, | + (1)[5] Gemunde s gda, B. 759 | | + (1)[5] swylce h on ealder-dagum, B. 758, | | u + (1) y:de sw isne eardgeard, W. 85, | ` + (1) ws-fst wordum, B. 627, ` | + (1) gryre-lo galan, B. 787, {u } ` | u + (2) somod tgdre, W. 39, {u } | + (1) dugue ond geogoe, B. 622, {u } | {u } + (1) f:ger fold-bold, B. 774, | ` + (1) atelc egesa, B. 785, {u } ` | {u } + (2) goldwine mnne, W. 22, {`u } | + (1) egesan on [> *han: 118], B. 2737, {u } | + + NOTE.--Rare forms of A are ` | (does not occur in + texts), ` | ` (occurs once, B. 781 (1)), and ` | + (once, B. 2743(1)). + + [Footnote 5: The first perpendicular marks the limit of the + anacrusis.] + +2. TYPE B, | + +Two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables may intervene between +the stresses. The type of B most frequently occurring is | . + + (1) ond frolc wf, B. 616, | + (2) h on lust geeah, B. 619, | נ + (2) se eling gong, B. 2716, {u } | נ + (2) seah on enta geweorc, B. 2718, | נ + (1) ofer flda genipu, B. 2809, | {u } + (1) foram m wtan ne earf, B. 2742, | נ + (2) aes e hire se willa gelamp, B. 627, | נ + (1) foron ne mg weoran ws, W. 64, | נ + (1) N:fre ic :negum [= :n'gum] men, B. 656, | נ + + NOTE.--In the last half-line Sievers substitutes the older form + #:ngum#, and supposes elision of the e in #N:fre# (= #N:fr-ic#: + ״|״). + +3. TYPE C, | + +The conditions of this type are usually satisfied by compound and +derivative words, and the second stress (not so strong as the first) is +frequently on a short syllable. The two arses rarely alliterate. As in +B, two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more common than +one. + + (1) t ho on :nigne, B. 628, | + (1) t ic nunga, B. 635, | + (2) ode gold-hroden, B. 641, | u + (1) gemyne m:ro, B. 660, {u } | + (1) on isse meodu-healle, B. 639, {u } | + (2) t brimes nosan, B. 2804, {u } | u + (2) t Wealhon [= -owan], B. 630, | + (1) geond lagulde, W. 3, {u } | + (1) Sw cw eardstapa, W. 6, | u + (2) al byrnwiga, W. 94, | u + (2) n :r fela bringe, W. 54, {u } | + +4. TYPE D, { D^1 | ` + { D^2 | ` + +Both types of D may take one unaccented syllable between the two primary +stresses ( | ` , | נ`). The secondary stress in D^1 +falls usually on the second syllable of a compound or derivative word, +and this syllable (asinC) is frequently short. + +(a) D^1 | ` + + (1) cwn Hrgres, B. 614, | ` + (2) d:l :ghwylcne, B. 622, | ` + (1) Bowulf maelode, B. 632, | {u } `u + (2) slt unwearnum, B. 742, | ` + (1) wrra wlsleahta, W. 7, | ` + (1) wd wintercearig [= wint'rcearig], W. 24, | `u + (1) shte sele drorig, W. 25, | {u } ` + (1) ne shte searo-nas, B. 2739, | | {u } ` + + NOTE.--There is one instance in the texts (B.613, (1)) of + apparent | `u : #word w:ron wynsume#. (The triple + alliteration has no significance. The sense, besides, precludes + our stressing #w:ron#.) The difficulty is avoided by bringing the + line under the A type: | {u }. + +(b) D^2 | ` + + (2) For nar tstp, B. 746, | ` + (2) eorl furur stp, B. 762, | ` + (2) Denum eallum wear, B. 768, {u } | ` + (1) grtte Gata lod, B. 626, | ` + (1) :nig yrfe-weard, B. 2732, | ` + (1) hrosan hrm and snw, W. 48, | ` + (2) swimma eft on weg, W. 53, | נ` + +Very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded. + + (2) egn ungemete till, B. 2722, | נ` + (1) hrsan heolster biwrh, W. 23, | ` + +5. TYPE E, {E^1 ` | + {E^2 ` | + +The secondary stress in E^1 falls frequently on a short syllable, as in +D^1. + +(a) E^1 ` | + + (1) wyrmlcum fh, W. 98, ` | + (2) medo-ful tbr, B. 625, {u } `u | + (1) s:-bt gest, B. 634, ` | + (1) sige-folca swg, B. 645, {u } ` | + (2) Nor-Denum std, B. 784, `u | + (1) fond-grpum fst, B. 637, ` | + (2) wyn eal gedras, W. 36, ` | + (2) feor oft gemon, W. 90, ` | + +As in D^2, the thesis in the first foot is very rarely expanded. + + (1) wn-rnes geweald, B. 655, ` | + (1) Hafa n ond geheald, B. 659, {u } ` | + (1) searo-oncum besmiod, B. 776, {u } ` | {u } + + NOTE.--Our ignorance of Old English sentence-stress makes it + impossible for us to draw a hard-and-fast line in all cases + between D^2 and E^1. For example, in these half-lines (already + cited), + + wyn eal gedras + feor oft gemon + For nar tstp + + if we throw a strong stress on the adverbs that precede their + verbs, the type is D^2. Lessen the stress on the adverbs and + increase it on the verbs, and we have E^1. The position of the + adverbs furnishes no clue; for the order of words in Old English + was governed not only by considerations of relative emphasis, but + by syntactic and euphonic considerations as well. + +(_b_) E^2 ` | + +This is the rarest of all types. It does not occur in the texts, there +being but one instance of this type (l.2437 (2)), and that doubtful, in +the whole of _Beowulf_. + +_Abnormal Lines._ + +The lines that fall under none of the five types enumerated are +comparatively few. They may be divided into two classes, +(1)hypermetrical lines, and (2)defective lines. + +(1) HYPERMETRICAL LINES. + +Each hypermetrical half-line has usually three stresses, thus giving six +stresses to the whole line instead of two. These lines occur chiefly in +groups, and mark increased range and dignity in the thought. Whether the +half-line be first or second, it is usually of the A type without +anacrusis. To this type belong the last five lines of the _Wanderer_. +Lines 92 and 93 are also unusually long, but not hypermetrical. The +first half-line of 65 is hypermetrical, afusion of A and C, consisting +of ( {u }| ). + +(2) DEFECTIVE LINES. + +The only defective lines in the texts are B. 748 and 2715 (the second +half-line in each). As they stand, these half-lines would have to be +scanned thus: + + r:hte ongan | + bealo-n woll {u } ` | + +Sievers emends as follows: + + r:hte tganes | = A + bealo-ne woll {u } | = E^1 + +These defective half-lines are made up of syntactic combinations found +on almost every page of Old English prose. That they occur so rarely in +poetry is strong presumptive evidence, if further evidence were needed, +in favor of the adequacy of Sievers' five-fold classification. + + NOTE.--All the lines that could possibly occasion any difficulty + to the student have been purposely cited as illustrations under + the different types. If these are mastered, the student will find + it an easy matter to scan the lines that remain. + + + + +SELECTIONS FOR READING. + + +VI. EXTRACTS FROM BEOWULF. + +THE BANQUET IN HEOROT. [Lines 612-662.] + + [The Heyne-Socin text has been closely followed. Ihave attempted + no original emendations, but have deviated from the Heyne-Socin + edition in a few cases where the Grein-Wlker text seemed to give + the better reading. + + The argument preceding the first selection is as follows: + Hrothgar, king of the Danes, or Scyldings, elated by prosperity, + builds a magnificent hall in which to feast his retainers; but a + monster, Grendel by name, issues from his fen-haunts, and night + after night carries off thane after thane from the banqueting + hall. For twelve years these ravages continue. At last Beowulf, + nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats (apeople of South Sweden), + sails with fourteen chosen companions to Dane-land, and offers his + services to the aged Hrothgar. "Leave me alone in the hall + to-night," says Beowulf. Hrothgar accepts Beowulf's proffered aid, + and before the dread hour of visitation comes, the time is spent + in wassail. The banquet scene follows.] + + + :r ws hlea hleahtor, hlyn swynsode, + word w:ron wynsume. ode Wealhow for, + cwn Hrgres, cynna gemyndig; + grtte gold-hroden guman on healle, [615] + ond frolc wf ful gesealde + :rest ast-Dena el-wearde, + bd hine blne t :re bor-ege, + lodum lofne; h on lust geeah + symbel ond sele-ful, sige-rf kyning. [620] + Ymb-ode ides Helminga + dugue ond geogoe d:l :ghwylcne, + sinc-fato sealde, o t s:l lamp + t ho[1] Bowulfe, bag-hroden cwn, + mde geungen, medo[2]-ful tbr; [625] + grtte Gata lod, Gode ancode + ws-fst wordum, s e hire se willa gelamp, + t ho on :nigne eorl gely:fde + fyrena frfre. H t ful geeah, + wl-row wiga, t Wealhon, [630] + ond gyddode ge gefy:sed; + Bowulf maelode, bearn Ecgowes: + "Ic t hogode, ic on holm gesth, + s:-bt gest mid mnra secga gedriht, + t ic nunga owra loda [635] + willan geworhte, oe on wl crunge + fond-grpum fst. Ic gefremman sceal + eorlc ellen, oe ende-dg + on isse meodu[2]-healle mnne gebdan." + m wfe word wel lcodon, [640] + gilp-cwide Gates; ode gold-hroden + frolicu folc-cwn t hire fran sittan. + ws eft sw :r inne on healle + ry:-word sprecen,[3] od on s:lum, + sige-folca swg, o t semninga [645] + sunu Healfdenes scean wolde + :fen-rste; wiste :m hl:can[4] + t :m hah-sele hilde geinged, + sian he sunnan loht geson _ne_ meahton + oe npende niht ofer ealle, [650] + scadu-helma gesceapu scran cwman,[5] + wan under wolcnum. Werod eall rs; + grtte _giddum_ guma erne + Hrgr Bowulf, ond him h:l bad, + wn-rnes geweald, ond t word cw: [655] + "N:fre ic :negum[6] men :r ly:fde, + sian ic hond ond rond hebban mihte, + ry:-rn Dena bton n . + Hafa n ond geheald hsa slest, + gemyne m:ro,[7] mgen-ellen cy:, [660] + waca wi wrum. Ne bi wilna gd, + gif t ellen-weorc aldre[8] gedgest." + + [1] = ho. + [2] = medu-. + [3] = gesprecen. + [4] = gl:can. + [5] = cwmon. + [6] = :nigum. + [7] = m:re (acc. sing.). + [8] = ealdre (instr. sing.). + + [Linenotes: + + 623: #sinc-fato sealde#. Banning (_Die epischen Formeln im + Beowulf_) shows that the usual translation, _gave costly gifts_, + must be given up; or, at least, that the _costly gifts_ are + nothing more than _beakers of mead_. The expression is an epic + formula for _passing the cup_. + + 638-39: #ende-g ... mnne#. This unnatural separation of + noun and possessive is frequent in O.E. poetry, but almost + unknown in prose. + + 641-42: #ode ... sittan#. The poet might have employed #t + sittanne# (108, (1)); but in poetry the infinitive is often + used for the gerund. Alfred himself uses the infinitive or the + gerund to express purpose after #gn#, #gongan#, #cuman#, and + #sendan#. + + 647-51: #wiste ... cwman#. A difficult passage, even with + Thorpe's inserted #ne#; but there is no need of putting a period + after #geinged#, or of translating #oe# by _and_: _He + (Hrothgar) knew that battle was in store_ (#geinged#) _for the + monster in the high hall, after_ [= _as soon as_] _they could no + longer see the sun's light, or_ [= _that is_] _after night came + darkening over all, and shadowy figures stalking_. The subject + of #cwman# [= #cwmon#] is #niht# and #gesceapu#. + + The student will note that the infinitive (#scran#) is here + employed as a present participle after a verb of motion + (#cwman#). This construction with #cuman# is frequent in prose + and poetry. The infinitive expresses the kind of motion: #ic cm + drfan# = _I came driving_.] + + +THE FIGHT BETWEEN BEOWULF AND GRENDEL. [Lines 740-837.] + + [The warriors all retire to rest except Beowulf. Grendel + stealthily enters the hall. From his eyes gleams "aluster + unlovely, likest to fire." The combat begins at once.] + + Ne t se gl:ca yldan hte, [740] + ac h gefng hrae forman se + sl:pendne rinc, slt unwearnum, + bt bn-locan, bld drum dranc, + syn-sn:dum swealh; sna hfde + unlyfigendes eal gefeormod [745] + ft ond folma. For nar tstp, + nam mid handa hige-ihtigne + rinc on rste; r:hte ongan + fond mid folme; h onfng hrae + inwit-ancum ond wi earm gest. [750] + Sna t onfunde fyrena hyrde, + t h ne mtte middan-geardes, + eoran scatta, on elran men + mund-gripe mran; h on mde wear + forht, on ferhe; n y: :r fram meahte. [755] + Hyge ws him hin-fs, wolde on heolster flon, + scan dofla gedrg; ne ws his drohto :r, + swylce h on ealder[1]-dagum :r gemtte. + Gemunde se gda m:g Higelces + :fen-spr:ce, p-lang std [760] + ond him fste wifng; fingras burston; + eoten ws t-weard; eorl furur stp. + Mynte se m:ra, hw:r h meahte sw, + wdre gewindan ond on weg anon + flon on fen-hopu; wiste his fingra geweald [765] + on grames grpum. t ws gocor s, + t se hearm-scaa t Heorute[2] tah. + Dryht-sele dynede; Denum eallum wear + ceaster-bendum, cnra gehwylcum, + eorlum ealu-scerwen. Yrre w:ron bgen [770] + re rn-weardas. Reced hlynsode; + ws wundor micel, t se wn-sele + wihfde heao-dorum, t h on hrsan ne fol, + f:ger fold-bold; ac h s fste ws + innan ond tan ren-bendum [775] + searo-oncum besmiod. :r fram sylle bag + medu-benc monig, mne gefr:ge, + golde geregnad, :r graman wunnon; + s ne wndon :r witan Scyldinga, + t hit mid gemete manna :nig, [780] + betlc ond bn-fg, tbrecan meahte, + listum tlcan, nyme lges fm + swulge on swaule. Swg p stg + nwe geneahhe; Nor-Denum std + atelc egesa, nra gehwylcum, [785] + ra e of wealle wp gehy:rdon, + gryre-lo galan Godes ondsacan, + sige-lasne sang, sr wnigean + helle hfton.[3] Hold hine fste, + s e manna ws mgene strengest [790] + on :m dge ysses lfes. + Nolde eorla hlo :nige inga + one cwealm-cuman cwicne forl:tan, + n his lf-dagas loda :nigum + nytte tealde. :r genehost br:gd [795] + eorl Bowulfes ealde lfe, + wolde fra-drihtnes feorh ealgian, + m:res odnes, :r he meahton sw. + He t ne wiston, he gewin drugon, + heard-hicgende hilde-mecgas, [800] + ond on healfa gehwone hawan hton, + swle scan: one syn-scaan + :nig ofer eoran renna cyst, + g-billa nn, grtan nolde; + ac h sige-w:pnum forsworen hfde, [805] + ecga gehwylcre. Scolde his aldor[4]-gedl + on :m dge ysses lfes + earmlc wuran[5] ond se ellor-gst + on fonda geweald feor sian. + t onfunde, s e fela :ror [810] + mdes myre manna cynne + fyrene gefremede (h _w:s_ fg wi God), + t him se lc-homa l:stan nolde, + ac hine se mdega[6] m:g Hygelces + hfde be honda; ws gehwer rum [815] + lifigende l. Lc-sr gebd + atol :gl:ca[7]; him on eaxle wear + syn-dolh sweotol; seonowe onsprungon; + burston bn-locan. Bowulfe wear + g-hr gyfee. Scolde Grendel onan [820] + feorh-soc flon under fen-hleou,[8] + scean wyn-las wc; wiste geornor, + t his aldres[9] ws ende gegongen, + dgera dg-rm. Denum eallum wear + fter m wl-r:se willa gelumpen. [825] + Hfde gef:lsod, s e :r feorran cm, + snotor ond swy:-ferh, sele Hrgres, + genered wi ne. Niht-weorce gefeh, + ellen-m:rum; hfde ast-Denum + Gat-mecga lod gilp gel:sted; [830] + swylce oncy:e ealle gebtte, + inwid-sorge, e he :r drugon + ond for ra-ny:dum olian scoldon, + torn unly:tel. t ws tcen sweotol, + syan hilde-dor hond legde, [835] + earm ond eaxle (:r ws eal geador + Grendles grpe) under gapne hrf. + + [1] = ealdor-. + [2] = Heorote. + [3] = hftan. + [4] = ealdor-. + [5] = weoran. + [6] = mdiga. + [7] = gl:ca. + [8] = -hliu. + [9] = ealdres. + + [Linenotes: + + 740: #t#, the direct object of #yldan#, refers to the + contest about to ensue. Beowulf, in the preceding lines, was + wondering how it would result. + + 746: #tstp#. The subject of this verb and of #nam# is + Grendel; the subject of the three succeeding verbs (#r:hte#, + #onfng#, #gest#) is Beowulf. + + 751-52: The O.E. poets are fond of securing emphasis or of + stimulating interest by indirect methods of statement, by + suggesting more than they affirm. This device often appears in + their use of negatives (#ne#, l.13; p.140, l.3; #n#, p.140, + l.1 [[lines 752, 757, 755]]), and in the unexpected prominence + that they give to some minor detail usually suppressed because + understood; as where the narrator, wishing to describe the + terror produced by Grendel's midnight visits to Heorot, says + (ll.138-139), "Then was it easy to find one who elsewhere, more + commodiously, sought rest for himself." It is hard to believe + that the poet saw nothing humorous in this point of view. + + 755: #n ... meahte#, _none the sooner could he away_. The + omission of a verb of motion after the auxiliaries #magan, + mtan, sculan#, and #willan# is very frequent. _Cf._ Beowulf's + last utterance, p.147, l.17 [[line 2817]]. + + 768: The lines that immediately follow constitute a fine bit + of description by indication of effects. The two contestants are + withdrawn from our sight; but we hear the sound of the fray + crashing through the massive old hall, which trembles as in a + blast; we see the terror depicted on the faces of the Danes as + they listen to the strange sounds that issue from their former + banqueting hall; by these sounds we, too, measure the progress + and alternations of the combat. At last we hear only the + "terror-lay" of Grendel, "lay of the beaten," and know that + Beowulf has made good his promise at the banquet (#gilp + gel:sted#). + + 769: #cnra gehwylcum#. The indefinite pronouns (77) may be + used as adjectives, agreeing in case with their nouns; but they + frequently, as here, take a partitive genitive: #nra + gehwylcum#, _to each one_ (=_to each of ones_); #:nige# + (instrumental) #inga#, _for any thing_ (=_for any of things_); + #on healfa gehwone#, _into halves_ (=_into each of halves_); + #ealra dgra gehwm#, _every day_ (=_on each of all days_); + #htna gehwylce#, _every morning_ (=_on each of mornings_). + + 780: Notice that #hit#, the object of #tbrecan#, stands for + #wn-sele#, which is masculine. See p.39, Note 2 [[ 55, 2]]. + #Manna# is genitive after #gemete#, not after #:nig#. + + 787-89: #gryre-lo ... hfton# [= #hftan#]. Note that verbs + of hearing and seeing, as in Mn.E., may be followed by the + infinitive. They heard _God's adversary sing_ (#galan#) ... + _hell's captive bewail_ (#wnigean#). Had the present participle + been used, the effect would have been, as in Mn.E., to emphasize + the agent (the subject of the infinitive) rather than the action + (the infinitive itself). + + 795-96: #:r ... lfe#. Beowulf's followers now seem to have + seized their swords and come to his aid, not knowing that + Grendel, having forsworn war-weapons himself, is proof against + the best of swords. _Then many an earl of Beowulf's_ (=_an earl + of B. very often_) _brandished his sword._ That no definite earl + is meant is shown by the succeeding #he meahton# instead of #h + meahte#. See p.110, Note. [[Linenote 110.5-6] + + 799: _They did not know this_ (#t#), _while they were + fighting_; but the first #He# refers to the warriors who + proffered help; the second #he#, to the combatants, Beowulf and + Grendel. In apposition with #:t#, stands the whole clause, + #one synscaan# (object of #grtan#) #... nolde#. The second, + or conjunctional, #t# is here omitted before #one#. See + p.112, note on ll.18-19. + + 837: #grpe# = genitive singular, feminine, after #eal#.] + + +BEOWULF FATALLY WOUNDED. [Lines 2712-2752.] + + [Hrothgar, in his gratitude for the great victory, lavishes gifts + upon Beowulf; but Grendel's mother must be reckoned with. Beowulf + finds her at the sea-bottom, and after a desperate struggle slays + her. Hrothgar again pours treasures into Beowulf's lap. Beowulf, + having now accomplished his mission, returns to Sweden. After a + reign of fifty years, he goes forth to meet a fire-spewing dragon + that is ravaging his kingdom. In the struggle Beowulf is fatally + wounded. Wiglaf, aloyal thane, is with him.] + + so[1] wund ongon, + e him se eor-draca :r geworhte, + swlan ond swellan. H :t sna onfand, + :t him on brostum bealo-n woll [2715] + ttor on innan. se eling gong,[2] + t h b wealle, ws-hycgende, + gest on sesse; seah on enta geweorc, + h stn-bogan stapulum fste + ce eor-reced innan healde. [2720] + Hyne mid handa heoro-drorigne, + oden m:rne, egn ungemete till, + wine-dryhten his wtere gelafede, + hilde-sdne, ond his helm onspon. + Bowulf[3] maelode; h ofer benne sprc, [2725] + wunde wl-blate; wisse h gearwe, + t h dg-hwla gedrogen hfde + eoran wynne; ws eall sceacen + dgor-germes, da ungemete nah: + "N ic suna mnum syllan wolde [2730] + g-gew:du, :r m gifee sw + :nig yrfe-weard fter wurde + lce gelenge. Ic s lode hold + fftig wintra; ns se folc-cyning + ymbe-sittendra nig ra, [2735] + e mec g-winum grtan dorste, + egesan on. Ic on earde bd + m:l-gesceafta, hold mn tela, + n shte searo-nas, n m swr fela + a on unriht. Ic s ealles mg, [2740] + feorh-bennum soc, gefan habban; + for-m m wtan ne earf Waldend[4] fra + moror-bealo[5] mga, onne mn sceace + lf of lce. N lungre geong[6] + hord scawian under hrne stn, [2745] + Wglf lofa, n se wyrm lige, + swefe sre wund, since berafod. + Bo[7] n on ofoste, t ic :r-welan, + gold-:ht ongite, gearo scawige + swegle searo-gimmas, t ic y: sft mge [2750] + fter mum-welan mn l:tan + lf ond lod-scipe, one ic longe hold." + + [Linenotes: + + 2716: #se eling# is Beowulf. + + 2718: #enta geweorc# is a stereotyped phrase for anything that + occasions wonder by its size or strangeness. + + 2720: #healde#. Heyne, following Ettmller, reads #holdon#, + thus arbitrarily changing mood, tense, and number of the + original. Either mood, indicative or subjunctive, would be + legitimate. As to the tense, the narrator is identifying himself + in time with the hero, whose wonder was "how the stone-arches + ... _sustain_ the ever-during earth-hall": the construction is a + form of _oratio recta_, a sort of _miratio recta_. The singular + #healde#, instead of #healden#, has many parallels in the + dependent clauses of _Beowulf_, most of these being relative + clauses introduced by #ra e# (=_of those that ..._ + a + singular predicate). In the present instance, the predicate has + doubtless been influenced by the proximity of #eor-reced#, a + _quasi_-subject; and we have no more right to alter to #healden# + or #holdon# than we have to change Shakespeare's _gives_ to + _give_in + + "Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath _gives_." + (_Macbeth_, II, i, 61.) + + 2722: The #egn ungemete till# is Wiglaf, the bravest of + Beowulf's retainers. + + 2725: #h ofer benne sprc#. The editors and translators of + _Beowulf_ invariably render #ofer# in this passage by _about_; + but Beowulf says not a word about his wound. The context seems + to me to show plainly that #ofer# (cf.Latin _supra_) denotes + here opposition = _in spite of_. We read in _Genesis_, l.594, + that Eve took the forbidden fruit #ofer Drihtenes word#. Beowulf + fears (l.2331) that he may have ruled unjustly = #ofer ealde + riht#; and he goes forth (l.2409) #ofer willan# to confront the + dragon. + + 2731-33: #:r m ... gelenge#, _if so be that_ (#:r ... sw#) + _any heir had afterwards been given me_ (#mgifee ... fter + wurde#) _belonging to my body_. + + 2744-45: #geong# [= #gong#] #... scawian#. See note on #ode + ... sittan#, p.137, ll.19-20 [[lines 641-42]]. In Mn.E. _Go + see, Go fetch_, etc., is the second verb imperative (cordinate + with the first), or subjunctive (_that you may see_), or + infinitive without _to_? + + 2751-52: #mn ... lf#. See note on #ende-dg ... mnne#, + p. 137, ll.16-17 [[lines 638-39]].] + + [1] = so. + [2] = gong. + [3] = Bowulf. + [4] = Wealdend. + [5] = moror-bealu. + [6] = gong (gang). + [7] = Bo. + + +BEOWULF'S LAST WORDS. [Lines 2793-2821.] + + [Wiglaf brings the jewels, the tokens of Beowulf's triumph. + Beowulf, rejoicing to see them, reviews his career, and gives + advice and final directions to Wiglaf.] + + _Bowulf[1] maelode_, + gomel on giohe (gold scawode): + "Ic ra frtwa Fran ealles anc, [2795] + Wuldur-cyninge, wordum secge + ecum Dryhtne, e ic hr on starie, + s e ic mste mnum lodum + :r swylt-dge swylc gestry:nan. + N ic on mma hord mne bebohte [2800] + frde feorh-lege, fremma g n + loda earfe; ne mg ic hr leng wesan. + Hta heao-m:re hl:w gewyrcean, + beorhtne fter b:le t brimes nosan; + s scel[2] t gemyndum mnum lodum [2805] + hah hlfian on Hrones nsse, + t hit s:-lend syan htan[3] + Bowulfes[1] biorh[1] e brentingas + ofer flda genipu feorran drfa." + Dyde him of healse hring gyldenne [2810] + oden[1] rst-hy:dig; egne gesealde, + geongum gr-wigan, gold-fhne helm, + bah ond byrnan, ht hyne brcan well. + " eart ende-lf sses cynnes, + W:gmundinga; ealle wyrd forswop [2815] + mne mgas t metod-sceafte, + eorlas on elne; ic him fter sceal." + t ws m gomelan gingeste word + brost-gehygdum, :r h b:l cure, + hte heao-wylmas; him of hrere gewt [2820] + swol scean s-fstra dm. + + [1] o, io = o, eo. + [2] = sceal. + [3] = hten. + + [Linenotes: + + 2795-99: The expression #secgan anc# takes the same + construction as #ancian#; i.e., the dative of the person + (#Fran#) and the genitive (agenitive of cause) of the thing + (#ra frtwa#). Cf. note on #biddan#, p.45[[ 65, 3]]. The + antecedent of #e# is #frtwa#. For the position of #on#, see + 94, (5). The clause introduced by #s e# (_because_) is + parallel in construction with #frtwa#, both being causal + modifiers of #secge anc#. The Christian coloring in these lines + betrays the influence of priestly transcribers. + + 2800: _Now that I, in exchange for_ (#on#) _a hoard of + treasures, have bartered_ (#bebohte#) _the laying down_ (#-lege# + > #licgan#) _of my old life._ The ethical codes of the early + Germanic races make frequent mention of blood-payments, or + life-barters. There seems to be here a suggestion of the + "wergild." + + 2801: #fremma g#. The plural imperative (asalso in #Hta#) + shows that Beowulf is here speaking not so much to Wiglaf in + particular as, through Wiglaf, to his retainers in general,--to + his _comitatus_. + + 2806: The desire for conspicuous burial places finds frequent + expression in early literatures. The tomb of Achilles was + situated "high on a jutting headland over wide Hellespont that + it might be seen from off the sea." Elpenor asks Ulysses to bury + him in the same way. neas places the ashes of Misenus beneath a + high mound on a headland of the sea. + + 2807: #hit = hl:w#, which is masculine. See p.39, Note2 + [[ 55, 2]]. + + 2810-11: #him ... oden#. The reference in both cases is to + Beowulf, who is disarming himself (#do-of# > _doff_) for the + last time; #egne# = _to Wiglaf_. + + Note, where the personal element is strong, the use of the + dative instead of the more colorless possessive; #him of + healse#, not #of his healse#. + + 2817: #ic ... sceal#. See note on #n ... meahte#, p.140, + l.1 [[line 755]]. + + 2820: #him of hrere#. Cf. note on #him ... oden#, p.147, + ll.10-11 [[lines 2810-11]]. + + 2820-21: For construction of #gewt ... scean#, see note on + #ode ... sittan#, p.137, ll.19-20 [[lines 641-42]].] + + +VII. THE WANDERER. + + [Exeter MS. "The epic character of the ancient lyric appears + especially in this: that the song is less the utterance of a + momentary feeling than the portrayal of a lasting state, perhaps + the reflection of an entire life, generally that of one isolated, + or bereft by death or exile of protectors and friends." (Ten + Brink, _Early Eng. Lit._,I.) Iadopt Brooke's threefold division + (_Early Eng. Lit._, p.356): "It opens with a Christian prologue, + and closes with a Christian epilogue, but the whole body of the + poem was written, it seems to me, by a person who thought more of + the goddess Wyrd than of God, whose life and way of thinking were + uninfluenced by any distinctive Christian doctrine." + + The author is unknown.] + + +PROLOGUE. + + Oft him nhaga re gebde, + Metudes[1] miltse, ah e h mdcearig + geond lagulde longe sceolde + hrran mid hondum hrmcealde s:, + wadan wrcl:stas: wyrd bi ful r:d! [5] + Sw cw eardstapa earfea[2] gemyndig, + wrra wlsleahta, winem:ga hryres: + +PLAINT OF THE WANDERER. + + "Oft ic sceolde na htna gehwylce + mne ceare cwan; nis n cwicra nn, + e ic him mdsefan mnne durre [10] + sweotule[3] secgan. Ic t se wt + t bi in eorle indryhten aw, + t h his ferlocan fste binde, + healde his hordcofan, hycge sw h wille; + ne mg wrig md wyrde wistondan [15] + n s hro hyge helpe gefremman: + for on dmgeorne drorigne oft + in hyra brostcofan binda fste. + Sw ic mdsefan mnne sceolde + oft earmcearig le bid:led, [20] + from:gum feor feterum s:lan, + sian gara i goldwine mnne + hrsan heolster biwrh, and ic han onan + wd wintercearig ofer waema gebind, + shte sele drorig sinces bryttan, [25] + hw:r ic feor oe nah findan meahte + one e in meoduhealle[4] miltse wisse + oe mec frondlasne frfran wolde, + wenian mid wynnum. Wt s e cunna + h slen bi sorg t gefran [30] + m e him ly:t hafa lofra geholena: + wara hine wrclst, nles wunden gold, + ferloca frorig, nls foldan bl:d; + gemon h selesecgas and sincege, + h hine on geogue his goldwine [35] + wenede t wiste: wyn eal gedras! + For on wt s e sceal his winedryhtnes + lofes lrcwidum longe forolian, + onne sorg and sl:p somod tgdre + earmne nhagan oft gebinda: [40] + ince him on mde t h his mondryhten + clyppe and cysse, and on cno lecge + honda and hafod, sw h hwlum :r + in gardagum giefstles brac; + onne onwcne eft winelas guma, [45] + gesih him biforan fealwe w:gas, + baian brimfuglas, br:dan fera, + hrosan hrm and snw hagle gemenged. + onne bo y: hefigran heortan benne, + sre fter sw:sne; sorg bi genwad; [50] + onne mga gemynd md geondhweorfe, + grte glwstafum, georne geondscawa. + Secga geseldan swimma eft on weg; + flotendra fer[5] n :r fela bringe + cra cwidegiedda; cearo[6] bi genwad [55] + m e sendan sceal swe geneahhe + ofer waema gebind wrigne sefan. + For on ic geencan ne mg geond s woruld + for hwan mdsefa mn ne gesweorce, + onne ic eorla lf eal geondence, [60] + h h f:rlce flet ofgafon, + mdge maguegnas. Sw s middangeard + ealra dgra gehwm drose and fealle; + for on ne mg weoran ws wer, :r h ge + wintra d:l in woruldrce. Wita sceal geyldig, [65] + ne sceal n t htheort n t hrdwyrde, + n t wc wiga n t wanhy:dig, + n t forht n t fgen n t feohgfre, + n n:fre gielpes t georn, :r h geare cunne. + Beorn sceal gebdan, onne h bot sprice, [70] + o t collenfer cunne gearwe + hwider hrera gehygd hweorfan wille. + Ongietan sceal glaw hle h g:stlc bi, + onne eall isse worulde wela wste stonde, + sw n missenlce geond isne middangeard [75] + winde biwune[7] weallas stonda, + hrme bihrorene,[8] hryge ederas. + Wria wnsalo,[9] waldend licga + drame bidrorene[10]; dugu eal gecrong + wlonc b wealle: sume wg fornm, [80] + ferede in forwege; sumne fugel[11] obr + ofer hanne holm; sumne s hra wulf + dae ged:lde; sumne drorighlor + in eorscrfe eorl gehy:dde: + y:de sw isne eardgeard lda Scyppend, [85] + o t burgwara breahtma lase + eald enta geweorc dlu stdon. + S onne isne wealsteal wse gehte, + and is deorce lf dope geondence, + frd in fere[12] feor oft gemon [90] + wlsleahta worn, and s word cwi: + 'Hw:r cwm mearg? hw:r cwm mago[13]? hw:r cwm mumgyfa? + hw:r cwm symbla gesetu? hw:r sindon seledramas? + al beorht bune! al byrnwiga! + al odnes rym! h so rg gewt, [95] + genp under nihthelm, sw ho n w:re! + Stonde n on lste lofre dugue + weal wundrum hah, wyrmlcum fh: + eorlas fornmon asca ry:e, + w:pen wlgfru, wyrd so m:re; [100] + and s stnhleou[14] stormas cnyssa; + hr hrosende hrsan binde, + wintres wma, onne won cyme, + npe nihtsca, noran onsende + hro hglfare hleum on andan. [105] + Eall is earfolc eoran rce, + onwende wyrda gesceaft weoruld under heofonum: + hr bi feoh l:ne, hr bi frond l:ne, + hr bi mon l:ne, hr bi m:g l:ne; + eal is eoran gesteal del weore!'" [110] + +EPILOGUE. + + Sw cw snottor on mde, gest him sundor t rune. + Til bi s e his trowe gehealde; + ne sceal n:fre his torn t rycene + beorn of his brostum cy:an, neme h :r bte cunne; + eorl mid elne gefremman. Wel bi m e him re sce, + frfre t Fder on heofonum, + :r s eal so fstnung stonde. [115] + + [1] = Metodes. + [2] = earfoa. + [3] = sweotole. + [4] = medu-. + [5] = ferh. + [6] = cearu. + [7] See bewwan. + [8] See behrosan. + [9] = wnsalu. + [10] See bedrosan. + [11] = fugol. + [12] = ferhe. + [13] = magu. + [14] = -hliu. + + [Linenotes: + + 7: The MS. reading is #hryre# (nominative), which is + meaningless. + + 8: For #htna gehwylce#, see note on #cnra gehwylcum#, + p.140 [[_Beowulf_ 769]]. + + 10: #e ... him#. See 75 (4). Cf. _Merchant of Venice_, + II, v, 50-51. + + 27: For #mine# (MS. #in#), which does not satisfy metrical + requirements, Iadopt Kluge's plausible substitution of + #miltse#; #miltse witan# = _to show_ (_know, feel_), _pity_. The + #myne wisse# of _Beowulf_ (l.169) is metrically admissible. + + 37: The object of #wt# is #ince him on mde#; but the + construction is unusual, inasmuch as both #t's# (#t# + pronominal before #wt# and #t# conjunctional before #ince#) + are omitted. See p.112, ll.18-19. + + 41: #ince him on mde# (see note on #him ... oden#, p. 147 + [[_Beowulf_ 2810-11]]). "No more sympathetic picture has + been drawn by an Anglo-Saxon poet than where the wanderer in + exile falls asleep at his oar and dreams again of his dead lord + and the old hall and revelry and joy and gifts,--then wakes to + look once more upon the waste of ocean, snow and hail falling + all around him, and sea-birds dipping in the spray." (Gummere, + _Germanic Origins_, p.221.) + + 53-55: #Secga ... cwidegiedda# = _But these comrades of + warriors_ [= those seen in vision] _again swim away_ [= _fade + away_]; _the ghost of these fleeting ones brings not there many + familiar words_; i.e. he sees in dream and vision the old + familiar faces, but no voice is heard: they bring neither + greetings to him nor tidings of themselves. + + 65: #Wita sceal geyldig#. Either #bon# (#wesan#) is here + to be understood after #sceal#, or #sceal# alone means _ought to + be_. Neither construction is to be found in Alfredian prose, + though the omission of a verb of motion after #sculan# is common + in all periods of Old English. See note on #n ... meahte#, + p. 140 [[_Beowulf_ 755]]. + + 75: #sw n#. "The Old English lyrical feeling," says Ten + Brink, citing the lines that immediately follow #sw n#, "is + fond of the image of physical destruction"; but I do not think + these lines have a merely figurative import. The reference is to + a period of real devastation, antedating the Danish incursions. + "We might fairly find such a time in that parenthesis of bad + government and of national tumult which filled the years between + the death of Aldfrith in 705 and the renewed peace of + Northumbria under Ceolwulf in the years that followed 729." + (Brooke, _Early Eng. Lit._, p.355.) + + 93: #cwm ... gesetu#. Ettmller reads #cwmon#; but see + p. 107, note on #ws ... gland# [[linenote 107.14-15]]. The + occurrence of #hw:r cwm# three times in the preceding line + tends also to hold #cwm# in the singular when its plural + subject follows. Note the influence of a somewhat similar + structural parallelism in _seas hides_ of these lines (_Winter's + Tale_, IV, iv, 500-502): + + "Not for ... all the _sun sees_ or + The close _earth wombs_ or the profound _seas hides_ + In unknown fathoms, will I break my oath." + + 111: #gest ... rne#, _sat apart to himself in silent + meditation_. + + 114: #eorl ... gefremman#. Supply #sceal# after #eorl#.] + + + + +I. GLOSSARY. + +OLD ENGLISH--MODERN ENGLISH. + + +[The order of words is strictly alphabetical, except that follows t. +The combination follows ad. + +Gender is indicated by the abbreviations, m. (= masculine), f. +(=feminine), n. (=neuter). The usual abbreviations are employed for +the cases, nom., gen., dat., acc., and instr. Other abbreviations are +sing. (=singular), pl.(=plural), ind. (=indicative mood), sub. +(=subjunctive mood), pres. (=present tense), pret. (=preterit tense), +prep. (=preposition), adj. (=adjective), adv. (=adverb), part. +(=participle), conj. (=conjunction), pron. (=pronoun), intrans. +(=intransitive), trans. (=transitive). + +Figures not preceded by refer to page and line of the texts.] + + [[Transcriber's Note: + References to verse selections (pages 136-153) are followed by the + actual line number in [[double brackets]].] + + +#A.# + + , _ever, always, aye_. + abbudisse, f., _abbess_ [Lat. abbatissa]. + bodan ( 109), _bid, offer_; + him h:l bad 138, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 654]] = _bade him hail, wished him + health_. + brecan ( 120, Note 2), _break down, destroy_. + bgan ( 109, Note 1), _give way, start_ [bow away]. + ac, conj., _but_. + cwean ( 115), _say, speak_. + cy:an ( 126), _reveal, proclaim_ [c]. + d, m., _funeral pile_. + adesa, m., _adze, hatchet_. + : (:w), f., _law_. + :dre (dre), f., _stream, canal, vein_; + bld drum dranc 139, 4 [[_Beowulf_ 743]] = _drank blood in streams_ + (instr.). + :fstnis, f., _piety_. + :fen-rst, f., _evening rest_. + :fen-spr:c, f., _evening speech_. + :f[e,]st (:wf[e,]st), _law-abiding, pious_. + :f[e,]stnis, see :fstnis. + :fre, _ever, always_. + :fter, prep. ( 94, (1)), _after_; + :fter :m, _after that, thereafter_; + fter :m e, conj., _after_. + fter, adv., _after, afterwards_. + :ghw ( 77, Note), _each, every_. + :ghwilc ( 77, Note), _each, any_. + :gl:ca, see gl:ca. + :ger (:ghwer, er) ( 77, Note), _each, either_; + :ger ... er ... er, _either ... or ... or_; + :ger ge ... ge ( 95, (2)), _both ... and_; + :ger ge ... ge ... ge, _both ... and ... and_. + :ht, f., _property, possession_ [gan]. + :lc ( 77), _each_. + lde (ielde) ( 47), m. pl., _men_; gen. pl., lda. + lmihtig, _almighty_. + :metta, m., _leisure_ [_empti_-ness]. + :nig ( 77), _any_; + :nige inga 141, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 792]] = _for anything_. + (See 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]], Note.) + :r, adv., _before, formerly, sooner_; + n y: :r 140, 1 [[_Beowulf_ 755]] = _none the sooner_; + :ror, comparative, _before, formerly_; + :rest, superlative, _first_. + :r, conj. ( 105, 2), _ere, before_ = :r :me. + :r, prep, with dat., _before_ (time); + :r :m e, conj. ( 105, 2), _before_. + rcebisceop, m., _archbishop_ [Lat. archiepiscopus]. + :rendgewrit, n., _message, letter_. + :rendwreca (-raca), m., _messenger_. + :rest, adj. ( 96, (4)), _first_. + rnan ( 127), _ride, gallop_ [iernan]. + :rra, adj. ( 96, (4)), _former_. + :rwela, m., _ancient wealth_. + sc, m., _ash, spear_; gen. pl., asca. + scesdn, f., _Ashdown_ (in Berkshire). + stel, m., _book-mark_ [Lat. hastula]. + t ( 94, (1)), _at, in_; + with leornian, _to learn_, geicgan, _to receive_, and other verbs + of similar import, + t = _from_: 115, 18; 137, 8 [[_Beowulf_ 630]], etc. + tberan ( 114), _bear to, hand_. + tgd(e)re, adv., _together_. + tsteppan ( 116), _step up, advance_; pret. sing., tstp. + ele, _noble, excellent_. + eling, m., _a noble, prince_. + elwulfing, m., _son of Ethelwulf_. + ered, m., _Ethelred_. + feallan ( 117), _fall_. + fierran ( 127), _remove_ [feor]. + gan ( 136), _to own, possess_. + gen, adj.-part., _own_; dat. sing., gnum [gan]. + giefan ( 115), _give back_. + gl:ca (:gl:ca), m., _monster, champion_. + hton, see gan. + l:tan ( 117), _let go, leave_. + aldor, see ealdor. + l[e,]cgan ( 125, Note), _lay down_ [licgan]; past part., ld. + lesend, m., _Redeemer_ [lesan = _release, ransom_]. + limpan ( 110), _befall, occur_. + ly:fan ( 126), _entrust, permit_. + ambor, m., _measure_; gen. pl., ambra ( 27, (4)). + ambyre, _favorable_. + n ( 89), _one_; + na, _alone, only_; + nra gehwylcum 141, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 785]] = _to each one_. + (See 140, 15, Note. [[_Beowulf_ 769]]) + anda, m., _zeal, injury, indignation_; + hleum on andan 153, 6 [[_Wanderer_ 105]] = _harmful to men_. + andfn, f., _proportion, amount_. + andgiet (-git), n., _sense, meaning_. + andgitfullce, _intelligibly_; + -gitfullcost, _superlative_. + andswaru, f., _answer_. + andwyrdan ( 127), _to answer_; pret., andwyrde. + Angel, n., _Anglen_ (in Denmark); dat. sing., Angle ( 27 (4)). + Angelcynn, n., _English kin, English people, England_. + nhaga (-hoga), m., _a solitary, wanderer_ [n + hogian, + _to meditate_]. + nlpig, _single, individual_. + nunga ( 93, (2)), _once for all_ [n]. + apostol, m., _apostle_ [Gr. +apostolos+]. + r, f., _honor, property, favor_; + re gebde 148, 3 [[_Wanderer_ 1]] = _waits for divine favor_ + (gen.). + r:d, adj., _inexorable_. + r:dan ( 126), _read_. + r[e,]cc(e)an ( 128), _translate, expound_. + rfstnis, f., _virtue_. + rsan ( 102), _arise_. + asca, see aesc. + s[e,]cgan ( 132), _say, relate_. + s[e,]ttan ( 127), _set, place_. + singan ( 110), _sing_. + sp[e,]ndan ( 127), _spend, expend_. + stgan ( 102), _ascend, arise_. + st[o,]ndan ( 116), _stand up_. + tah, see ton. + atelc, _horrible, dire_. + ton ( 118), _draw, draw away, take_ (asa journey). + atol, _horrible, dire_. + ttor, n., _poison_. + tuge, see ton. + , m., _oath_. + er, see :ger. + w[e,]ccan ( 128), _awake, arouse_; pret. sing., weahte, w[e,]hte. + aweg, _away_. + w[e,]ndan ( 127), _turn, translate_. + wrtan ( 102), _write, compose_. + wyrcan ( 128), _work, do, perform_. + + +#B.# + + Bchs[e,]cg, m., _Bagsac_. + bcbord, n., _larboard, left side of a ship_. + b:l, n., _funeral fire, funeral pile_. + bn, n., _bone_. + bn-fg, _adorned with bones_ or _antlers_. + bn-loca, m., _flesh_ [bone-locker]. + Basengas, m. pl., _Basing_ (in Hantshire). + be (b) ( 94, (1)), _by, about, concerning, near, along, + accordingto_; + be noran :m wstenne ( 94, (4)), _north of the waste (desert)_; + be fullan, _fully, perfectly_. + bag, see bgan. + bag-hroden, _ring-adorned_. + bah (bag), m., _ring, bracelet, collar_ [bgan]. + bealo-n, m., _dire hatred, poison, venom_. + bearn, n., _child, son_ [bairn]. + bebodan ( 109), _command, bid, entrust_ (with dat.). + bebo-, see bebo-. + bebohte, see bebycgan. + bebycgan ( 128), _sell_. + bc, see bc. + becuman ( 114), _come, arrive, befall_. + bed:lan ( 126), _separate, deprive_. + bedrosan ( 109), _deprive_; past part. pl., bedrorene (bidrorene) + [dross, dreary]. + bef:stan ( 127), _fasten, implant_. + befolan ( 110), _apply one's self_; + ra e spda hbben :t he :m befolan mgen 119, 20 = + _of those who have the means by which they may apply themselves + toit_. + beforan, prep. with dat., _before_. + bgen (declined like twgen, 89), _both_. + begeondan (begiondan), prep. with dat., _beyond_. + begietan ( 115), _get, obtain, find_. + beginnan ( 110), _begin_. + beheonan (behionan), prep. with dat., _on this sideof_. + behresan ( 109), _fall upon, cover_; past part. pl., behrorene + (bihrorene). + belimpan ( 110), _pertain, belong_. + beniman ( 114), _take, derive_. + b[e,]nn, f., _wound_ [bana = _murderer_]. + bon (bon) ( 134), _be, consist_. + beorh (beorg, biorh), m., _mound_ [barrow]. + beorht, _bright, glorious_. + Beormas, m. pl., _Permians_. + beorn, m., _man, hero, chief_. + bor-[e,]gu, f., _beer-drinking_ [icgan = _receive_]. + bot, n., _boast_. + beran ( 114), _bear_. + berafian ( 130), _bereave_; + since berafod 145, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 2747]] = _bereft of treasure_. + beren, adj., _of a bear, bear_. + berstan ( 110), _burst, crack_. + besmiian ( 130), _make hard_ (as at the forge of a smith). + b[e,]t, see wel ( 97, (2)). + btan ( 126), _make good, requite_; past part. pl., gebtte. + b[e,]tera (b[e,]tra), see gd ( 96, (3)). + betlc, _excellent_. + b[e,]tsta, see gd ( 96, (3)). + betuh (betux) ( 94, (1)), _between_. + betwonan ( 94, (1)), _between_. + bety:nan ( 126), _close, end_ [tn = _enclosure_]. + bewwan ( 117), _blow upon_; past part. pl., bewune (biwune, + bewwene). + bewron ( 118, 1), _enwrap_; pret. 3d sing., bewrh (biwrh). + b, see be. + bi-, see be-. + bdan ( 102), _bide, await, expect, endure_ (with gen.). + biddan ( 115, Note 2), _bid, pray, request_ (65, Note3); + bd hine blne 136, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 618]] = _bade him be blithe_. + bindan ( 110), _bind_. + bo, see bo (imperative sing.). + bisceop (biscep), m., _bishop_ [Lat. episcopus]. + bisceop-stl, m., _episcopal seat, bishopric_. + bisigu, f., _business, occupation_; dat. pl., bisgum. + btan ( 102), _bite, cut_. + biwrh, see bewron. + bl:d, m., _glory, prosperity_ [blwan = _blow, inflate_]. + Blcinga-g, f., _Blekingen_. + bliss, f., _bliss_ [ble]. + ble, _blithe, happy_. + bld, n., _blood_. + bc ( 68, (1), Note 1), f., _book_. + bcere, m., _scribe_ [bc]. + b[o,]na (bana), m., _murderer_ [bane]. + bt, f., _boot, remedy, help, compensation_. + brd ( 96, (1)), _broad_. + br:dan ( 126), _extend, spread_ [brd]. + br:dra, see brd. + brgd, see bregdan. + brac, see brcan. + breahtm, m., _noise, revelry_; + burgwara breahtma lase 152, 10 [[_Wanderer_ 86]] = _bereft of the + revelries of citizens_. + bregdan ( 110), _brandish, draw_ [braid]; pret. ind. 3d sing., brgd. + brenting, m., _high ship_. + brost, n., _breast_ (the pl.has the same meaning as the sing.). + brost-cofa, m., _breast-chamber, heart, mind_. + brost-gehygd, n., _breast-thought, thought of the heart, emotion_. + brim, n., _sea, ocean_. + brimfugol, m., _sea-fowl_. + bringan ( 128), _bring_. + brhte, brhton, see bringan. + bror (brur) ( 68, (2)), m., _brother_. + brcan ( 109, Note 1), _use, enjoy_ (62, Note 1; but Alfred + frequently employs the acc. with brcan). + brycg, f., _bridge_. + bry:c, see brcan. + brytta, m., _distributor, dispenser_ [brotan = _break in pieces_]. + ban ( 126, Note 2), _dwell, cultivate_ [bower]. + bde, see ban. + bufan, prep. with dat. and acc., _above_. + bgan ( 109, Note 1), _bow, bend, turn_. + bune, f., _cup_. + burg (burh) ( 68, (1), Note), f., _city, borough_; dat. sing., byrig. + Burgenda, m. gen. pl., _of the Burgundians_; + Burgenda land, _Bornholm_. + burgware ( 47), m. pl., _burghers, citizens_. + burh, see burg. + btan (bton), prep. ( 94, (1)), _without, except, except for, but_. + btan (bton), conj., _except that, unless_. + bt, _both_ (= _both_--_two_. + The word is compounded of the combined neuters of bgen and twgen, + but is m. and f. as well asn.). + by:n ( 126, Note 2), _cultivated_. + byrde, adj., _of high rank, aristocratic_. + byrig, see burg. + byrne, f., _byrnie, corselet, coat of mail_. + byrnwiga, m., _byrnie-warrior, mailed soldier_. + byr, see beran. + + +#C.# + + cann, m., _sacred canon, Bible_ [Lat. canon, Gr. +kann+]. + cearu (cearo), f., _care_. + ceaster-bend, m., _castle-dweller_. + cne, _keen, bold, brave_. + cosan ( 109), _choose, accept, encounter_. + cild, n., _child_. + cirice, f., _church_; nom. pl., ciricean. + cirr (cierr), m., _turn, time, occasion_ [char, chore, ajar = on + char, on the turn]. + cirran ( 127), _turn_. + cl:ne, _clean, pure_. + cl:ne, adv., _entirely _ ["clean out of the way," Shaks.]. + cldig, _rocky_ [having boulders or masses like _clouds_]. + clyppan ( 127), _embrace, accept_ [clip = clasp for letters, papers, + etc.]. + cnapa, m., _boy_ [knave]. + cno (cnow), n., _knee_; acc. pl., cno. + cniht, m., _knight, warrior_. + cnyssan ( 125), _beat_. + collenfer (-ferh), _proud-minded, fierce_. + costnung, f., _temptation_. + Crcas (Cracas), m. pl., _Greeks_. + cringan ( 110), _cringe, fall_. + Crst, m., _Christ_. + Crsten, _Christian_; nom. pl.m., Crstene, Crstne. + cuma, m., _new-comer, stranger_. + cuman ( 114), _come_. (See p.138, Note on ll.2-6.) + cunnan ( 137), _know, can, understand_. + cunnian ( 130), _make trial of, experience_ [cunnan]. + cure, see cosan. + c, _well-known, familiar_ [past part. of cunnan: cf. uncouth]. + ce, cen, con, see cunnan. + cw:den, cw:don, see cwean. + cwalu, f., _death, murder_ [cwelan]. + cwealm-cuma, m., _murderous comer_. + cwelan ( 114), _die_ [to quail]. + cwn, f., _queen_. + Cwnas, m. pl., _a Finnish tribe_. + cwean ( 115), _say, speak_ [quoth, bequeath]. + cwic, _living, alive_ [quicksilver; the quick and the dead]. + cwidegiedd, n., _word, utterance_ [cwean and gieddian, both meaning + _to speak_]. + cwan ( 126), _bewail_ (trans.). + cwm, see cuman. + cyle (ciele), m., _cold_ [chill]; + cyle gewyrcan 110, 7 = _produce cold, freeze_. + cyme, m., _coming_ [cuman]. + cyn(n), n., _kin, race_. + cyn(n), adj. (used only in pl.), _fitting things, etiquette, + proprieties, courtesies_; + cynna gemyndig 136, 3 [[_Beowulf_ 614]] = _mindful of courtesies_. + cynerce, n., _kingdom_. + cyning, m., _king_. + cyssan ( 125), _kiss_. + cyst, f., _the choice, the pick, the best_ [cosan]. + cy:an ( 126), _make known, display_, [c]; + 2d sing. imperative, cy:. + + +#D.# + + d:d, f., _deed_. + dg, m., _day_. + dg-hwl, f., _day-while, day_; + h dg-hwla gedrogen hfde eoran wynne 145, 2 [[_Beowulf_ 2727]] = + _he had spent his days of earth's joy_. + dg-rm, n., number of days [day-rime]; + dgera daeg-rm 143, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 824]] = _the number of his days_. + dl, n., _dale_. + d:l, m., _part, deal, division_. + dad, _dead_. + da, m., _death_. + dman ( 126), _deem, judge_. + D[e,]namearc, see D[e,]nemearc. + D[e,]ne ( 47), m. pl., _Danes_. + D[e,]nemearc (D[e,]nemearce), f., _Denmark_; dat. sing., D[e,]nemearce + (strong), D[e,]nemearcan (weak). + D[e,]nisc, _Danish_; + D[e,]niscan, _the Danes_. + dofol, m., n., _devil_; gen. sing., dofles ( 27, (4)). + dope, _deeply, profoundly_ [dop]. + dor, n., _wild animal_ [deer]. + deorc, _dark, gloomy_. + dgor, n., _day_; gen. pl., dgora, dgera, dgra. + dgor-germ, n., _number of days, lifetime_. + dm, m., _doom, judgment, glory_. + dmgeorn, adj., _eager for glory_ [_doom-yearning_]. + dn ( 135), _do, cause, place, promote, remove_. + dorste, dorston, see durran. + dram, m., _joy, mirth_ [dream]. + drogan ( 109), _endure, enjoy, spend_ [Scotch dree]. + drorig, _dreary, sad_. + drorighlor, adj., _with sad face_ [hlor = _cheek, face, leer_]. + drosan ( 109), _fall, perish_ [dross]. + drfan ( 102), _drive_. + drihten, see dryhten. + drincan ( 110), _drink_. + drohto (-a), m., _mode of living, occupation_ [drogan]. + drugon, see drogan. + dryhten (drihten), m., _lord, Lord_; dat. sing., dryhtne. + dryht-s[e,]le, m., _lordly hall_. + dugu, f., _warrior-band, host, retainers_ [doughtiness]. + In dugu and geogo, the higher (older) and lower (younger) ranks + are represented, the distinction corresponding roughly to the + medival distinction between knights and squires. + durran ( 137), _dare_. + duru, f., _door_. + dyde, see dn. + dynnan ( 125), resound [din]. + dy:re (dere, dore, dore), _dear, costly_. + + +#E.# + + a, f., _river_; gen. sing., as; dat. and acc. sing., a. + ac, _also, likewise_ [a nickname = an eek-name. See 65, Note2]; + ac swilce (swelce) 112, 3 = _also_. + aca, m., _addition_ [ac]; + t acan = _in addition to_ ( 94, (4)). + age, n., _eye_. + eahta, _eight_. + al, _oh!_ _alas!_ + eala, see ealu. + eald ( 96, (2)), _old_. + ealdor (aldor), n., _life_; + gif t [e,]llenweorc aldre gedgest 138, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 662]] + = _if thou survivest that feat with thy life_ (instr.). + ealdor-dg (aldor-, ealder-), m., _day of life_. + ealdor-gedl (aldor-), n., _death_ [life-deal]. + ealdorm[o,]n, m., _alderman, chief, magistrate_. + ealgian, ( 130), _protect, defend_. + eall (eal), _all_; + ealne weg, _all the way_ ( 98, (1)); + ealneg (< ealne weg), _always_; + ealles ( 98, (3)), adv., _altogether, entirely_. + Eall (eal) is frequently used with partitive gen. = _all of_: + 143, 19 [[_Beowulf_ 836]]; 145,3 [[_Beowulf_ 2728]]. + ealu (ealo) ( 68), n., _ale_; gen. sing., eala. + ealu-scerwen, f., _mortal panic_ [ale-spilling]. + eard, m., _country, home_ [eore]. + eardgeard, m. _earth_ [earth-yard]. + eardian ( 130), _dwell_ [eard]. + eardstapa, m., _wanderer_ [earth-stepper]. + are, n., _ear_. + earfo (earfe), n. _hardship, toil_; gen. pl., earfea. + earfolc, adj., _full of hardship, arduous_. + earm, m., _arm_. + earm, adj., _poor, wretched_. + earmcearig, _wretched, miserable_. + earmlc, _wretched, miserable_. + earnung, f., _merit_ [earning]. + ast, _east_. + astan ( 93, (5)), _from the east_. + ast-D[e,]ne ( 47), _East-Danes_. + asteweard, _eastward_. + astrihte (astryhte) ( 93, (6)), _eastward_. + astron, pl., _Easter_. + ae, _easily_. + amdlce, _humbly_. + eaxl, f., _shoulder_ [axle]. + Ebrisc, adj., _Hebrew_. + ce, _eternal, everlasting_. + [e,]cg, f., _sword_ [edge]. + edor, m., _enclosure, dwelling_; nom. pl., ederas. + drum, see :dre. + efne, adv., _just, only_ [evenly]. + eft, adv., _again, afterwards_ [aft]. + [e,]gesa, m., _fear, terror_ [awe]. + [e,]llen, n., _strength, courage_; + mid [e,]lne = _boldly_; + on [e,]lne 147, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 2817]] = _mightily, suddenly_, or _in + their (earls') strength (prime)_. + [e,]llen-m:ru, f. _fame for strength, feat of strength_. + [e,]llen-weorc, n., _feat of strength_. + [e,]llenwdnis, f., _zeal, fervor_. + [e,]llor-gst, m., _inhuman monster_ [alien ghost]. + [e,]ln, f., _ell_ [el-bow]. + [e,]lne, _see_ [e,]llen. + [e,]lra, adj. comparative, _another_ [*[e,]le cognate with Lat. + alius]; + on [e,]lran m[e,]n 139, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 753]] = _in another man_. + emnlong (-lang), _equally long_; + on emnlange = _along_ ( 94, (4)). + [e,]nde, m., _end_. + [e,]ndebyrdnes, f., _order_. + [e,]nde-dg, m., _end-day, day of death_. + [e,]nde-lf, f., _last remnant_ [end-leaving]. + [e,]ngel, m., _angel_ [Lat. angelus]. + [E,]nglafeld ( 51), m., _Englefield_ (in Berkshire). + [E,]ngle ( 47), m. pl., _Angles_. + [E,]nglisc, adj., _English_; + on [E,]nglisc 117, 18 and 19 = _in English, into English_. + [E,]ngliscgereord, n., _English language_. + [e,]nt, m., _giant_. + ode, see gn. + eodorcan ( 130), _ruminate_. + eorl, m., _earl, warrior, chieftain_. + eorlc, _earl-like, noble_. + eor-draca, m., dragon [earth-drake]. + eore, f., _earth_. + eor-r[e,]ced, n., _earth-hall_. + eorscrf, n., _earth-cave, grave_. + eoten, m., _giant, monster_. + ow, see . + owland, n., _land_ (an island in the Baltic Sea). + [e,]rian ( 125), _plow_ [to ear]. + Estland, n., _land of the Estas_ (on the eastern coast of the Baltic + Sea). + Estm[e,]re, m., _Frische Haff_. + Estum, dat. pl., _the Estas_. + etan ( 115), _eat_ [ort]. + [e,]ttan ( 127), _graze_ [etan]. + el, m., _territory, native land_ [allodial]. + el-weard, m., _guardian of his country_. + + +#F.# + + fc, n., _interval, space_. + fder ( 68, (2)), m., _father_. + fgen, _fain, glad, exultant_. + fger (f:ger), _fair, beautiful_. + f:lsian ( 130), _cleanse_. + f:rlce, _suddenly_ [f:r = _fear_]. + fst, _fast, held fast_. + fste, adv., _fast, firmly_. + fstnung, f., _security, safety_. + ft, n., _vessel_ [wine-fat, vat]. + f:tels, m., _vessel_; acc. pl., f:tels. + fm, m., _embrace, bosom_ [fathom = the space _embraced_ by the + extended arms]. + fg (fh), _hostile_; + h ws fg wi God 142, 18 [[_Beowulf_ 812]] = _he was hostile to + God_. + fh (fg), _variegated, ornamented_. + Falster, _Falster_ (island in the Baltic Sea). + fandian ( 130), _try, investigate_ [findan]. + faran ( 116), _go_ [fare]. + feallan ( 117), _fall, flow_. + fealu, _fallow, pale, dark_; nom. pl.m., fealwe. + fawe (fa, fawa), pl., _few_. + fela (indeclinable), _much, many_ (with gen.). + feld ( 51), m., _field_. + fell (fel), n., _fell, skin, hide_. + fng, see fn. + f[e,]n-hli, n., _fen-slope_. + f[e,]n-hop, n., _fen-retreat_. + feoh, n., _cattle, property_ [fee]; gen. and dat. sing., fos, fo. + feohgfre, _greedy of property, avaricious_. + feohtan ( 110), _fight_. + fol, see feallan. + fond ( 68, (3)), m., _enemy, fiend_. + fond-grp, f., _fiend-grip_. + feor ( 96, (4)), adj., _far, far from_ (with dat.). + feor, adv., _far, far back_ (time). + feorh, m., n., _life_. + feorh-b[e,]nn, f., _life-wound, mortal wound_. + feorh-l[e,]gu, f., _laying down of life_. (See p.146, Note on l.13. + [[_Beowulf_ 2800]]) + feorh-soc, _life-sick, mortally wounded_. + feorm (fiorm), f., _use, benefit_ (_food, provisions_) [farm]. + feormian ( 130), _eat, devour_. + feorran, _from afar_. + fowertig, _forty_; gen., fowertiges ( 91, Note 1). + ferh (fer), m., _heart, mind, spirit_. + f[e,]rian ( 125), _carry, transport_ [to ferry]; + f[e,]rede in forwege 152, 5 [[_Wanderer_ 81]] = _carried away_. + fers, n., _verse_ [Lat. versus]. + fersc, _fresh_. + ferloca (ferh-), m., _heart, mind, spirit_ [heart-locker]. + ft, see ft. + fetor, f., _fetter_ [ft]; instr. pl., feterum. + feer, f., _feather_; acc. pl., fera. + fierd, f., _English army_ [faran]. + ff, _five_. + fftene, _fifteen_. + fftig, _fifty_; gen. sing., fftiges ( 91, Note 1); dat. pl., + fftegum ( 91, Note 3). + findan ( 110), _find_. + finger, m., _finger_. + Finnas, m. pl., _Fins_. + fiorm, see feorm. + fras, m. pl., _men_ [feorh]; gen. pl., fra; dat. pl., frum. + firrest (fierrest), see feor ( 96,(4)). + first, m., _time, period_. + fisca (fiscna), m., _fishing_. + fiscere, m., _fisherman_. + fiscna, see fisca. + flon ( 118, II.), _flee_. + flotan ( 109), _float_. + fl[e,]t, n., _floor of the hall_. + fld, m., _flood, wave_. + folc, n., _folk, people_. + folc-cwn, f., _folk-queen_. + folc-cyning, m., _folk-king_. + folcgefeoht, n., _folk-fight, battle, general engagement_. + fold-bold, n., _earth-building, hall_. + folde, f., _earth, land, country_ [feld]. + folm, f., _hand_ [flan = _feel_]. + fn ( 118), _seize, capture, take_ [fang]; + t rce fn = _come to (ascend) the throne_. + for ( 94, (1)), _for, on account of_; + for :m (e), for on (e), _because_; + for on, for y:, for :m (for-m), _therefore_. + fr, see faran. + forbrnan ( 127), _burn thoroughly_ [for is intensive, like Lat. + per]. + forgiefan (-gifan) ( 115), _give, grant_. + forh[e,]rgian ( 130), _harry, lay waste_. + forhogdnis, f., _contempt_. + forht, _fearful, afraid_. + forhwga, _about, at least_. + forl:tan ( 117), _abandon, leave_. + forlt, forlton, see forl:tan. + forma, _first_; + forman se, _the first time_ (instr.). + forniman ( 114), _take off, destroy_. + forsp[e,]ndan ( 127), _spend, squander_. + forst[o,]ndan (-standan) ( 116), _understand_. + forswpan ( 117), _sweep away_; pret. 3d sing. indic., forswop. + forsw[e,]rian ( 116), _forswear_ (with dat.); past part., forsworen. + for, _forth, forward_. + forolian ( 130), _miss, go without_ (with dat.) [not to _thole_ + or experience]. + forweg, m., _way forth_; + in forwege, _away_. + ft ( 68, (1)), m. _foot_. + Fr:na, m., _Frene_. + frtwe, f. pl., _fretted armor, jewels_ [fret]. + fram, see fr[o,]m. + fra, m., _lord, Lord_. + fra-drihten, m., _lord, master_. + frfran ( 130), _console, cheer_ [frfor]. + fr[e,]mde, _strange, foreign_; + fr[e,]mdan, _the strangers_. + fr[e,]mman ( 125), _accomplish, perform, support_ [to frame]. + fr[e,]msumnes (-nis), f., _kindness, benefit_. + fro (fro), _free_; gen. pl., frora (frora). + frodm, m., _freedom_. + frolc, _noble_ [free-like]. + from:g, m., _free kinsman_. + frond ( 68, (3)), m., _friend_. + frondlas, _friendless_. + frondlce, _in a friendly manner_. + frorig, _cold, chill_ [froran]. + frora, see fro. + fri, m., n., _peace, security_ [bel-_fry_]. + frd, _old, sage, prudent_. + frfor, f., _comfort, consolation, alleviation_; + fyrena frfre 137, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 629]] = _as an alleviation of + outrages_ (dat.). + fr[o,]m (fram) ( 94, (1)), _from, by_. + fr[o,]m, adv., _away, forth_. + fruma, m., _origin, beginning_ [fr[o,]m]. + frumsceaft, f., _creation_. + fugela, see fugol. + fugelere, m., _fowler_. + fugol (fugel), m., _fowl, bird_; gen. pl., fugela. + ful, n., _cup, beaker_. + fl, _foul_. + flian ( 130), _grow foul, decompose_. + full (ful), adj., _full_ (with gen.); + be fullan, _fully, perfectly_. + full (ful) adv., _fully, very_. + fultum, m., _help_. + furor (furur), adv., _further_. + furum, adv., _even_. + fyl, see feallan. + fyren (firen), f., _crime, violence, outrage_. + fyrhtu, f., _fright, terror_; dat. sing., fyrhtu. + fyrst, adj., superlative, _first, chief_. + fy:san ( 126), _make ready, prepare_ [fs = _ready_]; + ge gefy:sed 137, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 631]] = _ready for battle_. + + +#G.# + + gd, n., _lack_. + g:st, see gst. + gafol, n., _tax, tribute_. + galan ( 116), _sing_ [nightingale]. + glnes, f., _lust, impurity_. + gn ( 134), _go_. + gr, m., _spear_ [gore, gar-fish]. + gr-wiga, m., _spear-warrior_. + gst (g:st), m., _spirit, ghost_. + gstlc (g:stlc), _ghastly, terrible_. + ge, _and_; see :ger. + g, _ye_; see . + geador, _together_. + ge:metigian ( 130), _disengage from_ (with acc. of person and gen. + of thing) [empty]. + gernan ( 127), _gain by running_ [iernan]. + gap, _spacious_. + gar, n., _year_; gen. pl., gara, is used adverbially = _of yore, + formerly_. + gardg, m., _day of yore_. + geare (gearo, gearwe), _readily, well, clearly_ [yarely]. + Gat, m., _a Geat, the Geat_ (i.e. Beowulf). + Gatas, m. pl., _the Geats_ (a people of South Sweden). + Gat-mecgas, m. pl., _Geat men_ (= the fourteen who accompanied + Beowulf to Heorot). + geborscipe, m., _banquet, entertainment_. + gebtan ( 126), _make amends for_ [bt]. + gebdan ( 102), _wait, bide one's time_ (intrans.); _endure, + experience_ (trans., with acc.). + gebind, n., _commingling_. + gebindan ( 110), _bind_. + gebrowan ( 109), _brew_. + gebrowen, see gebrowan. + gebd, gebn, see ban ( 126, Note 2). + gebyrd, n., _rank, social distinction_. + gecosan ( 109), _choose, decide_. + gecnwan ( 117), _know, understand_. + gecoren, see gecosan. + gecringan ( 110), _fall, die_ [cringe]. + ged:lan ( 126), _deal out, give_; + dae ged:lde 152, 7 [[_Wanderer_ 83]] = _apportioned to death_ + (dat.), or, _tore (?) in death_ (instr.). + gedafenian ( 130), _become, befit, suit_ (impersonal, usually with + dat., but with acc. 112, 10). + gedgan ( 126), _endure, survive_. + gedn ( 135), _do, cause, effect_. + gedrg, n., _company_. + gedrosan ( 109), _fall, fail_. + gedriht (gedryht), n., _band, troop_. + gedrogen, see drogan. + gedrync, n., _drinking_. + ge[e,]ndian ( 130), _end, finish_. + gefaran ( 116), _go, die_. + gefa, m., joy. + gefeaht, see gefeohtan. + gefeh, see gefon. + gefng, see gefn. + gefeoht, n., _fight, battle_. + gefeohtan ( 110), _fight_. + gefon ( 118, v.), _rejoice at_ (with dat.); pret. 3d sing., gefeah, + gefeh. + gefra, m., _companion, comrade_ [co-farer]. + gefleman ( 126), _put to flight_ [flon]. + gefohten, see gefeohtan. + gefn ( 118, vii.), _seize_. + gefr, see gefaran. + gefr:ge, n., _hearsay, report_; + mne gefr:ge (instr.) 141, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 777]] = _as I have heard + say, according to my information_. + gefr[e,]mman ( 125), _perform, accomplish, effect_. + gefultumian ( 130), _help_ [fultum]. + gefylce, n., _troop, division_ [folc]; dat. pl., gefylcum, gefylcium. + gefyllan ( 127), _fill_ (with gen.); past part. pl., f., gefylda. + gegl[e,]ngan ( 127), _adorn_. + gehtland, n., _promised land_ [gehtan = _to promise_]. + gehealdan ( 117), _hold, maintain_. + geheran (gehy:ran) ( 126), _hear_. + gehersumnes, f., _obedience_. + gehola, m., _protector_ [helan]. + gehw ( 77, Note), _each_; + on healfa gehwone 142, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 801]] (see Note 140, 15 + [[_Beowulf_ 769]]. Observe that the pron. may, as here, be masc. + and the gen. fem.). + gehwer ( 77, Note), _each, either, both_. + gehwylc (gehwilc) ( 77, Note), _each_ (with gen. pl.See Note + 140,15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]]). + gehwyrfan ( 127), _convert, change_. + gehy:dan ( 126), _hide, conceal, consign_. + gehygd, f., n., _thought, purpose_. + gehy:ran, see geheran. + gehy:rnes, f., _hearing_; + eal h in gehy:rnesse geleornian meahte 115, 14 = _all things + that he could learn by hearing_. + gel:dan ( 126), _lead_. + gel:red, part.-adj., _learned_; superlative, gel:redest. + gelafian ( 130), _lave_. + gel[e,]nge, _along of, belonging to_ (with dat.). + geleornian (-liornian) ( 130), _learn_. + gelce, _likewise_; _in like manner to_ (with dat.). + gelefan (gely:fan) ( 126), _believe_; + t ho on :nigne eorl gely:fde 137, 6 [[_Beowulf_ 628]] = _that + she believed in any earl_. + gelimpan ( 110), _happen, be fulfilled_. + gelimplc, _proper, fitting_. + gely:fan, see gelefan. + gely:fed, _weak, infirm_ [left (hand)]. + gmde, see geman. + gemet, n., _meter, measure, ability_. + gemtan ( 126), _meet_. + gem[o,]n, see gemunan. + gemunan ( 136), _remember_; indic. pres. 1st and 3d sing., gem[o,]n; + pret. sing., gemunde. + gemynd, n., _memory, memorial_; + t gemyndum 147, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 2805]] = _as a memorial_. + gemyndgian (-mynian) ( 130), _remember_; + mid hine gemyndgade 115, 15 = _he treasured in his memory_; + gemyne m:ro 138, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 660]] = _be mindful of glory_ + (imperative 2d sing.). + gemyndig, _mindful of_ (with gen.). + genp, see genpan. + geneahhe, _enough, often_; + genehost, superlative, _very often_. + genip, n., _mist, darkness_. + genpan ( 102), _grow dark_. + genwian ( 130), _renew_. + genh, _enough_. + genumen, see niman. + geoc, n., _yoke_. + gocor, _dire, sad_. + geogo, f., _youth, young people, young warriors_. (See dugu.) + geond (giond) ( 94, (2)), _throughout_ [yond]. + geondhweorfan ( 110), _pass over, traverse, recall_; + onne mga gemynd md geondhweorfe 150, 15 [[_Wanderer_ 51]] = + _then his mind recalls the memory of kinsmen_. + geondscawian ( 130), survey, review; + georne geondscawa 150, 16 [[_Wanderer_ 52]] = _eagerly surveys + them_. + geond[e,]nc(e)an ( 128), _think over, consider_. + geong ( 96, (2)), _young_; + giengest, (gingest), superlative, _youngest, latest, last_. + geong = g[o,]ng, see g[o,]ngan (imperative 2d sing.). + gong (gong), see g[o,]ngan (pret. 3d sing.). + georn (giorn), _eager, desirous, zealous, sure_ [yearn]. + georne, _eagerly, certainly_; + wiste geornor 143, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 822]] = _knew the more + certainly_. + geornfulnes, f., _eagerness, zeal_. + geornlce, _eagerly, attentively_. + geornor, see georne. + ger[e,]cednes, f., _narration_ [r[e,]ccan]. + gerisenlc, _suitable, becoming_. + gery:man ( 126), _extend_, (trans.) [rm]. + ges:liglc, _happy, blessed_ [silly]. + gesamnode, see ges[o,]mnian. + gesceaft, f., _creature, creation, destiny_ [scieppan]. + gesceap, n., _shape, creation, destiny_ [scieppan]. + gescieldan ( 127), _shield, defend_. + gesealde, see ges[e,]llan. + geseglian ( 130), _sail_. + geselda, m., _comrade_. + ges[e,]llan ( 128), _give_. + geson (geson) ( 118), _see_, observe; pres. indic. 3d sing., + gesih. + geset, n., _habitation, seat_. + ges[e,]ttan ( 127), _set, place, establish_. + gesewen, see son, geson (past part.). + gesewenlc, _seen, visible_ [seen-like]. + gesiglan ( 127), _sail_. + gesih, see geson. + gesittan ( 115, Note 2), _sit_ (trans., as _to sit a horse, to sit + a boat_, etc.); _sit, sit down_ (intrans.). + geslgen, see slan ( 118). + ges[o,]mnian ( 130), _assemble, collect_. + ges[o,]mnung, f., _collection, assembly_. + gesth, see gestgan. + gestaelian ( 130), _establish, restore_ [standan]. + gesteal, n., _establishment, foundation_ [stall]. + gestgan ( 102), _ascend, go_ [stile, stirrup, sty (= a _rising_ + on the eye)]. + gestrangian ( 130), _strengthen_. + gestron, n., _property_. + gestry:nan ( 126), _obtain, acquire_ [gestron]. + gesweorcan ( 110), _grow dark, become sad_; + For on ic ge[e,]ncan ne mg geond s woruld for hwan mdsefa mn + ne gesweorce 151, 3-4 [[lines 58-59]] = _Therefore in this world + I may not understand wherefore my mind does not grow "black as + night."_ (Brooke.) + geswcan ( 102), _cease, cease from_ (with gen.). + getl, n., _something told, narrative_. + getruma, m., _troop, division_. + geanc, m., n., _thought_. + geeah, see geicgan. + ge[e,]nc(e)an ( 128), _think, remember, understand, consider_. + geodan ( 126), _join_. + geode (-ode), n., _language, tribe_. + geodnis, f., _association_; + but in 112, 2 this word is used to render the Lat. _appetitus_ = + _desire_. + geicg(e)an ( 115, Note 2), _take, receive_; pret. indic. 3d sing., + geeah. + geungen, part.-adj., _distinguished, excellent_ [on, _to thrive_]. + geyldig, _patient_ [olian]. + geweald (gewald), n., _control, possession, power_ [wield]. + geweorc, n., _work, labor_. + geweorian ( 130), _honor_ [to attribute _worth_to]. + gewcian ( 130), _dwell_. + gewin(n), n., _strife, struggle_. + gewindan ( 110), _flee_ [wend]. + gewissian ( 130), _guide, direct_. + gewtan ( 102), _go, depart_. + geworht, see gewyrcan. + gewrit, n., _writing, Scripture_. + gewunian ( 130), _be accustomed, be wont_. + gewyrc(e)an ( 128), _work, create, make, produce_. + gid(d), n., _word, speech_. + giefan ( 115), _give_. + giefstl, m., _gift-stool, throne_. + giefu (gifu), f., _gift_. + gielp (gilp), m., n., _boast_ [yelp]. + geman (gman) ( 126), _endeavor, strive_. + get (gt, gy:t), _yet, still_. + gif (gyf), _if_ [not related to _give_]. + gifee (gyfee), _given, granted_. + gilp, see gielp. + gilp-cwide, m., _boasting speech_ [_yelp_-speech]. + gingest, see geong (adj.). + gioho (gehu), f., _care, sorrow, grief_. + gi (i), _formerly, of old_. + gld (gl:d), _glad_. + glaw, _wise, prudent_. + glwstf, m., _glee, joy_; instr. pl.(used adverbially), + glwstafum 150, 16 [[_Wanderer_ 52]] = _joyfully_. + God, m., _God_. + gd ( 96, (3)), _good_; + mid his gdum 115, 12 = _with his possessions (goods)_. + godcund, _divine_ [God]. + godcundlce, _divinely_. + gold, n., _gold_. + gold-:ht, f., _gold treasure_. + gold-fh, _gold-adorned_. + gold-hroden, part.-adj., _gold-adorned_. + goldwine, m., _prince, giver of gold, lord_ [gold-friend]. + gomel (gomol), _old, old man_. + g[o,]ngan (gangan) ( 117), _go_ [gang]; imperative 2d sing., geong; + pret. sing., gong, gong, gng; past part., geg[o,]ngen, + gegangen. + The most commonly used pret. is ode, which belongs to gn (134). + Gotland, n., _Jutland_ (in _Ohthere's Second Voyage_), _Gothland_ + (in_Wulfstan's Voyage_). + gram, _grim, angry, fierce, the angry one_. + grp, f., _grasp, clutch, claw_. + grtan ( 126), _greet, attack, touch_. + grwan ( 117, (2)), _grow_. + gryre-lo, n., _terrible song_ [grisly lay]. + guma, m., _man, hero_ [groom; see 65, Note1]. + g, f., _war, battle_. + g-bill, n., _sword_ [war-bill]. + g-gew:de, n., _armor_ [war-weeds]. + g-hr, f., _war-fame_. + g-wine, m., _sword_ [war-friend]. + gyddian ( 130), _speak formally_, chant [giddy; the original meaning + of _giddy_ was _mirthful_, as when one sings]. + gyf, see gif. + gyfee, see gifee. + gyldan (gieldan) ( 110), _pay_; indic. 3d sing., gylt. + gylden, _golden_ [gold]. + + +#H.# + + habban ( 133), _have_. + hd, m., _order, rank, office, degree_ [-hood, -head]. + hfta, m., _captive_. + hgel (hagol), m., _hail_; instr. sing., hagle. + hglfaru, f., _hail-storm_ [hail-faring]. + hle, see hle. + h:l, f., _hail, health, good luck_. + hle (hle), m., _hero, warrior_. + h:t, see htan. + h:en, _heathen_. + H:um (t H:um), _Haddeby_ (= _Schleswig_). + hl, _hale, whole_. + hlettan ( 127), _greet, salute_ [to hail]. + Halfd[e,]ne, _Halfdane_ (proper name). + hlga, m., _saint_. + Hlgoland, _Halgoland_ (in ancient Norway). + hlig, _holy_. + hlignes, f., _holiness_. + hm, m., _home_; dat. sing., hme, hm (p.104, Note); + used adverbially in hm ode 112, 18 = _went home_. + hand, see h[o,]nd. + hr, _hoary, gray_. + ht, _hot_. + htan ( 117, Note 2), _call, name, command_; pret. sing., heht, ht. + htheort, _hot-hearted_. + htte, see htan. + h, ho, hit ( 53), _he, she, it_. + hafod, n., _head_. + hah ( 96, (2)), _high_; acc. sing, m., hanne. + hah-s[e,]le, m., _high hall_. + hahungen, _highly prosperous, aristocratic_ [hah + past part. of + on (118)]. + healdan ( 117), _hold, govern, possess_; + 144, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 2720]] = _hold up, sustain_. + healf, adj., _half_. + healf, f., _half, side, shore_. + heall, f., _hall_. + heals, m., _neck_. + han, _abject, miserable_. + hanne, see hah. + heard, _hard_. + heard-hicgende, _brave-minded_ [hard-thinking]. + hearm-scaa, m., _harmful foe_ [harm-scather]. + hearpe, f., _harp_. + heao-dor, _battle-brave_. + heao-m:re, _famous in battle_. + heao-wylm, m., _flame-surge, surging of fire_ [battle-welling]. + hawan ( 117), _hew, cut_. + h[e,]bban, hf, hfon, gehafen ( 117), _heave, lift, raise_. + h[e,]fig, _heavy, oppressive_. + heht, see htan. + helan ( 114), _conceal_. + h[e,]ll, f., _hell_. + helm, m., _helmet_. + Helmingas, m. pl., _Helmings_ (Wealtheow, Hrothgar's queen, is a + Helming). + help, f., _help_. + helpan ( 110), _help_ (with dat.). + heofon, m., _heaven_. + heofonlc, _heavenly_. + heofonrce, n., _kingdom of heaven_. + hold, see healdan. + heolstor (-ster), n., _darkness, concealment, cover_ [holster]. + heora (hiera), see h. + heord, f., care, guardianship [hoard]. + heoro-drorig, _bloody_ [sword-dreary]. + Heorot, _Heorot, Hart_ (the famous hall which Hrothgar built). + heorte, f., _heart_. + hr, _here, hither_; + in the _Chronicle_ the meaning frequently is _at this date, in this + year_: 99,1. + h[e,]re, m., _Danish army_. + h[e,]renis, f., _praise_. + h[e,]rgian ( 130), _raid, harry, ravage_ [h[e,]re]. + h[e,]rgung, f., _harrying, plundering_. + h[e,]rian (h[e,]rigean) ( 125), _praise_. + hrsumedon, see hersumian. + ht, see htan. + hider (hieder), _hither_. + hiera, see h. + heran (hy:ran) ( 126), _hear, belong_. + hierde, m., _shepherd, instigator_ [keeper of a _herd_]. + hierdebc, f., _pastoral treatise_ [shepherd-book, atranslation of + Lat. _Cura Pastoralis_]. + herra, see hah. + hersumian (hy:r-, hr-) ( 130), _obey_ (with dat.). + hige (hyge), m., _mind, heart_. + hige-ihtig, _bold-hearted_. + hild, f., _battle_. + hilde-dor, _battle-brave_. + hilde-mecg, m., _warrior_. + hilde-sd, _battle-sated_. + hin-fs, _eager to be gone_ [hence-ready]. + hira, see h. + hl:w (hlw), m., _mound, burial mound_ [Lud_low_ and other + place-names, _low_ meaning _hill_]. + hlford, m., _lord, master_ [loaf-ward?]. + hleahtor, m., _laughter_. + hlo, m., _refuge, protector_ [lee]. + hlfian ( 130), _rise, tower_. + hlyn, m., _din, noise_. + hlynsian ( 130), _resound_. + hof, n., _court, abode_. + hogode, see hycgan. + holm, m., _sea, ocean_. + h[o,]nd (hand), f., _hand_; + on gehwre h[o,]nd, _on both sides_. + hord, m., n., _hoard, treasure_. + hordcofa, m., _breast, heart_ [hoard-chamber] + hors, n., _horse_. + horshwl, m., _walrus_. + hrdwyrde, _hasty of speech_ [hrd = _quick_]. + hrgel, n., _garment_; dat. sing., hrgle. + hrn, m., _reindeer_. + hrae, _quickly, soon_ [_rath_-er]. + hro (hroh), _rough, cruel, sad_. + hrosan ( 109), _fall_. + hrran ( 126), _stir_. + hreer, m., n., _breast, purpose_; dat. sing., hrere. + hrm, m., _rime, hoarfrost_. + hrmceald, _rime-cold_. + hring, m., _ring, ring-mail_. + hr, f. (?), _snow-storm_. + hrf, m., _roof_. + Hrones nss, literally _Whale's Ness, whale's promontory_; + see nss. + hrse, f., _earth_ [hrosan: deposit]. + hryre, m., _fall, death_ [hrosan]. + hry:er, n., _cattle_ [rinder-pest]. + hryig, _ruined_ (?), _storm-beaten_; nom. pl.m., hryge. + h, _how_. + Humbre, f., _river Humber_. + hund, _hundred_. + hunig, n., _honey_. + hunta, m., _hunter_. + hunto (-ta), m., _hunting_. + hru, adv., _about_. + hs, n., _house_. + hw, hwt ( 74), _who?_ _what?_ sw hwt sw (77, Note), + _whatsoever_; + indefinite, _any one, anything_; + for hwan (instr.), _wherefore_. + hwl, m., _whale_. + hwlhunta, m., _whale-hunter_. + hwlhunta, m., _whale-fishing_. + hw:r, _where?_ hw:r ... sw, _wheresoever_; + wel hw:r, _nearly everywhere_. + hwthwugu, _something_. + hwer, _whether, which of two?_ + hwre, _however, nevertheless_. + hwne, see hwn. + hweorfan ( 110), _turn, go_. + hwider, _whither_. + hwl, f., _while, time_; + ealle hwle e, _all the while that_; + hwlum (instr. pl.), _sometimes_. + hwilc (hwylc, hwelc) ( 74, Note 1), _which?_ _what?_ + hwn, n., _a trifle_; + hwne (instr. sing.), _somewhat, a little_. + hw[o,]nan, _when_. + hy:, see he. + hycgan ( 132), _think, resolve_; pret. 3d sing., hogode. + hy:d, f., _hide, skin_. + hyge, see hige. + hyra (hiera), see h. + hy:ran, see heran. + hyrde, see hierde. + hys (his), see h. + hyt (hit), see h. + + +#I.# + + ic ( 72), _I_. + del, _idle, useless, desolate_. + ides, f., _woman, lady_. + ieldra, adj., see eald. + ieldra, m., _an elder, parent, ancestor_. + iernan (yrnan) ( 112), _run_. + gl[o,]nd (gland), n., _island_. + ilca (ylca), _the same_ [of that ilk]. + Ilfing, _the Elbing_. + in, _in, into_ (with dat. and acc.); + in on, _in on, to, toward_. + inbryrdnis (-nes), f., _inspiration, ardor_. + indryhten, _very noble_. + ing[o,]ng, m., _entrance_. + innan, adv., _within, inside_; + on innan, _within_. + innanbordes, adv.-gen., _within borders, at home_. + inne, adv., _within, inside_. + intinga, m., _cause, sake_. + inweardlce, _inwardly, fervently_. + inwid-sorg (inwit-sorh), f., _sorrow caused by an enemy_. + inwit-anc, m., _hostile intent_. + raland, n., _Ireland_ (but in _Ohthere's Second Voyage, Iceland_ is + probably meant). + ren, n., _iron, sword_; gen. pl., renna, rena. + ren-b[e,]nd, m., f., _iron-band_. + u, see gu. + + +#K.# + + kynerce, see cynerce. + kyning, see cyning. + kyrtel, m., _kirtle, coat_. + + +#L.# + + L:den, _Latin_. + L:dengeode (-ode), n., _Latin language_. + L:denware ( 47), m. pl., _Latin people, Romans_. + l:fan ( 126), _leave_. + l:ge, see licgan. + L:land, n., _Laaland_ (in Denmark). + l:n, n., _loan_; + t l:ne 121, 2 = _as a loan_. + l:ne, adj., _as a loan, transitory, perishable_. + l:ran ( 126), _teach, advise, exhort_ [lr]. + l:ssa, l:sta, see ly:tel. + l:stan ( 127), _last, hold out_ (intrans.); _perform, achieve_ + (trans.). + l:tan ( 117), _let, leave_. + lf, f., _something left, remnant, heirloom_ (often a _sword_); + t lfe, _as a remnant, remaining_. + laguld, f., _sea_ [lake-way, ld = _leading, direction, way_]. + land, see l[o,]nd. + lang, see l[o,]ng. + Langaland, n., _Langeland_ (in Denmark). + lr, f., _lore, teaching_. + lrcwide, m., _precept, instruction_, [cwide < cwean]. + lrow, m., _teacher_ [lr + ow]. + lst, m., _track, footprint_ [shoemaker's last]; + on lst(e), _in the track of, behind_ (with dat.). + l, _loathsome, hateful_. + las, _loose, free from, bereft of_ (with gen.). + lasung, f., _leasing, deception, falsehood_. + l[e,]cgan ( 125, Note), _lay_. + lfdon, see lefan. + leger, n., _lying in, illness_ [licgan]. + l[e,]ng, see l[o,]nge. + l[e,]ngra, see l[o,]ng. + lod, m., _prince, chief_. + lod, f., _people, nation_ (the plural has the same meaning). + lod-scipe, m., _nation_ [people-ship]. + lof, _dear_ [lief]. + leoht, adj., _light_. + loht, n., _light, brightness_. + leornere, m., _learner, disciple_. + leornian ( 130), _learn_. + leornung (liornung), f., _learning_. + lo, n., _song_ [lay?]. + locrft, m., _poetic skill_ [lay-craft]. + los[o,]ng, n., _song, poem_. + lt, see l:tan. + libban ( 133), _live_; pres. part., lifigende, _living, alive_. + lc, n., _body, corpse_ [lich-gate, Lichfield]. + licgan ( 115, Note 2), _lie, extend, flow, lie dead_; 3d sing. + indic. pres., lige, l. + lchama (-h[o,]ma), m., _body_ [body-covering]. + lcian ( 130), _please_ (with dat.) [like]. + lc-sr, n., _body-sore, wound in the body_. + lefan (lfan) ( 126), _permit, allow_ (with dat.) [grant _leave_ + to]. + lf, n., _life_. + lf-dagas, m. pl., _life-days_. + lifigende, see libban. + lg, m., _flame, fire_. + lige, see licgan. + lim, n., _limb_. + list, f., _cunning_; + dat. pl., listum, is used adverbially = _cunningly_. + l, see licgan. + lof, m., _praise, glory_. + l[o,]nd (land), n., _land, country_. + l[o,]ng (lang) ( 96, (2)), _long_. + l[o,]nge (lange) ( 97, (2)), _long_; + l[o,]nge on dg, _late in the day_. + lufan, see lufu. + lufian (lufigean) ( 131), _love_. + luflce, _lovingly_. + lufu, f., _love_; dat. sing. (weak), lufan. + lungre, _quickly_. + lust, m., _joy_ [lust]; + on lust, _joyfully_. + ly:t, indeclinable, _little, few_ (with partitive gen.). + ly:tel (ltel) ( 96, (2)), _little, small_. + + +#M.# + + m, see micle ( 97, (2)). + mg, see magan. + m:g, m., _kinsman_; nom. pl., mgas ( 27, (2)). + mgen n., _strength, power_ [might and _main_]. + mgen-[e,]llen, n., _main strength, mighty courage_. + m:g, f., _tribe_. + mghd, m., _maidenhood, virginity_. + m:l-gesceaft, f., _appointed time_ [m:l = _meal, time_]. + m:ran ( 126), _make famous, honor_. + m:re, _famous, glorious, notorious_. + m:ro (m:ro, m:r), f., _glory, fame_. + msseprost, m., _mass-priest_. + m:st, see micel. + magan ( 137), _be able, may_. + mgas, see m:g. + magu (mago), m., _son, man_. + maguegn, m., _vassal, retainer_. + man(n), see m[o,]n(n). + mancus, m., _mancus, half-crown_; gen. pl., mancessa. + mnd:d, f., _evil deed_. + manig, see m[o,]nig. + manigfeald, see m[o,]nigfeald. + mra, see micel. + maelian ( 130), _harangue, speak_. + mum (mum), m., _gift, treasure, jewel_; gen. pl., mma. + mumgyfa, m., _treasure-giver, lord_. + mum-wela, m., _wealth of treasure_. + m, see ic. + meaht, f., _might, power_. + meahte, see magan. + mearc, f., _boundary, limit_ [mark, march]. + mearg (mearh), m., _horse_; nom. pl., maras. + mear, m., _marten_. + mec, see ic. + medmicel, _moderately large, short, brief_. + medu (medo), m., _mead_. + medu-b[e,]nc, f., _mead-bench_. + medu-ful, n., _mead-cup_. + medu-heall, f., _mead-hall_. + m[e,]n, see m[o,]n(n). + m[e,]ngan ( 127), _mingle, mix_. + m[e,]nigu (m[e,]nigeo), f., _multitude_ [many]. + m[e,]nniscnes, f., _humanity, incarnation_ [man]. + meolc, f., _milk_. + More, _Mre_ (in Sweden). + m[e,]re, m., _lake, mere, sea_ [mermaid]. + Meretn, m., _Merton_ (in Surrey). + mtan ( 126), _meet, find_. + Metod (Meotod, Metud), m., _Creator, God_. + metod-sceaft, f., _appointed doom, eternity_. + micel ( 96, (3)), _great, mighty, strong, large_ [mickle]; + mra, _more, stronger, larger_. + micle (micele), _greatly, much_. + miclum, ( 93, (4)), _greatly_. + mid, _with, amid, among_ (with dat. and acc.). + middangeard, m., _earth, world_ [middle-yard]. + middeweard, _midward, toward the middle_. + Mierce, m. pl., _Mercians_. + mihte, see _magan_. + ml, f., _mile_ [Lat. mille]. + mildheortnes, f., _mild-heartedness, mercy_. + milts, f., _mildness, mercy_. + mn ( 76), _my, mine_. + mislc, _various_. + missenlc, _various_. + md, n., _mood, mind, courage_. + mdcearig, _sorrowful of mind_. + mdega, mdga, see mdig. + mdgeanc, m., _purpose of mind_. + mdig, _moody, brave, proud_. + mdor, f., _mother_. + mdsefa, m., _mind, heart_. + m[o,]n(n) (man, mann) ( 68; 70, Note), m., _man, one, person, + they_. + mna, m., _moon_. + mna ( 68, (1), Note), m., _month_ [mna]; dat. sing., mne. + m[o,]n(n)cynn, n., _mankind_. + m[o,]ndryhten, m., _liege lord_. + m[o,]nian (manian) ( 130), _admonish_. + m[o,]nig (manig, m[o,]neg, mnig), _many_. + m[o,]nigfeald (manig-), _manifold, various_. + mne, see mna. + mr, m., _moor_. + morgen, m., _morning_; dat. sing., morgen(n)e. + moror-bealu (-bealo), n., _murder_ [murder-bale]; + see urfan. + mste, see mtan. + mtan ( 137), _may, be permitted, must_. + mund-gripe, m., _hand-grip_. + munuc, m., _monk_ [Lat. monachus]. + munuchd, m., _monkhood, monastic rank_. + m, m., _mouth_. + myntan ( 127), _be minded, intend_; pret. indic. 3d sing., mynte. + mynster, n., _monastery_ [Lat. monasterium]; dat. sing., mynstre. + my:re, f., _mare_ [mearh]. + myr, f., _joy, mirth_; + mdes myre 142, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 811]] = _with joy of heart_. + + +#N.# + + n (n), _not_ [ne = _n-ever_]; + n ne, _not, not at all_. + nabban (p.32, Note), _not to have_. + n:dre, f., _serpent, adder_. + nfde, see nabban. + n:fre, _never_. + n:nig ( 77), _no one, no, none_. + n:re, n:ren, n:ron, see 40, Note2. + ns = ne ws, see 40, Note 2. + nss, m., _ness, headland_. + nht, see nht. + nls (nles), _not at all_ [n ealles]. + nam, see niman. + nama, see n[o,]ma. + nmon, see niman. + nn, _not one, no, none_ [ne n]. + nnwuht, n., _nothing_ [no whit]. + ne, _not_. + n, _nor_; + n ... n, _neither ... nor_. + nah ( 96, (4)), _near_. + nah, adv., _nigh, near, nearly, almost_; comparative, nar, _nearer_. + neaht, see niht. + nalcan (-l:can) ( 126), _draw near to, approach_ (with dat.). + nar, see nah, adv. + nat, n., _neat, cattle_. + n[e,]mnan ( 127), _name_. + neme, (nyme), _except, unless_. + n[e,]rian ( 125), _save, preserve_. + nten, see neten. + nedbeearf, _needful, necessary_. + nehst, see nah ( 96, (4)). + neten (nten), n., _neat, beast, cattle_. + nigontene, _nineteen_. + niht (neaht) ( 68, (1), Note), _night_. + nihthelm, m., _night-helm, shade of night_. + nihtsca, m., _shadow of night_. + niht-weorc, n., _night-work_. + niman ( 114), _take, gain_ [nimble, numb]. + npan ( 102), _grow dark, darken_. + nis, see 40, Note 2. + n, m., _malice, violence_. + nwe, _new, novel, startling_. + n, see n. + nht (nht, n-wiht), n., _not a whit, naught, nothing_; _not, not + at all_. + nhwer (nhwer), _neither_; + nhwer n ... ne ... n ... ne 118, 8 = _neither ... nor_. + nolde, noldon = ne wolde, ne woldon, see willan. + n[o,]ma (nama), m., _name_. + nor ( 97, (1)), _north, in the north, northwards_. + noran ( 93, (5)), _from the north_; + be noran, see 94, (4). + Nor-D[e,]ne, m. pl., _North-Danes_. + noreweard, _northward_. + Norhymbre, m. pl., _Northumbrians_. + Normanna, see Norm[o,]n. + Norm[e,]n, see Norm[o,]n. + normest, see nor. + Norm[o,]n (-man) ( 68, (1)), _Norwegian_. + noror, see nor. + norryhte, _northward_. + norweard, _northward_. + Norweg, _Norway_. + nose, f., _cape, naze_ [ness, nose]. + notu, f., _office, employment_. + n, _now_; _now that, seeing that_; + n 138, 13 [[_Beowulf_ 658]] = _now then_. + ny:hst (nehst), see nah. + nyme, see neme. + nysse, see nytan. + nyste, see nytan. + nyt(t), _useful, profitable_. + nytan (nitan < ne witan, 136), _not to know_; 3d sing. pret., + nysse, nyste. + + +#O.# + + of ( 94, (1)), _of, from, concerning_. + ofer ( 94, (2)), _over, across, after, in spite of_ (see 144,14 + [[_Beowulf_ 2725]]); + ofer eoran 142, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 803]] = _on earth_. + ofer, adv., _over, across_. + oferfran ( 126), _go over, traverse_. + oferfrosan ( 109), _freeze over_. + oferfroren, see oferfrosan. + ofgiefan ( 115), _give up, relinquish_. + ofost, f., _haste_. + ofslgen, see ofslan. + ofslan ( 118), _slay off, slay_. + ofslge, see ofslan. + oft, _oft, often_; superlative, oftost. + on ( 94, (3)), _in, into, on, against, to, among, during_; + on ff oe syx 109, 6= _into five or six parts_; + on weg 140, 10 [[_Beowulf_ 764]] = _away_; + on innan 144, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 2716]] = _within_; + on unriht 145, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 2740]] = _falsely_. + onbrnan ( 126), _kindle, inspire_. + oncy:, f., _distress, suffering_. + [o,]nd (and), _and_. + [o,]ndsaca, m., _adversary_. + [o,]ndswarian ( 130), _answer_. + [o,]ndweard, adj., _present_. + onfng, see onfn. + onfeohtan ( 110), _fight_. + onfindan ( 110), _find out, discover_; pret. indic. 3d sing., + onfunde. + onfn ( 118), _receive, seize violently_. + onfunde, see onfindan. + ongan, prep., _against, towards_ (with dat. and acc.). + ongan, adv., _just across, opposite_. + [O,]ngelcynn (Angel-), n., _Angle kin, English people, England_. + [O,]ngelod (Angel-), f., _the English people or nation_. + ongemang (-m[o,]ng), _among_ (with dat.). + ongietan (-gitan) ( 115), _perceive, see, understand_. + onginnan ( 110), _begin, attempt_. + onltan ( 109), _bow, incline_ (intrans.) [lout = a stooper]. + onrdan ( 102), _ride against, make a raidon_. + ons[e,]ndan ( 127), _send_. + onsl:pan (onslpan) ( 126), _fall asleep, sleep_. + onsp[o,]nnan ( 117), _loosen_ [unspan]; pret. 3d sing. indic., + onspon. + onspringan ( 110), _spring apart, unspring_. + onstl, m., _institution, supply_. + onst[e,]llan ( 128), _establish_; pret. 3d sing. indic., onstealde. + onwcnan ( 127), _awake_ (intrans.). + onweald (-wald), m., _power, authority_ [wield]. + onw[e,]ndan ( 127), _change, overturn_ [to wind]. + r, n., _beginning_. + o ( 94, (2)), _until, as far as_ (oftime and place); + o t, o e, _until_. + oberan ( 114), _bear away_. + er, _other, second_; + er ... er, _the one ... the other_. + ofstan ( 127), _set to_ (a task). + ofeallan ( 117) _fall off, decline_. + oe, _or_; + oe ... oe, _either ... or_. + + +#P.# + + plega, m., _play, festivity_. + port, m., _port_ [Lat. portus]. + + +#R.# + + rd, f., _raid_. + r:can ( 126), _reach_; pret. 3d sing., r:hte. + rst, see r[e,]st. + Radingas, m. pl., _Reading_ (in Berkshire). + r[e,]ccan ( 128), _narrate, tell_; pret. pl.indic., r[e,]hton, + reahton. + r[e,]ccelas, _reckless, careless_. + r[e,]ced, n., _house, hall_. + regnian (rnian) ( 130), _adorn, prepare_; past part., geregnad. + regollc (-lec), _according to rule, regular_. + rn-weard, m., _mighty warden, guard, champion_. + r[e,]st (rst), f., _rest, resting-place, bed_. + re, _fierce, furious_. + rce, _rich, powerful, aristocratic_. + rce, n., _realm, kingdom_ [bishopric]. + rcsian ( 130), _rule_. + rdan ( 102), _ride_. + rman ( 126), _count_ [rime]. + rinc, m., _man, warrior_. + rd, f., _rood, cross_; + rde tcen, _sign of the cross_. + Rmware, m. pl., _Romans_. + r[o,]nd (rand), m., _shield_. + rn, f., _rune, secret meditation_ [to round = to whisper]. + rycene (ricene), _quickly, rashly_. + ryhtnoranwind, m., _straight north-wind_. + + +#S.# + + s:, f., _sea_. + s:-bt, m., _sea-boat_. + s:d, n., _seed_. + s:de, see s[e,]cgan. + s:l, m., f., _time, happiness_ [sil-ly]; + on s:lum 137, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 644]] = _joyous, merry_. + s:lan ( 126), _bind_. + s:-lend ( 68, (3)), m., _seafarer_ (nom. and acc. pl.same as + nom. and acc. sing.). + sam ... sam, _whether ... or_. + same, _similarly_; + sw same, _just the same, in like manner_. + samod, see s[o,]mod. + sanct, m., f., _saint_ [Lat. sanctus]; gen. sing., sanct, f., + sancti, m. + sang, see s[o,]ng. + sr, f., n., _sore, pain, wound_. + sr, adj., _sore, grievous_. + sre, _sorely_. + swan ( 117,) _sow_. + swol, f., _soul_; oblique cases, sing., swle ( 39, Note). + scacan (sceacan) ( 116), _shake, go, depart_; past part., scacen, + sceacen. + scadu-helm, m., _cover of night, shadow-covering_ [shadow-helm]; + scadu-helma gesceapu, see Note on 138, 2-6 [[lines 647-51]]. + sceal, see sculan. + scap, n., _sheep_. + scat, m., _corner, region, quarter_ [sheet]; + eoran scatta 139, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 753]] = _in the regions of earth_ + (gen. used as locative). + scawi(g)an ( 130), _view, see_ [shew]. + scawung, f., _seeing_. + sceolde, see sculan. + scop (scp), see scieppan. + scowyrhta, m., _shoe-maker_. + sc[e,]an ( 116), _injure, scathe_ (with dat.). + scieppan ( 116), _create_. + Scieppend, m., _Creator_. + scnan ( 102), _shine_. + scip (scyp), n., _ship_. + scipen, n., _stall_. + sciprp, m., _ship-rope, cable_. + scr, f., _shire, district_. + Sciringeshal, m., _Sciringesheal_ (in Norway). + scolde, see sculan. + sc[o,]mu, f., _shame, dishonor_. + Scng, f., _Skaane_ (southern district of the Scandinavian + peninsula). + scopgereord, n., _poetic language_. + scran ( 102), _stride, stalk_. + sculan ( 136; 137, Note 2), _shall, have to, ought_. + Scyldingas, m. pl., _Scyldings, Danes_. + scyp, see scip. + Scyppend, see Scieppend. + s, so, t ( 28; 28, Note3), _the_; _that_; _he, she, it_; + _who, which, that_; + s, _from then, afterwards, therefore_; + s e (p.110, l.2), _with what_; + y: ... t (p.110, ll.7-8), _for this reason ... because_; + t :m ... sw, _to such an extent ... as_; + y (), _the_ (adverbial, with comparatives); + y: ... y:, _the ... the_. + seah, see son. + sealde, see s[e,]llan. + searo-gimm, m., _artistic gem, jewel_. + searo-n, m., _cunning hatred, plot_. + searo-[o,]nc, m., _cunning thought, device_. + Seaxe, m. pl., _Saxons, Saxony_. + sc(e)an ( 128), _to seek, visit, meet_. + s[e,]cg, m., _man, warrior_. + s[e,]cgan ( 132), _say, tell_. + sefa, m., _mind, spirit_. + sfte, _more easily_ (comparative of sfte). + segel, m., n., _sail_; dat. sing. = segle. + seglian ( 130), _sail_. + s[e,]le, m., _hall_. + s[e,]ledram, m., _hall joy, festivity_. + s[e,]le-ful, n., _hall cup_. + s[e,]les[e,]cg, m., _hall warrior, retainer_. + slest, _best_ (no positive). + self (sylf), _self, himself_ (declined as strong or weak adjective). + s[e,]llan (syllan) ( 128), _give_ [sell, han(d)sel]. + s[e,]mninga, _forthwith, straightway_. + s[e,]ndan ( 127), _send_. + so, see s. + soc, _sick_. + seofon (syfan), _seven_. + seolh, m., _seal_; gen. sing. = soles ( 27, (3)). + son ( 118), _see, look_. + seonu, f., _sinew_; nom. pl., seonowe. + sess, m., _seat_. + sibb, f., _friendship, peace_ [gos_sip_]. + sidu (siodu), m., _custom, morality, good conduct_. + se, see bon. + siex, _six_; + syxa (siexa) sum, see sum. + siextig, _sixty_. + sige, m., _victory_. + sige-folc, n., _victorious people_. + sige-las, _victory-less, of defeat_. + sige-rf, victory-famed, _victorious_. + sige-w:pen, n., _victory-weapon_. + siglan ( 127), _sail_. + Sillende, _Zealand_. + sinc, n., _treasure, prize_. + sinc-f:t, n., see 137, 1 [[_Beowulf_ 623]] [treasure-vat]. + sinc-[e,]gu, f., _receiving of treasure_ [icgan]. + sind, sint, sindon, see bon. + singan ( 110), _sing_. + sittan ( 115, Note 2), _sit, take position_. + s, m., _journey, time_; + forman se 139, 2 [[_Beowulf_ 741]] = _the first time_ (instr. + sing.). + sian ( 130), _journey_. + sian, _after that, afterwards, after_. + sl:p, m., _sleep_. + sl:pan ( 117), _sleep_. + slan ( 118), _slay_ [slow-worm]. + sltan ( 102), _slit, tear to pieces_. + slen, _savage, perilous_. + sml, _narrow_. + smalost, see sml. + snw, m., _snow_. + snot(t)or, _wise, prudent_. + shte, see scan. + s[o,]mod (samod), _together_. + sna, _soon_. + s[o,]ng, m., n., _song, poem_. + s[o,]ngcrft, m., _art of song and poetry_. + sorg (sorh), f., _sorrow_. + s, _true_. + s, n., _truth_; + t se, _for a truth, truly, verily_. + s-fst, _truthful, just_. + slce, _truly_. + spd, f., _possessions, success, riches_ [speed]. + spdig, _rich, prosperous_. + spell, n., _story, tale_ [gospel]. + spow, see spwan. + spere, n., _spear_. + spor, n., _track, footprint_. + spwan ( 117), _succeed_ (impersonal with dat.). + spr:c, f., _speech, language_. + sprecan ( 115), _speak_. + spyrian (spyrigean) ( 130), _follow_ (intrans.) [spor]. + stf, _staff, rod_; pl.= _literature, learning_. + stlhrn, m., _decoy-reindeer_. + stlwiere, _serviceable_ (see p.56, Note 2). + st:r, n., _story, narrative_ [Lat. historia]. + st, n., _shore_. + stn, m., _stone, rock_. + stn-boga, m., _stone-arch_ [stone-bow]. + standan, see st[o,]ndan. + stnhli (-hleo), n., _stone-cliff_. + stapol, m., _column_ [staple]. + starian ( 125), _stare, gaze_. + st[e,]de, m., _place_. + stelan ( 114), _steal_. + st[e,]nt, see st[o,]ndan. + storbord, n., _starboard, right side of a ship_. + st[e,]ppan ( 116), _step, advance_; pret. indic. 3d sing., stp. + stilnes, f., _stillness, quiet_. + st[o,]ndan ( 116), _stand_. + stp, see st[e,]ppan. + storm, m., _storm_. + stw, f., _place_ [stow, and in names of places]. + strang, see str[o,]ng. + str[e,]ngest, see str[o,]ng. + str[o,]ng ( 96, (2)), _strong_. + styccem:lum, _here and there_. + sum ( 91, Note 2), _some, certain, a certain one_; + h syxa sum 104, 25 = _he with five others_. + sumera, see sumor. + sumor, m., _summer_; dat. sing. = sumera. + sumorlida, m., _summer-army_. + sundor, _apart_. + sunne, f., _sun_. + sunu, m., _son_. + s, _south, southwards_. + san ( 93, (5)), _from the south_; + be san, _south of_ ( 94, (4)). + seweard, _southward_. + sryhte, _southward_. + sw (sw:), _so, as, how, asif_; + sw sw, _just as, as far as_; + sw ... sw, _the ... the, as ... as_; + sw hwt sw, _whatsoever_ ( 77, Note). + sw:s, _beloved, own_. + sw, n., _track, footprint_ [swath]. + swaul, m.? n.?, _smoke_. + swealh, see swelgan. + swefan ( 115), _sleep, sleep the sleep of death_. + swefn, n., _sleep, dream_. + swg, m., _sound, noise_. + swegle, _bright, clear_. + swlan ( 126), _burn_ [sweal]. + swelgan ( 110), _swallow_; pret. indic. 3d sing., swealh; subj., + swulge. + swellan ( 110), _swell_. + Swoland, n., _Sweden_. + Swom, m., dat. pl., _the Swedes_. + sweotol, _clear_. + sweotole, _clearly_. + sw[e,]rian ( 116), _swear_. + swte, _sweet_. + swtnes (-nis), f., _sweetness_. + swift (swyft), _swift_. + swilc (swylc) ( 77), _such_. + swilce, _in such manner, as, likewise_; _as if, as though_ (with + subj.). + swimman ( 110), _swim_. + swn (swy:n), n., _swine, hog_. + swnsung, f., _melody, harmony_. + swe (swy:e), _very, exceedingly, greatly_. + swost, _chiefly, almost_. + swr, see sw[e,]rian. + swulge, see swelgan. + swuster ( 68, (2)), f., _sister_. + swylce (swelce), see swilce. + swy:n, see swn. + swynsian ( 130), _resound_. + swy:e, see swe. + swy:-ferh, _strong-souled_. + sylf, see self. + syll, f., _sill, floor_. + syllan, see s[e,]llan. + symbel, n., _feast, banquet_. + symle, _always_. + synd, see bon. + syn-dolh, n., _ceaseless wound, incurable wound_. + syndriglce, _specially_. + synn, f., _sin_. + syn-scaa, m., _ceaseless scather, perpetual foe_. + syn-sn:d, f., _huge bit_ [ceaseless bit]. + syan, see sian. + syx, see siex. + syxtig, see siextig. + + +#T.# + + tcen, n., _sign, token_; dat. sing., tcne ( 33, Note). + t:can ( 128), _teach_. + tam, _tame_. + tela, _properly, well_ [til]. + t[e,]llan ( 128), _count, deem_ [tell]; pret. 3d sing., tealde. + T[e,]mes, f., _the Thames_. + ton, _arrange, create_; pret. sing., tode. + Terfinna, m., gen. pl., _the Terfins_. + t, see t. + td, f., _tide, time, hour_. + ten (ty:n), _ten_. + til(l), _good_. + tma, m., _time_. + tintreglc, _full of torment_. + t ( 94, (1)), _to, for, according to, as_; + t hrfe 114, 2 = _for (as) a roof_ [cf. Biblical _to wife_, + modern _to boot_]. + t, adv., _too_. + tbrecan (p.81, Note 2), _break to pieces, knock about_. + td:lan ( 126), _divide_. + temnes (t emnes) ( 94, (4)), _along, alongside_. + tforan ( 94, (1)), _before_. + tgeodan ( 126), _join_. + thopa, m., _hope_. + tlicgan ( 115, Note 2), _separate, lie between_; 3d sing, indic. + = tl. + tl, see tlicgan. + tolcan ( 109, Note 1), _destroy_ [the prefix t reverses the + meaning of lcan, _to lock_]. + torn, m., _anger, insult_. + t ( 68, (1)), m., _tooth_. + tweard ( 94, (1)), _toward_. + tweard, adj., _approaching, future_. + trow, f., _pledge, troth_. + trownes, f., _trust_. + Trs, _Drausen_ (a city on the Drausensea). + tn, m., _town, village_. + tunge, f., _tongue_. + tngerfa, m., _bailiff_ [town-reeve; so sheriff = shire-reeve]. + tungol, n., _star_. + tw, see twgen. + twgen, ( 89), _two, twain_. + twntig, _twenty_. + ty:n, see ten. + + +#.# + + , _then, when_; + ... , _when ... then_; + , _then when_ = _when_. + , see s. + :r, _there, where_; + :r :r, _there where_ = _where_; + :r ... sw 142, 4 [[_Beowulf_ 798]]= _wheresoever_; 145, 6 + [[_Beowulf_ 2731]]= _if so be that_. + s, _afterwards, therefore, thus, because_; + see s. + t (tte = t e), _that, so that_. + afian ( 130), _consent to_. + anc, see [o,]nc. + ancian ([o,]ncian) ( 130), _thank_. + anon, see [o,]nan. + s, see s. + , see s (instr. sing.) and . + e ( 75), _who, whom, which, that_. + ah, _though, although_; + ah e, _though, although_. + earf, see urfan. + earf, f., _need, benefit_. + aw, m., _habit, custom_ [thews]. + egn (egen), m., _servant, thane, warrior_. + [e,]nc(e)an ( 128), _think, intend_. + ening (-ung), f., _service_; + the pl.may mean _book of service_ (117, 17). + od, f., _people, nation_. + oden, m., _prince, lord_. + odscipe, m., _discipline_. + on (y:wan) ( 126), _oppress_ [ow]. + ow, m., _servant_. + owa, m., _servant_. + owotdm (owot-), m., _service_. + s ( 73), _this_. + ider, _thither_. + iderweard, _thitherward_. + n ( 76), _thine_. + ing, n., _thing_; + :nige inga, see 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]], Note. + ingan ( 127), _arrange, appoint_. + is, see s. + issum, see s. + hte, hton, see [e,]ncean. + olian ( 130), _endure_ [thole]. + [o,]nan, _thence_. + [o,]nc, m., _thanks_. + one, see s. + onne, _than, then, when_; + onne ... onne, _when ... then_. + rg, f., _time_. + ra-ny:d, f., _compulsion, oppression, misery_ [throe-need]. + rora, see re. + ridda, _third_. + rie (ry:) ( 89), _three_. + rm, see re. + rst-hy:dig, _bold-minded_. + rtig, _thirty_. + rwung, f., _suffering_. + ry:, see re. + rym(m), m., _renown, glory, strength_. + ry:, f., _power, multitude_ (pl.used in sense of sing.); + asca ry:e 152, 23 [[_Wanderer_ 99]] = _the might of spears_. + ry:-rn, n., _mighty house, noble hall_. + ry:-word, n., _mighty word, excellent discourse_. + ( 72), _thou_. + hte, see yncan. + urfan ( 136), _need_; pres. indic. 3d sing., earf; pret. 3d sing., + orfte; + for-m m wtan ne earf Waldend fra moror-bealo mga 145, 17 + [[_Beowulf_ 2742]] = _therefore the Ruler of men need not charge + me with the murder of kinsmen_. + urh ( 94, (2)), _through_. + us, _thus_. + send, _thousand_. + y:, see s. + yder, see ider. + yncan ( 128), _seem, appear_ (impersonal); + m ync, _methinks, it seems to me_; + him hte, _it seemed to him_. + + +#U.# + + hta, m., _dawn_; gen. pl., htna. + unbeboht, _unsold_ [bebycgan = _to sell_]. + unc, _unknown, uncertain_ [uncouth]. + under, _under_ (with dat. and acc.). + underst[o,]ndan ( 116), _understand_. + underodan (-edan) ( 126), _subjectto_; + past part. underoded = _subjected to, obedient to_ (with dat.). + unforbrned, _unburned_. + unfri, m., _hostility_. + ungefge, _excessively_. + ungemete, _immeasurably, very_. + ungesewenlc, _invisible_ [past part. of son + lc]. + unlyfigend, _dead, dead man_ [unliving]. + unly:tel, _no little, great_. + unriht, n., _wrong_; + on unriht, see on. + unrihtwsnes, f., _unrighteousness_. + unspdig, _poor_. + unwearnum, _unawares_. + p (pp), _up_. + pstgnes, f., _ascension_ [stgan]. + p-lang, _upright_. + re ( 76), _our_. + usses = gen. sing. neut. of ser, see ic. + t, _out, outside_. + tan, _from without, outside_. + tanbordes, _abroad_. + tg[o,]ng, m., _exodus_. + uton, _let us_ (with infin.) [literally _let us go_ with infin. of + purpose (see 137, 19-20, Note [[lines 641-42]]); uton = wuton, + corrupted form of 1st pl.subj. of wtan, _togo_]. + t-weard, _outward bound, moving outwards_. + + +#W.# + + wc, _weak, insignificant_. + wacian ( 130), _watch, be on guard_; imperative sing., waca. + wadan ( 116), _go, tread_ [wade]. + w:g, m., _wave_. + W:gmundigas, m. _Wgmundings_ (family to which Beowulf and Wiglaf + belonged). + wl, n., _slaughter, the slain_. + wl-blat, _deadly_ [slaughter-pitiful]. + wlgfre, _greedy for slaughter_. + wl-r:s, m., _mortal combat_ [slaughter-race]. + wl-row, _fierce in strife_. + wlsliht (-sleaht), m., _slaughter_. + wlstw, f., _battle-field_ [slaughter-place]; + wlstwe gewald, _possession of the battle-field_. + w:pen, n., _weapon_. + w:re, see bon. + ws, see bon. + wter, n., _water_. + waldend, see _wealdend_. + wan (w[o,]n), _wan, dark_. + wanhy:dig, _heedless, rash_. + wnigean (wnian) ( 130), _bewail, lament_ (trans.) [whine]. + warian ( 130), _attend, accompany_. + wt, see witan. + waum, m., _wave_; gen. pl., waema. + weal(l), m., _wall, rampart_. + wealdend ( 68, (3)), _wielder, ruler, lord_. + wealh, m., _foreigner, Welshman_. + wealhstd, m., _interpreter, translator_. + weallan ( 117), _well up, boil, be agitated_; pret. 3d. sing. + indic., woll. + wealsteal(l), m., _wall-place, foundation_. + weard, m., _ward, keeper_. + wear, see weoran. + weaxan ( 117), _wax, grow_. + weg, m., _way_; + hys weges, see 93, (3); + on weg, see on. + wel(l), _well, readily_. + wela, m., _weal, prosperity, riches_. + welm, see wielm. + wnan ( 126), _ween, think, expect_. + w[e,]ndan ( 127), _change, translate_ [wend, windan]. + w[e,]nian ( 130), _entertain_; + w[e,]nian mid wynnum 149, 20 [[_Wanderer_ 29]] = _entertain + joyfully_; + w[e,]nede t wiste 149, 27 [[_Wanderer_ 36]] = _feasted_ (trans.). + Weonodland (Weonoland), n., _Wendland_. + weorc, n., _work, deed_. + weorold (weoruld), see woruld. + weorpan ( 110), _throw_. + weoran ( 110), _be, become_. + wer, m., _man_ [werwulf]. + wrig, _weary, dejected_. + werod, n., _army, band_. + wesan, see bon. + Wesseaxe, m. pl., _West Saxons_; gen. pl.= Wesseaxna. + west, _west, westward_. + westanwind, m., _west wind_. + wste, _waste_. + wsten, n., _waste, desert_. + Wests:, f., _West Sea_ (west of Norway). + Westseaxe, m. pl., _West Saxons, Wessex_. + wc, n., _dwelling_ [bailiwick]. + wcian ( 130), _stop, lodge, sojourn_ [wc]. + wdre, adv., _farther, more widely_ (comparative of wde). + wds:, f., _open sea_. + wielm (welm), m., _welling, surging flood_ [weallan]. + wf, n., _wife, woman_. + wg, m., n., _war, battle_. + wiga, m., _warrior_. + wild, _wild_. + wildor, n., _wild beast, reindeer_; dat. pl.= wildrum ( 33, Note). + willa, m., _will, pleasure_; gen. pl., wilna (138, 16 [[_Beowulf_ + 661]]). + willan ( 134; 137, Note 3), _will, intend, desire_. + wilnung, f., _wish, desire_; + for :re wilnunga 119, 4 = _purposely_. + Wiltn, m., _Wilton_ (in Wiltshire). + wn, n., _wine_. + wn-rn, n., _wine-hall_. + Wnburne, f., _Wimborne_ (in Dorsetshire). + wind, m., _wind_. + wine, m., _friend_. + Winedas, m. pl., _the Wends, the Wend country_. + wine-dryhten, m., _friendly lord_. + winelas, _friendless_. + winem:g, m., _friendly kinsman_. + wngeard, m., _vineyard_. + winnan ( 110), _strive, fight_ [win]. + wnsl, n., _wine-hall_. + wn-s[e,]le, m., _wine-hall_. + winter, m., _winter_; dat. sing. = wintra. + wintercearig, _winter-sad, winter-worn_. + ws, _wise_. + wsdm, m., _wisdom_. + wse, _wisely_. + wse, f., _manner, matter, affair_ [in this wise]. + ws-fst, _wise_ [wise-fast; cf. shame-faced = shamefast]. + ws-hycgende, _wise-thinking_. + Wsle, f., _the Vistula_. + Wslema, m., _the mouth of the Vistula_. + wisse, see witan. + wist, f., _food, feast_. + wita, m., _wise man, councillor_. + witan ( 136), _know, show, experience_. + wtan ( 102), _reproach, blame_ (with acc. of thing, dat. of person). + wte, n., _punishment_. + Wtland, n., _Witland_ (in Prussia). + wi ( 94, (3)), _against, toward, with_; + wi astan and wi pp on emnlange :m by:num lande, _toward the + east, and upwards along the cultivated land_; + wi earm gest 139, 11 [[_Beowulf_ 750]] = _supported himself on his + arm_; + gen[e,]red wi ne (dat.) 143, 11 [[_Beowulf_ 828]] = _had + preserved it from (against) violence_. + wierwinna, m., _adversary_. + wifn ( 118), _grapple with_ (with dat.). + wihabban ( 133), _withstand, resist_ (with dat.). + wist[o,]ndan ( 116), _withstand, resist_ (with dat.). + wl[o,]nc, _proud_. + wd, see wadan. + wolcen, n., _cloud_ [welkin]; dat. pl., wolcnum. + wolde, see willan. + wma, m., _noise, alarm, terror_. + w[o,]n, see wan. + wp, n., _weeping_. + word, n., _word_. + wrian ( 130), _totter, crumble_. + worn, m., _large number, multitude_. + woruld, f., _world_; + t worulde btan :ghwilcum [e,]nde 102, 18 = _world without end_. + woruldcund, _worldly, secular_. + woruldhd, m., _secular life_ [world-hood]. + woruldrce, n., _world-kingdom, world_. + worulding, n., _worldly affair_. + wrclst, m., _track or path of an exile_. + wr, _wroth, angry_; _foe, enemy_. + wrtan ( 102), _write_. + wucu, f., _week_. + wudu, m., _wood, forest_. + wuldor, n., _glory_. + Wuldorfder ( 68, (2)), m., _Father of glory_; gen. sing., + Wuldorfder. + Wuldur-cyning, m., _King of glory_. + wulf, m., _wolf_. + wund, f., _wound_. + wund, _wounded_. + wunden, _twisted, woven, convolute_ (past part. of windan). + wundor, n., _wonder, marvel_. + wundrian ( 130), _wonder at_ (with gen.). + wurdon, see weoran. + wuran, see weoran. + wylf, f., _she wolf_. + wylla, see willan. + wyn-las, _joyless_. + wynn, f., _joy, delight_. + wynsum, _winsome, delightful_. + wyrc(e)an ( 128), _work, make, compose_. + wyrd, f., _weird, fate, destiny_. + wyrhta, m., _worker, creator_ [-wright]. + wyrm, m., _worm, dragon, serpent_. + wyrmlca, m., _serpentine ornamentation_. + wyr (weor), _worthy_; see 114, 7-9, Note. + +#Y.# + + ylca, see ilca. + yldan ( 127), _delay, postpone_ [eald]. + yldu, f., _age_ [eld]. + ymbe (ymb) ( 94, (2)), _about, around, concerning_ [_um_while]; + s ymb iii niht 99, 2 = _about three nights afterwards_. + ymb-ode, see ymb-gn. + ymbe-sittend, _one who sits (dwells) round about another, neighbor_. + ymb-gn ( 134), _go about, go around, circle_ (with acc.). + yrfe-weard, m., _heir_. + yrnan, see iernan. + yrre, _ireful, angry_. + yteren, _of an otter_ [_otor_]. + y:an ( 126), _lay waste_ (as by a deluge) [y: = _wave_]. + + +II. GLOSSARY. + +MODERN ENGLISH--OLD ENGLISH. + + +#A.# + + a, _n_ ( 77). + abide, _bdan_ ( 102), _bdan_. + about, _be_ ( 94, (1)), _ymbe_ ( 94,(2)); + to write about, _wrtan be_; + to speak about (= of), _sprecan ymbe_; + about two days afterwards, _s ymbe twgen dagas_. + adder, _n:dre_ ( 64). + afterwards, _s_ ( 93, (3)). + against, _wi_ ( 94, (3)), _on_ ( 94,(3)). + Alfred, _lfred_ ( 26). + all, _eall_ ( 80). + also, _ac_. + although, _ah_ ( 105, 2). + always, __; _ealne weg_ ( 98, (1)). + am, _eom_ ( 40). + an, see a. + and, _[o,]nd_ (_and_). + angel, [e,]ngel ( 26). + animal, _dor_ ( 32). + are, _sind, sint, sindon_ ( 40). + army, _werod_ ( 32); + Danish army, _h[e,]re_ ( 26); + English army, _fierd_ ( 38). + art, _eart_ ( 40). + Ashdown, _scesdn_ ( 38). + ask, _biddan_ ( 65, Note 3; 115, Note2). + away, _aweg_. + + +#B.# + + battle-field, _wlstw_ ( 38). + be, _bon_ ( 40); + not to be, see 40, Note 2. + bear, _beran_ ( 114). + because, _for :m (e), for on (e)_. + become, _weoran_ ( 110). + before (temporal conjunction), _:r, :r :m e_ (105,2). + begin, _onginnan_ ( 107, (1); 110). + belong to, _belimpan t_ + dative ( 110). + best, see good. + better, see good. + bind, _bindan_ ( 110). + bird, _fugol_ ( 26). + bite, _btan_ ( 102). + body, _lc_ ( 32). + bone, _bn_ ( 32). + book, _bc_ ( 68). + both ... and, _:ger ge ... ge_. + boundary, _mearc_ ( 38). + boy, _cnapa_ ( 64). + break, _brotan_ ( 109), _brecan, brecan_ (114). + brother, _bror_ ( 68, (2)). + but, _ac_. + by, _fr[o,]m_ (_fram_) ( 94, (1); 141, Note1). + + +#C.# + + Cdmon, _Cdm[o,]n_ ( 68, (1)). + call, _htan_ ( 117, (1)). + cease, cease from, _geswcan_ ( 102). + child, _bearn_ ( 32). + choose, _cosan_ ( 109). + Christ, _Crst_ ( 26). + church, _cirice_ ( 64). + come, _cuman_ ( 114). + comfort, _frfor_ ( 38). + companion, _gefra_ ( 64). + consolation, _frfor_ ( 38). + create, _gescieppan_ ( 116). + + +#D.# + + Danes, _D[e,]ne_ ( 47). + day, _dg_ ( 26). + dead, _dad_ ( 80). + dear (= beloved), _lof_ ( 80). + deed, _d:d_ ( 38). + die, _cwelan_ ( 114). + division (of troops), _gefylce_ ( 32), _getruma_ (64). + do, _dn_ ( 134). + door, _dor_ ( 32), _duru_ ( 52). + drink, _drincan_ ( 110). + during, _on_ ( 94, (3)). See also 98. + dwell in, _ban on_ ( 126, Note 2). + +#E.# + + earl, _eorl_ ( 26). + endure, _drogan_ ( 109). + England, _[E,]nglal[o,]nd_ ( 32). + enjoy, _brcan_ ( 62, Note 1; 109, Note1). + every, _:lc_ ( 77). + eye, _age_ ( 64). + + +#F.# + + father, _fder_ ( 68, (2)). + field, _feld_ ( 51). + fight, _feohtan, gefeohtan_ ( 110). + find, _findan_ ( 110). + finger, _finger_ ( 26). + fire, _fy:r_ ( 32). + fisherman, _fiscere_ ( 26). + foreigner, _wealh_ ( 26). + freedom, _frodm_ ( 26). + friend, _wine_ ( 45), _frond_ ( 68,(3)). + friendship, _frondscipe_ ( 45). + full, _full_ (with genitive) ( 80). + + +#G.# + + gain the victory, _sige habban, sige niman_. + gift, _giefu_ ( 38). + give, _giefan_ (with dative of indirect object) (115). + glad, _gld_ ( 81). + glove, _glf_ ( 38). + go, _gn_ ( 134), _faran_ ( 116). + God, _God_ ( 26). + good, _gd_ ( 80). + + +#H.# + + Halgoland, _Hlgoland_ ( 32). + hall, _heall_ ( 38). + hand, _h[o,]nd_ ( 52). + hard, _heard_ ( 80). + have, _habban_ ( 34); + not to have, _nabban_ (p.32, Note). + he, _h_ ( 53). + head, _hafod_ ( 32). + hear, _heran_ ( 126). + heaven, _heofon_ ( 26). + help, _helpan_ (with dative) ( 110). + herdsman, _hierde_ ( 26). + here, _hr_. + hither, _hider_. + hold, _healdan_ ( 117, (2)). + holy, _hlig_ ( 82). + horse, _mearh_ ( 26), _hors_ ( 32). + house, _hs_ ( 32). + + +#I.# + + I, _ic_ ( 72). + in, _on_ ( 94, (3)). + indeed, _slce_. + injure, _sc[e,]an_ (with dative) ( 116). + it, _hit_ ( 53). + + +#K.# + + king, _cyning_ ( 26). + kingdom, _rce_ ( 32), _cynerce_ (32). + + +#L.# + + land, _l[o,]nd_ ( 32). + language, _spr:c_ ( 38), _geode_ (32). + large, _micel_ ( 82). + leisure, _:metta_ ( 64). + let us, _uton_ (with infinitive). + limb, _lim_ ( 32). + little, _lytel_ ( 82). + live in, _ban on_ ( 126, Note 2). + lord, _hlford_ ( 26). + love, _lufian_ ( 131). + love (noun), _lufu_ ( 38). + + +#M.# + + make, _wyrcan_ ( 128). + man, _s[e,]cg_ ( 26), _m[o,]n_ ( 68,(1)). + many, _m[o,]nig_ ( 82). + mare, _my:re_ ( 64). + mead, _medu_ ( 51). + Mercians, _Mierce_ ( 47). + milk, _meolc_ ( 38). + month, _mna_ ( 68, (1), Note 1). + mouth, _m_ ( 26). + much, _micel_ ( 96, (3)), _micle_ (97,(2)). + murderer, _b[o,]na_ ( 64). + my, _mn_ ( 76). + + +#N.# + + natives, _l[o,]ndlode_ ( 47). + nephew, _nefa_ ( 64). + new, _nwe_ ( 82). + Northumbrians, _Norymbre_ ( 47). + not, _ne_. + + +#O.# + + of, see about. + on, _on_ ( 94, (3)), _ofer_ ( 94,(2)). + one, _n_ ( 89); + the one ... the other, _er ... er_. + other, _er_ ( 77). + our, _re_ ( 76). + ox, _oxa_ ( 64). + + +#P.# + + place, _stw_ ( 38). + plundering, _h[e,]rgung_ ( 38). + poor, _earm_ ( 80), _unspdig_ ( 82). + prosperous, _spdig_ ( 82). + + +#Q.# + + queen, _cwn_ ( 49). + + +#R.# + + reindeer, _hrn_ ( 26). + remain, _bdan_ ( 102), _bdan_. + retain possession of the battle-field, _gan wlstwe gewald_. + rich, _rce_ ( 82), _spdig_ ( 82). + ride, _rdan_ ( 102). + + +#S.# + + say, _cwean_ ( 115), _s[e,]cgan_ ( 133). + scribe, _bcere_ ( 26). + seal, _seolh_ ( 26). + see, _son_ ( 118), _geson_. + serpent, _n:dre_ ( 64). + servant, _owa_ ( 64), _egn_ ( 26). + shall, _sculan_ ( 136; 137, Note2). + she, _ho_ ( 53). + shepherd, _hierde_ ( 26). + ship, _scip_ ( 32). + shire, _scr_ ( 38). + shoemaker, _scowyrhta_ ( 64). + side, on both sides, _on gehwre h[o,]nd_. + six, _siex_ ( 90). + slaughter, _wl_ ( 32), _wlsliht_ (45). + small, _ly:tel_ ( 82). + son, _sunu_ ( 51). + soul, _swol_ ( 38). + speak, _sprecan_ ( 115). + spear, _gr_ ( 26), _spere_ ( 32). + stand, _st[o,]ndan_ ( 116). + stone, _stn_ ( 26). + stranger, _wealh_ ( 26), _cuma_ ( 64). + suffer, _drogan_ ( 109). + sun, _sunne_ ( 64). + swift, _swift_ ( 80). + + +#T.# + + take, _niman_ ( 110). + than, _onne_ ( 96, (6)). + thane, _egn_ ( 26). + that (conjunction), _t_. + that (demonstrative), _s, so, t_ (28). + that (relative), _e_ ( 75). + the, _se, so, t_ ( 28). + then, _, onne_. + these, see this. + they, _he_ ( 53). + thing, _ing_ ( 32). + thirty, _rtig_. + this, _s, os, is_ ( 73). + those, see that (demonstrative). + thou, __ ( 72). + though, _ah_ ( 105, 2). + three, _re_ ( 89). + throne, ascend the throne, _t rce fn_. + throw, _weorpan_ ( 110). + to, _t_ ( 94, (1)). + tongue, _tunge_ ( 64). + track, _spor_ ( 32). + true, _s_ ( 80). + truly, _slce_. + two, _twgen_ ( 89). + + +#V.# + + very, _swe_. + vessel, _ft_ ( 32). + victory, _sige_ ( 45). + +#W.# + + wall, _weall_ ( 26). + warrior, _s[e,]cg_ ( 26), _eorl_ ( 26). + way, _weg_ ( 26). + weapon, _w:pen_ ( 32). + well, _wel_ ( 97, (2)). + Welshman, _Wealh_ ( 26). + went, see go. + westward, _west, westrihte_. + whale, _hwl_ ( 26). + what? _hwt_ ( 74). + when, _, onne_. + where? _hw:r_. + which, _e_ ( 75). + who? _hw_ ( 74). + who (relative), _e_ ( 75). + whosoever, _sw hw sw_ ( 77, Note). + will, _willan_ ( 134; 137, Note 3). + Wilton, _Wiltn_ ( 26). + win, see gain. + wine, _wn_ ( 32). + wisdom, _wsdm_ ( 26). + wise, _ws_ ( 80). + with, _mid_ ( 94, (1)); + to fight with (= against), _gefeohtan wi_ (94,(3)). + withstand, _wist[o,]ndan_ (with dative) ( 116). + wolf, _wulf_ ( 26), _wylf_ ( 38). + woman, _wf_ ( 32). + word, _word_ ( 32). + worm, _wyrm_ ( 45). + + +#Y.# + + ye, _g_ ( 72). + year, _gar_ ( 32). + yoke, _geoc_ ( 32). + you, __ (singular), _g_ (plural) ( 72). + your, _n_ (singular), _ower_ (plural) ( 76). + + * * * * * + * * * * + * * * * * + +Errata + +The spelling "Fins" (translating " Finnas") is used consistently. +Errors were trivial, generally missing punctuation. Shakespeare +citations have been silently regularized to "I, ii, 3" form. The Old +English text was not checked for misprints. + + +Numbered Sections: + + 9 Note + to t.: #settan#, _to set_ [to t.] + 39 + NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems. + [_final . missing_] + 41 + so hlignes[1], _holiness_. [_comma missing_] + 95 + for :m, } [_comma missing_] + 104 + corresponding with its function in Mn.E. [_final . missing_] + 130 + eard-ian, eard-ode ... [_first comma missing_] + 131 + NOTE 1. [NOTE. 1.] + 132 + hf-de, lif-de, secg-an, [_all commas missing_] + +Readings: + + Poetry: Structure: Meter: Type B: + The type of B most frequently occurring is | . + [_final . missing_] + + Beowulf: The Banquet in Heorot (page 138). + [8] = ealdre (instr. sing.). [_final . missing_] + +Glossary: + + bgan ( 109, Note 1) [Note, 1] + dofol, m., n., _devil_; [m. n.,] + intinga, m., _cause, sake_. [intinga.] + laguld, f., _sea_ [lake-way, ld = _leading, direction, way_]. + [_closing bracket printed as parenthesis_] + noran ( 93, (5)), _from the north_; + [_second closing parenthesis missing_] + s:l, m., f., _time, happiness_ [sil-ly]; [m. f.,] + sfte, _more easily_ (comparative of sfte). + [_closing parenthesis missing_] + Swom, m., dat. pl., _the Swedes_. [_final . missing_] + tolcan ( 109, Note 1), _destroy_ ... [_section mark missing_] + wi ( 94, (3)), ... [_section mark missing_] + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book, by +C. Alphonso Smith + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR *** + +***** This file should be named 31277-8.txt or 31277-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/2/7/31277/ + +Produced by Louise Hope, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/31277-8.zip b/31277-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9508871 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-8.zip diff --git a/31277-h.zip b/31277-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..df100ed --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-h.zip diff --git a/31277-h/31277-h.htm b/31277-h/31277-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..dd4b704 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-h/31277-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,20610 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<title>Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book</title> +<meta http-equiv = "Content-Type" content = "text/html; charset=UTF-8"> + +<style type = "text/css"> + +/* standard styles */ + +body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + +div.page {padding-top: 4em; padding-bottom: 4em;} + +hr {width: 80%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; +text-align: center;} +hr.spacer {margin-top: 4em; margin-bottom: 4em; width: 67%;} +hr.tiny {width: 20%;} + +sup {font-size: 75%; line-height: 50%;} + +b {font-variant: normal;} /* within small-capped headers */ + +table.toc a, div.maintext a {text-decoration: none;} +a.tag {vertical-align: .3em; font-size: 80%; padding-left: .25em; +line-height: .1em;} +a.linenote {color: inherit; background-color: inherit; +border-bottom: 1px solid #BBB;} + +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 {text-align: center; font-style: normal; +font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .5em; +margin-bottom: .5em;} + +h1 {font-size: 200%;} + +h2 {font-size: 175%; margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 1em;} +h2 span.subhead {font-size: 75%; font-weight: bold;} + +h3 {font-size: 133%; margin-top: 2em;} +h3 span.subhead {font-variant: small-caps;} +div.maintext h3 {margin-bottom: 0;} +h3 + h3, h2 + h3 {margin-top: 1em;} + +h4 {font-size: 120%; margin-top: 3em;} +div.maintext h4 {font-weight: bold; font-size: 108%; margin-top: 1em; +margin-bottom: 0;} +div.maintext h4 span.subhead, div.maintext h4.subhead +{font-weight: normal;} +div.maintext h3 + h4 {margin-top: 1em;} + +h5 {font-size: 100%;} + +div.textbook h5 {float: left; clear: left; line-height: 1.25; +font-weight: bold; text-align: left; padding-right: .5em; +margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: 0;} +div.textbook h5 + p {margin-top: .75em;} +div.textbook table + h5 {margin-top: .25em;} +div.readings h5 {margin-top: 1em; font-variant: small-caps;} +div.poetry h5 {margin-top: 1.5em; font-style: italic;} +div.poetry p + h5 {margin-top: 1em;} +div.glossary h5 {font-weight: bold; margin-top: 1em; text-align: left; +margin-left: 25%;} + +h6 {font-size: 85%;} + +p {margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: 0em; line-height: 1.25;} +p.notation, div.notation {font-size: 92%; margin-left: 1em; +margin-right: 2em;} +p.meter {font-size: 95%; line-height: 1.5; margin-top: .3em; +margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em;} + +p.inset {padding-left: 2em;} +p.nospace {margin-top: 0;} + +p.illustration {text-align: center; margin-top: 1em; +margin-bottom: 1em;} + +div.list {margin-left: 2em; margin-top: .5em;} +div.list p {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; +margin-top: 0;} + +div.verse {margin: .5em 2em;} +div.verse p {margin-top: 0; margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -4em;} + +p.section {margin-top: 1em;} +p.center {text-align: center;} +p.right {text-align: right; margin-right: 2em;} + + +/* footnotes */ + +p.footnote, div.footnote {margin: 1em 2em; font-size: 95%;} + + +/* tables */ + +table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; +margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; +font-size: inherit; font-family: inherit; line-height: inherit; +border-collapse: collapse;} + +th {font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; padding: .25em .5em;} +th.left {text-align: left; padding-left: 0;} +th.ital {font-style: italic;} + +td {vertical-align: top; text-align: left; padding: .1em;} +tr.spacer td {font-size: 25%;} + +td.center, tr.center td {text-align: center;} +td.right {text-align: right;} +td.middle, tr.middle td {vertical-align: middle;} +td.bottom {vertical-align: bottom;} + +td.leftline, col.leftline {border-left: 1px solid black;} +td.topline, tr.topline td {border-top: 1px solid black;} + +td.heading, table.paradigm td.heading {text-align: center; +font-variant: small-caps; padding-top: .5em; padding-bottom: .5em;} + +td.number, td.item {text-align: right;} +td.item {padding-right: .75em;} + +table.toc td.number {vertical-align: bottom; padding-left: 1em;} + +td.dots {background-repeat: repeat-x; background-position: 0 67%; +background-image: url("images/dot.gif");} + +table.outline {border-top: 3px double black; +border-bottom: 3px double black;} +table.outline td {padding: .1em .25em;} +table.outline td.heading {padding-bottom: .25em; +text-transform: lowercase;} + +table.tree td {padding: 0 .25em 0 0;} + +table.inline {margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em; margin-left: 2em;} +div.textbook table.inline {font-size: 92%;} +table.inline td {padding: 0 .5em 0 0; line-height: 1.25em;} +table.inline td.right {padding-left: 1em;} + +table p {margin-top: 0; margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; +line-height: 1em;} +div.textbook table p {margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; +line-height: inherit;} + +td.bracket {vertical-align: middle; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;} + + +/* paradigms */ + +div.textbook p, div.textbook table td {line-height: 1.25em;} + +.paradigm {font-size: 92%;} +.footnote .paradigm {font-size: inherit;} + +table.paradigm {margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em; +margin-left: 2em;} +table.paradigm td {padding: 0 .25em 0 .75em; line-height: inherit;} +table.paradigm.locked td {padding: 0; white-space: nowrap;} + +table.paradigm td.right {padding-left: 0;} +table.paradigm td.bracket {padding: 0;} +table.paradigm td.bracket + td {padding-left: .25em;} + +/* vocabulary */ + +div.vocab {margin-left: 1em; margin-top: .5em;} +table.vocab {margin-left: 1em; margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;} + +div.vocab p {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; margin-top: 0;} +table.vocab td {padding: 0 .5em 0 0; line-height: inherit;} + + +/* readings */ + +div.prose {margin-top: 1em; margin-left: 3em;} +div.prose p {line-height: 1.33; margin-top: 0; margin-left: 2em; +text-indent: -2em;} +div.prose p.break {margin-top: .5em;} +div.prose span.linenum {position: absolute; right: 88%; +font-size: 75%; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; +text-align: right; text-indent: 0; padding-top: .5em;} +div.poem {padding-left: 4em;} + +div.readings div.verse {margin: 1em 0 1em 3em;} +div.readings div.verse p {line-height: 1.33;} +div.verse span.linenum {float: right; clear: right; width: 10%; +font-size: 75%;} +div.verse span.linenum:before {content: "[";} +div.verse span.linenum:after {content: "]";} + +div.readings div.footnote {margin: 1em 4em;} +div.readings div.footnote p {margin-top: 0;} +div.linenote {margin: 1em 4em; font-size: 95%;} + + +/* glossary */ + +div.glossary p {font-size: 95%; margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; +margin-top: .2em; line-height: normal;} +div.glossary p.inset {padding: 0; text-indent: -1em; margin-top: 0;} + + +/* text formatting */ + +span.smallroman {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;} +.smallcaps, span.firstword {font-variant: small-caps;} + +span.locked {white-space: nowrap;} +span.opaque {color: inherit; background-color: white;} + +.smaller {font-size: 88%;} +span.largest {font-size: 125%;} +span.extended {letter-spacing: 0.2em; margin-right: -.2em;} + +span.fancy {font-family: fantasy;} +span.plain {font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; +font-variant: normal;} + +/* greek translit */ + +span.greek {font-family: serif, sans-serif;} + +/* my additions */ + +/* correction popup */ + +ins.correction {text-decoration: none; border-bottom: thin dotted red;} + +/* page number */ + +span.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 2%; font-size: small; +font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; text-align: right; +text-indent: 0em;} + +/* Transcriber's Note */ + +.mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; +font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 90%;} + +div.mynote {margin: 1em 0; padding: .5em 1em 1em;} +p.mynote {margin: 1em; padding: 1em;} +span.mynote {padding: .25em .5em;} +div.mynote a {text-decoration: none;} + +div.endnote {padding: .5em 1em 1em; margin: 1em; border: 3px ridge #A9F; +font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 90%;} + +</style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book, by +C. Alphonso Smith + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book + with Inflections, Syntax, Selections for Reading, and Glossary + +Author: C. Alphonso Smith + +Release Date: February 15, 2010 [EBook #31277] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Louise Hope, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class = "mynote"> +<p><a name = "start" id = "start">This text</a> includes characters that +require UTF-8 (Unicode) file encoding:</p> + +<p class = "inset"> +Āā Ēē Īī Ōō Ūū; ȳ Ǣǣ (vowels with macron or “long” mark)<br> +Ęę Ǫǫ (<b>e</b> and <b>o</b> with ogonek)</p> + +<p>If any of these characters do not display properly—in +particular, if the diacritic does not appear directly above the +letter—or if the apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph +appear as garbage, you may have an incompatible browser or unavailable +fonts. First, make sure that the browser’s “character set” or “file +encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change your +browser’s default font.</p> + +<p>See the <a href = "#poetry">Poetry</a> section for potential problems +specific to that section.</p> + +<p>In references to numbered Sections, “Note” may mean either an inset +Note or a footnote. Links in this e-text lead to the beginning of the +section.</p> + +<p>In the prose reading selections (pages 99-121), the original line +breaks have been preserved for use with the linenotes and Glossary. In +the verse selections, line numbers in the notes have been replaced with +the line numbers from the original texts, printed in brackets as shown. +In both, annotated passages are <a class = "linenote" href = +"#start">linked</a> to their Notes; these links are intended to be +unobtrusive. The distinction between linenotes and numbered footnotes is +in the original.</p> + +<p>All brackets [ ] and asterisks * are in the original, as are the < +and > symbols.</p> + +<p class = "center"> +<a href = "#contents">Contents</a><br> +<a href = "#part_I">Grammar and Exercises</a><br> +<a href = "#part_III">Reading Selections:</a><br> +<i><a href = "#chapIII_I">Prose</a>, +<a href = "#chapIII_VI">Poetry</a></i><br> +<a href = "#gloss_I">Glossary</a></p> + +</div> + + +<h1>ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR<br> +AND EXERCISE BOOK</h1> + +<h5>WITH INFLECTIONS, SYNTAX, SELECTIONS<br> +FOR READING, AND GLOSSARY</h5> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<h5>BY</h5> + +<h4 class = "smallcaps">C. ALPHONSO SMITH, Ph.D., LL.D.</h4> + +<h6>LATE PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN THE<br> +UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY</h6> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "8" +alt = "----"></p> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<h5><span class = "smallcaps largest extended"> +ALLYN and BACON</span><br> +BOSTON       +NEW YORK         CHICAGO<br> +ATLANTA       SAN FRANCISCO</h5> + + +<hr class = "spacer"> + +<h6 class = "smallcaps">Copyright, 1896, by<br> +C. ALPHONSO SMITH.</h6> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<h6>IAI</h6> + +<p> <br> </p> + +<h6><span class = "fancy">Norwood Press</span><br> +J. S. Cushing & Co.—Berwick & Smith<br> +Norwood Mass. U.S.A.</h6> + +<hr class = "spacer"> + +<span class = "pagenum">iii</span> +<h3><a name = "preface" id = "preface">PREFACE.</a></h3> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "8" +alt = "----"></p> + +<p><span class = "firstword">The</span> scope of this book is indicated +in § 5. It is intended for beginners, and in writing it, these words of +Sir Thomas Elyot have not been forgotten: “Grammer, beinge but an +introduction to the understandinge of autors, if it be made to longe or +exquisite to the lerner, it in a maner mortifieth his corage: And by +that time he cometh to the most swete and pleasant redinge of olde +autors, the sparkes of fervent desire of lernynge are extincte with the +burdone of grammer, lyke as a lyttell fyre is sone quenched with a great +heape of small stickes.”—<i>The Governour</i>, Cap. X.</p> + +<p>Only the essentials, therefore, are treated in this work, which is +planned more as a foundation for the study of Modern English grammar, of +historical English grammar, and of the principles of English etymology, +than as a general introduction to Germanic philology.</p> + +<p>The Exercises in translation will, it is believed, furnish all the +drill necessary to enable the student to retain the forms and +constructions given in the various chapters.</p> + +<p>The Selections for Reading relate to the history and literature of +King Alfred’s day, and are sufficient to give the student a first-hand, +though brief, acquaintance with the native style and idiom of Early West +Saxon prose in its golden age. Most of the words and constructions +contained in them will be already familiar to the student through their +intentional employment in the Exercises.</p> + +<p>For the inflectional portion of this grammar, recourse +<span class = "pagenum">iv</span> +has been had chiefly to Sievers’ <i>Abriss der angelsächsischen +Grammatik</i> (1895). Constant reference has been made also to the same +author’s earlier and larger <i>Angelsächsishe Grammatik</i>, translated +by Cook. A more sparing use has been made of Cosijn’s +<i>Altwestsächsische Grammatik</i>.</p> + +<p>For syntax and illustrative sentences, Dr. J. E. Wülfing’s <i>Syntax +in den Werken Alfreds des Grossen, Part I.</i> (Bonn, 1894) has proved +indispensable. Advance sheets of the second part of this great work lead +one to believe that when completed the three parts will constitute the +most important contribution to the study of English syntax that has yet +been made. Old English sentences have also been cited from Sweet’s +<i>Anglo-Saxon Reader</i>, Bright’s <i>Anglo-Saxon Reader</i>, and +Cook’s <i>First Book in Old English</i>.</p> + +<p>The short chapter on the Order of Words has been condensed from my +<i>Order of Words in Anglo-Saxon Prose</i> (Publications of the Modern +Language Association of America, New Series, Vol. I, No. 2).</p> + +<p>Though assuming sole responsibility for everything contained in this +book, I take pleasure in acknowledging the kind and efficient +assistance that has been so generously given me in its preparation. To +none do I owe more than to Dr. J. E. Wülfing, of the University of +Bonn; Prof. James A. Harrison, of the University of Virginia; Prof. +W. S. Currell, of Washington and Lee University; Prof. +J. Douglas Bruce, of Bryn Mawr College; and Prof. L. M. +Harris, of the University of Indiana. They have each rendered material +aid, not only in the tedious task of detecting typographical errors in +the proof-sheets, but by the valuable criticisms and suggestions which +they have made as this work was passing through the press.</p> + +<p class = "right"> +C. ALPHONSO SMITH.</p> + +<p> <span class = "smallcaps">Louisiana State +University,<br> +Baton Rouge</span>, September, 1896.</p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum">v</span> +<h4>PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.</h4> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<p><span class = "firstword">In</span> preparing this enlarged edition, +a few minor errors in the first edition have been corrected and a few +sentences added. The chief difference between the two editions, however, +consists in the introduction of more reading matter and the consequent +exposition of Old English meter. Both changes have been made at the +persistent request of teachers and students of Old English.</p> + +<p>Uniformity of treatment has been studiously preserved in the new +material and the old, the emphasis in both being placed on syntax and +upon the affinities that Old English shares with Modern English.</p> + +<p>Many obligations have been incurred in preparing this augmented +edition. I have again to thank Dr. J. E. Wülfing, Prof. James +A. Harrison, Prof. W. S. Currell, and Prof. J. Douglas +Bruce. To the scholarly criticisms also of Prof. J. M. Hart, of +Cornell; Prof. Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., of Williams College; and Prof. +Frederick Tupper, Jr., of the University of Vermont, I am indebted +for aid as generously given as it is genuinely appreciated.</p> + +<p class = "right smaller"> +C. ALPHONSO SMITH.</p> + +<p class = "smaller"> + August, 1898.</p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum">vi</span> +<h4>PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.</h4> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<p><span class = "firstword">Among</span> those who have kindly aided in +making this edition free from error, I wish to thank especially my +friend Dr. John M. McBryde, Jr., of Hollins Institute, +Virginia.</p> + +<p class = "right smaller"> +C. ALPHONSO SMITH.</p> + +<p class = "smaller"> +<span class = "smallcaps">University of North Carolina</span>,<br> + Chapel Hill, February, 1903.</p> + + + + +<span class = "pagenum">vii</span> +<h3><a name = "contents" id = "contents">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</a></h3> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<table class = "toc" summary = "contents"> +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "3"> +<a href = "#part_I">PART I.</a>—INTRODUCTION.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "smaller">Chapters</td> +<td></td> +<td class = "smaller">Pages</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_I">I.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">History (§ +<b>1-5</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page1">1</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_II">II.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Sounds (§ +<b>6-11</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page4">4</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_III">III.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Inflections (§ +<b>12-19</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page10">10</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_IV">IV.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Order of Words (§ +<b>20-21</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page18">18</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_V">V.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Practical Suggestions (§ +<b>22-24</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page21">21</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "3"> +<a href = "#part_II">PART II.</a>—ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_VI">VI.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The <b>a</b>-Declension: +Masculine <b>a</b>-Stems (§ <b>25-30</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page27">27</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_VII">VII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Neuter <b>a</b>-Stems (§ +<b>31-36</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page30">30</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_VIII">VIII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The <b>ō</b>-Declension (§ +<b>37-42</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page33">33</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_IX">IX.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The <b>i</b>-Declension and +the <b>u</b>-Declension (§ <b>43-55</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page35">35</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_X">X.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Present Indicative Endings of +Strong Verbs (§ <b>56-62</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page39">39</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XI">XI.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The Weak or +<b>n</b>-Declension (§ <b>63-66</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page44">44</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XII">XII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Remnants of Other Consonant +Declensions (§ <b>67-71</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page47">47</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XIII">XIII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Pronouns (§ +<b>72-77</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page50">50</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XIV">XIV.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Adjectives, Strong and Weak (§ +<b>78-87</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page53">53</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XV">XV.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Numerals (§ +<b>88-92</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page57">57</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XVI">XVI.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Adverbs, Prepositions, and +Conjunctions (§ <b>93-95</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page60">60</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XVII">XVII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Comparison of Adjectives and +Adverbs (§ <b>96-100</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page64">64</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XVIII">XVIII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Strong Verbs: Class I, Syntax +of Moods (§ <b>101-108</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page68">68</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XIX">XIX.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Classes II and III (§ +<b>109-113</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page74">74</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"> +<span class = "pagenum">viii</span> +<a href = "#chap_XX">XX.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Classes IV, V, VI, and VII; +Contract Verbs (§ <b>114-121</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page78">78</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XXI">XXI.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Weak Verbs (§ +<b>122-133</b>)</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page82">82</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chap_XXII">XXII.</a></td> +<td><p><span class = "opaque">Remaining Verbs; Verb Phrases with +<b>habban</b>, <b>bēon</b>, and <b>weorðan</b> +(§ <b>134-143</b>)</span></p></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page90">90</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "3"> +<a href = "#part_III">PART III.</a>—SELECTIONS FOR READING.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "3"> +<a href = "#prose">Prose.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Introductory</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page98">98</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_I">I.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The Battle of +Ashdown</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page99">99</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_II">II.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">A Prayer of King +Alfred</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page101">101</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_III">III.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The Voyages of Ohthere and +Wulfstan</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page102">102</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Ohthere’s First +Voyage</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page103">103</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Ohthere’s Second +Voyage</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page106">106</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Wulfstan’s Voyage</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page107">107</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_IV">IV.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The Story of +Cædmon</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page111">111</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_V">V.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Alfred’s Preface to the +Pastoral Care</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page116">116</a></td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "3"> +<a href = "#poetry">Poetry.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Introductory</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page122">122</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_VI">VI.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Extracts from +Beowulf</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page136">136</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#chapIII_VII">VII.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">The Wanderer</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page148">148</a></td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "3"> +GLOSSARIES.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#gloss_I">I.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Old English—Modern +English</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page155">155</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "item"><a href = "#gloss_II">II.</a></td> +<td class = "dots"><span class = "opaque">Modern English—Old +English</span></td> +<td class = "number"><a href = "#page190">190</a></td> +</tr> + +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">ix</span> + +<hr class = "tiny"> + +<div class = "page"> + +<h1>OLD ENGLISH<br> +GRAMMAR AND EXERCISES</h1> + +</div> + +<hr class = "tiny"> + +<!-- x --> + + +<div class = "maintext"> +<div class = "textbook"> + +<span class = "pagenum">1</span> +<a name = "page1" id = "page1"> </a> + +<h2>OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND<br> +EXERCISE BOOK.</h2> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h2><a name = "part_I" id = "part_I"> +PART I.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"><br> +INTRODUCTION.<br> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"></span> +</h2> + +<h3><a name = "chap_I" id = "chap_I"> +CHAPTER I.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead">History.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_1" id = "sec_1">1.</a></h5> + +<p>The history of the English language falls naturally into three +periods; but these periods blend into one another so gradually that too +much significance must not be attached to the exact dates which +scholars, chiefly for convenience of treatment, have assigned as their +limits. Our language, it is true, has undergone many and great changes; +but its continuity has never been broken, and its individuality has +never been lost.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_2" id = "sec_2">2.</a></h5> + +<p>The first of these periods is that of <span class = "smallcaps">Old +English</span>, or <span class = "smallcaps">Anglo-Saxon</span>,<a class += "tag" name = "tag_I_1" id = "tag_I_1" href = "#note_I_1">1</a> +commonly known as the period of <i>full +<span class = "pagenum">2</span> +<a name = "page2" id = "page2"> </a> +inflections</i>. <i>E.g.</i> <b>stān-as</b>, <i>stones</i>; +<b>car-u</b>, <i>care</i>; <b>will-a</b>, <i>will</i>; <b>bind-an</b>, +<i>to bind</i>; <b>help-að</b> (= <b>ath</b>), <i>they +help</i>.</p> + +<p>It extends from the arrival of the English in Great Britain to about +one hundred years after the Norman Conquest,—from <span class = +"smallroman">A.D.</span> 449 to 1150; but there are no literary remains +of the earlier centuries of this period. There were four<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_I_2" id = "tag_I_2" href = "#note_I_2">2</a> distinct +dialects spoken at this time. These were the Northumbrian, spoken north +of the river Humber; the Mercian, spoken in the midland region between +the Humber and the Thames; the West Saxon, spoken south and west of the +Thames; and the Kentish, spoken in the neighborhood of Canterbury. Of +these dialects, Modern English is most nearly akin to the Mercian; but +the best known of them is the West Saxon. It was in the West Saxon +dialect that King Alfred (849-901) wrote and spoke. His writings belong +to the period of Early West Saxon as distinguished from the period of +Late West Saxon, the latter being best represented in the writings of +Abbot Ælfric (955?-1025?).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_3" id = "sec_3">3.</a></h5> + +<p>The second period is that of <span class = "smallcaps">Middle +English</span>, or the period of <i>leveled inflections</i>, the +dominant vowel of the inflections being <b>e</b>. <i>E.g.</i> +<b>ston-es</b>, <b>car-e</b>, <b>will-e</b>, <b>bind-en</b> +(or <b>bind-e</b>), <b>help-eth</b>, each being, as in the earlier +period, a dissyllable.</p> + +<p>The Middle English period extends from <span class = +"smallroman">A.D.</span> 1150 to 1500. Its greatest representatives are +Chaucer (1340-1400) in poetry and Wiclif (1324-1384) in prose. There +were three prominent dialects during this period: the Northern, +corresponding to the older Northumbrian; the Midland +<span class = "pagenum">3</span> +<a name = "page3" id = "page3"> </a> +(divided into East Midland and West Midland), corresponding to the +Mercian; and the Southern, corresponding to the West Saxon and Kentish. +London, situated in East Midland territory, had become the dominant +speech center; and it was this East Midland dialect that both Chaucer +and Wiclif employed.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—It is a great mistake to +think that Chaucer shaped our language from crude materials. His +influence was conservative, not plastic. The popularity of his works +tended to crystalize and thus to perpetuate the forms of the East +Midland dialect, but that dialect was ready to his hand before he began +to write. The speech of London was, in Chaucer’s time, a mixture of +Southern and Midland forms, but the Southern forms (survivals of the +West Saxon dialect) had already begun to fall away; and this they +continued to do, so that “Chaucer’s language,” as Dr. Murray says, “is +more Southern than standard English eventually became.” See also +Morsbach, <i>Ueber den Ursprung der neuenglischen Schriftsprache</i> +(1888).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_4" id = "sec_4">4.</a></h5> + +<p>The last period is that of <span class = "smallcaps">Modern +English</span>, or the period of <i>lost inflections</i>. <i>E.g.</i> +<i>stones</i>, <i>care</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>bind</i>, <i>help</i>, each +being a monosyllable. Modern English extends from <span class = +"smallroman">A.D.</span> 1500 to the present time. It has witnessed +comparatively few grammatical changes, but the vocabulary of our +language has been vastly increased by additions from the classical +languages. Vowels, too, have shifted their values.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_5" id = "sec_5">5.</a></h5> + +<p>It is the object of this book to give an elementary knowledge of +Early West Saxon, that is, the language of King Alfred. With this +knowledge, it will not be difficult for the student to read Late West +Saxon, or any other dialect of the Old English period. Such knowledge +will also serve as the best introduction to the structure both of Middle +English and of Modern English, besides laying a secure foundation for +the scientific study of any other Germanic tongue.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">4</span> +<a name = "page4" id = "page4"> </a> +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The Germanic, or Teutonic, +languages constitute a branch of the great Aryan, or Indo-Germanic +(known also as the Indo-European) group. They are subdivided as +follows:</p> + +<table class = "tree" summary = "explained above"> +<tr> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "5"> +Germanic</td> +<td class = "bottom"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td colspan = "5"> +North Germanic: Scandinavian, or Norse.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td class = "middle" colspan = "3" rowspan = "2"> +East Germanic: Gothic.</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td></td><td></td><td></td> --> +<td class = "bottom"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td><p>Old High German,<br> +<span class = "smaller">(to <span class = "smallroman">A.D.</span> +1100,)</span></p></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bottom"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td>High German</td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td><p>Middle High German,<br> +<span class = "smaller">(<span class = "smallroman">A.D.</span> +1100–1500,)</span></p></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td>West Germanic</td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td><p>New High German,<br> +<span class = "smaller">(<span class = "smallroman">A.D.</span> +1500–.)</span></p></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td class = "bottom">Low German</td> +<td class = "bottom"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td>Dutch,<br> +Old Saxon,</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "|"></td> +<td>Frisian,<br> +English.</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_I_1" id = "note_I_1" href = "#tag_I_1">1.</a> +This unfortunate nomenclature is due to the term <i>Angli Saxones</i>, +which Latin writers used as a designation for the English Saxons as +distinguished from the continental or Old Saxons. But Alfred and Ælfric +both use the term <i>Englisc</i>, not Anglo-Saxon. The Angles spread +over Northumbria and Mercia, far outnumbering the other tribes. Thus +<i>Englisc</i> (= <i>Angel</i> + <i>isc</i>) became the general +name for the language spoken.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_I_2" id = "note_I_2" href = "#tag_I_2">2.</a> +As small as England is, there are six distinct dialects spoken in her +borders to-day. Of these the Yorkshire dialect is, perhaps, the most +peculiar. It preserves many Northumbrian survivals. See Tennyson’s +<i>Northern Farmer</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_II" id = "chap_II"> +CHAPTER II.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead">Sounds.</span></h3> + + +<h4>Vowels and Diphthongs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_6" id = "sec_6">6.</a></h5> + +<p>The long vowels and diphthongs will in this book be designated by the +macron (–). Vowel length should in every case be associated by the +student with each word learned: quantity alone sometimes distinguishes +words meaning wholly different things: <b>fōr</b>, <i>he went</i>, +<b>for</b>, <i>for</i>; <b>gōd</b>, <i>good</i>, <b>God</b>, <i>God</i>; +<b>mān</b>, <i>crime</i>, <b>man</b>, <i>man</i>.</p> + +<p>Long vowels and diphthongs:</p> + +<table class = "inline" summary = "list of vowels"> +<tr> +<td><b>ā</b></td> +<td><p>as in f<i>a</i>ther: <b>stān</b>, <i>a stone</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ǣ</b></td> +<td><p>as in m<i>a</i>n (prolonged): <b>slǣpan</b>, <i>to +sleep</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ē</b></td> +<td><p>as in th<i>e</i>y: <b>hēr</b>, <i>here</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ī</b></td> +<td><p>as in mach<i>i</i>ne: <b>mīn</b>, <i>mine</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ō</b></td> +<td><p>as in n<i>o</i>te (pure, not diphthongal): <b>bōc</b>, +<i>book</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">5</span> +<a name = "page5" id = "page5"> </a> +<b>ū</b></td> +<td><p>as in r<i>u</i>le: <b>tūn</b>, <i>town</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ȳ</b></td> +<td><p>as in German gr<i>ü</i>n, or English gr<i>ee</i>n (with lips +rounded):<a class = "tag" name = "tag_II_1" id = "tag_II_1" href = +"#note_II_1">1</a> <b>brȳd</b>, <i>bride</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The diphthongs, long and short, have the stress upon the first vowel. +The second vowel is obscured, and represents approximately the sound of +<i>er</i> in <i>sooner</i>, <i>faster</i> (= <i>soon-uh</i>, +<i>fast-uh</i>). The long diphthongs (<b>ǣ</b> is not a diphthong +proper) are <b>ēo</b>, <b>īe</b>, and <b>ēa</b>. The sound of <b>ēo</b> +is approximately reproduced in <i>mayor</i> (= <i>mā-uh</i>); that +of <b>īe</b> in the dissyllabic pronunciation of <i>fear</i> +(= <i>fē-uh</i>). But <b>ēa</b> = <i>ǣ-uh</i>. This diphthong is +hardly to be distinguished from <i>ea</i> in <i>pear</i>, <i>bear</i>, +etc., as pronounced in the southern section of the United States +(= <i>bæ-uh</i>, <i>pæ-uh</i>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_7" id = "sec_7">7.</a></h5> + +<p>The short sounds are nothing more than the long vowels and diphthongs +shortened; but the student must at once rid himself of the idea that +Modern English <i>red</i>, for example, is the shortened form of +<i>reed</i>, or that <i>mat</i> is the shortened form of <i>mate</i>. +Pronounce these long sounds with increasing rapidity, and <i>reed</i> +will approach <i>rid</i>, while <i>mate</i> will approach <i>met</i>. +The Old English short vowel sounds are:</p> + +<table class = "inline" summary = "list of vowels"> +<tr> +<td><b>a</b></td> +<td><p>as in <i>a</i>rtistic: <b>habban</b>, <i>to have</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>æ</b></td> +<td><p>as in m<i>a</i>nkind: <b>dæg</b>, <i>day</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>e</b>, <b>ę</b></td> +<td><p>as in l<i>e</i>t: <b>stelan</b>, <i>to steal</i>, <b>sęttan</b>, +<i>to set</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>i</b></td> +<td><p>as in s<i>i</i>t: <b>hit</b>, <i>it</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>o</b></td> +<td><p>as in br<i>oa</i>d (but shorter): <b>God</b>, +<i>God</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ǫ</b></td> +<td><p>as in n<i>o</i>t: <b>lǫmb</b>, <i>lamb</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>u</b></td> +<td><p>as in f<i>u</i>ll: <b>sunu</b>, <i>son</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>y</b></td> +<td><p>as in m<i>i</i>ller (with lips rounded)<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_II_1b" id = "tag_II_1b" href = "#note_II_1">1</a>: <b>gylden</b>, +<i>golden</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">6</span> +<a name = "page6" id = "page6"> </a> +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The symbol <b>ę</b> is +known as <i>umlaut</i><b>-e</b> (<a href = "#sec_58">§ <b>58</b></a>). +It stands for Germanic <i>a</i>, while <b>e</b> (without the cedilla) +represents Germanic <i>e</i>. The symbol <b>ǫ</b> is employed only +before <b>m</b> and <b>n</b>. It, too, represents Germanic <i>a</i>. But +Alfred writes <b>manig</b> or <b>monig</b>, <i>many</i>; <b>lamb</b> or +<b>lomb</b>, <i>lamb</i>; <b>hand</b> or <b>hond</b>, <i>hand</i>, etc. +The cedilla is an etymological sign added by modern grammarians.</p> + +<p class = "mynote"> +The letters ę and ǫ were printed as shown in this e-text. The diacritic +is not a cedilla (open to the left) but an ogonek (open to the +right).</p> + + +<h4>Consonants.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_8" id = "sec_8">8.</a></h5> + +<p>There is little difference between the values of Old English +consonants and those of Modern English. The following distinctions, +however, require notice:</p> + +<p>The digraph <b>th</b> is represented in Old English texts by <b>ð</b> +and <b>þ</b>, no consistent distinction being made between them. In the +works of Alfred, <b>ð</b> (capital, <b>Ð</b>) is the more common: +<b>ðās</b>, <i>those</i>; <b>ðæt</b>, <i>that</i>; <b>bindeð</b>, <i>he +binds</i>.</p> + +<p>The consonant <b>c</b> had the hard sound of <i>k</i>, the latter +symbol being rare in West Saxon: <b>cyning</b>, <i>king</i>; +<b>cwēn</b>, <i>queen</i>; <b>cūð</b>, <i>known</i>. When followed by a +palatal vowel sound,—<i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>æ</i>, <i>ea</i>, +<i>eo</i>, long or short,—a vanishing <i>y</i> sound was doubtless +interposed (<i>cf.</i> dialectic <i>k<sup>y</sup>ind</i> for +<i>kind</i>). In Modern English the combination has passed into +<i>ch</i>: <b>cealc</b>, <i>chalk</i>; <b>cīdan</b>, <i>to chide</i>; +<b>lǣce</b>, <i>leech</i>; <b>cild</b>, <i>child</i>; <b>cēowan</b>, +<i>to chew</i>. This change (<i>c</i> > <i>ch</i>) is known as +Palatalization. The letter <b>g</b>, pronounced as in Modern English +<i>gun</i>, has also a palatal value before the palatal vowels +(<i>cf.</i> dialectic <i>g<sup>y</sup>irl</i> for <i>girl</i>).</p> + +<p>The combination <b>cg</b>, which frequently stands for <b>gg</b>, had +probably the sound of <i>dge</i> in Modern English <i>edge</i>: +<b>ęcg</b>, <i>edge</i>; <b>sęcgan</b>, <i>to say</i>; <b>brycg</b>, +<i>bridge</i>. +<span class = "pagenum">7</span> +<a name = "page7" id = "page7"> </a> +Initial <b>h</b> is sounded as in Modern English: <b>habban</b>, <i>to +have</i>; <b>hālga</b>, <i>saint</i>. When closing a syllable it has the +sound of German <i>ch</i>: <b>slōh</b>, <i>he slew</i>; <b>hēah</b>, +<i>high</i>; <b>ðurh</b>, <i>through</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_9" id = "sec_9">9.</a></h5> + +<p>An important distinction is that between voiced (or sonant) and +voiceless (or surd) consonants.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_II_2" +id = "tag_II_2" href = "#note_II_2">2</a> In Old English they are as +follows:</p> + +<table class = "inline" summary = "list of consonants"> +<tr> +<th class = "left smallcaps">Voiced.</th> +<th class = "left smallcaps">Voiceless.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>g</b></td> +<td><b>h</b>, <b>c</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>d</b></td> +<td><b>t</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ð</b>, <b>þ</b> (as in <i>th</i>ough) </td> +<td><b>ð</b>, <b>þ</b> (as in <i>th</i>in)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>b</b></td> +<td><b>p</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>f</b> (= v)</td> +<td><b>f</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>s</b> (= z)</td> +<td><b>s</b> +</table> + +<p>It is evident, therefore, that <b>ð</b> (<b>þ</b>), <b>f</b>, and +<b>s</b> have double values in Old English. If voiced, they are +equivalent to <i>th</i> (in <i>th</i>ough), <i>v</i>, and <i>z</i>. +Otherwise, they are pronounced as <i>th</i> (in <i>th</i>in), +<i>f</i> (in <i>f</i>in), and <i>s</i> (in <i>s</i>in). The +syllabic environment will usually compel the student to give these +letters their proper values. When occurring between vowels, they are +always voiced: <b>ōðer</b>, <i>other</i>; <b>ofer</b>, <i>over</i>; +<b>rīsan</b>, <i>to rise</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The general rule in Old +English, as in Modern English, is, that voiced consonants have a special +affinity for other voiced consonants, and voiceless for voiceless. This +is the law of Assimilation. Thus when <i>de</i> is added to form the +preterit of a verb whose stem +<span class = "pagenum">8</span> +<a name = "page8" id = "page8"> </a> +ends in a voiceless consonant, the <b>d</b> is unvoiced, or assimilated, +to <b>t</b><ins class = "correction" title = ". for :">: +</ins><b>sęttan</b>, <i>to set</i>, <b>sętte</b> (but <b>tręddan</b>, +<i>to tread</i>, has <b>trędde</b>); <b>slǣpan</b>, <i>to sleep</i>, +<b>slǣpte</b>; <b>dręncan</b>, <i>to drench</i>, <b>dręncte</b>; +<b>cyssan</b>, <i>to kiss</i>, <b>cyste</b>. See <a href = +"#sec_126">§ <b>126</b>, Note 1</a>.</p> + + +<h4>Syllables.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_10" id = "sec_10">10.</a></h5> + +<p>A syllable is usually a vowel, either alone or in combination with +consonants, uttered with a single impulse of stress; but certain +consonants may form syllables: <i>oven</i> (= <i>ov-n</i>), +<i>battle</i> (= <i>bæt-l</i>); (<i>cf.</i> also the vulgar +pronunciation of <i>elm</i>).</p> + +<p>A syllable may be (1) weak or strong, (2) open or closed, (3) long or +short.</p> + +<p>(1) A weak syllable receives a light stress. Its vowel sound is often +different from that of the corresponding strong, or stressed, syllable. +<i>Cf.</i> weak and strong <i>my</i> in “I want my lárge hat” and +“I want mý hat.”</p> + +<p>(2) An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong: <b>dē-man</b>, +<i>to deem</i>; <b>ðū</b>, <i>thou</i>; <b>sca-can</b>, <i>to shake</i>; +<b>dæ-ges</b>, <i>by day</i>. A closed syllable ends in one or more +consonants: <b>ðing</b>, <i>thing</i>; <b>gōd</b>, <i>good</i>; +<b>glæd</b>, <i>glad</i>.</p> + +<p>(3) A syllable is long (<i>a</i>) if it contains a long vowel or a +long diphthong: <b>drī-fan</b>, <i>to drive</i>; <b>lū-can</b>, <i>to +lock</i>; <b>slǣ-pan</b>, <i>to sleep</i>; <b>cēo-san</b>, <i>to +choose</i>; (<i>b</i>) if its vowel or diphthong is followed by more +than one consonant:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_II_3" id = "tag_II_3" +href = "#note_II_3">3</a> <b>cræft</b>, <i>strength</i>; <b>heard</b>, +<i>hard</i>; <b>lib-ban</b>, <i>to live</i>; <b>feal-lan</b>, +<span class = "pagenum">9</span> +<a name = "page9" id = "page9"> </a> +<i>to fall</i>. Otherwise, the syllable is short: <b>ðe</b>, +<i>which</i>; <b>be-ran</b>, <i>to bear</i>; <b>ðæt</b>, <i>that</i>; +<b>gie-fan</b>, <i>to give</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—A single consonant +belongs to the following syllable: <b>hā-lig</b>, <i>holy</i> (not +<b>hāl-ig</b>); <b>wrī-tan</b>, <i>to write</i>; <b>fæ-der</b>, +<i>father</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—The student will notice +that the syllable may be long and the vowel short; but the vowel cannot +be long and the syllable short.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 3.</span>—Old English short vowels, +occurring in open syllables, have regularly become long in Modern +English: <b>we-fan</b>, <i>to weave</i>; <b>e-tan</b>, <i>to eat</i>; +<b>ma-cian</b>, <i>to make</i>; <b>na-cod</b>, <i>naked</i>; +<b>a-can</b>, <i>to ache</i>; <b>o-fer</b>, <i>over</i>. And Old English +long vowels, preceding two or more consonants, have generally been +shortened: <b>brēost</b>, <i>breast</i>; <b>hǣlð</b>, <i>health</i>; +<b>slǣpte</b>, <i>slept</i>; <b>lǣdde</b>, <i>led</i>.</p> + + +<h4>Accentuation.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_11" id = "sec_11">11.</a></h5> + +<p>The accent in Old English falls usually on the radical syllable, +never on the inflectional ending: <b>bríngan</b>, <i>to bring</i>; +<b>stā́nas</b>, <i>stones</i>; <b>bérende</b>, <i>bearing</i>; +<b>ī́delnes</b>, <i>idleness</i>; <b>frḗondscipe</b>, +<i>friendship</i>.</p> + +<p>But in the case of compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbs the first +member of the compound (unless it be <b>ge-</b> or <b>be-</b>) receives +the stronger stress: <b>héofon-rīce</b>, <i>heaven-kingdom</i>; +<b>ǫ́nd-giet</b>, <i>intelligence</i>; <b>sṓð-fæst</b>, +<i>truthful</i>; <b>gód-cund</b>, <i>divine</i>; <b>éall-unga</b>, +<i>entirely</i>; <b>blī́ðe-līce</b>, <i>blithely</i>. But +<b>be-hā́t</b>, <i>promise</i>; <b>ge-béd</b>, <i>prayer</i>; +<b>ge-fḗalīc</b>, <i>joyous</i>; <b>be-sǫ́ne</b>, +<i>immediately</i>.</p> + +<p>Compound verbs, however, have the stress on the radical syllable: +<b>for-gíefan</b>, <i>to forgive</i>; <b>of-línnan</b>, <i>to cease</i>; +<b>ā-cnā́wan</b>, <i>to know</i>; <b>wið-stǫ́ndan</b>, <i>to +withstand</i>; <b>on-sácan</b>, <i>to resist</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The tendency of nouns to +take the stress on the prefix, while verbs retain it on the root, is +exemplified in many Modern English words: <i>préference</i>, +<i>prefér</i>; <i>cóntract</i> (noun), <i>contráct</i> (verb); +<i>ábstinence</i>, <i>abstaín</i>; <i>pérfume</i> (noun), <i>perfúme</i> +(verb).</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_II_1" id = "note_II_1" href = "#tag_II_1">1.</a> +Vowels are said to be round, or rounded, when the lip-opening is +rounded; that is, when the lips are thrust out and puckered as if +preparing to pronounce <i>w</i>. Thus <i>o</i> and <i>u</i> are round +vowels: add <i>-ing</i> to each, and phonetically you have added +<i>-wing</i>. <i>E.g. go<sup>w</sup>ing</i>, +<i>su<sup>w</sup>ing</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_II_2" id = "note_II_2" href = "#tag_II_2">2.</a> +A little practice will enable the student to see the appropriateness of +calling these consonants voiced and voiceless. Try to pronounce a voiced +consonant,—<i>d</i> in <i>den</i>, for example, but without the +assistance of <i>en</i>,—and there will be heard a gurgle, or +<i>vocal</i> murmur. But in <i>t</i>, of <i>ten</i>, there is no sound +at all, but only a feeling of tension in the organs.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_II_3" id = "note_II_3" href = "#tag_II_3">3.</a> +Taken separately, every syllable ending in a single consonant is long. +It may be said, therefore, that all closed syllables are long; but in +the natural flow of language, the single final consonant of a syllable +so often blends with a following initial vowel, the syllable thus +becoming open and short, that such syllables are not recognized as +prevailingly long. <i>Cf.</i> Modern English <i>at all</i> +(= <i>a-tall</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">10</span> +<a name = "page10" id = "page10"> </a> +<h3><a name = "chap_III" id = "chap_III"> +CHAPTER III.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead">Inflections.</span></h3> + + +<h4>Cases.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_12" id = "sec_12">12.</a></h5> + +<p>There are five cases in Old English: the nominative, the genitive, +the dative, the accusative, and the instrumental.<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_III_1" id = "tag_III_1" href = "#note_III_1">1</a> Each of them, +except the nominative, may be governed by prepositions. When used +without prepositions, they have, in general, the following +functions:</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The nominative, as in Modern English, is the case of the +subject of a finite verb.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The genitive (the possessive case of Modern English) is +the case of the possessor or source. It may be called the <i>of</i> +case.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) The dative is the case of the indirect object. It may be +called the <i>to</i> or <i>for</i> case.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) The accusative (the objective case of Modern English) is +the case of the direct object.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) The instrumental, which rarely differs from the dative in +form, is the case of the means or the method. It may be called the +<i>with</i> or <i>by</i> case.</p> + +<p>The following paradigm of <b>mūð</b>, <i>the mouth</i>, illustrates +the several cases (the article being, for the present, gratuitously +added in the Modern English equivalents):</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">11</span> +<a name = "page11" id = "page11"> </a> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th class = "ital">Singular.</th> +<th class = "ital">Plural.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><i>N.</i></td> +<td><p><b>mūð</b> = <i>the mouth.</i></p></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-as</b> = <i>the mouths.</i></p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><i>G.</i></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-es</b><a class = "tag" name = "tag_III_2" id = "tag_III_2" +href = "#note_III_2">2</a> = <i>of the mouth</i> (= <i>the +mouth’s</i>).</p></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-a</b> = <i>of the mouths</i> (= <i>the +mouths’</i>).</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><i>D.</i></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-e</b> = <i>to</i> or <i>for the mouth.</i></p></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-um</b> = <i>to</i> or <i>for the mouths.</i></p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><i>A.</i></td> +<td><p><b>mūð</b> = <i>the mouth.</i></p></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-as</b> = <i>the mouths.</i></p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><i>I.</i></td> +<td><p><b>mūðe</b> = <i>with</i> or <i>by means of the +mouth.</i><p></td> +<td><p><b>mūð-um</b> = <i>with</i> or <i>by means of the +mouths.</i></p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h4>Gender.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_13" id = "sec_13">13.</a></h5> + +<p>The gender of Old English nouns, unlike that of Modern English, +depends partly on meaning and partly on form, or ending. Thus +<b>mūð</b>, <i>mouth</i>, is masculine; <b>tunge</b>, <i>tongue</i>, +feminine; <b>ēage</b>, <i>eye</i>, neuter.</p> + +<p>No very comprehensive rules, therefore, can be given; but the gender +of every noun should be learned with its meaning. Gender will be +indicated in the vocabularies by the different gender forms of the +definite article, <b>sē</b> for the masculine, <b>sēo</b> for the +feminine, and <b>ðæt</b> for the neuter: <b>sē mūð</b>, <b>sēo +tunge</b>, <b>ðæt ēage</b> = <i>the mouth</i>, <i>the tongue</i>, <i>the +eye</i>.</p> + +<p>All nouns ending in <b>-dōm</b>, <b>-hād</b>, <b>-scipe</b>, or +<b>-ere</b> are masculine (<i>cf.</i> Modern English wis<i>dom</i>, +child<i>hood</i>, friend<i>ship</i>, work<i>er</i>). Masculine, also, +are nouns ending in <b>-a</b>.</p> + +<p>Those ending in <b>-nes</b> or <b>-ung</b> are feminine (<i>cf.</i> +Modern +<span class = "pagenum">12</span> +<a name = "page12" id = "page12"> </a> +English good<i>ness</i>, and gerundial forms in <i>-ing</i>: +see<i>ing</i> is believ<i>ing</i>).</p> + +<p>Thus <b>sē wīsdōm</b>, <i>wisdom</i>; <b>sē cildhād</b>, +<i>childhood</i>; <b>sē frēondscipe</b>, <i>friendship</i>; <b>sē +fiscere</b>, <i>fisher(man)</i>; <b>sē hunta</b>, <i>hunter</i>; <b>sēo +gelīcnes</b>, <i>likeness</i>; <b>sēo leornung</b>, <i>learning</i>.</p> + + +<h4>Declensions.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_14" id = "sec_14">14.</a></h5> + +<p>There are two great systems of declension in Old English, the Vowel +Declension and the Consonant Declension. A noun is said to belong +to the Vowel Declension when the final letter of its stem is a vowel, +this vowel being then known as the <i>stem-characteristic</i>; but if +the stem-characteristic is a consonant, the noun belongs to the +Consonant Declension. There might have been, therefore, as many +subdivisions of the Vowel Declension in Old English as there were +vowels, and as many subdivisions of the Consonant Declension as there +were consonants. All Old English nouns, however, belonging to the Vowel +Declension, ended their stems originally in <b>a</b>, <b>ō</b>, +<b>i</b>, or <b>u</b>. Hence there are but four subdivisions of the +Vowel Declension: <b>a-</b>stems, <b>ō-</b>stems, <b>i-</b>stems, and +<b>u-</b>stems.</p> + +<p>The Vowel Declension is commonly called the Strong Declension, and +its nouns Strong Nouns.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The terms Strong and Weak +were first used by Jacob Grimm (1785-1863) in the terminology of verbs, +and thence transferred to nouns and adjectives. By a Strong Verb, Grimm +meant one that could form its preterit out of its own resources; that +is, without calling in the aid of an additional syllable: Modern English +<i>run</i>, <i>ran</i>; <i>find</i>, <i>found</i>; but verbs of the Weak +Conjugation had to borrow, as it were, an inflectional syllable: +<i>gain</i>, <i>gained</i>; <i>help</i>, <i>helped</i>.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">13</span> +<a name = "page13" id = "page13"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_15" id = "sec_15">15.</a></h5> + +<p>The stems of nouns belonging to the Consonant Declension ended, with +but few exceptions, in the letter <b>n</b> (<i>cf.</i> Latin +<i>homin-em</i>, <i>ration-em</i>, Greek <span class = "greek" title = +"poimen-a">ποιμέν-α</span>). They are called, therefore, <b>n-</b>stems, +the Declension itself being known as the <b>n-</b>Declension, or the +Weak Declension. The nouns, also, are called Weak Nouns.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_16" id = "sec_16">16.</a></h5> + +<p>If every Old English noun had preserved the original Germanic +stem-characteristic (or final letter of the stem), there would be +no difficulty in deciding at once whether any given noun is an +<b>a-</b>stem, <b>ō-</b>stem, <b>i-</b>stem, <b>u-</b>stem, or +<b>n-</b>stem; but these final letters had, for the most part, either +been dropped, or fused with the case-endings, long before the period of +historic Old English. It is only, therefore, by a rigid comparison of +the Germanic languages with one another, and with the other Aryan +languages, that scholars are able to reconstruct a single Germanic +language, in which the original stem-characteristics may be seen far +better than in any one historic branch of the Germanic group (<a href = +"#sec_5">§ <b>5</b>, Note</a>).</p> + +<p>This hypothetical language, which bears the same ancestral relation +to the historic Germanic dialects that Latin bears to the Romance +tongues, is known simply as <i>Germanic</i> (Gmc.), or as <i>Primitive +Germanic</i>. Ability to reconstruct Germanic forms is not expected of +the students of this book, but the following table should be examined as +illustrating the basis of distinction among the several Old English +declensions (O.E. = Old English, Mn.E. = Modern English):</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">14</span> +<a name = "page14" id = "page14"> </a> + +<table class = "tree" summary = "see text for explanation"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "bottom" rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "{"></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td colspan = "5">Gmc. <i>staina-z</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>(1) <b>a</b>-stems</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">O.E. <b>stān</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">Mn.E. <i>stone</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "6"><p>I. Strong<br> +or Vowel<br> +Declensions</p></td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td colspan = "5">Gmc. <i>hallō</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td>(2) <b>ō</b>-stems</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">O.E. <b>heall</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">Mn.E. <i>hall</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td colspan = "5">Gmc. <i>bōni-z</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td>(3) <b>i</b>-stems</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">O.E. <b>bēn</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">Mn.E. <i>boon</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td colspan = "5">Gmc. <i>sunu-z</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>(4) <b>u</b>-stems</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">O.E. <b>sunu</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td colspan = "5">Mn.E. <i>son</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + +<td></td> +<td class = "bottom" rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "{"></td> +<td class = "middle" colspan = "5" rowspan = "3">(1) <b>n</b>-stems<br> +(Weak Declension)</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>Gmc. <i>tungōn-iz</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<!-- <td colspan = "5"></td> --> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>O.E. <b>tung-an</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "5"></td> --> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>Mn.E. <i>tongue-s</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "6"><p>II. Consonant<br> +Declensions</p></td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td class = "middle" colspan = "3" rowspan = "9">(2) Remnants<br> +of other<br> +Consonant<br> +Declensions</td> +<td class = "bottom" rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/topcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "{"></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>Gmc. <i>fōt-iz</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>(<i>a</i>)</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>O.E. <b>fēt</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>Mn.E. <i>feet</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>Gmc. <i>frijōnd-iz</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td>(<i>b</i>)</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>O.E. <b>frīend</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>Mn.E. <i>friend-s</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<td class = "leftline"> </td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>Gmc. <i>brōðr-iz</i>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "{"></td> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<td rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/bottomcorner.gif" width = "6" height = "24" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>(<i>c</i>)</td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>O.E. <b>brōðor</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<!-- <td colspan = "3"></td> --> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td></td> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<td>Mn.E. <i>brother-s</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—“It will be seen that if +Old English <b>ēage</b>, <i>eye</i>, is said to be an <b>n-</b>stem, +what is meant is this, that at some former period the kernel of the word +ended in <b>-n</b>, while, as far as the Old English language proper is +concerned, all that is implied is that the word is inflected in a +certain manner.” (Jespersen, <i>Progress in Language</i>, +§ 109).</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +This is true of all Old English stems, whether Vowel or Consonant. The +division, therefore, into <b>a-</b>stems, <b>ō-</b>stems, etc., is made +in the interests of grammar as well as of philology.</p> + + +<h4>Conjugations.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_17" id = "sec_17">17.</a></h5> + +<p>There are, likewise, two systems of conjugation in Old English: the +Strong or Old Conjugation, and the Weak or New Conjugation.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">15</span> +<a name = "page15" id = "page15"> </a> +<p>The verbs of the Strong Conjugation (the so-called Irregular Verbs of +Modern English) number about three hundred, of which not one hundred +remain in Modern English (<a href = "#sec_101">§ <b>101</b>, +Note</a>). They form their preterit and frequently their past participle +by changing the radical vowel of the present stem. This vowel change or +modification is called <i>ablaut</i> (pronounced <i>áhp-lowt</i>): +Modern English <i>sing, sang, sung</i>; <i>rise, rose, risen</i>. As the +radical vowel of the preterit plural is often different from that of the +preterit singular, there are four <i>principal parts</i> or <i>tense +stems</i> in an Old English strong verb, instead of the three of Modern +English. The four principal parts in the conjugation of a strong verb +are (1) the present indicative, (2) the preterit indicative +singular, (3) the preterit indicative plural, and (4) the past +participle.</p> + +<p>Strong verbs fall into seven groups, illustrated in the following +table:</p> + +<table class = "outline" summary = "strong verb classes"> +<col> +<col class = "leftline"> +<col class = "leftline"> +<col class = "leftline"> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps">Present.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Pret. Sing.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Pret. Plur.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Past Participle.</th> +</tr> +<tr class = "topline"> +<td class = "heading">I.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Bītan</b>, <i>to bite</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic bīt-e</b>, <i>I bite</i> or <i>shall bite</i>.<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_III_3" id = "tag_III_3" href = +"#note_III_3">3</a></p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic bāt</b>, <i>I bit</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē bit-on</b>, <i>we bit</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge</b><a class = "tag" name = "tag_III_4" id = +"tag_III_4" href = "#note_III_4">4</a><b>-biten</b>, <i>I have +bitten</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">II.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Bēodan</b>, <i>to bid</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic bēod-e</b>, <i>I bid</i> or <i>shall bid</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic bēad</b>, <i>I bade</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē bud-on</b>, <i>we bade</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-boden</b>, <i>I have bidden</i>.</p></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading"> +<span class = "pagenum">16</span> +<a name = "page16" id = "page16"> </a> +III.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Bindan</b>, <i>to bind</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic bind-e</b>, <i>I bind or shall bind</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic bǫnd</b>, <i>I bound</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē bund-on</b>, <i>we bound</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-bund-en</b>, <i>I have bound</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">IV.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Beran</b>, <i>to bear</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic ber-e</b>, <i>I bear</i> or <i>shall bear</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic bær</b>, <i>I bore</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē bǣr-on</b>, <i>we bore</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-bor-en</b>, <i>I have borne</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">V.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Metan</b>, <i>to measure</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic met-e</b>, <i>I measure</i> or <i>shall +measure</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic mæt</b>, <i>I measured</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē mǣt-on</b>, <i>we measured</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-met-en</b>, <i>I have measured</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">VI.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Faran</b>, <i>to go</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic far-e</b>, <i>I go</i> or <i>shall go</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic fōr</b>, <i>I went</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē fōr-on</b>, <i>we went</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic eom</b><a class = "tag" name = "tag_III_5" id = "tag_III_5" +href = "#note_III_5">5</a> <b>ge-far-en</b>, <i>I have</i> (<i>am</i>) +<i>gone</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">VII.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Feallan</b>, <i>to fall</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic feall-e</b>, <i>I fall</i> or <i>shall fall</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic fēoll</b>, <i>I fell</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Wē fēoll-on</b>, <i>we fell</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic eom</b><a class = "tag" name = "tag_III_5b" id = +"tag_III_5b" href = "#note_III_5">5</a> <b>ge-feall-en</b>, <i>I +have</i> (<i>am</i>) <i>fallen</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h5><a name = "sec_18" id = "sec_18">18.</a></h5> + +<p>The verbs of the Weak Conjugation (the so-called Regular Verbs of +Modern English) form their preterit +<span class = "pagenum">17</span> +<a name = "page17" id = "page17"> </a> +and past participle by adding to the present stem a suffix<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_III_6" id = "tag_III_6" href = "#note_III_6">6</a> +with <i>d</i> or <i>t</i>: Modern English <i>love</i>, <i>loved</i>; +<i>sleep</i>, <i>slept</i>.</p> + +<p>The stem of the preterit plural is never different from the stem of +the preterit singular; hence these verbs have only three distinctive +tense-stems, or principal parts: <i>viz.</i>, (1) the present +indicative, (2) the preterit indicative, and (3) the past +participle.</p> + +<p>Weak verbs fall into three groups, illustrated in the following +table:</p> + +<table class = "outline" summary = "weak verb classes"> +<col> +<col class = "leftline"> +<col class = "leftline"> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps">Present.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Preterit.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Past Participle.</th> +</tr> +<tr class = "topline"> +<td class = "heading">I.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Fręmman</b>, <i>to perform</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic fręmm-e</b>, <i>I perform</i> or <i>shall +perform</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic fręm-ede</b>, <i>I performed</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-fręm-ed</b>, <i>I have performed</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">II.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Bodian</b>, <i>to proclaim</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic bodi-e</b>, <i>I proclaim</i> or <i>shall +proclaim</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic bod-ode</b>, <i>I proclaimed</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-bod-od</b>, <i>I have proclaimed</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading">III.</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>Habban</b>, <i>to have</i>:</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe</b>, <i>I have</i> or <i>shall have</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæf-de</b>, <i>I had</i>.</p></td> +<td><p><b>Ic hæbbe ge-hæf-d</b>, <i>I have had</i>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h5><a name = "sec_19" id = "sec_19">19.</a></h5> + +<p>There remain a few verbs (chiefly the Auxiliary Verbs of Modern +English) that do not belong entirely to either of the two conjugations +mentioned. The most important of them are, <b>Ic mæg</b> <i>I may</i>, +<b>Ic mihte</b> <i>I might</i>; <b>Ic cǫn</b> <i>I can</i>, <b>Ic +cūðe</b> <i>I could</i>; <b>Ic mōt</b> <i>I must</i>, <b>Ic mōste</b> +<i>I +<span class = "pagenum">18</span> +<a name = "page18" id = "page18"> </a> +must</i>; <b>Ic sceal</b> <i>I shall</i>, <b>Ic sceolde</b> <i>I +should</i>; <b>Ic eom</b> <i>I am</i>, <b>Ic wæs</b> <i>I was</i>; <b>Ic +wille</b> <i>I will</i>, <b>Ic wolde</b> <i>I would</i>; <b>Ic dō</b> +<i>I do</i>, <b>Ic dyde</b> <i>I did</i>; <b>Ic gā</b> <i>I go</i>, +<b>Ic ēode</b> <i>I went</i>.</p> + +<p>All but the last four of these are known as Preterit-Present Verbs. +The present tense of each of them is <i>in origin</i> a preterit, <i>in +function</i> a present. <i>Cf.</i> Modern English <i>ought</i> +(= <i>owed</i>).</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_III_1" id = "note_III_1" href = "#tag_III_1">1.</a> +Most grammars add a sixth case, the vocative. But it seems best to +consider the vocative as only a <i>function</i> of the nominative +<i>form</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_III_2" id = "note_III_2" href = "#tag_III_2">2.</a> +Of course our “apostrophe and <i>s</i>” (= <i>’s</i>) comes from the Old +English genitive ending <b>-es</b>. The <i>e</i> is preserved in +<i>Wednesday</i> (= Old English <b>Wōdnes dæg</b>). But at a very +early period it was thought that <i>John’s book</i>, for example, was a +shortened form of <i>John his book</i>. Thus Addison (<i>Spectator</i>, +No. 135) declares <i>’s</i> a survival of <i>his</i>. How, then, would +he explain the <i>s</i> of <i>his</i>? And how would he dispose of +<i>Mary’s book</i>?</p> + +<p><a name = "note_III_3" id = "note_III_3" href = "#tag_III_3">3.</a> +Early West Saxon had no distinctive form for the future. The present was +used both as present proper and as future. <i>Cf.</i> Modern English +“I go home tomorrow,” or “I am going home tomorrow” for +“I shall go home tomorrow.”</p> + +<p><a name = "note_III_4" id = "note_III_4" href = "#tag_III_4">4.</a> +The prefix <b>ge-</b> (Middle English <i>y-</i>), cognate with Latin +<i>co</i> (<i>con</i>) and implying completeness of action, was not +always used. It never occurs in the past participles of compound verbs: +<b>oþ-feallan</b>, <i>to fall off</i>, past participle <b>oþ-feallen</b> +(not <b>oþ-gefeallen</b>). Milton errs in prefixing it to a present +participle:</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>“What needs my Shakespeare, for his honour’d bones,</p> +<p>The labour of an age in piled stones?</p> +<p>Or that his hallow’d reliques should be hid</p> +<p>Under a star-<i>ypointing</i> pyramid.”</p> + +<p class = "right">—<i>Epitaph on William Shakespeare</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>And Shakespeare misuses it in “Y-ravished,” a preterit +(<i>Pericles</i> III, <i>Prologue</i> l. 35).</p> + +<p>It survives in the archaic <i>y-clept</i> (Old English +<b>ge-clypod</b>, called). It appears as <i>a</i> in <i>aware</i> (Old +English <b>ge-wær</b>), as <i>e</i> in <i>enough</i> (Old English +<b>ge-nōh</b>), and as <i>i</i> in <i>handiwork</i> (Old English +<b>hand-ge-weorc</b>).</p> + +<p><a name = "note_III_5" id = "note_III_5" href = "#tag_III_5">5.</a> +With intransitive verbs denoting <i>change of condition</i>, the Old +English auxiliary is usually some form of <i>to be</i> rather than <i>to +have</i>. See <a href = "#sec_139">§ <b>139</b></a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_III_6" id = "note_III_6" href = "#tag_III_6">6.</a> +The theory that <i>loved</i>, for example, is a fused form of +<i>love-did</i> has been generally given up. The dental ending was +doubtless an Indo-Germanic suffix, which became completely specialized +only in the Teutonic languages.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_IV" id = "chap_IV"> +CHAPTER IV.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Order of Words.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_20" id = "sec_20">20.</a></h5> + +<p>The order of words in Old English is more like that of Modern German +than of Modern English. Yet it is only the Transposed order that the +student will feel to be at all un-English; and the Transposed order, +even before the period of the Norman Conquest, was fast yielding place +to the Normal order.</p> + +<p>The three divisions of order are (1) Normal, (2) Inverted, and +(3) Transposed.</p> + +<p>(1) Normal order = subject + predicate. In Old English, the Normal +order is found chiefly in independent clauses. The predicate is followed +by its modifiers: <b>Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa þonne ōðre hwalas</b>, +<i>That whale is much smaller than other whales</i>; <b>Ǫnd hē geseah +twā scipu</b>, <i>And he saw two ships</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) Inverted order = predicate + subject. This order occurs also in +independent clauses, and is employed (<i>a</i>) when some modifier of +the predicate precedes the predicate, the subject being thrown behind. +The +<span class = "pagenum">19</span> +<a name = "page19" id = "page19"> </a> +words most frequently causing Inversion in Old English prose are +<b>þā</b> <i>then</i>, <b>þonne</b> <i>then</i>, and <b>þǣr</b> +<i>there</i>: <b>Ðā fōr hē</b>, <i>Then went he</i>; <b>Ðonne ærnað hȳ +ealle tōweard þǣm fēo</b>, <i>Then gallop they all toward the +property</i>; <b>ac þǣr bið medo genōh</b>, <i>but there is mead +enough</i>.</p> + +<p>Inversion is employed (<i>b</i>) in interrogative sentences: +<b>Lufast ðū mē?</b> <i>Lovest thou me?</i> and (<i>c</i>) in imperative +sentences: <b>Cume ðīn rīce</b>, <i>Thy kingdom come</i>.</p> + +<p>(3) Transposed order = subject ... predicate. That is, the predicate +comes last in the sentence, being preceded by its modifiers. This is the +order observed in dependent clauses:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_IV_1" +id = "tag_IV_1" href = "#note_IV_1">1</a> <b>Ðonne cymeð sē man sē þæt +swiftoste hors hafað</b>, <i>Then comes the man that has the swiftest +horse</i> (literally, <i>that the swiftest horse has</i>); <b>Ne mētte +hē ǣr nān gebūn land, siþþan hē frǫm his āgnum hām fōr</b>, <i>Nor did +he before find any cultivated land, after he went from his own home</i> +(literally, <i>after he from his own home went</i>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_21" id = "sec_21">21.</a></h5> + +<p class = "section">Two other peculiarities in the order of words +require a brief notice.</p> + +<p>(1) Pronominal datives and accusatives usually precede the predicate: +<b>Hē hine oferwann</b>, <i>He overcame him</i> (literally, <i>He him +overcame</i>); <b>Dryhten him andwyrde</b>, <i>The Lord answered +him</i>. But substantival datives and accusatives, as in Modern English, +follow the predicate. +<span class = "pagenum">20</span> +<a name = "page20" id = "page20"> </a> +The following sentence illustrates both orders: <b>Hȳ genāmon Ioseph, +ǫnd hine gesealdon cīpemǫnnum, ǫnd hȳ hine gesealdon in Ēgypta lǫnd</b>, +<i>They took Joseph, and sold him to merchants, and they sold him into +Egypt</i> (literally, <i>They took Joseph, and him sold to merchants, +and they him sold into Egyptians’ land</i>).</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The same order prevails in +the case of pronominal nominatives used as predicate nouns: <b>Ic hit +eom</b>, <i>It is I</i> (literally, <i>I it am</i>); <b>Ðū hit +eart</b>, <i>It is thou</i> (literally, <i>Thou it art</i>).</p> + +<p>(2) The attributive genitive, whatever relationship it expresses, +usually precedes the noun which it qualifies: <b>Breoton is gārsecges +īgland</b>, <i>Britain is an island of the ocean</i> (literally, +<i>ocean’s island</i>); <b>Swilce hit is ēac berende on węcga ōrum</b>, +<i>Likewise it is also rich in ores of metals</i> (literally, <i>metals’ +ores</i>); <b>Cyninga cyning</b>, <i>King of kings</i> (literally, +<i>Kings’ king</i>); <b>Gē witon Godes rīces gerȳne</b>, <i>Ye know the +mystery of the kingdom of God</i> (literally, <i>Ye know God’s kingdom’s +mystery</i>).</p> + +<p>A preposition governing the word modified by the genitive, precedes +the genitive:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_IV_2" id = "tag_IV_2" href = +"#note_IV_2">2</a> <b>On ealdra manna sægenum</b>, <i>In old men’s +sayings</i>; <b>Æt ðǣra strǣta ęndum</b>, <i>At the ends of the +streets</i> (literally, <i>At the streets’ ends</i>); <b>For ealra ðīnra +hālgena lufan</b>, <i>For all thy saints’ love</i>. See, also, <a href = +"#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (5)</a>.</p> + + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_IV_1" id = "note_IV_1" href = "#tag_IV_1">1.</a> +But in the <i>Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan</i>, in which the style is +apparently more that of oral than of written discourse, the Normal is +more frequent than the Transposed order in dependent clauses. In his +other writings Alfred manifests a partiality for the Transposed order in +dependent clauses, except in the case of substantival clauses introduced +by <b>þæt</b>. Such clauses show a marked tendency to revert to their +Normal <i>oratio recta</i> order. The norm thus set by the indirect +affirmative clause seems to have proved an important factor in the +ultimate disappearance of Transposition from dependent clauses. The +influence of Norman French helped only to consummate forces that were +already busily at work.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_IV_2" id = "note_IV_2" href = "#tag_IV_2">2.</a> +The positions of the genitive are various. It frequently follows its +noun: <b>þā bearn þāra Aðeniensa</b>, <i>The children of the +Athenians</i>. It may separate an adjective and a noun: <b>Ān lȳtel sǣs +earm</b>, <i>A little arm of</i> (<i>the</i>) <i>sea</i>. The genitive +may here be construed as an adjective, or part of a compound = <i>A +little sea-arm</i>; <b>Mid mǫnegum Godes gifum</b>, <i>With many +God-gifts</i> = <i>many divine gifts</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<span class = "pagenum">21</span> +<a name = "page21" id = "page21"> </a> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_V" id = "chap_V"> +CHAPTER V.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Practical Suggestions.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_22" id = "sec_22">22.</a></h5> + +<p>In the study of Old English, the student must remember that he is +dealing not with a foreign or isolated language but with the earlier +forms of his own mother tongue. The study will prove profitable and +stimulating in proportion as close and constant comparison is made of +the old with the new. The guiding principles in such a comparison are +reducible chiefly to two. These are (1) the regular operation of +phonetic laws, resulting especially in certain Vowel Shiftings, and +(2) the alterations in form and syntax that are produced by +Analogy.</p> + +<p>(1) “The former of these is of physiological or <i>natural</i> +origin, and is perfectly and inflexibly regular throughout the same +period of the same language; and even though different languages show +different phonetic habits and predilections, there is a strong general +resemblance between the changes induced in one language and in another; +many of the particular laws are true for many languages.</p> + +<p>(2) “The other principle is psychical, or mental, or +<i>artificial</i>, introducing various more or less capricious changes +that are supposed to be emendations; and its operation is, to some +extent, uncertain and fitful.”<a class = "tag" name = "tag_V_1" id = +"tag_V_1" href = "#note_V_1">1</a></p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">22</span> +<a name = "page22" id = "page22"> </a> +<h4>(1) Vowel-Shiftings.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_23" id = "sec_23">23.</a></h5> + +<p>It will prove an aid to the student in acquiring the inflections and +vocabulary of Old English to note carefully the following shiftings that +have taken place in the gradual growth of the Old English vowel system +into that of Modern English.</p> + +<p>(1) As stated in <a href = "#sec_3">§ <b>3</b></a>, the Old English +inflectional vowels, which were all short and unaccented, weakened in +early Middle English to <i>e</i>. This <i>e</i> in Modern English is +frequently dropped:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th class = "left smallcaps">Old English.</th> +<th class = "left smallcaps">Middle English.</th> +<th class = "left smallcaps">Modern English.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>stān-as</td> +<td>ston-es</td> +<td>stones</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>sun-u</td> +<td>sun-e</td> +<td>son</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>sun-a</td> +<td>sun-e</td> +<td>sons</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>ox-an</td> +<td>ox-en</td> +<td>oxen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>swift-ra</td> +<td>swift-er</td> +<td>swifter</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>swift-ost</td> +<td>swift-est</td> +<td>swiftest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>lōc-ode</td> +<td>lok-ede</td> +<td>looked</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) The Old English long vowels have shifted their phonetic values +with such uniform regularity that it is possible in almost every case to +infer the Modern English sound; but our spelling is so chaotic that +while the student may infer the modern sound, he cannot always infer the +modern symbol representing the sound.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th class = "left smallcaps">Old English.</th> +<th class = "left smallcaps" colspan = "2">Modern English.</th> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "middle"><b>ā</b></td> +<td class = "middle"><p><i>o</i> (as in <i>no</i>)<a class = "tag" name += "tag_V_2" id = "tag_V_2" href = "#note_V_2">2</a></p></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><p><b>nā</b> = <i>no</i>; <b>stān</b> = <i>stone</i>; <b>bān</b> = +<i>bone</i>; <b>rād</b> = <i>road</i>; <b>āc</b> = <i>oak</i>; +<b>hāl</b> = <i>whole</i>; <b>hām</b> = <i>home</i>; <b>sāwan</b> = +<i>to sow</i>; <b>gāst</b> = <i>ghost</i>.</p></td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle"> +<span class = "pagenum">23</span> +<a name = "page23" id = "page23"> </a> +<b>ē</b></td> +<td class = "middle"><p><i>e</i> (as in <i>he</i>)</p></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><p><b>hē</b> = <i>he</i>; <b>wē</b> = <i>we</i>; <b>ðē</b> = +<i>thee</i>; <b>mē</b> = <i>me</i>; <b>gē</b> = <i>ye</i>; <b>hēl</b> = +<i>heel</i>; <b>wērig</b> = <i>weary</i>; <b>gelēfan</b> = <i>to +believe</i>; <b>gēs</b> = <i>geese</i>.</p></td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td> </td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle"><b>ī</b> (<b>ȳ</b>)</td> +<td class = "middle"><p><i>i</i> (<i>y</i>) (as in <i>mine</i>)</p></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><p><b>mīn</b> = <i>mine</i>; <b>ðīn</b> = <i>thine</i>; <b>wīr</b> = +<i>wire</i>; <b>mȳs</b> = <i>mice</i>; <b>rīm</b> = <i>rime</i> (wrongly +spelt <i>rhyme</i>); <b>lȳs</b> = <i>lice</i>; <b>bī</b> = <i>by</i>; +<b>scīnan</b> = <i>to shine</i>; <b>stig-rāp</b> = <i>sty-rope</i> +(shortened to <i>stirrup</i>, <b>stīgan</b> meaning <i>to +mount</i>).</p></td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td> </td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle"><b>ō</b></td> +<td class = "middle"><p><i>o</i> (as in <i>do</i>)</p></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><p><b>dō</b> = <i>I do</i>; <b>tō</b> = <i>too</i>, <i>to</i>; +<b>gōs</b> = <i>goose</i>; <b>tōð</b> = <i>tooth</i>; <b>mōna</b> = +<i>moon</i>; <b>ðōm</b> = <i>doom</i>; <b>mōd</b> = <i>mood</i>; +<b>wōgian</b> = <i>to woo</i>; <b>slōh</b> = <i>I slew</i>.</p></td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td> </td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle"><b>ū</b></td> +<td class = "middle"><p><i>ou</i> (<i>ow</i>) (as in +<i>thou</i>)</p></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><p><b>ðū</b> = <i>thou</i>; <b>fūl</b> = <i>foul</i>; <b>hūs</b> = +<i>house</i>; <b>nū</b> = <i>now</i>; <b>hū</b> = <i>how</i>; <b>tūn</b> += <i>town</i>; <b>ūre</b> = our; <b>ūt</b> = <i>out</i>; <b>hlūd</b> = +<i>loud</i>; <b>ðūsend</b> = <i>thousand</i>.</p></td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td> </td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "middle"><b>ǣ</b>, <b>ēa</b>, <b>ēo</b></td> +<td class = "middle"><p><i>ea</i> (as in <i>sea</i>)</p></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><p><b>ǣ</b>: <b>sǣ</b> = <i>sea</i>; <b>mǣl</b> = <i>meal</i>; +<b>dǣlan</b> = <i>to deal</i>; <b>clǣne</b> = <i>clean</i>; +<b>grǣdig</b> = <i>greedy</i>.</p> +<p><b>ēa</b>: <b>ēare</b> = <i>ear</i>; <b>ēast</b> = <i>east</i>; +<b>drēam</b> = <i>dream</i>; <b>gēar</b> = <i>year</i>; <b>bēatan</b> = +<i>to beat</i>.</p> +<p><b>ēo</b>: <b>ðrēo</b> = <i>three</i>; <b>drēorig</b> = +<i>dreary</i>; <b>sēo</b> = <i>she</i>, <b>hrēod</b> = <i>reed</i>; +<b>dēop</b> = <i>deep</i>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>(2) Analogy.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_24" id = "sec_24">24.</a></h5> + +<p>But more important than vowel shifting is the great law of Analogy, +for Analogy shapes not only words but constructions. It belongs, +therefore, to +<span class = "pagenum">24</span> +<a name = "page24" id = "page24"> </a> +Etymology and to Syntax, since it influences both form and function. By +this law, minorities tend to pass over to the side of the majorities. +“The greater mass of cases exerts an assimilative influence upon the +smaller.”<a class = "tag" name = "tag_V_3" id = "tag_V_3" href = +"#note_V_3">3</a> The effect of Analogy is to simplify and to +regularize. “The main factor in getting rid of irregularities is +group-influence, or Analogy—the influence exercised by the members +of an association-group on one another.... Irregularity consists in +partial isolation from an association-group through some formal +difference.”<a class = "tag" name = "tag_V_4" id = "tag_V_4" href = +"#note_V_4">4</a></p> + +<p>Under the influence of Analogy, entire declensions and conjugations +have been swept away, leaving in Modern English not a trace of their +former existence. There are in Old English, for example, five plural +endings for nouns, <b>-as</b>, <b>-a</b>, <b>-e</b>, <b>-u</b>, and +<b>-an</b>. No one could well have predicted<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_V_5" id = "tag_V_5" href = "#note_V_5">5</a> that <b>-as</b> +(Middle English <i>-es</i>) would soon take the lead, and become the +norm to which the other endings would eventually conform, for there were +more <b>an-</b>plurals than <b>as-</b>plurals; but the <b>as-</b>plurals +were doubtless more often employed in everyday speech. <i>Oxen</i> (Old +English <b>oxan</b>) is the sole pure survival of the hundreds of Old +English <b>an-</b>plurals. +<span class = "pagenum">25</span> +<a name = "page25" id = "page25"> </a> +No group of feminine nouns in Old English had <b>-es</b> as the genitive +singular ending; but by the close of the Middle English period all +feminines formed their genitive singular in <i>-es</i> +(or <i>-s</i>, Modern English <i>’s</i>) after the analogy of the +Old English masculine and neuter nouns with <b>es-</b>genitives. The +weak preterits in <b>-ode</b> have all been leveled under the +<b>ed-</b>forms, and of the three hundred strong verbs in Old English +more than two hundred have become weak.</p> + +<p>These are not cases of derivation (as are the shifted vowels): Modern +English <i>-s</i> in <i>sons</i>, for example, could not possibly be +derived from Old English <b>-a</b> in <b>suna</b>, or Middle English +<i>-e</i> in <i>sune</i> (<a href = "#sec_23">§ <b>23</b>, +(1)</a>). They are cases of replacement by Analogy.</p> + +<p>A few minor examples will quicken the student’s appreciation of the +nature of the influence exercised by Analogy:</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The intrusive <i>l</i> in <i>could</i> (Chaucer always +wrote <i>coud</i> or <i>coude</i>) is due to association with +<i>would</i> and <i>should</i>, in each of which <i>l</i> belongs by +etymological right.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>He need not</i> (for <i>He needs not</i>) is due to the +assimilative influence of the auxiliaries <i>may</i>, <i>can</i>, etc., +which have never added <i>-s</i> for their third person singular (<a +href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b></a>).</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>I am friends with him</i>, in which <i>friends</i> is a +crystalized form for <i>on good terms</i>, may be traced to the +influence of such expressions as <i>He and I are friends</i>, <i>They +are friends</i>, etc.</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Such errors as are seen in <i>runned</i>, <i>seed</i>, +<i>gooses</i>, <i>badder</i>, <i>hisself</i>, <i>says I</i> (usually +coupled with <i>says he</i>) +<span class = "pagenum">26</span> +<a name = "page26" id = "page26"> </a> +are all analogical formations. Though not sanctioned by good usage, it +is hardly right to call these forms the products of “false analogy.” The +grammar involved is false, because unsupported by literary usages and +traditions; but the analogy on which these forms are built is no more +false than the law of gravitation is false when it makes a dress sit +unconventionally.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_V_1" id = "note_V_1" href = "#tag_V_1">1.</a> +Skeat, <i>Principles of English Etymology</i>, Second Series, +§ 342. But Jespersen, with Collitz and others, stoutly contests +“the theory of sound laws and analogy sufficing between them to explain +everything in linguistic development.”</p> + +<p><a name = "note_V_2" id = "note_V_2" href = "#tag_V_2">2.</a> +But Old English <b>ā</b> preceded by <b>w</b> sometimes gives Modern +English <i>o</i> as in <i>two</i>: <b>twā</b> = <i>two</i>; <b>hwā</b> = +<i>who</i>; <b>hwām</b> = <i>whom</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_V_3" id = "note_V_3" href = "#tag_V_3">3.</a> +Whitney, <i>Life and Growth of Language</i>, Chap. IV.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_V_4" id = "note_V_4" href = "#tag_V_4">4.</a> +Sweet, <i>A New English Grammar</i>, Part I., § 535.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_V_5" id = "note_V_5" href = "#tag_V_5">5.</a> +As Skeat says (§ 22, (2)), Analogy is “fitful.” It enables us to explain +many linguistic phenomena, but not to anticipate them. The +multiplication of books tends to check its influence by perpetuating the +forms already in use. Thus Chaucer employed nine <i>en-</i>plurals, and +his influence served for a time to check the further encroachment of the +<i>es-</i>plurals. As soon as there is an acknowledged standard in any +language, the operation of Analogy is fettered.</p> +</div> + + + +<span class = "pagenum">27</span> +<a name = "page27" id = "page27"> </a> + +<h2><a name = "part_II" id = "part_II"> +PART II.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"><br> +ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.<br> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"></span> +</h2> + +<h3><span class = "subhead"> +The Strong or Vowel Declensions of Nouns.<br> +The <b>a-</b>Declension.</span></h3> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_VI" id = "chap_VI"> +CHAPTER VI.</a></h3> + +<h4>(<i>a</i>) Masculine <i>a</i>-Stems.</h4> + + +<p class = "notation"> +[O.E., M.E., and Mn.E. will henceforth be used for Old English, Middle +English, and Modern English. Other abbreviations employed are +self-explaining.]</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_25" id = "sec_25">25.</a></h5> + +<p>The <b>a</b>-Declension, corresponding to the Second or +<i>o</i>-Declension of Latin and Greek, contains only (<i>a</i>) +masculine and (<i>b</i>) neuter nouns. To this declension belong most of +the O.E. masculine and neuter nouns of the Strong Declension. At a very +early period, many of the nouns belonging properly to the <b>i-</b> and +<b>u-</b>Declensions began to pass over to the <b>a-</b>Declension. This +declension may therefore be considered the <i>normal declension</i> for +all masculine and neuter nouns belonging to the Strong Declension.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_26" id = "sec_26">26.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>sē mūð</b>, <i>mouth</i>; <b>sē fiscere</b>, +<i>fisherman</i>; <b>sē hwæl</b>, <i>whale</i>; <b>sē mearh</b>, +<i>horse</i>; <b>sē finger</b>, <i>finger</i>:</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">28</span> +<a name = "page28" id = "page28"> </a> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>mūð</td> +<td>fiscer-e</td> +<td>hwæl</td> +<td>mearh</td> +<td>finger</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>mūð-es</td> +<td>fiscer-es</td> +<td>hwæl-es</td> +<td>mēar-es</td> +<td>fingr-es</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>mūð-e</td> +<td>fiscer-e</td> +<td>hwæl-e</td> +<td>mēar-e</td> +<td>fingr-e</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>mūð-as</td> +<td>fiscer-as</td> +<td>hwal-as</td> +<td>mēar-as</td> +<td>fingr-as</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>mūð-a</td> +<td>fiscer-a</td> +<td>hwal-a</td> +<td>mēar-a</td> +<td>fingr-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>mūð-um</td> +<td>fiscer-um</td> +<td>hwal-um</td> +<td>mēar-um</td> +<td>fingr-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—For meanings of the cases, +see <a href = "#sec_12">§ <b>12</b></a>. The dative and +instrumental are alike in all nouns.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_27" id = "sec_27">27.</a></h5> + +<p>The student will observe (1) that nouns whose nominative ends in +<b>-e</b> (<b>fiscere</b>) drop this letter before adding the case +endings; (2) that <b>æ</b> before a consonant (<b>hwæl</b>) changes +to <b>a</b> in the plural;<a class = "tag" name = "tag_VI_1" id = +"tag_VI_1" href = "#note_VI_1">1</a> (3) that <b>h</b>, preceded by +<b>r</b> (<b>mearh</b>) or <b>l</b> (<b>seolh</b>, <i>seal</i>), is +dropped before an inflectional vowel, the stem diphthong being then +lengthened by way of compensation; (4) that dissyllables +(<b>finger</b>) having the first syllable long, usually syncopate the +vowel of the second syllable before adding the case endings.<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_VI_2" id = "tag_VI_2" href = "#note_VI_2">2</a></p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_28" id = "sec_28">28.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigm of the Definite Article<a class = "tag" name = "tag_VI_3" id += "tag_VI_3" href = "#note_VI_3">3</a> <b>sē</b>, <b>sēo</b>, <b>ðæt</b> += <i>the</i>:</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">29</span> +<a name = "page29" id = "page29"> </a> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th class = "left ital">Masculine.</th> +<th class = "left ital">Feminine.</th> +<th class = "left ital">Neuter.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>sē (se)</td> +<td>sēo</td> +<td>ðæt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>ðæs</td> +<td>ðǣre</td> +<td>ðæs</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>ðǣm (ðām)</td> +<td>ðǣre</td> +<td>ðǣm (ðām)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>ðone</td> +<td>ðā</td> +<td>ðæt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>I.</i></td> +<td>ðȳ, ðon</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>ðȳ, ðon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th colspan = "4"><i>All Genders.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>ðā</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>ðāra</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>ðǣm (ðām)</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_29" id = "sec_29">29.</a></h5> + +<p class = "section center"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Vocabulary.</span><a class = "tag" name = +"tag_VI_4" id = "tag_VI_4" href = "#note_VI_4">4</a></p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>sē bōcere</b>, <i>scribe</i> [bōc].</p> + +<p><b>sē cyning</b>, <i>king</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē dæg</b>, <i>day</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē ęnde</b>, <i>end</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē ęngel</b>, <i>angel</i> [angelus].</p> + +<p><b>sē frēodōm</b>, <i>freedom</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē fugol</b> (G. sometimes <b>fugles</b>), <i>bird</i> [fowl].</p> + +<p><b>sē gār</b>, <i>spear</i> [gore, gar-fish].</p> + +<p><b>sē heofon</b>, <i>heaven</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē hierde</b>, <i>herdsman</i> [shep-herd].</p> + +<p><b>ǫnd</b> (<b>and</b>), <i>and</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē sęcg</b>, <i>man</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē seolh</b>, <i>seal</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē stān</b>, <i>stone</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē wealh</b>, <i>foreigner</i>, <i>Welshman</i> [wal-nut].</p> + +<p><b>sē weall</b>, <i>wall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē wīsdōm</b>, <i>wisdom</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē wulf</b>, <i>wolf</i>.</p> +</div> + +<h5><a name = "sec_30" id = "sec_30">30.</a></h5> + +<p class = "section center"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Exercises.</span></p> + +<p>I. 1. Ðāra wulfa mūðas. 2. Ðæs fisceres fingras. 3. Ðāra Wēala +cyninge. 4. Ðǣm ęnglum ǫnd ðǣm hierdum. 5. Ðāra +<span class = "pagenum">30</span> +<a name = "page30" id = "page30"> </a> +daga ęnde. 6. Ðǣm bōcerum ǫnd ðǣm sęcgum ðæs cyninges. 7. Ðǣm +sēole ǫnd ðǣm fuglum. 8. Ðā stānas ǫnd ðā gāras. 9. Hwala ǫnd +mēara. 10. Ðāra ęngla wīsdōm. 11. Ðæs cyninges bōceres +frēodōm. 12. Ðāra hierda fuglum. 13. Ðȳ stāne. 14. Ðǣm +wealle.</p> + +<p>II. 1. For the horses and the seals. 2. For the Welshmen’s freedom. +3. Of the king’s birds. 4. By the wisdom of men and angels. +5. With the spear and the stone. 6. The herdsman’s seal and +the warriors’ spears. 7. To the king of heaven. 8. By means of +the scribe’s wisdom. 9. The whale’s mouth and the foreigner’s +spear. 10. For the bird belonging to (= of) the king’s scribe. +11. Of that finger.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_VI_1" id = "note_VI_1" href = "#tag_VI_1">1.</a> +Adjectives usually retain <b>æ</b> in closed syllables, changing it to +<b>a</b> in open syllables: <b>hwæt</b> (<i>active</i>), <b>glæd</b> +(<i>glad</i>), <b>wær</b> (<i>wary</i>) have G. <b>hwates</b>, +<b>glades</b>, <b>wares</b>; D. <b>hwatum</b>, <b>gladum</b>, +<b>warum</b>; but A. <b>hwætne</b>, <b>glædne</b>, <b>wærne</b>. Nouns, +however, change to <b>a</b> only in open syllables followed by a +guttural vowel, <b>a</b> or <b>u</b>. The <b>æ</b> in the open syllables +of the singular is doubtless due to the analogy of the N.A. singular, +both being closed syllables.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VI_2" id = "note_VI_2" href = "#tag_VI_2">2.</a> +<i>Cf.</i> Mn.E. <i>drizz’ling</i>, <i>rememb’ring</i>, <i>abysmal</i> +(<i>abysm</i> = <i>abiz<sup>u</sup>m</i>), <i>sick’ning</i>, in which +the principle of syncopation is precisely the same.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VI_3" id = "note_VI_3" href = "#tag_VI_3">3.</a> +This may mean four things: (1) <i>The</i>, (2) <i>That</i> +(demonstrative), (3) <i>He</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>, +(4) <i>Who</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i> (relative pronoun). Mn.E. +demonstrative <i>that</i> is, of course, the survival of O.E. neuter +<b>ðæt</b> in its demonstrative sense. Professor Victor Henry +(<i>Comparative Grammar of English and German</i>, § 160, 3) +sees a survival of dative plural demonstrative <b>ðǣm</b> in such an +expression as <i>in them days</i>. It seems more probable, however, that +<i>them</i> so used has followed the lead of <i>this</i> and +<i>these</i>, <i>that</i> and <i>those</i>, in their double function of +pronoun and adjective. There was doubtless some such evolution as, +<i>I saw them. Them what? Them boys.</i></p> + +<p>An unquestioned survival of the dative singular feminine of the +article is seen in the <i>-ter</i> of <i>Atterbury</i> (= <b>æt +ðǣre byrig</b>, <i>at the town</i>); and <b>ðǣm</b> survives in the +<i>-ten</i> of <i>Attenborough</i>, the word <i>borough</i> having +become an uninflected neuter. Skeat, <i>Principles</i>, First Series, +§ 185.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VI_4" id = "note_VI_4" href = "#tag_VI_4">4.</a> +The brackets contain etymological hints that may help the student to +discern relationships otherwise overlooked. The genitive is given only +when not perfectly regular.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_VII" id = "chap_VII"> +CHAPTER VII.</a></h3> + +<h4>(<i>b</i>) Neuter <i>a-</i>Stems.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_31" id = "sec_31">31.</a></h5> + +<p>The neuter nouns of the <b>a-</b>Declension differ from the +masculines only in the N.A. plural.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_32" id = "sec_32">32.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>ðæt hof</b>, <i>court</i>, <i>dwelling</i>; <b>ðaet +bearn</b>, <i>child</i>; <b>ðæt bān</b>, <i>bone</i>; <b>ðæt rīce</b>, +<i>kingdom</i>; <b>ðæt spere</b>, <i>spear</i>; <b>ðæt werod</b>, +<i>band of men</i>; <b>ðæt tungol</b>, <i>star</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>hof</td> +<td>bearn</td> +<td>bān</td> +<td>rīc-e</td> +<td>sper-e</td> +<td>werod</td> +<td>tungol</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>hof-es</td> +<td>bearn-es</td> +<td>bān-es</td> +<td>rīc-es</td> +<td>sper-es</td> +<td>werod-es</td> +<td>tungl-es</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>hof-e</td> +<td>bearn-e</td> +<td>bān-e</td> +<td>rīc-e</td> +<td>sper-e</td> +<td>werod-e</td> +<td>tungl-e</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>hof-u</td> +<td>bearn</td> +<td>bān</td> +<td>rīc-u</td> +<td>sper-u</td> +<td>werod</td> +<td>tungl-u</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>hof-a</td> +<td>bearn-a</td> +<td>bān-a</td> +<td>rīc-a</td> +<td>sper-a</td> +<td>werod-a</td> +<td>tungl-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>hof-um</td> +<td>bearn-um</td> +<td>bān-um</td> +<td>rīc-um</td> +<td>sper-um</td> +<td>werod-um</td> +<td>tungl-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_33" id = "sec_33">33.</a></h5> + +<p>The paradigms show (1) that monosyllables with short stems +(<b>hof</b>) take <b>-u</b> in the N.A. plural; (2) that +<span class = "pagenum">31</span> +<a name = "page31" id = "page31"> </a> +monosyllables with long stems (<b>bearn</b>, <b>bān</b>) do not +distinguish the N.A. plural from the N.A. singular;<a class = "tag" name += "tag_VII_1" id = "tag_VII_1" href = "#note_VII_1">1</a> (3) that +dissyllables in <b>-e</b>, whether the stem be long or short +(<b>rīce</b>, <b>spere</b>), have <b>-u</b> in the N.A. plural; +(4) that dissyllables ending in a consonant and having the first +syllable short<a class = "tag" name = "tag_VII_2" id = "tag_VII_2" href += "#note_VII_2">2</a> (<b>werod</b>) do not usually distinguish the N.A. +plural from the N.A. singular; (5) that dissyllables ending in a +consonant and having the first syllable long (<b>tungol</b>) more +frequently take <b>-u</b> in the N.A. plural.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Syncopation occurs as in +the masculine <b>a-</b>stems. See <a href = +"#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (4)</a>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_34" id = "sec_34">34.</a></h5> + +<p>Present and Preterit Indicative of <b>habban</b>, <i>to have</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "2">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td><b>Ic hæbbe</b>, <i>I have</i>, or <i>shall have</i>.<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_VII_3" id = "tag_VII_3" href = +"#note_VII_3">3</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td><b>ðū hæfst</b> (<b>hafast</b>), <i>thou hast</i>, or <i>wilt +have</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td><b>hē</b>, <b>hēo</b>, <b>hit hæfð</b> (<b>hafað</b>), <i>he</i>, +<i>she</i>, <i>it has</i>, or <i>will have</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td><b>wē habbað</b>, <i>we have</i>, or <i>shall have</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td><b>gē habbað</b>, <i>ye have</i>, or <i>will have</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td><b>hīe habbað</b>, <i>they have</i>, or <i>will have</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "2">Preterit.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td><b>Ic hæfde</b> <i>I had</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td><b>ðū hæfdest</b>, <i>thou hadst</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td><b>hē</b>, <b>hēo</b>, <b>hit hæfde</b>, <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, +<i>it had</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td><b>wē hæfdon</b>, <i>we had</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td><b>gē hæfdon</b>, <i>ye had</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td><b>hīe hæfdon</b>, <i>they had</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">32</span> +<a name = "page32" id = "page32"> </a> +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The negative <b>ne</b>, +<i>not</i>, which always precedes its verb, contracts with all the forms +of <b>habban</b>. The negative loses its <b>e</b>, <b>habban</b> its +<b>h</b>. <b>Ne</b> + <b>habban</b> = <b>nabban</b>; <b>Ic ne hæbbe = Ic +næbbe</b>; <b>Ic ne hæfde = Ic næfde</b>, etc. The negative forms may be +got, therefore, by simply substituting in each case <b>n</b> for +<b>h</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_35" id = "sec_35">35.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>ðæt dæl</b>, <i>dale</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt dēor</b>, <i>animal</i> [deer<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_VII_4" id = "tag_VII_4" href = "#note_VII_4">4</a>].</p> + +<p><b>ðæt dor</b>, <i>door</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt fæt</b>, <i>vessel</i> [vat].</p> + +<p><b>ðæt fȳr</b>, <i>fire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt gēar</b>, <i>year</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt geoc</b>, <i>yoke</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt geset</b>, <i>habitation</i> [settlement].</p> + +<p><b>ðæt hēafod</b>, <i>head</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt hūs</b>, <i>house</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt līc</b>, <i>body</i> [lich-gate].</p> + +<p><b>ðæt lim</b>, <i>limb</i>.</p> + +<p><b>on</b> (with dat.) <i>in</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt spor</b>, <i>track</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt wǣpen</b>, <i>weapon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt wīf</b>, <i>wife</i>, <i>woman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt wīte</b>, <i>punishment</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt word</b>, <i>word</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_36" id = "sec_36">36.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><span class = "smallcaps"> Exercises.</span></p> + +<p>I. 1. Hē hafað ðæs cyninges bearn. 2. Ðā Wēalas habbað ðā speru. +3. Ðā wīf habbað ðāra sęcga wǣpnu. 4. Ðū hæfst ðone fugol ǫnd +ðæt hūs ðæs hierdes. 5. Hæfð<a class = "tag" name = "tag_VII_5" id += "tag_VII_5" href = "#note_VII_5">5</a> hēo ðā fatu<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_VII_6" id = "tag_VII_6" href = "#note_VII_6">6</a>? +6. Hæfde hē ðæs wīfes līc on ðǣm hofe? 7. Hē næfde ðæs wīfes +līc; hē hæfde ðæs dēores hēafod. 8. Hæfð sē cyning gesetu on ðǣm +dæle? 9. Sē bōcere hæfð ðā sēolas on ðǣm hūse. 10. Gē habbað +frēodōm.</p> + +<p>II. 1. They have yokes and spears. 2. We have not the vessels in the +house. 3. He had fire in the vessel. 4. Did the woman have +(= Had the woman) the children? 5. The animal has the body of +the woman’s child. 6. I shall have +<span class = "pagenum">33</span> +<a name = "page33" id = "page33"> </a> +the heads of the wolves. 7. He and she have the king’s houses. +8. Have not (= <b>Nabbað</b>) the children the warrior’s +weapons?</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_VII_1" id = "note_VII_1" href = "#tag_VII_1">1.</a> +Note the many nouns in Mn.E. that are unchanged in the plural. These are +either survivals of O.E. long stems, <i>swine</i>, <i>sheep</i>, +<i>deer</i>, <i>folk</i>, or analogical forms, <i>fish</i>, +<i>trout</i>, <i>mackerel</i>, <i>salmon</i>, etc.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VII_2" id = "note_VII_2" href = "#tag_VII_2">2.</a> +Dissyllables whose first syllable is a prefix are, of course, excluded. +They follow the declension of their last member: <b>gebed</b>, +<i>prayer</i>, <b>gebedu</b>, <i>prayers</i>; <b>gefeoht</b>, +<i>battle</i>, <b>gefeoht</b>, <i>battles</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VII_3" id = "note_VII_3" href = "#tag_VII_3">3.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_17">§ <b>17</b>, Note 1</a>. Note that (as in +<b>hwæl</b>, <a href = "#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (2)</a>) <b>æ</b> +changes to <b>a</b> when the following syllable contains <b>a</b>: +<b>hæbbe</b>, but <b>hafast</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VII_4" id = "note_VII_4" href = "#tag_VII_4">4.</a> +The old meaning survives in Shakespeare’s “Rats and mice and such small +deer,” <i>King Lear</i>, III, <span class = "smallcaps">iv</span>, +144.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VII_5" id = "note_VII_5" href = "#tag_VII_5">5.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_20">§ <b>20</b>, (2), (b)</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VII_6" id = "note_VII_6" href = "#tag_VII_6">6.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (2)</a>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_VIII" id = "chap_VIII"> +CHAPTER VIII.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +The</span> <b>ō-</b><span class = "smallcaps">Declension.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_37" id = "sec_37">37.</a></h5> + +<p>The <b>ō-</b>Declension, corresponding to the First or +<i>ā-</i>Declension of Latin and Greek, contains only feminine nouns. +Many feminine <b>i-</b>stems and <b>u-</b>stems soon passed over to this +Declension. The <b>ō-</b>Declension may, therefore, be considered the +<i>normal declension</i> for all strong feminine nouns.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_38" id = "sec_38">38.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>sēo giefu</b>, <i>gift</i>; <b>sēo wund</b>, +<i>wound</i>; <b>sēo rōd</b>, <i>cross</i>; <b>sēo leornung</b>, +<i>learning</i>; <b>sēo sāwol</b>, <i>soul</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>gief-u</td> +<td>wund</td> +<td>rōd</td> +<td>leornung</td> +<td>sāwol</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>gief-e</td> +<td>wund-e</td> +<td>rōd-e</td> +<td>leornung-a (e)</td> +<td>sāwl-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>gief-e</td> +<td>wund-e</td> +<td>rōd-e</td> +<td>leornung-a (e)</td> +<td>sāwl-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>gief-e</td> +<td>wund-e</td> +<td>rōd-e</td> +<td>leornung-a (e)</td> +<td>sāwl-e</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td>gief-a</td> +<td>wund-a</td> +<td>rōd-a</td> +<td>leornung-a</td> +<td>sāwl-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>gief-a</td> +<td>wund-a</td> +<td>rōd-a</td> +<td>leornung-a</td> +<td>sāwl-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>gief-um</td> +<td>wund-um</td> +<td>rōd-um</td> +<td>leornung-um</td> +<td>sāwl-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_39" id = "sec_39">39.</a></h5> + +<p>Note (1) that monosyllables with short stems (<b>giefu</b>) take +<b>u</b> in the nominative singular; (2) that monosyllables with +long stems (<b>wund</b>, <b>rōd</b>) present the unchanged stem in the +nominative singular; (3) that dissyllables are declined as +monosyllables, except that abstract nouns in <b>-ung</b> prefer <b>a</b> +to <b>e</b> in the singular.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Syncopation occurs as in +masculine and neuter <b>a-</b>stems<ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">. </ins>See <a href = +"#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (4)</a>.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">34</span> +<a name = "page34" id = "page34"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_40" id = "sec_40">40.</a></h5> + +<p>Present and Preterit Indicative of <b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>) +<i>to be</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th class = "left" colspan = "4"><span class = +"smallcaps">Present</span> (first form).</th> +<th class = "left" colspan = "3"><span class = +"smallcaps">Present</span> (second form).</th> +<th class = "left" colspan = "3"><span class = +"smallcaps">Preterit.</span></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic eom</td> +<td colspan = "3">1. Ic bēom</td> +<td colspan = "3">1. Ic wæs</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū eart</td> +<td colspan = "3">2. ðū bist</td> +<td colspan = "3">2. ðū wǣre</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē is</td> +<td colspan = "3">3. hē bið</td> +<td colspan = "3">3. hē wæs</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "10"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td></td> +<td>1. wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td></td> +<td>1. wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>sind(on), sint</td> +<td>2. gē</td> +<td>bēoð</td> +<td>2. gē</td> +<td>wǣron</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td></td> +<td>3. hīe</td> +<td></td> +<td>3. hīe</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—The forms <b>bēom</b>, +<b>bist</b>, etc. are used chiefly as future tenses in O.E. They +survive to-day only in dialects and in poetry. Farmer Dobson, for +example, in Tennyson’s <i>Promise of May</i>, uses <i>be</i> for all +persons of the present indicative, both singular and plural; and +<i>there be</i> is frequent in Shakespeare for <i>there are</i>. The +Northern dialect employed <b>aron</b> as well as <b>sindon</b> and +<b>sind</b> for the present plural; hence Mn.E. <i>are</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—Fusion with <b>ne</b> +gives <b>neom</b>, <b>neart</b>, <b>nis</b> for the present; <b>næs</b>, +<b>nǣre</b>, <b>nǣron</b> for the preterit.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 3.</span>—The verb <i>to be</i> is +followed by the nominative case, as in Mn.E.; but when the predicate +noun is plural, and the subject a neuter pronoun in the singular, the +verb agrees in number with the predicate noun. The neuter singular +<b>ðæt</b> is frequently employed in this construction: <b>Ðaet wǣron +eall Finnas</b>, <i>They were all Fins</i>; <b>Ðæt sind ęnglas</b>, +<i>They are angels</i>; <b>Ðǣt wǣron ęngla gāstas</b>, <i>They were +angels’ spirits</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +Notice, too, that O.E. writers do not say <i>It is I</i>, <i>It is +thou</i>, but <i>I it am</i>, <i>Thou it art</i>: <b>Ic hit eom</b>, +<b>ðū hit eart</b>. See <a href = "#sec_21">§ <b>21</b>, (1), +Note 1</a>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_41" id = "sec_41">41.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>sēo brycg</b>, <i>bridge</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo costnung</b>, <i>temptation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo cwalu</b>, <i>death</i> [quail, quell].</p> + +<p><b>sēo fōr</b>, <i>journey</i> [faran].</p> + +<p><b>sēo frōfor</b>, <i>consolation</i>, <i>comfort</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo geoguð</b>, <i>youth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo glōf</b>, <i>glove</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo hālignes<a class = "tag" name = "tag_VIII_1" id = "tag_VIII_1" +href = "#note_VIII_1">1</a></b><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">, </ins><i>holiness</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo heall</b>, <i>hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēr</b>, <i>here</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">35</span> +<a name = "page35" id = "page35"> </a> +<p><b>hwā</b>, <i>who</i>?</p> + +<p><b>hwǣr</b>, <i>where</i>?</p> + +<p><b>sēo lufu</b>, <i>love</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo mearc</b>, <i>boundary</i> [mark, marches<a class = "tag" name += "tag_VIII_2" id = "tag_VIII_2" href = "#note_VIII_2">2</a>].</p> + +<p><b>sēo mēd</b>, <i>meed</i>, <i>reward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo mildheortnes</b>, <i>mild-heartedness</i>, <i>mercy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo stōw</b>, <i>place</i> [stow away].</p> + +<p><b>ðǣr</b>, <i>there</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo ðearf</b>, <i>need</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo wylf</b>, <i>she wolf</i>.</p> +</div> + +<h5><a name = "sec_42" id = "sec_42">42.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><span class = "smallcaps"> Exercises.</span></p> + +<p>I. 1. Hwǣr is ðǣre brycge ęnde? 2. Hēr sind ðāra rīca mearca. +3. Hwā hæfð þā glōfa? 4. Ðǣr bið ðǣm cyninge frōfre ðearf. +5. Sēo wund is on ðǣre wylfe hēafde. 6. Wē habbað costnunga. +7. Hīe nǣron on ðǣre healle. 8. Ic hit neom. 9. Ðæt wǣron +Wēalas. 10. Ðæt sind ðæs wīfes bearn.</p> + +<p>II. 1. We shall have the women’s gloves. 2. Where is the place? +3. He will be in the hall. 4. Those (<b>Ðæt</b>) were not the +boundaries of the kingdom. 5. It was not I. 6. Ye are not the +king’s scribes. 7. The shepherd’s words are full (<b>full</b> + +gen.) of wisdom and comfort. 8. Where are the bodies of the +children? 9. The gifts are not here. 10. Who has the seals and +the birds?</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_VIII_1" id = "note_VIII_1" href = +"#tag_VIII_1">1.</a> +All words ending in <b>-nes</b> double the <b>-s</b> before adding the +case endings.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_VIII_2" id = "note_VIII_2" href = +"#tag_VIII_2">2.</a> +As in <i>warden of the marches</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_IX" id = "chap_IX"> +CHAPTER IX.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +The</span> <b>i-</b><span class = "smallcaps">Declension and the</span> +<b>u-</b><span class = "smallcaps">Declension.</span></h3> + + +<h4>The <i>i-</i>Declension. (See <a href = "#sec_58">§ 58</a>.)</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_43" id = "sec_43">43.</a></h5> + +<p>The <b>i-</b>Declension, corresponding to the group of <i>i-</i>stems +in the classical Third Declension, contains chiefly (<i>a</i>) masculine +and (<i>b</i>) feminine nouns. The N.A. plural of these nouns ended +originally in <b>-e</b> (from older <b>i</b>).</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">36</span> +<a name = "page36" id = "page36"> </a> +<h4>(<i>a</i>) Masculine <i>i-</i>Stems.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_44" id = "sec_44">44.</a></h5> + +<p>These stems have almost completely gone over to the +<b>a-</b>Declension, so that <b>-as</b> is more common than <b>-e</b> as +the N.A. plural ending, whether the stem is long or short. The short +stems all have <b>-e</b> in the N.A. singular.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_45" id = "sec_45">45.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>sē wyrm</b>, <i>worm</i>; <b>sē wine</b>, +<i>friend</i>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>wyrm</td> +<td>win-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>wyrm-es</td> +<td>win-es</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>wyrm-e</td> +<td>win-e</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>wyrm-as</td> +<td>win-as (e)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>wyrm-a</td> +<td>win-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>wyrm-um</td> +<td>win-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>Names of Peoples.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_46" id = "sec_46">46.</a></h5> + +<p>The only <b>i-</b>stems that regularly retain <b>-e</b> of the N.A. +plural are certain names of tribes or peoples used only in the +plural.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_47" id = "sec_47">47.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>ðā Ęngle</b>, <i>Angles</i>; <b>ðā Norðymbre</b>, +<i>Northumbrians</i>; <b>ðā lēode</b>, <i>people</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td>Ęngle</td> +<td>Norðymbre</td> +<td>lēode</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>Ęngla</td> +<td>Norðymbra</td> +<td>lēoda</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>Ęnglum</td> +<td>Norðymbrum</td> +<td>lēodum</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>(b) Feminine <i>i-</i>Stems.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_48" id = "sec_48">48.</a></h5> + +<p>The short stems (<b>fręm-u</b>) conform entirely to the declension of +short <b>ō-</b>stems; long stems (<b>cwēn</b>, <b>wyrt</b>) differ from +long <b>ō-</b>stems in having no ending for the A. singular. They show, +also, a preference for <b>-e</b> rather than <b>-a</b> in the N.A. +plural.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">37</span> +<a name = "page37" id = "page37"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_49" id = "sec_49">49.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>sēo fręm-u</b>, <i>benefit</i>; <b>sēo cwēn</b>, +<i>woman</i>, <i>queen</i> [quean]; <b>sēo wyrt</b>, <i>root</i> +[wort]:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>fręm-u</td> +<td>cwēn</td> +<td>wyrt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>fręm-e</td> +<td>cwēn-e</td> +<td>wyrt-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>fręm-e</td> +<td>cwēn-e</td> +<td>wyrt-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>fręm-e</td> +<td>cwēn</td> +<td>wyrt</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>fręm-a</td> +<td>cwēn-e (a)</td> +<td>wyrt-e (a)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>fręm-a</td> +<td>cwēn-a</td> +<td>wyrt-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>fręm-um</td> +<td>cwēn-um</td> +<td>wyrt-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>The <i>u-</i>Declension.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_50" id = "sec_50">50.</a></h5> + +<p>The <b>u-</b>Declension, corresponding to the group of <b>u-</b>stems +in the classical Third Declension, contains no neuters, and but few +(<i>a</i>) masculines and (<i>b</i>) feminines. The short-stemmed nouns +of both genders (<b>sun-u</b>, <b>dur-u</b>) retain the final <b>u</b> +of the N.A. singular, while the long stems (<b>feld</b>, <b>hǫnd</b>) +drop it. The influence of the masculine <b>a-</b>stems is most clearly +seen in the long-stemmed masculines of the <b>u-</b>Declension +(<b>feld</b>, <b>feld-es</b>, etc.).</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Note the general aversion +of all O.E. long stems to final <b>-u</b>: <i>cf.</i> N.A. plural +<b>hof-u</b>, but <b>bearn</b>, <b>bān</b>; N. singular <b>gief-u</b>, +but <b>wund</b>, <b>rōd</b>; N. singular <b>fręm-u</b>, but <b>cwēn</b>, +<b>wyrt</b>; N.A. singular <b>sun-u</b>, <b>dur-u</b>, but <b>feld</b>, +<b>hǫnd</b>.</p> + + +<h4>(<i>a</i>) Masculine <i>u-</i>Stems.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_51" id = "sec_51">51.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>sē sun-u</b>, <i>son</i>; <b>sē feld</b>, +<i>field</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>sun-u</td> +<td>feld</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>sun-a</td> +<td>feld-a (es)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>sun-a</td> +<td>feld-a (e)</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>sun-a</td> +<td>feld-a (as)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>sun-a</td> +<td>feld-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>sun-um</td> +<td>feld-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">38</span> +<a name = "page38" id = "page38"> </a> +<h4>(b) Feminine <i>u-</i>Stems.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_52" id = "sec_52">52.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>sēo dur-u</b>, <i>door</i>; <b>sēo hǫnd</b>, +<i>hand</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>dur-u</td> +<td>hǫnd</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>dur-a</td> +<td>hǫnd-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>dur-a</td> +<td>hǫnd-a</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>dur-a</td> +<td>hǫnd-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>dur-a</td> +<td>hǫnd-a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>dur-um</td> +<td>hǫnd-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_53" id = "sec_53">53.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigm of the Third Personal Pronoun, <b>hē</b>, <b>hēo</b>, +<b>hit</b> = <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Feminine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>hē</td> +<td>hēo</td> +<td>hit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>his</td> +<td>hiere</td> +<td>his</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>him</td> +<td>hiere</td> +<td>him</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>hine, hiene</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td>hit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th colspan = "4"><i>All Genders.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>hiera</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>him</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_54" id = "sec_54">54.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p>(<b>i-</b><span class = "smallcaps">Stems.</span>)</p> + +<p><b>sē cierr</b>, <i>turn</i>, <i>time</i> [char, chare, chore].</p> + +<p><b>sēo dǣd</b>, <i>deed</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē dǣl</b>, <i>part</i> [a great deal].</p> + +<p><b>ðā Dęne</b>, <i>Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē frēondscipe</b>, <i>friendship</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo hȳd</b>, <i>skin</i>, <i>hide</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā lǫndlēode</b>, <i>natives</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā Mierce</b>, <i>Mercians</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā Rōmware</b>, <i>Romans</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā Seaxe</b>, <i>Saxons</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē stęde</b>, <i>place</i> [in-stead of].</p> + +<p>(<b>u-</b><span class = "smallcaps">Stems.</span>)</p> + +<p><b>sēo flōr</b>, <i>floor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo nosu</b>, <i>nose</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē sumor</b> (<i>G.</i> <b>sumeres</b>, <i>D.</i> <b>sumera</b>), +<i>summer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē winter</b> (<i>G.</i> <b>wintres</b>, <i>D.</i> <b>wintra</b>), +<i>winter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē wudu</b>, <i>wood</i>, <i>forest</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The numerous masculine +nouns ending in <b>-hād</b>,—<b>cildhād</b> (<i>childhood</i>), +<b>wīfhād</b> (<i>womanhood</i>),—belong to the <b>u-</b>stems +historically; but they have all passed over to the +<b>a-</b>Declension.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">39</span> +<a name = "page39" id = "page39"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_55" id = "sec_55">55.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Exercises.</p> + +<p>I. 1. Ðā Seaxe habbað ðæs dēores hȳd on ðǣm wuda. 2. Hwā hæfð ðā +giefa? 3. Ðā Mierce hīe<a class = "tag" name = "tag_IX_1" id = +"tag_IX_1" href = "#note_IX_1">1</a> habbað. 4. Hwǣr is ðæs Wēales +fugol? 5. Ðā Dęne hiene habbað. 6. Hwǣr sindon hiera winas? +7. Hīe sindon on ðæs cyninges wuda. 8. Ðā Rōmware ǫnd ðā Seaxe +hæfdon ðā gāras ǫnd ðā geocu. 9. Hēo is on ðǣm hūse on wintra, ǫnd +on ðǣm feldum on sumera. 10. Hwǣr is ðæs hofes duru? 11. Hēo<a +class = "tag" name = "tag_IX_2" id = "tag_IX_2" href = +"#note_IX_2">2</a> (= sēo duru) nis hēr.</p> + +<p>II. 1. His friends have the bones of the seals and the bodies of the +Danes. 2. Art thou the king’s son? 3. Has she her<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_IX_3" id = "tag_IX_3" href = "#note_IX_3">3</a> gifts +in her<a class = "tag" href = "#note_IX_3">3</a> hands? 4. Here are +the fields of the natives. 5. Who had the bird? 6. I had +it.<a class = "tag" href = "#note_IX_2">2</a> 7. The child had the +worm in his<a class = "tag" href = "#note_IX_3">3</a> fingers. +8. The Mercians were here during (the) summer (<b>on</b> + +dat.).</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_IX_1" id = "note_IX_1" href = "#tag_IX_1">1.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_21">§ <b>21</b>, (1)</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_IX_2" id = "note_IX_2" href = "#tag_IX_2">2.</a> +Pronouns agree in gender with the nouns for which they stand. +<b>Hit</b>, however, sometimes stands for inanimate things of both +masculine and feminine genders. See Wülfing (<i>l.c.</i>) I, +§ 238.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_IX_3" id = "note_IX_3" href = "#tag_IX_3">3.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a> (last sentence).</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_X" id = "chap_X"> +CHAPTER X.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_56" id = "sec_56">56.</a></h5> + +<p>The unchanged stem of the present indicative may always be found by +dropping <b>-an</b> of the infinitive: <b>feall-an</b>, <i>to fall</i>; +<b>cēos-an</b>, <i>to choose</i>; <b>bīd-an</b>, <i>to abide</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_57" id = "sec_57">57.</a></h5> + +<p>The personal endings are:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td><b>-e</b></td> +<td rowspan = "3"> </td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3"> <b>-að</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td><b>-est</b></td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td><b>-eð</b></td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">40</span> +<a name = "page40" id = "page40"> </a> +<h4><i>i-</i>Umlaut.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_58" id = "sec_58">58.</a></h5> + +<p>The 2d and 3d singular endings were originally not <b>-est</b> and +<b>-eð</b>, but <b>-is</b> and <b>-ið</b>; and the <b>i</b> of these +older endings has left its traces upon almost every page of Early West +Saxon literature. This <b>i</b>, though unaccented and soon displaced, +exerted a powerful back influence upon the vowel of the preceding +accented syllable. This influence, a form of regressive +assimilation, is known as <b>i-</b>umlaut (pronounced <i>oóm-lowt</i>). +The vowel <b>i</b> or <b>j</b> (= <i>y</i>), being itself a +palatal, succeeded in palatalizing every guttural vowel that preceded +it, and in imposing still more of the <b>i-</b>quality upon diphthongs +that were already palatal.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_X_1" id = +"tag_X_1" href = "#note_X_1">1</a> The changes produced were these:</p> + +<table class = "inline" summary = "phonetic changes"> +<tr> +<td><b>a</b></td> +<td>became</td> +<td><b>ę</b> (<b>æ</b>):</td> +<td><b>męnn</b> (< <b>*mann-iz</b>), <i>men</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ā</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>ǣ</b></td> +<td><b>ǣnig</b> (< <b>*ān-ig</b>), <i>any</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>u</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>y</b></td> +<td><b>wyllen</b> (< <b>*wull-in</b>), <i>woollen</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ū</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>ȳ</b></td> +<td><b>mȳs</b> (< <b>*mūs-iz</b>), <i>mice</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>o</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>ę</b></td> +<td><b>dęhter</b> (< <b>*dohtr-i</b>), <i>to</i> or <i>for the +daughter</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ō</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>ē</b></td> +<td><b>fēt</b> (< <b>*fōt-iz</b>), <i>feet</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ea</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>ie</b></td> +<td><b>wiexð</b> (< <b>*weax-ið</b>), <i>he grows</i> (<b>weaxan</b> += <i>to grow</i>).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ēa</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>īe</b></td> +<td><b>hīewð</b> (< <b>*hēaw-ið</b>), <i>he hews</i> (<b>hēawan</b> = +to <i>hew</i>).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>eo</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>ie</b></td> +<td><b>wiercan</b> (< <b>*weorc-jan</b>), <i>to work</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ēo</b></td> +<td class = "center">“</td> +<td><b>īe</b></td> +<td><b>līehtan</b> (< <b>*lēoht-jan</b>), <i>to light</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>The Unchanged Present Indicative.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_59" id = "sec_59">59.</a></h5> + +<p>In the Northumbrian and Mercian dialects, as well as in the dialect +of Late West Saxon, the 2d and 3d singular endings were usually joined +to the present +<span class = "pagenum">41</span> +<a name = "page41" id = "page41"> </a> +stem without modification either of the stem itself or of the personal +endings. The complete absence of umlauted forms in the present +indicative of Mn.E. is thus accounted for.</p> + +<p>In Early West Saxon, however, such forms as the following are +comparatively rare in the 2d and 3d singular:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic feall-e (<i>I fall</i>)</td> +<td>cēos-e (<i>I choose</i>)</td> +<td>bīd-e (<i>I abide</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū feall-est</td> +<td>cēos-est</td> +<td>bīd-est</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē feall-eð</td> +<td>cēos-eð</td> +<td>bīd-eð</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>feall-að</td> +<td>cēos-að</td> +<td>bīd-að</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>The Present Indicative with i-Umlaut and Contraction.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_60" id = "sec_60">60.</a></h5> + +<p>The 2d and 3d persons singular are distinguished from the other forms +of the present indicative in Early West Saxon by +(1) <b>i</b>-umlaut of the vowel of the stem, (2) syncope of +the vowel of the ending, giving <b>-st</b> and <b>-ð</b> for <b>-est</b> +and <b>-eð</b>, and (3) contraction of <b>-st</b> and <b>-ð</b> +with the final consonant or consonants of the stem.</p> + + +<h4>Contraction.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_61" id = "sec_61">61.</a></h5> + +<p>The changes produced by <b>i-</b>umlaut have been already discussed. +By these changes, therefore, the stems of the 2d and 3d singular +indicative of such verbs as (1) <b>stǫndan</b> +(= <b>standan</b>), <i>to stand</i>, (2) <b>cuman</b>, <i>to +come</i>, (3) <b>grōwan</b>, <i>to grow</i>, +(4) <b>brūcan</b>, <i>to enjoy</i>, (5) <b>blāwan</b>, <i>to +blow</i>, (6) <b>feallan</b>, <i>to fall</i>, +(7) <b>hēawan</b>, <i>to hew</i>, (8) <b>weorpan</b>, <i>to +throw</i>, and (9) <b>cēosan</b>, <i>to choose</i>, +<span class = "pagenum">42</span> +<a name = "page42" id = "page42"> </a> +become respectively (1) <b>stęnd-</b>,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_X_2" id = "tag_X_2" href = "#note_X_2">2</a> (2) <b>cym-</b>, +(3) <b>grēw-</b>, (4) <b>brȳc-</b>, (5) <b>blǣw-</b>, +(6) <b>fiell-</b>, (7) <b>hīew-</b>, (8) <b>wierp-</b>, +and (9) <b>cīes-</b>.</p> + +<p>If the unchanged stem contains the vowel <b>e</b>, this is changed in +the 2d and 3d singular to <b>i</b> (<b>ie</b>): <b>cweðan</b> <i>to +say</i>, stem <b>cwið-</b>; <b>beran</b> <i>to bear</i>, stem +<b>bier-</b>. But this mutation<a class = "tag" name = "tag_X_3" id = +"tag_X_3" href = "#note_X_3">3</a> had taken place long before the +period of O.E., and belongs to the Germanic languages in general. It is +best, however, to class the change of <b>e</b> to <b>i</b> or <b>ie</b> +with the changes due to umlaut, since it occurs consistently in the 2d +and 3d singular stems of Early West Saxon, and outlasted almost all of +the umlaut forms proper.</p> + +<p>If, now, the syncopated endings <b>-st</b> and <b>-ð</b> are added +directly to the umlauted stem, there will frequently result such a +massing of consonants as almost to defy pronunciation: <b>cwið-st</b>, +<i>thou sayest</i>; <b>stęnd-st</b>, <i>thou standest</i>, etc. Some +sort of contraction, therefore, is demanded for the sake of euphony. The +ear and eye will, by a little practice, become a sure guide in these +contractions. The following rules, however, must be observed. They apply +only to the 2d and 3d singular of the present indicative:</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">43</span> +<a name = "page43" id = "page43"> </a> +<p>(1) If the stem ends in a double consonant, one of the consonants is +dropped:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td>feall-e (<i>I fall</i>)</td> +<td>1.</td> +<td>winn-e (<i>I fight</i>)</td> +<td>1.</td> +<td>swimm-e (<i>I swim</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td>fiel-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>win-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>swim-st</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3.</td> +<td>fiel-ð</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>win-ð</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>swim-ð</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) If the stem ends in <b>-ð</b>, this is dropped:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td>cweð-e (<i>I say</i>)</td> +<td>1.</td> +<td>weorð-e (<i>I become</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td>cwi-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>wier-st</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3.</td> +<td>cwi-ð</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>wier-ð</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(3) If the stem ends in <b>-d</b>, this is changed to <b>-t</b>. The +<b>-ð</b> of the ending is then also changed to <b>-t</b>, and usually +absorbed. Thus the stem of the 2d singular serves as stem and ending for +the 3d singular:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td><p>stǫnd-e (= stand-e) (<i>I stand</i>)</p></td> +<td>1.</td> +<td><p>bind-e (<i>I bind</i>)</p></td> +<td>1.</td> +<td><p>bīd-e (<i>I abide</i>)</p></td> +<td>1.</td> +<td><p>rīd-e (<i>I ride</i>)</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td>stęnt-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>bint-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>bīt-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>rīt-st</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3.</td> +<td>stęnt</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>bint</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>bīt (-t)</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>rīt (-t)</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(4) If the stem ends already in <b>-t</b>, the endings are added as +in (3), <b>-ð</b> being again changed to <b>-t</b> and absorbed:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td>brēot-e (<i>I break</i>)</td> +<td>1.</td> +<td>feoht-e (<i>I fight</i>)</td> +<td>1.</td> +<td>bīt-e (<i>I bite</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td>brīet-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>fieht-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>bīt-st</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3.</td> +<td>brīet (-t)</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>fieht</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>bīt (-t)</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(5) If the stem ends in <b>-s</b>, this is dropped before <b>-st</b> +(to avoid <b>-sst</b>), but is retained before <b>-ð</b>, the +latter being changed to <b>-t</b>. Thus the 2d and 3d singulars are +identical:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_X_4" id = "tag_X_4" href = +"#note_X_4">4</a></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">44</span> +<a name = "page44" id = "page44"> </a> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td>cēos-e (<i>I choose</i>)</td> +<td>1.</td> +<td>rīs-e (<i>I rise</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td>cīe-st</td> +<td>2.</td> +<td>rī-st</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3.</td> +<td>cīes-t</td> +<td>3.</td> +<td>rīs-t</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_62" id = "sec_62">62.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Exercises.</p> + +<p>I. 1. Sē cyning fielð. 2. Ðā wīf cēosað ðā giefa. 3. Ðū stęntst on +ðǣm hūse. 4. Hē wierpð ðæt wǣpen. 5. Sē sęcg hīewð ðā līc. +6. Ðæt sǣd grēwð ǫnd wiexð (<i>Mark</i> iv. 27). 7. Ic +stǫnde hēr, ǫnd ðū stęntst ðǣr. 8. “Ic hit eom,” cwið hē. 9. Hīe +berað ðæs wulfes bān. 10. Hē hīe bint, ǫnd ic hine binde. +11. Ne rītst ðū?</p> + +<p>II. 1. We shall bind him. 2. Who chooses the child’s gifts? 3. “He +was not here,” says she. 4. Wilt thou remain in the hall? +5. The wolves are biting (= bite) the fishermen. 6. He +enjoys<a class = "tag" name = "tag_X_5" id = "tag_X_5" href = +"#note_X_5">5</a> the love of his children. 7. Do you enjoy +(= Enjoyest thou) the consolation and friendship of the scribe? +8. Will he come? 9. I shall throw the spear, and thou wilt +bear the weapons. 10. The king’s son will become king. 11. The +army (<b>werod</b>) is breaking the doors and walls of the house.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_X_1" id = "note_X_1" href = "#tag_X_1">1.</a> +The <i>palatal</i> vowels and diphthongs were long or short <b>æ</b>, +<b>e</b>, <b>i</b>, (<b>ie</b>), <b>y</b>, <b>ea</b>, <b>eo</b>; the +<i>guttural</i> vowels were long or short <b>a</b>, <b>o</b>, +<b>u</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_X_2" id = "note_X_2" href = "#tag_X_2">2.</a> +The more common form for stems with <b>a</b> is <b>æ</b> rather than +<b>ę</b>: <b>faran</b>, <i>to go</i>, 2d and 3d singular stem +<b>fær-</b>; <b>sacan</b>, <i>to contend</i>, stem <b>sæc-</b>. Indeed, +<b>a</b> changes to <b>ę</b> <i>via</i> <b>æ</b> (Cosijn, +<i>Altwestsächsische Grammatik</i>, I, § 32).</p> + +<p><a name = "note_X_3" id = "note_X_3" href = "#tag_X_3">3.</a> +Umlaut is frequently called Mutation. Metaphony is still another name +for the same phenomenon. The term Metaphony has the advantage of easy +adjectival formation (metaphonic). It was proposed by Professor Victor +Henry (<i>Comparative Grammar of English and German</i>, Paris, 1894), +but has not been naturalized.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_X_4" id = "note_X_4" href = "#tag_X_4">4.</a> +This happens also when the infinitive stem ends in <b>st</b>:</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p>1. berst-e (<i>I burst</i>)</p> + +<p>2. bier-st</p> + +<p>3. bierst.</p> +</div> + +<p><a name = "note_X_5" id = "note_X_5" href = "#tag_X_5">5.</a> +<b>Brūcan</b>, <i>to enjoy</i>, usually takes the genitive case, not the +accusative. It means “to have joy of any thing.”</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XI" id = "chap_XI"> +CHAPTER XI.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +The Consonant Declensions of Nouns.</span></h3> + + +<h4>The Weak or <i>n-</i>Declension.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_63" id = "sec_63">63.</a></h5> + +<p>The <b>n-</b>Declension contains almost all of the O.E. nouns +belonging to the Consonant Declensions. The stem characteristic <b>n</b> +has been preserved in the oblique +<span class = "pagenum">45</span> +<a name = "page45" id = "page45"> </a> +cases, so that there is no difficulty in distinguishing <b>n-</b>stems +from the preceding vowel stems.</p> + +<p>The <b>n-</b>Declension includes (<i>a</i>) masculines, (<i>b</i>) +feminines, and (<i>c</i>) neuters. The masculines far outnumber the +feminines, and the neuters contain only <b>ēage</b>, <i>eye</i> and +<b>ēare</b>, <i>ear</i>. The masculines end in <b>-a</b>, the feminines +and neuters in <b>-e</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_64" id = "sec_64">64.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of (<i>a</i>) <b>sē hunta</b>, <i>hunter</i>; (<i>b</i>) +<b>sēo tunge</b>, <i>tongue</i>; (<i>c</i>) <b>ðæt ēage</b>, +<i>eye</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>hunt-a</td> +<td>tung-e</td> +<td>ēag-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.D.I.</i></td> +<td>hunt-an</td> +<td>tung-an</td> +<td>ēag-an</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>hunt-an</td> +<td>tung-an</td> +<td>ēag-e</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>hunt-an</td> +<td>tung-an</td> +<td>ēag-an</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>hunt-ena</td> +<td>tung-ena</td> +<td>ēag-ena</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>hunt-um</td> +<td>tung-um</td> +<td>ēag-um</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_65" id = "sec_65">65.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>sē adesa</b>, <i>hatchet</i>, <i>adze</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē ǣmetta</b>, <i>leisure</i> [empt-iness].</p> + +<p><b>sē bǫna</b> (<b>bana</b>), <i>murderer</i> [bane].</p> + +<p><b>sēo cirice</b>, <i>church</i> [Scotch kirk].</p> + +<p><b>sē cnapa</b> (later, <b>cnafa</b>), <i>boy</i> [knave].</p> + +<p><b>sē cuma</b>, <i>stranger</i> [comer].</p> + +<p><b>ðæt ēare</b>, <i>ear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo eorðe</b>, <i>earth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē gefēra</b>, <i>companion</i> [co-farer].</p> + +<p><b>sē guma</b>, <i>man</i> [bride-groom<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_XI_1" id = "tag_XI_1" href = "#note_XI_1">1</a>].</p> + +<p><b>sēo heorte</b>, <i>heart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē mōna</b>, <i>moon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo nǣdre</b>, <i>adder</i> [a nadder > an adder<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_XI_2" id = "tag_XI_2" href = "#note_XI_2">2</a>].</p> + +<p><b>sē oxa</b>, <i>ox</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē scēowyrhta</b>, <i>shoe-maker</i> [shoe-wright].</p> + +<p><b>sēo sunne</b>, <i>sun</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē tēona</b>, <i>injury</i> [teen].</p> + +<p><b>biddan</b> (with dat. of person and gen. of thing<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_XI_3" id = "tag_XI_3" href = "#note_XI_3">3</a>), <i>to +request</i>, <i>ask for</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cwelan</b>, <i>to die</i> [quail].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">46</span> +<a name = "page46" id = "page46"> </a> +<p><b>gescieppan</b>, <i>to create</i> [shape, land-scape, +friend-ship].</p> + +<p><b>giefan</b> (with dat. of indirect object), <i>to give</i>.</p> + +<p><b>healdan</b>, <i>to hold</i>.</p> + +<p><b>helpan</b> (with dat.), <i>to help</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scęððan</b><a class = "tag" name = "tag_XI_4" id = "tag_XI_4" href += "#note_XI_4">4</a> (with dat.), <i>to injure</i> [scathe].</p> + +<p><b>wiðstǫndan</b> (<b>-standan</b>) (with dat.), <i>to +withstand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wrītan</b>, <i>to write</i>.</p> +</div> + +<h5><a name = "sec_66" id = "sec_66">66.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Exercises.</p> + +<p>I. 1. Sē scēowyrhta brȳcð his ǣmettan. 2. Ðā guman biddað ðǣm cnapan +ðæs adesan. 3. Hwā is sē cuma? 4. Hielpst ðū ðǣm bǫnan? +5. Ic him ne helpe. 6. Ðā bearn scęððað ðæs bǫnan ēagum ǫnd +ēarum. 7. Sē cuma cwielð on ðǣre cirican. 8. Sē hunta wiðstęnt +ðǣm wulfum. 9. Ðā oxan berað ðæs cnapan gefēran. 10. Sē mōna +ǫnd ðā tunglu sind on ðǣm heofonum. 11. Ðā huntan healdað ðǣre +nǣdran tungan. 12. Hē hiere giefð ðā giefa. 13. Ðā werod +scęððað ðæs cyninges feldum.</p> + +<p>II. 1. Who will bind the mouths of the oxen? 2. Who gives him the +gifts? 3. Thou art helping him, and I am injuring him. 4. The +boy’s companion is dying. 5. His nephew does not enjoy his leisure. +6. The adder’s tongue injures the king’s companion. 7. The sun +is the day’s eye. 8. She asks the strangers for the spears. +9. The men’s bodies are not here. 10. Is he not +(<b>Nis hē</b>) the child’s murderer? 11. Who creates the +bodies and the souls of men? 12. Thou withstandest her. 13. He +is not writing.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_XI_1" id = "note_XI_1" href = "#tag_XI_1">1.</a> +The <i>r</i> is intrusive in <i>-groom</i>, as it is in +<i>cart-r-idge</i>, <i>part-r-idge</i>, <i>vag-r-ant</i>, and +<i>hoa-r-se</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XI_2" id = "note_XI_2" href = "#tag_XI_2">2.</a> +The <i>n</i> has been appropriated by the article. Cf. <i>an apron</i> +(< <i>a napron</i>), <i>an auger</i> (< <i>a +nauger</i>), <i>an orange</i> (< <i>a norange</i>), <i>an +umpire</i> (< <i>a numpire</i>).</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XI_3" id = "note_XI_3" href = "#tag_XI_3">3.</a> +In Mn.E. we say “I request a favor of you”; but in O.E. it was +“I request you (dative) of a favor” (genitive). Cf. +<i>Cymbeline</i>, III, <span class = "smallcaps">vi</span>, 92: “We’ll +mannerly demand thee of thy story.” See Franz’s +<i>Shakespeare-Grammatik</i>, § 361 (1900).</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XI_4" id = "note_XI_4" href = "#tag_XI_4">4.</a> +<b>Scęððan</b> is conjugated through the present indicative like +<b>fręmman</b>. See <a href = "#sec_129">§ 129</a>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">47</span> +<a name = "page47" id = "page47"> </a> +<h3><a name = "chap_XII" id = "chap_XII"> +CHAPTER XII.</a></h3> + +<h4>Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_67" id = "sec_67">67.</a></h5> + +<p>The nouns belonging here are chiefly masculines and feminines. Their +stem ended in a consonant other than <b>n</b>. The most important of +them may be divided as follows: (1) The <i>foot</i> Declension, +(2) <b>r-</b>Stems, and (3) <b>nd-</b>Stems. These declensions +are all characterized by the prevalence, wherever possible, of +<b>i-</b>umlaut in certain cases, the case ending being then +dropped.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_68" id = "sec_68">68.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) The nouns belonging to the <i>foot</i> Declension exhibit umlaut +most consistently in the N.A. plural.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>sē fōt (<i>foot</i>)</td> +<td>sē mǫn (<i>man</i>)</td> +<td>sē tōð (<i>tooth</i>)</td> +<td>sēo cū (<i>cow</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>fēt</td> +<td>męn</td> +<td>tēð</td> +<td>cȳ</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The dative singular usually +has the same form as the N.A. plural. Here belong also <b>sēo bōc</b> +(<i>book</i>), <b>sēo burg</b> (<i>borough</i>), <b>sēo gōs</b> +(<i>goose</i>), <b>sēo lūs</b> (<i>louse</i>), and <b>sēo mūs</b> +(<i>mouse</i>), all with umlauted plurals. Mn.E. preserves only six of +the <i>foot</i> Declension plurals: <i>feet</i>, <i>men</i>, +<i>teeth</i>, <i>geese</i>, <i>lice</i>, and <i>mice</i>. The <i>c</i> +in the last two is an artificial spelling, intended to preserve the +sound of voiceless <i>s</i>. Mn.E. <i>kine</i> (= <i>cy-en</i>) is +a double plural formed after the analogy of weak stems; Burns in <i>The +Twa Dogs</i> uses <i>kye</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +No umlaut is possible in <b>sēo niht</b> (<i>night</i>) and <b>sē +mōnað</b> (<i>month</i>), plural <b>niht</b> and <b>mōnað</b> (preserved +in Mn.E. <i>twelvemonth</i> and <i>fortnight</i>).</p> + +<p>(2) The <b>r-</b>Stems contain nouns expressing kinship, and exhibit +umlaut of the dative singular.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td><p>sē fæder<br> +(<i>father</i>)</p></td> +<td><p>sē brōðor<br> +(<i>brother</i>)</p></td> +<td><p>sēo mōdor<br> +(<i>mother</i>)</p></td> +<td><p>sēo dohtor<br> +(<i>daughter</i>)</p></td> +<td><p>sēo swuster<br> +(<i>sister</i>)</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>fæder</td> +<td>brēðer</td> +<td>mēder</td> +<td>dęhter</td> +<td>swyster</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The N.A. plural is usually +the same as the N.A. singular. These umlaut datives are all due to the +presence of a former <b>i</b>. Cf. Lat. dative singular <i>patri</i>, +<i>frātri</i>, <i>mātri</i>, <i>sorori</i> (< <i>*sosori</i>), +and Greek <span class = "greek" title = "thugatri">θυγατρί</span>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">48</span> +<a name = "page48" id = "page48"> </a> +<p>(3) The <b>nd-</b>Stems show umlaut both in the N.A. plural and in +the dative singular:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>sē frēond (<i>friend</i>)</td> +<td>sē fēond (<i>enemy</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>frīend</td> +<td>fīend</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td>frīend</td> +<td>fīend</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Mn.E. <i>friend</i> and +<i>fiend</i> are interesting analogical spellings. When <b>s</b> had +been added by analogy to the O.E. plurals <b>frīend</b> and +<b>fīend</b>, thus giving the double plurals <i>friends</i> and +<i>fiends</i>, a second singular was formed by dropping the <b>s</b>. +Thus <i>friend</i> and <i>fiend</i> displaced the old singulars +<i>frend</i> and <i>fend</i>, both of which occur in the M.E. +<i>Ormulum</i>, written about the year 1200.</p> + + +<h4>Summary of O.E. Declensions.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_69" id = "sec_69">69.</a></h5> + +<p>A brief, working summary of the O.E. system of declensions may now be +made on the basis of gender.</p> + +<p>All O.E. nouns are (1) masculine, (2) feminine, or (3) neuter.</p> + +<p>(1) The masculines follow the declension of <b>mūð</b> (<a href = +"#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), except those ending in <b>-a</b>, which are +declined like <b>hunta</b> (<a href = +"#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>):</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>mūð</td> +<td class = "right"><i>N.</i></td> +<td>hunta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>mūðes</td> +<td class = "right"><i>G.D.A.</i></td> +<td>huntan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>mūðe</td> +<td class = "right"><i>I.</i></td> +<td>huntan</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>mūðas</td> +<td></td> +<td>huntan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>mūða</td> +<td></td> +<td>huntena</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>mūðum</td> +<td></td> +<td>huntum</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) The short-stemmed neuters follow the declension of <b>hof</b> (<a +href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>); the long-stemmed, that of +<b>bearn</b> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>):</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.A.</i></td> +<td>hof</td> +<td>bearn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>hofes</td> +<td>bearnes</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>hofe</td> +<td>bearne</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>hofu</td> +<td>bearn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>hofa</td> +<td>bearna</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>hofum</td> +<td>bearnum</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">49</span> +<a name = "page49" id = "page49"> </a> +<p>(3) The feminines follow the declensions of <b>giefu</b> and +<b>wund</b> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>) (the only +difference being in the N. singular), except those ending in <b>-e</b>, +which follow the declension of <b>tunge</b> (<a href = +"#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>):</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>giefu</td> +<td>wund</td> +<td>tunge</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>giefe</td> +<td>wunde</td> +<td>tungan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>giefe</td> +<td>wunde</td> +<td>tungan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>giefe</td> +<td>wunde</td> +<td>tungan</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>giefa</td> +<td>wunda</td> +<td>tungan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>giefa</td> +<td>wunda</td> +<td>tungena</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>giefum</td> +<td>wundum</td> +<td>tungum</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_70" id = "sec_70">70.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>ac</b>, <i>but</i>.</p> + +<p><b>būtan</b> (with dat.), <i>except</i>, <i>but</i>, +<i>without</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē Crīst</b>, <i>Christ</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē eorl</b>, <i>earl</i>, <i>alderman</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt Ęnglalǫnd</b>, <i>England</i> [Angles’ land].</p> + +<p><b>faran</b>, <i>to go</i> [fare].</p> + +<p><b>findan</b>, <i>to find</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē God</b>, <i>God</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hātan</b>, <i>to call</i>, <i>name</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē hlāford</b>, <i>lord</i> [<b>hlāf-weard</b>].</p> + +<p><b>mid</b> (with dat.), <i>with</i>.</p> + +<p><b>on</b> (with acc.), <i>on</i>, <i>against</i>, <i>into</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tō</b> (with dat.), <i>to</i>.</p> + +<p><b>uton</b> (with infin.), <i>let us</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—O.E. <b>mǫn</b> +(<b>man</b>) is frequently used in an indefinite sense for <i>one</i>, +<i>people</i>, <i>they</i>. It thus takes the place of a passive +construction proper: <b>And man nam þā gebrotu þe þār belifon, twęlf +cȳpan fulle</b>, <i>And there were taken up of fragments that remained +there twelve baskets full</i>; but more literally, <i>And one</i> +(or <i>they</i>) <i>took the fragments</i>, etc.; <b>Ǫnd Hæstenes +wīf ǫnd hīs suna twēgen mǫn brōhte tō ðǣm cyninge</b>, <i>And Hæsten’s +wife and his two sons were brought to the king</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_71" id = "sec_71">71.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><span class = "smallcaps"> Exercises.</span></p> + +<p>I. 1. Mōn hine hǣt Ælfred. 2. Uton faran on ðæt scip. 3. God is +cyninga cyning ǫnd hlāforda hlāford. 4. Sē eorl ne giefð giefa his +fīend. 5. Ic næs mid his frīend. 6. Sēo mōdor færð mid hiere +dęhter on ðā burg. 7. Fintst ðū ðæs +<span class = "pagenum">50</span> +<a name = "page50" id = "page50"> </a> +bōceres bēc? 8. Hē bint ealle (all) ðā dēor būtan ðǣm wulfum. +9. Ðū eart Crīst, Godes sunu. 10. “Uton bindan ðæs bǫnan fēt,” +cwið hē.</p> + +<p>II. 1. Christ is the son of God. 2. Let us call him Cædmon. 3. He +throws his spear against the door. 4. Thou art not the earl’s +brother. 5. He will go with his father to England, but I shall +remain (abide) here. 6. Gifts are not given to murderers. +7. Who will find the tracks of the animals? 8. They ask their +lord for his weapons (<a href = "#sec_65">§ <b>65</b>, +Note 3</a>).</p> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XIII" id = "chap_XIII"> +CHAPTER XIII.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Pronouns.</span></h3> + + +<h4>(1) Personal Pronouns.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_72" id = "sec_72">72.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>ic</b>, <i>I</i>; <b>ðū</b>, <i>thou</i>. For +<b>hē</b>, <b>hēo</b>, <b>hit</b>, see <a href = +"#sec_53">§ <b>53</b></a>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>ic</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>mīn</td> +<td>ðīn</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>mē</td> +<td>ðē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>mē (mec)</td> +<td>ðē (ðec)</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Dual N.</i></td> +<td>wit (<i>we two</i>)</td> +<td>git (<i>ye two</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>uncer (<i>of us two</i>)</td> +<td>incer (<i>of you two</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>unc (<i>to</i> or <i>for us two</i>)</td> +<td>inc (<i>to</i> or <i>for you two</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>unc (<i>us two</i>)</td> +<td>inc (<i>you two</i>)</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.</i></td> +<td>wē</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>ūser (ūre)</td> +<td>ēower</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>ūs</td> +<td>ēow</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>ūs (ūsic)</td> +<td>ēow (ēowic)</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—The dual number was soon +absorbed by the plural. No relic of it now remains. But when two and +only two are referred to, the dual is consistently used in O.E. An +example occurs in the case +<span class = "pagenum">51</span> +<a name = "page51" id = "page51"> </a> +of the two blind men (<i>Matthew</i> ix. 27-31): <b>Gemiltsa unc, +Davīdes sunu!</b> <i>Pity us</i>, (<i>thou</i>) <i>Son of David!</i> +<b>Sīe inc æfter incrum gelēafan</b>, <i>Be it unto you according to +your faith.</i></p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—Mn.E. <i>ye</i> (< +<b>gē</b>), the nominative proper, is fast being displaced by <i>you</i> +(< <b>ēow</b>), the old objective. The distinction is preserved +in the King James’s version of the Bible: <i>Ye in me, and I in you</i> +(<i>John</i> xiv. 20); but not in Shakespeare and later +writers.</p> + + +<h4>(2) Demonstrative Pronouns.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_73" id = "sec_73">73.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigm of <b>ðēs</b>, <b>ðēos</b>, <b>ðis</b>, <i>this</i>. For the +Definite Article as a demonstrative, meaning <i>that</i>, see <a href = +"#sec_28">§ <b>28</b>, Note 3</a>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Feminine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>ðēs</td> +<td>ðēos</td> +<td>ðis</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>ðisses</td> +<td>ðisse</td> +<td>ðisses</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>ðissum</td> +<td>ðisse</td> +<td>ðissum</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>ðisne</td> +<td>ðās</td> +<td>ðis</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>I.</i></td> +<td>ðȳs</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>ðȳs</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th colspan = "4"><i>All Genders.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>ðās</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>ðissa</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>ðissum</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>(3) The Interrogative Pronoun.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_74" id = "sec_74">74.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigm of <b>hwā</b>, <b>hwæt</b>, <i>who</i>, <i>what?</i></p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>hwā</td> +<td>hwæt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>hwæs</td> +<td>hwæs</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>hwǣm</td> +<td>hwǣm</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>hwone</td> +<td>hwæt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>I.</i></td> +<td>——</td> +<td>hwȳ</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—The derivative +interrogatives, <b>hwæðer</b> (< <b>*hwā-ðer</b>), <i>which of +two?</i> and <b>hwilc</b> (< <b>*hwā-līc</b>), <i>which?</i> are +declined as strong adjectives (<a href = +"#sec_79">§§ <b>79-82</b></a>).</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—The instrumental case of +<b>hwā</b> survives in Mn.E. <i>why</i> = <i>on what account</i>; the +instrumental of the definite article is seen in the +<span class = "pagenum">52</span> +<a name = "page52" id = "page52"> </a> +adverbial <i>the: The sooner, the better = by how much sooner, by so +much better.</i></p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 3.</span>—How were the Mn.E. +relative pronouns, <i>who</i> and <i>which</i>, evolved from the O.E. +interrogatives? The change began in early West Saxon with <b>hwæt</b> +used in indirect questions (Wülfing, <i>l.c.</i> § 310, β): +<b>Nū ic wāt eall hwæt ðū woldest</b>, <i>Now I know all that thou +desiredst</i>. The direct question was, <b>Hwæt woldest ðū?</b> But the +presence of <b>eall</b> shows that in Alfred’s mind <b>hwæt</b> was, in +the indirect form, more relative than interrogative.</p> + + +<h4>(4) Relative Pronouns.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_75" id = "sec_75">75.</a></h5> + +<p>O.E. had no relative pronoun proper. It used instead (1) the +Indeclinable Particle <b>ðe</b>, <i>who</i>, <i>whom</i>, <i>which</i>, +<i>that</i>, (2) the Definite Article (<a href = +"#sec_28">§ <b>28</b></a>), (3) the Definite Article with the +Indeclinable Particle, (4) the Indeclinable Particle with a +Personal Pronoun.</p> + +<p>The Definite Article agrees in gender and number with the antecedent. +The case depends upon the construction. <i>The bird which I have</i> +may, therefore, be:—</p> + +<div class = "list"> +<p>(1) <b>Sē fugol ðe ic hæbbe</b>;</p> +<p>(2) <b>Sē fugol ðone ic hæbbe</b>;</p> +<p>(3) <b>Sē fugol ðone ðe</b> (= <i>the which</i>) <b>ic hæbbe</b>;</p> +<p>(4) <b>Sē fugol ðe hine ic hæbbe</b>.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—O.E. <b>ðe</b> agrees +closely in construction with Mn.E. relative <i>that</i>: (1) Both +are indeclinable. (2) Both refer to animate or inanimate objects. +(3) Both may be used with phrasal value: <b>ðȳ ylcan dæge ðe hī +hine tō ðǣm āde beran wyllað</b>, <i>On the same day that</i> +(= <i>on which</i>) <i>they intend to bear him to the funeral +pile</i>. (4) Neither can be preceded by a preposition.</p> + + +<h4>(5) Possessive Pronouns.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_76" id = "sec_76">76.</a></h5> + +<p>The Possessive Pronouns are <b>mīn</b>, <i>mine</i>; <b>ðīn</b>, +<i>thine</i>; <b>ūre</b>, <i>our</i>; <b>ēower</b>, <i>your</i>; +[<b>sīn</b>, <i>his</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>its</i>]; <b>uncer</b>, +<i>belonging to us two</i>; <b>incer</b>, <i>belonging to you two</i>. +They +<span class = "pagenum">53</span> +<a name = "page53" id = "page53"> </a> +are declined as strong adjectives. The genitives of the Third Personal +Pronoun, <b>his</b>, <i>his</i>, <b>hiere</b>, <i>her</i>, <b>hiera</b>, +<i>their</i>, are indeclinable.</p> + + +<h4>(6) Indefinite Pronouns.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_77" id = "sec_77">77.</a></h5> + +<p>These are <b>ǣlc</b>, <i>each</i>, <i>every</i>; <b>ān</b>, <i>a</i>, +<i>an</i>, <i>one</i>; <b>ǣnig</b> (< <b>ān-ig</b>), <i>any</i>; +<b>nǣnig</b> (< <b>ne-ǣnig</b>), <i>none</i>; <b>ōðer</b>, +<i>other</i>; <b>sum</b>, <i>one</i>, <i>a certain one</i>; +<b>swilc</b>, <i>such</i>. They are declined as strong adjectives.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—O.E. had three established +methods of converting an interrogative pronoun into an indefinite: +(1) By prefixing <b>ge</b>, (2) by prefixing <b>ǣg</b>, +(3) by interposing the interrogative between <b>swā ... swā</b>: +(1) <b>gehwā</b>, <i>each</i>; <b>gehwæðer</b>, <i>either</i>; +<b>gehwilc</b>, <i>each</i>; (2) <b>ǣghwā</b>, <i>each</i>; +<b>ǣghwæðer</b>, <i>each</i>; <b>ǣghwilc</b>, <i>each</i>; +(3) <b>swā hwā swā</b>, <i>whosoever</i>; <b>swā hwæðer swā</b>, +<i>whichsoever of two</i>; <b>swā hwilc swā</b>, <i>whosoever</i>.</p> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XIV" id = "chap_XIV"> +CHAPTER XIV.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Adjectives, Strong and Weak.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_78" id = "sec_78">78.</a></h5> + +<p>The declension of adjectives conforms in general to the declension of +nouns, though a few pronominal inflections have influenced certain +cases. Adjectives belong either to (1) the Strong Declension or to +(2) the Weak Declension. The Weak Declension is employed when the +adjective is preceded by <b>sē</b> or <b>ðēs</b>, <i>the</i>, +<i>that</i>, or <i>this</i>; otherwise, the Strong Declension is +employed: <b>ðā gōdan cyningas</b>, <i>the good kings</i>; <b>ðēs gōda +cyning</b>, <i>this good king</i>; but <b>gōde cyningas</b>, <i>good +kings</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The Weak Declension is also +frequently used when the adjective is employed in direct address, or +preceded by a possessive +<span class = "pagenum">54</span> +<a name = "page54" id = "page54"> </a> +pronoun: <b>Dryhten, ælmihtiga God ... ic bidde ðē for ðīnre miclan +mildheortnesse</b>, <i>Lord, almighty God, I pray thee, for thy +great mercy</i>.</p> + + + +<h4>(1) Strong Declension of Adjectives.<br> +<span class = "subhead">(a) <i>Monosyllables.</i></span></h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_79" id = "sec_79">79.</a></h5> + +<p>The strong adjectives are chiefly monosyllabic with long stems: +<b>gōd</b>, <i>good</i>; <b>eald</b>, <i>old</i>; <b>lǫng</b>, +<i>long</i>; <b>swift</b>, <i>swift</i>. They are declined as +follows.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_80" id = "sec_80">80.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigm of <b>gōd</b>, <i>good</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Feminine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>gōd</td> +<td>gōd</td> +<td>gōd</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>gōdes</td> +<td>gōdre</td> +<td>gōdes</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td>gōdum</td> +<td>gōdre</td> +<td>gōdum</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>gōdne</td> +<td>gōde</td> +<td>gōd</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>I.</i></td> +<td>gōde</td> +<td>——</td> +<td>gōde</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td>gōde</td> +<td>gōda</td> +<td>gōd</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>gōdra</td> +<td>gōdra</td> +<td>gōdra</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>gōdum</td> +<td>gōdum</td> +<td>gōdum</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_81" id = "sec_81">81.</a></h5> + +<p>If the stem is short, <b>-u</b> is retained as in <b>giefu</b> (<a +href = "#sec_39">§ <b>39</b>, (1)</a>) and <b>hofu</b> (<a href = +"#sec_33">§ <b>33</b>, (1)</a>). Thus <b>glæd</b> (<a href = +"#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, Note 1</a>), <i>glad</i>, and +<b>til</b>, <i>useful</i>, are inflected:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "3"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Feminine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>glæd<br> +til</td> +<td>gladu<br> +tilu</td> +<td>glæd<br> +til</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "5"> </td> +</tr> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>glade<br> +tile</td> +<td>glada<br> +tila</td> +<td>gladu<br> +tilu</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h4>(b) <i>Polysyllables.</i></h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_82" id = "sec_82">82.</a></h5> + +<p>Polysyllables follow the declension of short monosyllables. The most +common terminations are <b>-en</b>, <i>-en</i>; <b>-fæst</b>, +<i>-fast</i>; <b>-full</b>, <i>-ful</i>; <b>-lēas</b>, <i>-less</i>; +<b>-līc</b>, <i>-ly</i>; <b>-ig</b>, <i>-y</i>: <b>hǣð-en</b> +(<b>hǣð</b> = <i>heath</i>), <i>heathen</i>; <b>stęde-fæst</b> +(<b>stęde</b> +<span class = "pagenum">55</span> +<a name = "page55" id = "page55"> </a> += <i>place</i>), <i>steadfast</i>; <b>sorg-full</b> (<b>sorg</b> = +<i>sorrow</i>), <i>sorrowful</i>; <b>cyst-lēas</b> (<b>cyst</b> = +<i>worth</i>), <i>worthless</i>; <b>eorð-līc</b> (<b>eorðe</b> = +<i>earth</i>), <i>earthly</i>; <b>blōd-ig</b> (<b>blōd</b> = +<i>blood</i>), <i>bloody</i>. The present and past participles, when +inflected and not as weak adjectives, may be classed with the +polysyllabic adjectives, their inflection being the same.</p> + +<p>Syncopation occurs as in <b>a-</b>stems (<a href = "#sec_27">§ +<b>27</b>, (4)</a>). Thus <b>hālig</b>, <i>holy</i>, <b>blīðe</b>, +<i>blithe</i>, <b>berende</b>, <i>bearing</i>, <b>geboren</b>, +<i>born</i>, are thus inflected:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "3"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Feminine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket3_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>hālig<br> +blīðe<br> +berende<br> +geboren</td> +<td>hālgu<br> +blīðu<br> +berende<br> +geborenu</td> +<td>hālig<br> +blīðe<br> +berende<br> +geboren</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "5"> </td> +</tr> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td class = "right" rowspan = "4"><i>Plur N.A.</i></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "4"> +<img src = "images/bracket3_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>hālge<br> +blīðe<br> +berende<br> +geborene</td> +<td>hālga<br> +blīða<br> +berenda<br> +geborena</td> +<td>hālgu<br> +blīðu<br> +berendu<br> +geborenu</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>(2) Weak Declension of Adjectives.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_83" id = "sec_83">83.</a></h5> + +<p>The Weak Declension of adjectives, whether monosyllabic or +polysyllabic, does not differ from the Weak Declension of nouns, except +that <b>-ena</b> of the genitive plural is usually replaced by +<b>-ra</b> of the strong adjectives.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_84" id = "sec_84">84.</a></h5> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><i>Masculine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Feminine.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neuter.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing. N.</i></td> +<td>gōda</td> +<td>gōde</td> +<td>gōde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td>gōdan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td>gōdan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>A.</i></td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td>gōde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th colspan = "4"><i>All Genders.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>gōdan</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>gōdra (gōdena)</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.I.</i></td> +<td></td> +<td>gōdum</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">56</span> +<a name = "page56" id = "page56"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_85" id = "sec_85">85.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Rule of Syntax.</p> + +<p><i>Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case; but +participles, when used predicatively, may remain uninflected</i> (<a +href = "#sec_139">§ <b>139</b></a>, <a href = +"#sec_140">§ <b>140</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_86" id = "sec_86">86.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>dēad</b>, <i>dead</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eall</b>, <i>all</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hāl</b>,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XIV_1" id = "tag_XIV_1" href += "#note_XIV_1">1</a> <i>whole</i>, <i>hale</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heard</b>, <i>hard</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt hors</b>, <i>horse</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēof</b>, <i>dear</i> [as lief].</p> + +<p><b>lȳtel</b>, <i>little</i>.</p> + +<p><b>micel</b>, <i>great</i>, <i>large</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫnig</b>, <i>many</i>.</p> + +<p><b>niman</b>, <i>to take</i> [nimble, numb].</p> + +<p><b>nīwe</b>, <i>new</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rīce</b>, <i>rich</i>, <i>powerful</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōð</b>, <i>true</i> [sooth-sayer].</p> + +<p><b>stælwierðe</b>,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XIV_2" id = +"tag_XIV_2" href = "#note_XIV_2">2</a> <i>serviceable</i> +[stalwart].</p> + +<p><b>swīðe</b>, <i>very</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē tūn</b>, <i>town</i>, <i>village</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē ðegn</b>, <i>servant</i>, <i>thane</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt ðing</b>, <i>thing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē weg</b>, <i>way</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīs</b>, <i>wise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wið</b> (with acc.), <i>against</i>, in a hostile sense +[with-stand].</p> + +<p><b>sē ilca</b>, <i>the same</i> [of that ilk].</p> +</div> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_87" id = "sec_87">87.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Exercises.</p> + +<p>I. 1. Ðās scipu ne sind swīðe swift, ac hīe sind swīðe stælwierðu. +2. Sēo gōde cwēn giefð ǣlcum ðegne mǫniga giefa. 3. Ðēs wīsa +cyning hæfð mǫnige micele tūnas on his rīce. 4. Nǣnig mǫn is wīs on +eallum ðingum. 5. Ðȳ ilcan dæge (<a href = +"#sec_98">§ <b>98</b>, (2)</a>) mǫn fǫnd (found) ðone ðegn ðe mīnes +wines bēc hæfde. 6. Ealle ðā sęcgas ðā ðe swift hors habbað rīdað +wið ðone bǫnan. 7. Ðīne fīend sind mīne +<span class = "pagenum">57</span> +<a name = "page57" id = "page57"> </a> +frīend. 8. Sē micela stān ðone ðe ic on mīnum hǫndum hæbbe is swīðe +heard. 9. Hīe scęððað ðǣm ealdum horsum. 10. Uton niman ðās +tilan giefa ǫnd hīe beran tō ūrum lēofum bearnum.</p> + +<p>II. 1. These holy men are wise and good. 2. Are the little children +very dear to the servants (dat. without <b>tō</b>)? 3. Gifts are +not given (<a href = "#sec_70">§ <b>70</b>, Note 1</a>) to +rich men. 4. All the horses that are in the king’s fields are +swift. 5. These stones are very large and hard. 6. He takes +the dead man’s spear and fights against the large army. 7. This new +house has many doors. 8. My ways are not your ways. +9. Whosoever chooses me, him I also (<b>ēac</b>) choose. +10. Every man has many friends that are not wise.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_XIV_1" id = "note_XIV_1" href = "#tag_XIV_1">1.</a> +<b>Hālig</b>, <i>holy</i>, contains, of course, the same root. +“I find,” says Carlyle, “that you could not get any better +definition of what ‘holy’ really is than ‘healthy—completely +healthy.’”</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XIV_2" id = "note_XIV_2" href = "#tag_XIV_2">2.</a> +This word has been much discussed. The older etymologists explained it +as meaning <i>worth stealing</i>. A more improbable conjecture is that +it means <i>worth a stall</i> or <i>place</i>. It is used of ships in +the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>. As applied to men, Skeat thinks it +meant <i>good</i> or <i>worthy at stealing</i>; but the etymology is +still unsettled.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XV" id = "chap_XV"> +CHAPTER XV.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Numerals.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_88" id = "sec_88">88.</a></h5> + +<p>Numerals are either (<i>a</i>) Cardinal, expressing pure number, +<i>one</i>, <i>two</i>, <i>three</i>; or (<i>b</i>) Ordinal, expressing +rank or succession, <i>first</i>, <i>second</i>, <i>third</i>.</p> + + +<h4>(<i>a</i>) Cardinals.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_89" id = "sec_89">89.</a></h5> + +<p>The Cardinals fall into the three following syntactic groups:</p> + +<div class = "list"> +<p class = "smallcaps"> Group I.</p> + +<p>1. ān</p> +<p>2. twēgen [twain]</p> +<p>3. ðrīe</p> +</div> + +<p>These numerals are inflected adjectives. <b>Ān</b>, <i>one</i>, +<i>an</i>, <i>a</i>, being a long stemmed monosyllable, is declined like +<b>gōd</b> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>). The weak form, +<b>āna</b>, means <i>alone</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">58</span> +<a name = "page58" id = "page58"> </a> + +<p><b>Twēgen</b> and <b>ðrīe</b>, which have no singular, are thus +declined:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<col> +<col> +<col> +<col> +<col> +<col> +<col> +<col> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th class = "left" colspan = "2"><i>Masc.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Fem.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neut.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Masc.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Fem.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Neut.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur. N.A.</i></td> +<td colspan = "2">twēgen</td> +<td>twā</td> +<td>twā (tū)</td> +<td>ðrīe</td> +<td>ðrēo</td> +<td>ðrēo</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>G.</i></td> +<td colspan = "2">twēgra</td> +<td>twēgra</td> +<td>twēgra</td> +<td>ðrēora</td> +<td>ðrēora</td> +<td>ðrēora</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>D.</i></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>twǣm<br> +(twām)</td> +<td>twǣm<br> +(twām)</td> +<td>twǣm<br> +(twām)</td> +<td>ðrīm</td> +<td>ðrīm</td> +<td>ðrīm</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_90" id = "sec_90">90.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Group II.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right">4.</td> +<td>fēower</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">5.</td> +<td>fīf</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">6.</td> +<td>siex</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">7.</td> +<td>seofon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">8.</td> +<td>eahta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">9.</td> +<td>nigon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">10.</td> +<td>tīen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">11.</td> +<td>ęndlefan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">12.</td> +<td>twęlf</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">13.</td> +<td>ðrēotīene</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">14.</td> +<td>fēowertīene</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">15.</td> +<td>fīftīene</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">16.</td> +<td>siextīene</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">17.</td> +<td>seofontīene</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">18.</td> +<td>eahtatīene</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">19.</td> +<td>nigontīene</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>These words are used chiefly as uninflected adjectives: <b>on +gewitscipe ðrēora oþþe fēower bisceopa</b>, <i>on testimony of three or +four bishops</i>; <b>on siex dagum</b>, <i>in six days</i>; <b>ān nǣdre +ðe hæfde nigon hēafdu</b>, <i>a serpent which had nine heads</i>; +<b>æðeling eahtatīene wintra</b>, <i>a prince of eighteen +winters</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_91" id = "sec_91">91.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Group III.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right">20.</td> +<td>twēntig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">21.</td> +<td>ān ǫnd twēntig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">30.</td> +<td>ðrītig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">40.</td> +<td>fēowertig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">50.</td> +<td>fīftig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">60.</td> +<td>siextig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">70.</td> +<td>hundseofontig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">80.</td> +<td>hundeahtatig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">90.</td> +<td>hundnigontig</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">100.</td> +<td>hund</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">200.</td> +<td>twā hund</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">1000.</td> +<td>ðūsend</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2000.</td> +<td>twā ðūsend</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>All these numbers are employed as neuter singular nouns, and are +followed by the genitive plural: <b>Næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twēntig +hrȳðera, and twēntig scēapa, and +<span class = "pagenum">59</span> +<a name = "page59" id = "page59"> </a> +twēntig swȳna</b>, <i>He did not have, however, more than twenty</i> +(<i>of</i>) <i>cattle, and twenty</i> (<i>of</i>) <i>sheep, and +twenty</i> (<i>of</i>) <i>swine</i>; <b>Hīe hæfdon hundeahtatig +scipa</b>, <i>They had eighty ships</i>; <b>twā hund mīla brād</b>, +<i>two hundred miles broad</i>; <b>ðǣr wǣron seofon hund gūðfanena +genumen</b>, <i>there were seven hundred standards captured</i>; <b>ān +ðūsend mǫnna</b>, <i>a thousand men</i>; <b>Hannibales folces wæs twā +ðūsend ofslagen</b>, <i>Of Hannibal’s men there were two thousand +slain</i>; <b>Hīe ācuron ęndlefan ðūsend mǫnna</b>, <i>They chose eleven +thousand men</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—Group III is rarely +inflected. Almost the only inflectional endings that are added are +(1) <b>-es</b>, a genitive singular termination for the numerals in +<b>-tig</b>, and (2) <b>-e</b>, a dative singular for <b>hund</b>. +(1) The first is confined to adjectives expressing extent of space +or time, as, <b>eald</b>, <i>old</i>; <b>brād</b>, <i>broad</i>; +<b>hēah</b>, <i>high</i>; and <b>lǫng</b>, <i>long</i>: <b>ðæt is +ðrītiges mīla lǫng</b>, <i>that is thirty miles long</i>; <b>Hē wæs +ðrītiges gēara eald</b>, <i>He was thirty years old</i>. (2) The +second is employed after <b>mid</b>: <b>mid twǣm hunde scipa</b>, +<i>with two hundred ships</i>; <b>mid ðrīm hunde mǫnna</b>, <i>with +three hundred men</i>; <b>Ðǣr wearð ... Regulus gefangen mid V hunde +mǫnna</b>, <i>There was Regulus captured with five hundred men</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +The statement made in nearly all the grammars that <b>hunde</b> occurs +as a nominative and accusative plural is without foundation.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—Many numerals, otherwise +indeclinable, are used in the genitive plural with the indefinite +pronoun <b>sum</b>, which then means <i>one of</i> a certain number. In +this peculiar construction, the numeral always precedes <b>sum</b>: +<b>fēowera sum</b>, <i>one of four</i> (= <i>with three +others</i>); <b>Hē sǣde þæt hē syxa sum ofslōge syxtig</b>, <i>He said +that he, with five others, slew sixty</i> (<i>whales</i>); <b>Hē wæs +fēowertigra sum</b>, <i>He was one of forty</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 3.</span>—These are the most common +constructions with the Cardinals. The forms in <b>-tig</b> have only +recently been investigated. A study of Wülfing’s citations shows +that Alfred occasionally uses the forms in <b>-tig</b> (1) as +adjectives with plural inflections: <b>mid XXXgum cyningum</b>, <i>with +thirty kings</i>; and (2) as nouns with plural inflections: +<b>æfter siextigum daga</b>, <i>after sixty days</i>. But both +constructions are rare.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">60</span> +<a name = "page60" id = "page60"> </a> +<h4>(b) Ordinals.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_92" id = "sec_92">92.</a></h5> + +<p>The Ordinals, except the first two, are formed from the Cardinals. +They are:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right">1.</td> +<td>forma, ǣresta, fyrsta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ōðer, æfterra</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>ðridda</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">4.</td> +<td>fēorða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">5.</td> +<td>fīfta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">6.</td> +<td>siexta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">7.</td> +<td>seofoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">8.</td> +<td>eahtoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">9.</td> +<td>nigoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">10.</td> +<td>tēoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">11.</td> +<td>ęndlefta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">12.</td> +<td>twęlfta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">13.</td> +<td>ðrēotēoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">14.</td> +<td>fēowertēoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">15.</td> +<td><p>fīftēoða<br> +etc.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">20.</td> +<td>twēntigoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">21.</td> +<td>ān ǫnd twēntigoða</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">30.</td> +<td><p>ðrītigoða<br> +etc.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—There are no Ordinals +corresponding to <b>hund</b> and <b>ðūsend</b>.</p> + +<p>With the exception of <b>ōðer</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ +<b>77</b></a>), all the Ordinals are declined as Weak Adjectives; the +article, however, as in Mn.E., is frequently omitted: <b>Brūtus wæs sē +forma consul</b>, <i>Brutus was the first consul</i>; <b>Hēr ęndað sēo +ǣreste bōc, ǫnd onginneð sēo ōðer</b>, <i>Here the first book ends, and +the second begins</i>; <b>ðȳ fīftan dæge</b>, <i>on the fifth day</i>; +<b>on ðǣm tēoðan gēare hiera gewinnes</b>, <i>in the tenth year of their +strife</i>; <b>Hēo wæs twęlfte</b>, <i>She was twelfth</i>; <b>Sē wæs +fēorða frǫm Agusto</b>, <i>He was fourth from Augustus</i>.</p> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XVI" id = "chap_XVI"> +CHAPTER XVI.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions.</span></h3> + + +<h4>Adverbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_93" id = "sec_93">93.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) Adverbs are formed by adding <b>-e</b> or <b>-līce</b> to the +corresponding adjectives: <b>sōð</b>, <i>true</i>; <b>sōðe</b> or +<b>sōðlīce</b>, <i>truly</i>; <b>earmlīc</b>, <i>wretched</i>; +<b>earmlīce</b>, <i>wretchedly</i>; <b>wīd</b>, +<span class = "pagenum">61</span> +<a name = "page61" id = "page61"> </a> +<i>wide</i>; <b>wīde</b>, <i>widely</i>; <b>micel</b>, <i>great</i>; +<b>micle</b> (<b>micele</b>), <i>greatly</i>, <i>much</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) The terminations <b>-e</b> and <b>-līce</b> are replaced in some +adverbs by <b>-(l)unga</b> or <b>-(l)inga</b>: <b>eallunga</b>, +<i>entirely</i>; <b>fǣringa</b>, <i>suddenly</i>; <b>grundlunga</b>, +<i>from the ground</i>, <i>completely</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—In Mn.E. <i>headlong</i>, +<i>darkling</i>, and <i>groveling</i>, originally adverbs, we have +survivals of these endings.</p> + +<p>(3) The genitive case is frequently used adverbially: +<b>sūðeweardes</b>, <i>southwards</i>; <b>ealles</b>, <i>altogether</i>, +<i>entirely</i>; <b>dæges</b>, <i>by day</i>; <b>nihtes</b>, <i>by +night</i>; <b>ðæs</b>, <i>from that time</i>, <i>afterwards</i>. +<i>Cf.</i> <b>hys</b> (= <b>his</b>) <b>weges</b> in <b>Ðonne rīdeð +ǣlc hys weges</b>, <i>Then rides each his way</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—The adverbial genitive is +abundantly preserved in Mn.E. <i>Always</i>, <i>crossways</i>, +<i>sideways</i>, <i>needs</i> (= <i>necessarily</i>), +<i>sometimes</i>, etc., are not plurals, but old genitive singulars. The +same construction is seen in <i>of course</i>, <i>of a truth</i>, <i>of +an evening</i>, <i>of old</i>, <i>of late</i>, and similar phrases.</p> + +<p>(4) Dative and instrumental plurals may be used as adverbs: +<b>hwīlum</b>, <i>at times</i>, <i>sometimes</i> [whilom]; +<b>stundum</b> (<b>stund</b> = <i>period</i>), <i>from time to time</i>; +<b>miclum</b>, <i>greatly</i>. Especially common is the suffix +<b>-mǣlum</b> (<b>mǣl</b> = <i>time</i>, <b>measure</b> [meal]), +preserved adverbially in Mn.E. <i>piecemeal</i>: <b>dropmǣlum</b>, +<i>drop by drop</i>; <b>styccemǣlum</b> (<b>stycce</b> = <i>piece</i>), +<i>piecemeal</i>, <i>here and there</i>.</p> + +<p>(5) The suffix <b>-an</b> usually denotes motion from:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>hēr</b>, <i>here</i>.</td> +<td><b>hider</b>, <i>hither</i>.</td> +<td><b>heonan</b>, <i>hence</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ðǣr</b>, <i>there</i>.</td> +<td><b>ðider</b>, <i>thither</i>.</td> +<td><b>ðǫnan</b>, <i>thence</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>hwǣr</b>, <i>where?</i></td> +<td><b>hwider</b>, <i>whither?</i></td> +<td><b>hwǫnan</b>, <i>whence?</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><b>norðan</b>, <i>from the north</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><b>ēastan</b>, <i>from the east</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><b>hindan</b>, <i>from behind</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><b>feorran</b>, <i>from far</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><b>ūtan</b>, <i>from without</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">62</span> +<a name = "page62" id = "page62"> </a> +<p>(6) The adverb <b>rihte</b> (<b>riht</b> = <i>right</i>, +<i>straight</i>) denotes <i>motion toward</i> in <b>norðrihte</b>, +<i>northward</i>, <i>due north</i>; <b>ēastrihte</b>, <i>due east</i>; +<b>sūðrihte</b>, <i>due south</i>; <b>westrihte</b>, <i>due +west</i>.</p> + + +<h4>Prepositions.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_94" id = "sec_94">94.</a></h5> + +<p>The nominative is the only case in O.E. that is never governed by a +preposition. Of the other cases, the dative and accusative occur most +frequently with prepositions.</p> + +<p>(1) The prepositions that are most frequently found with the dative +are:</p> + +<div class = "list paradigm"> +<p><b>æfter</b>, <i>after</i>.</p> +<p><b>ǣt</b>, <i>at</i>.</p> +<p><b>be</b> (<b>bī</b>), <i>by</i>, <i>near</i>, <i>about</i>.</p> +<p><b>betwēonan</b> (<b>betuh</b>), <i>between</i>.</p> +<p><b>būtan</b> (<b>būton</b>), <i>except</i>.</p> +<p><b>for</b>, <i>for</i>.</p> +<p><b>frǫm</b> (<b>fram</b>), <i>from</i>, <i>by</i>.</p> +<p><b>mid</b>, <i>with</i>.</p> +<p><b>of</b>, <i>of</i>, <i>from</i>.</p> +<p><b>tō</b>, <i>to</i>.</p> +<p><b>tōforan</b>, <i>before</i>.</p> +<p><b>tōweard</b>, <i>toward</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>(2) The following prepositions require the accusative:</p> + +<div class = "list paradigm"> +<p><b>geond</b>, <i>throughout</i> [be-yond].</p> +<p><b>ofer</b>, <i>over</i>, <i>upon</i>.</p> +<p><b>oð</b>, <i>until</i>, <i>up to</i>.</p> +<p><b>ðurh</b>, <i>through</i>.</p> +<p><b>ymbe</b>, <i>about</i>, <i>around</i> [um-while, ember-days].</p> +</div> + +<p>(3) The preposition <b>on</b> (rarely <b>in</b>), meaning +<i>into</i>, is usually followed by the accusative; but meaning +<i>in</i>, <i>on</i>, or <i>during</i>, it takes the dative or +instrumental. The preposition <b>wið</b>, meaning <i>toward</i>, may be +followed by the genitive, dative, or accusative; but meaning +<i>against</i>, and implying <i>motion</i> or <i>hostility</i>, the +accusative is more common.</p> + +<p>(4) The following phrases are used prepositionally with the +dative:</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">63</span> +<a name = "page63" id = "page63"> </a> + +<div class = "list paradigm"> +<p><b>be norðan</b>, <i>north of</i>.</p> +<p><b>be ēastan</b>, <i>east of</i>.</p> +<p><b>be sūðan</b>, <i>south of.</i></p> +<p><b>be westan</b>, <i>west of</i>.</p> +<p><b>tō ēacan</b>, <i>in addition to</i>.</p> +<p><b>on emnlange</b> (<b>efn-lang</b> = <i>evenly long</i>), +<i>along</i>.</p> +<p><b>tō emnes</b>, <i>along</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>(5) Prepositions regularly precede the noun or pronoun that they +introduce; but by their adverbial nature they are sometimes drawn in +front of the verb: <b>And him wæs mycel męnegu tō gegaderod</b>, <i>And +there was gathered unto him a great multitude</i>. In relative clauses +introduced by <b>ðe</b>, the preceding position is very common: <b>sēo +scīr ... ðe hē on būde</b>, <i>the district, ... which he dwelt in</i> +(= <i>which he in-habited</i>); <b>Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on ðǣm +ǣhtum ðe hiera spēda on bēoð</b>, <i>He was a very rich man in those +possessions which their riches consist in</i>; <b>nȳhst ðǣm tūne ðe sē +dēada man on līð</b>, <i>nearest the town that the dead man +lies in</i>.</p> + + +<h4>Conjunctions.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_95" id = "sec_95">95.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) The most frequently occurring conjunctions are:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>ac</b>, <i>but</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>ǣr</b>, <i>before</i>, <i>ere</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>būtan</b> (<b>būton</b>), <i>except that</i>, +<i>unless</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>ēac</b>, <i>also</i> [eke].</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><b>for ðǣm</b><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">, </ins></td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "4"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "4"><i>because</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>for ðǣm ðe</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>for ðon</b>,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>for ðon ðe</b>,</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>for ðȳ</b>, <i>therefore</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>gif</b>, <i>if</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>hwæðer</b>, <i>whether</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>ǫnd</b> (<b>and</b>), <i>and</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>oððe</b>, <i>or</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>ðæt</b>, <i>that</i>, <i>so that</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan = "3"><b>ðēah</b>, <i>though</i>, <i>however</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) The correlative conjunctions are:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm locked" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>ǣgðer ge</b> . . . . </td> +<td><b>ge</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><i>both</i> . . . . . . . .</td> +<td><i>and</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>ǣgðer</b> . . . . . . .<br> +<b>oððe</b> . . . . . . . .</td> +<td><b>ōðer<br> +oððe</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td></td> +<td><i>either</i> . . . . . . .</td> +<td><i>or</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">64</span> +<a name = "page64" id = "page64"> </a> +<b>nē</b> . . . . . . . . . .</td> +<td><b>nē</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><i>neither</i> . . . . .</td> +<td><i>nor</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><b>sam</b> . . . . . . . . .</td> +<td><b>sam</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td><i>whether</i> . . . .</td> +<td><i>or</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>swā</b> . . . . . . . . .</td> +<td><b>swā</b></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><i>the . . . . . . . . .<br> +as</i> . . . . . . . . . .</td> +<td><i>the.<br> +as.</i></td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>ðā . . . . . . . . . . .<br> +ðonne</b> . . . . . . .<br> +</td> +<td><b>ðā<br> +ðonne</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td></td> +<td><i>when</i> . . . . . . .</td> +<td><i>then</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XVII" id = "chap_XVII"> +CHAPTER XVII.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs.</span></h3> + + +<h4>Adjectives.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_96" id = "sec_96">96.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) Adjectives are regularly compared by adding <b>-ra</b> for the +comparative, and <b>-ost</b> (rarely <b>-est</b>) for the +superlative:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Comparative.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Superlative.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>earm</b>, <i>poor</i></td> +<td><b>earmra</b></td> +<td><b>earmost</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>rīce</b>, <i>rich</i></td> +<td><b>rīcra</b></td> +<td><b>rīcost</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>smæl</b>, <i>narrow</i></td> +<td><b>smælra</b></td> +<td><b>smalost</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>brād</b>, <i>broad</i></td> +<td><b>brādra</b> (<b>brǣdra</b>)</td> +<td><b>brādost</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>swift</b>, <i>swift</i></td> +<td><b>swiftra</b></td> +<td><b>swiftost</b></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) Forms with <b>i-</b>umlaut usually have superlative in +<b>-est</b>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Comparative.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Superlative.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>eald</b>, <i>old</i></td> +<td><b>ieldra</b></td> +<td><b>ieldest</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>lǫng</b>, <i>long</i></td> +<td><b>lęngra</b></td> +<td><b>lęngest</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>strǫng</b>, <i>strong</i></td> +<td><b>stręngra</b></td> +<td><b>stręngest</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>geong</b>, <i>young</i></td> +<td><b>giengra</b></td> +<td><b>giengest</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>hēah</b>, <i>high</i></td> +<td><b>hīerra</b></td> +<td><b>hīehst</b></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(3) The following adjectives are compared irregularly:</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">65</span> +<a name = "page65" id = "page65"> </a> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Comparative.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Superlative.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>gōd</b>, <i>good</i></td> +<td><b>bętra</b></td> +<td><b>bętst</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>lȳtel</b>, <i>little</i>, <i>small</i></td> +<td><b>lǣssa</b></td> +<td><b>lǣst</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>micel</b>, <i>great</i>, <i>much</i></td> +<td><b>māra</b></td> +<td><b>mǣst</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>yfel</b>, <i>bad</i></td> +<td><b>wiersa</b></td> +<td><b>wierst</b></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(4) The positive is sometimes supplied by an adverb:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Comparative.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Superlative.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>feor</b>, <i>far</i></td> +<td><b>fierra</b></td> +<td><b>fierrest</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>nēah</b>, <i>near</i></td> +<td><b>nēarra</b></td> +<td><b>nīehst</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ǣr</b>, <i>before</i></td> +<td><b>ǣrra</b>, <i>former</i></td> +<td><b>ǣrest</b>, <i>first</i></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(5) The comparatives all follow the Weak Declension. The +superlatives, when preceded by the definite article, are weak; but when +used predicatively they are frequently strong: <b>sē lǣsta dǣl</b>, +<i>the least part</i>; <b>Ðonne cymeð sē man sē ðæt swiftoste hors hafað +tō ðǣm ǣrestan dǣle and tō ðǣm mǣstan</b>, <i>Then comes the man that +has the swiftest horse to the first part and to the largest</i>. But, +<b>ðæt bȳne land is ēasteweard brādost</b> (not <b>brādoste</b>), <i>the +cultivated land is broadest eastward</i>; <b>and</b> (<b>hit</b>) <b>bið +ealra wyrta mǣst</b>, <i>and it is largest of all herbs</i>; <b>Ac +hyra</b> (= <b>hiera</b>) <b>ār is mǣst on ðǣm gafole ðe ðā Finnas +him gyldað</b>, <i>But their income is greatest in the tribute that the +Fins pay them</i>.</p> + +<p>(6) The comparative is usually followed by <b>ðonne</b> and the +nominative case: <b>Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa ðonne ōðre hwalas</b>, +<i>That whale is much smaller than other whales</i>; <b>Ðā wunda ðæs +mōdes bēoð dīgelran ðonne ðā wunda ðæs līchaman</b>. <i>The wounds of +the mind are more secret than the wounds of the body</i>.</p> + +<p>But when <b>ðonne</b> is omitted, the comparative is followed by the +dative: <b>Ūre Ālīesend, ðe māra is ǫnd +<span class = "pagenum">66</span> +<a name = "page66" id = "page66"> </a> +mǣrra eallum gesceaftum</b>, <i>Our Redeemer, who is greater and more +glorious than all created things</i>; <b>nē ongeat hē nō hiene selfne +bętran ōðrum gōdum mǫnnum</b>, <i>nor did he consider himself better +than other good men</i>.</p> + + +<h4>Adverbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_97" id = "sec_97">97.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) Adverbs are regularly compared by adding <b>-or</b> for the +comparative and <b>-ost</b> (rarely <b>-est</b>) for the +superlative:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Comparative.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Superlative.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>georne</b>, <i>willingly</i></td> +<td><b>geornor</b></td> +<td><b>geornost</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>swīðe</b>, <i>very</i>, <i>severely</i></td> +<td><b>swīðor</b>, <i>more</i></td> +<td><b>swīðost</b>, <i>most</i>, <i>chiefly</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ǣr</b>, <i>before</i></td> +<td><b>ǣror</b>, <i>formerly</i></td> +<td><b>ǣrest</b>, <i>first</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>norð</b>, <i>northwards</i></td> +<td><b>norðor</b></td> +<td><b>norðmest</b><a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVII_1" id = +"tag_XVII_1" href = "#note_XVII_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>(2) The comparatives of a few adverbs may be found by dropping +<b>-ra</b> of the corresponding adjective form:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th><i>Positive.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Comparative.</i></th> +<th class = "left"><i>Superlative.</i></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>lǫnge</b>, <i>long</i></td> +<td><b>lęng</b></td> +<td><b>lęngest</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>micle</b>, <i>much</i></td> +<td><b>mā</b></td> +<td><b>mǣst</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>wel</b>, <i>well</i></td> +<td><b>bęt</b></td> +<td><b>bętst</b></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>Expressions of Time.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_98" id = "sec_98">98.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) Duration of time and extent of space are usually expressed by the +accusative case: <b>Ealle ðā hwīle ðe ðæt līc bið inne</b>, <i>All the +time that the body is within</i>; <b>twēgen dagas</b>, <i>for two +days</i>; <b>ealne weg</b>, <i>all the way</i>, <i>always</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">67</span> +<a name = "page67" id = "page67"> </a> +<p>(2) Time when is more often expressed by the instrumental case when +no preposition is used: <b>ðȳ ilcan dæge</b>, <i>the same day</i>; +<b>ǣlce gēare</b>, <i>each year</i>; <b>ðȳ gēare</b>, <i>that year</i>; +<b>ǣlce dæge</b>, <i>each day</i>.</p> + +<p>(3) Time or space within which is expressed by <b>on</b> and the +dative: <b>on sumera</b>, <i>in summer</i>; <b>on wintra</b>, <i>in +winter</i>; <b>on fīf dagum</b>, <i>in five days</i>; <b>on fīf +mīlum</b>, <i>in five miles</i>; <b>on ðissum gēare</b>, <i>in this +year</i>; <b>on ðǣm tīman</b>, <i>in those times</i>. Sometimes by the +genitive without a preceding preposition: <b>ðǣs gēares</b>, <i>in that +year</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_99" id = "sec_99">99.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>ðæt gefylce</b> [<b>folc</b>], <i>troop</i>, <i>division</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt lǫnd</b> (<b>land</b>), <i>land</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo mīl</b>, <i>mile</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ōðer ... ōðer</b>, <i>the one ... the other</i>; <i>the former ... +the latter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē sige</b>, <i>victory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVII_2" id = "tag_XVII_2" href = +"#note_XVII_2">2</a> habban</b>, <i>to win</i> (<i>the</i>) +<i>victory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sprecan</b>, <i>to speak</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt swīn</b> (<b>swȳn</b>), <i>swine</i>, <i>hog</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wēste</b>, <i>waste</i>.</p> +</div> + +<h5><a name = "sec_100" id = "sec_100">100.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Exercises.</p> + +<p>I. 1. Hē hæfð ðrēo swīðe swift hors. 2. Ic hæbbe nigontīene scēap ǫnd +mā ðonne twēntig swīna. 3. Sēo gōde cwēn cīest twā hund mǫnna. +4. Uton feohtan wið ðā Dęne mid ðrīm hunde scipa. 5. Ǫnd hīe +wǣron on twǣm gefylcum: on ōðrum wæs<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVII_3" +id = "tag_XVII_3" href = "#note_XVII_3">3</a> Bāchsęcg ǫnd Halfdęne ðā +hǣðnan cyningas, ǫnd on ōðrum wǣron ðā eorlas. 6. Ðū spricst +sōðlīce. 7. Ðonne rīt ǣlc mǫn his weges. 8. Æfter mǫnigum +dagum, hæfde Ælfred cyning<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVII_4" id = +"tag_XVII_4" href = "#note_XVII_4">4</a> sige. 9. Ðis lǫnd is wēste +styccemǣlum. 10. Ðēs feld is fīftiges mīla brād. +<span class = "pagenum">68</span> +<a name = "page68" id = "page68"> </a> +11. Ælfred cyning hæfde mǫnige frīend, for ðǣm ðe hē wæs ǣgðer ge wīs ge +gōd. 12. Ðā hwalas, ðe ðū ymbe spricst, sind micle lǣssan ōðrum +hwalum. 13. Hēo is ieldre ðonne hiere swuster, ac mīn brōðor is +ieldra ðonne hēo. 14. Wē cumað tō ðǣm tūne ǣlce gēare. 15. Ðā +męn ðe ðā swiftostan hors hǣfdon wǣron mid ðǣm Dęnum fēower dagas.</p> + +<p>II. 1. Our army (<b>werod</b>) was in two divisions: one was large, +the other was small. 2. The richest men in the kingdom have more +(<b>mā</b>) than thirty ships. 3. He was much wiser than his +brother. 4. He fights against the Northumbrians with two ships. +5. After three years King Alfred gained the victory. +6. Whosoever chooses these gifts, chooses well. 7. This man’s +son is both wiser and better than his father. 8. When the king +rides, then ride his thanes also. 9. The richest men are not always +(<b>ā</b>) the wisest men.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_XVII_1" id = "note_XVII_1" href = +"#tag_XVII_1">1.</a> +This is really a double superlative, <b>m</b> being itself an old +superlative suffix. <i>Cf.</i> Latin <i>opti-m-us</i>. In Mn.E. +<i>northmost</i> and <i>hindmost</i>, <i>-m-est</i> has been confused +with <i>-most</i>, with which etymologically it has nothing +to do.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVII_2" id = "note_XVII_2" href = +"#tag_XVII_2">2.</a> +<b>Sige</b> usually, but not invariably, precedes <b>habban</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVII_3" id = "note_XVII_3" href = +"#tag_XVII_3">3.</a> +See p. 100, <a href = "#linenote100_8">note on <b>gefeaht</b></a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVII_4" id = "note_XVII_4" href = +"#tag_XVII_4">4.</a> +The proper noun comes first in appositive expressions: <b>Ælfred +cyning</b>, <b>Sidroc eorl</b>, <b>Hēahmund bisceop</b>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XVIII" id = "chap_XVIII"> +CHAPTER XVIII.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead">Strong Verbs: Class I. (<span class = +"plain">See <a href = "#sec_17">§ <b>17</b></a>.</span>)</span></h3> + + +<h4>Syntax of Moods.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_101" id = "sec_101">101.</a></h5> + +<p>Of the three hundred simple verbs belonging to the O.E. Strong +Conjugation, it is estimated<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVIII_1" id = +"tag_XVIII_1" href = "#note_XVIII_1">1</a> that seventy-eight have +preserved their strong inflections in Mn.E., that eighty-eight have +become weak, and that the remaining one hundred and thirty-four have +entirely disappeared, their places being taken in most cases by verbs of +Latin origin introduced through the Norman-French.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">69</span> +<a name = "page69" id = "page69"> </a> +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Only the simple or +primitive verbs, not the compound forms, are here taken into +consideration. The proportionate loss, therefore, is really much +greater. O.E. abounded in formative prefixes. “Thus from the Anglo-Saxon +<b>flōwan</b>, <i>to flow</i>, ten new compounds were formed by the +addition of various prefixes, of which ten, only one, <b>oferflōwan</b>, +<i>to overflow</i>, survives with us. In a similar manner, from the verb +<b>sittan</b>, <i>to sit</i>, thirteen new verbs were formed, of which +not a single one is to be found to-day.” Lounsbury, <i>ib.</i> +Part I, p. 107.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_102" id = "sec_102">102.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class I: The “Drive” Conjugation.</b></p> + +<p class = "center">Vowel Succession: <b>ī</b>, <b>ā</b>, <b>i</b>, +<b>i</b>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "smallcaps">Infinitive.</td> +<td class = "smallcaps">Preterit Sing.</td> +<td class = "smallcaps">Preterit Plur.</td> +<td class = "center smallcaps">Past Part.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center"><b>Drīf-an</b></td> +<td class = "center"><b>drāf</b></td> +<td class = "center"><b>drif-on</b></td> +<td class = "center"><b>gedrif-en</b>, <i>to drive</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "4"><b>Indicative.</b></th> +<th colspan = "4"><b>Subjunctive.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</td> +<td class = "center smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic drīf-e</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">drīf-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū drīf-st (drīf-est)</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē drīf-ð (drīf-eð)</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">(drīf-að)</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">drīf-en</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "4">Preterit.</td> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "4">Preterit.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic drāf</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">drif-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū drif-e</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē drāf</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">drif-on</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">drif-en</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><b>Imperative.</b></th> +<th><b>Infinitive.</b></th> +<th><b>Present Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 2.</td> +<td>drīf</td> +<td class = "center">drīf-an</td> +<td class = "center">drīf-ende</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>drīf-an</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>drīf-að</td> +<th><b>Gerund.</b></th> +<th><b>Past Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "center">tō drīf-anne (-enne)</td> +<td class = "center">gedrif-en</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">70</span> +<a name = "page70" id = "page70"> </a> +<h4>Tense Formation of Strong Verbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_103" id = "sec_103">103.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) It will be seen from the conjugation of <b>drīfan</b> that the +<i>present stem</i> in all strong verbs is used throughout the present +indicative, the present subjunctive, the imperative, the infinitive, the +gerund, and the present participle. More than half of the endings, +therefore, of the Strong Conjugation are added directly to the present +stem.</p> + +<p>(2) That the <i>preterit singular stem</i> is used in only two forms +of the verb, the 1st and 3d persons singular of the preterit indicative: +<b>Ic drāf</b>, <b>hē drāf</b>.</p> + +<p>(3) That the <i>preterit plural stem</i> is used in the preterit +plural indicative, in the second person of the preterit singular +indicative, and in the singular and plural of the preterit +subjunctive.</p> + +<p>(4) That the <i>stem of the past participle</i> (<b>gedrif-</b>) is +used for no other form.</p> + + +<h4>Syntax of the Verb.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_104" id = "sec_104">104.</a></h5> + +<p>The Indicative Mood<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVIII_2" id = +"tag_XVIII_2" href = "#note_XVIII_2">2</a> represents the predicate +<i>as a reality</i>. It is used both in independent and in dependent +clauses, its function in O.E. corresponding with its function in +Mn.E<ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">. </ins></p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_105" id = "sec_105">105.</a></h5> + +<p>The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicate <i>as an idea</i>.<a +class = "tag" name = "tag_XVIII_3" id = "tag_XVIII_3" href = +"#note_XVIII_3">3</a> It is of far more frequent occurrence in O.E. than +in Mn.E.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">71</span> +<a name = "page71" id = "page71"> </a> +<p>1. When used in independent clauses it denotes desire, command, or +entreaty, and usually precedes its subject: <b>Sīe ðīn nama +gehālgod</b>, <i>Hallowed be Thy name</i>; <b>Ne swęrigen gē</b>, <i>Do +not swear</i>.</p> + +<p>2. In dependent clauses it denotes uncertainty, possibility, or mere +futurity.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVIII_4" id = "tag_XVIII_4" href = +"#note_XVIII_4">4</a> (<i>a</i>) Concessive clauses (introduced by +<b>ðēah</b>, <i>though</i>) and (<i>b</i>) temporal clauses (introduced +by <b>ǣr</b>, <b>ǣr ðǣm ðe</b>, <i>before</i>) are rarely found with any +other mood than the subjunctive. The subjunctive is also regularly used +in Alfredian prose (<i>c</i>) after verbs of saying, even when no +suggestion of doubt or discredit attaches to the narration.<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_XVIII_5" id = "tag_XVIII_5" href = +"#note_XVIII_5">5</a> “Whether the statement refer to a fact or not, +whether the subject-matter be vouched for by the reporter, as regards +its objective reality and truth, the subjunctive does not tell. It +simply represents a statement as reported”<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_XVIII_6" id = "tag_XVIII_6" href = "#note_XVIII_6">6</a>: <b>ðēah +man āsętte twēgen fǣtels full ealað oððe wæteres</b>, <i>though one set +two vessels full of ale or water</i>; <b>ǣr ðǣm ðe hit eall forhęrgod +wǣre</b>, <i>before it was all ravaged</i>; <b>Hē sǣde ðæt Norðmanna +land wǣre swȳðe lang and swȳðe smæl</b>, <i>He said that the Norwegians’ +land was very long and very narrow</i>.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">72</span> +<a name = "page72" id = "page72"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_106" id = "sec_106">106.</a></h5> + +<p>The Imperative is the mood of command or intercession: <b>Iōhannes, +cum tō mē</b>, <i>John, come to me</i>; <b>And forgyf ūs ūre gyltas</b>, +<i>And forgive us our trespasses</i>; <b>Ne drīf ūs fram ðē</b>, <i>Do +not drive us from thee</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_107" id = "sec_107">107.</a></h5> + +<p>(1) The Infinitive and Participles are used chiefly in verb-phrases +(<a href = "#sec_138">§§ <b>138-141</b></a>); but apart from this +function, the Infinitive, being a neuter noun, may serve as the subject +or direct object of a verb. <b>Hātan</b> (<i>to command</i>, +<i>bid</i>), <b>lǣtan</b> (<i>to let</i>, <i>permit</i>), and +onginnan (<i>to begin</i>) are regularly followed by the +Infinitive: <b>Hine rīdan lyste</b>, <i>To ride pleased him</i>; <b>Hēt +ðā bǣre sęttan</b>, <i>He bade set down the bier</i>;<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_XVIII_7" id = "tag_XVIII_7" href = "#note_XVIII_7">7</a> +<b>Lǣtað ðā lȳtlingas tō mē cuman</b>, <i>Let the little ones come to +me</i>; <b>ðā ongann hē sprecan</b>, <i>then began he to speak</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) The Participles may be used independently in the dative absolute +construction (an imitation of the Latin ablative absolute), usually +for the expression of time:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XVIII_8" id = +"tag_XVIII_8" href = "#note_XVIII_8">8</a> <b>Him ðā gȳt sprecendum</b>, +<i>While he was yet speaking</i>; <b>gefylledum dagum</b>, <i>the days +having been fulfilled</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_108" id = "sec_108">108.</a></h5> + +<p>The Gerund, or Gerundial Infinitive, is used:</p> + +<p>(1) To express purpose: <b>Ūt ēode sē sāwere his sǣd tō sāwenne</b>, +<i>Out went the sower his seed to sow</i>.</p> + +<p>(2) To expand or determine the meaning of a noun or adjective: +<b>Sȳmōn, ic hæbbe ðē tō sęcgenne sum ðing</b>, <i>Simon, I have +something to say to thee</i>; <b>Hit is scǫndlīc ymb swelc tō +sprecanne</b>, <i>It is shameful to speak about such things</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">73</span> +<a name = "page73" id = "page73"> </a> +<p>(3) After <b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>) to denote duty or necessity: +<b>Hwæt is nū mā ymbe ðis tō sprecanne</b>, <i>What more is there now to +say about this</i>? <b>ðonne is tō geðęncenne hwaet Crīst self cwæð</b>, +<i>then it behooves to bethink what Christ himself said</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The Gerund is simply the +dative case of the Infinitive after <b>tō</b>. It began very early to +supplant the simple Infinitive; hence the use of <i>to</i> with the +Infinitive in Mn.E. As late as the Elizabethan age the Gerund +sometimes replaced the Infinitive even after the auxiliary verbs:</p> + +<div class = "verse smaller"> +<p>    “Some pagan shore,</p> +<p>Where these two Christian armies <i>might combine</i></p> +<p>The blood of malice in a vein of league,</p> +<p>And not <i>to spend</i> it so unneighbourly.”</p> +<p class = "right"><i>—King John</i>, V, <span class = +"smallcaps">ii</span>, 39.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The Gerund is simply the +When <i>to</i> lost the meaning of purpose and came to be considered as +a merely formal prefix, <i>for</i> was used to supplement the purpose +element: <i>What went ye out for to see</i>?<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_XVIII_9" id = "tag_XVIII_9" href = "#note_XVIII_9">9</a></p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_1" id = "note_XVIII_1" href = +"#tag_XVIII_1">1.</a> +Lounsbury, <i>English Language</i>, Part II, § 241.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_2" id = "note_XVIII_2" href = +"#tag_XVIII_2">2.</a> +Usage sanctions <i>mood</i>, but the better spelling would be +<i>mode</i>. It is from the Lat. <i>modus</i>, whereas <i>mood</i> +(= <i>temper</i>) is O.E. <i>mōd</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_3" id = "note_XVIII_3" href = +"#tag_XVIII_3">3.</a> +Gildersleeve’s <i>Latin Grammar</i>, § 255.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_4" id = "note_XVIII_4" href = +"#tag_XVIII_4">4.</a> +Thus when Alfred writes that an event took place <i>before</i> the +founding of Rome, he uses the subjunctive: <b>ǣr ðǣm ðe Rōmeburh +getimbrod wǣre</b> = <i>before Rome were founded</i>; but, <b>æfter ðǣm +ðe Rōmeburh getimbrod wæs</b> = <i>after Rome was founded</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_5" id = "note_XVIII_5" href = +"#tag_XVIII_5">5.</a> +“By the time of Ælfric, however, the levelling influence of the +indicative [after verbs of saying] has made considerable +progress.”—Gorrell, <i>Indirect Discourse in Anglo-Saxon</i> +(Dissertation, 1895), p. 101.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_6" id = "note_XVIII_6" href = +"#tag_XVIII_6">6.</a> +Hotz, <i>On the Use of the Subjunctive Mood in Anglo-Saxon</i> (Zürich, +1882).</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_7" id = "note_XVIII_7" href = +"#tag_XVIII_7">7.</a> +Not, <i>He commanded the bier to be set down.</i> The Mn.E. passive in +such sentences is a loss both in force and directness.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_8" id = "note_XVIII_8" href = +"#tag_XVIII_8">8.</a> +Callaway, <i>The Absolute Participle in Anglo-Saxon</i> (Dissertation, +1889), p. 19.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XVIII_9" id = "note_XVIII_9" href = +"#tag_XVIII_9">9.</a> +This is not the place to discuss the Gerund in Mn.E., the so-called +“infinitive in <i>-ing</i>.” The whole subject has been befogged for the +lack of an accepted nomenclature, one that shall do violence neither to +grammar nor to history.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">74</span> +<a name = "page74" id = "page74"> </a> +<h3><a name = "chap_XIX" id = "chap_XIX"> +CHAPTER XIX.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Strong Verbs: Classes II and III.</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_109" id = "sec_109">109.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class II: The “Choose” Conjugation.</b></p> + +<p class = "center">Vowel Succession: <b>ēo</b>, <b>ēa</b>, <b>u</b>, +<b>o</b>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps">Infinitive. +<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XIX_1" id = "tag_XIX_1" href = +"#note_XIX_1">1</a></th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Pret. Sing.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Pret. Plur. +<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XIX_2" id = "tag_XIX_2" href = +"#note_XIX_2">2</a></th> +<th class = "smallcaps">Past Part. +<a class = "tag" href = "#note_XIX_2">2</a></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center"><b>cēos-an</b>,</td> +<td class = "center"><b>cēas</b>,</td> +<td class = "center"><b>cur-on</b></td> +<td class = "center"><b>gecor-en</b>, <i>to choose</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "4"><b>Indicative.</b></th> +<th colspan = "4"><b>Subjunctive.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</td> +<td class = "center smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic cēos-e</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">cēos-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū cīest (cēos-est)</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē cīest (cēos-eð)</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">cēos-að</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">cēos-en</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "4">Preterit.</td> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "4">Preterit.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic cēas</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">cur-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū cur-e</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē cēas</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "4"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">cur-on</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">cur-en</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><b>Imperative.</b></th> +<th><b>Infinitive.</b></th> +<th><b>Present Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 2.</td> +<td>cēos</td> +<td class = "center">cēos-an</td> +<td class = "center">cēos-ende</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>cēos-an</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>cēos-að</td> +<th><b>Gerund.</b></th> +<th><b>Past Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "center">tō cēos-anne (-enne)</td> +<td class = "center">gecor-en</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">75</span> +<a name = "page75" id = "page75"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_110" id = "sec_110">110.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class III: The “Bind” Conjugation.</b></p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td> +Vowel Succession:</td> +<td><b>i<br> +e</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>, <b>a</b>, <b>u</b>,</td> +<td><b>u<br> +o</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The present stem ends in <b>m</b>, <b>n</b>, <b>l</b>, <b>r</b>, or +<b>h</b>, + one or more consonants:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>m</b>:</td> +<td><b>belimp-an</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td><b>belǫmp<br> +belamp</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>, <b>belump-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>belump-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to belong</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>n</b>:</td> +<td><b>bind-an</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td><b>bǫnd<br> +band</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>, <b>bund-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebund-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to bind</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><b>l</b>:</td> +<td><b>help-an</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td><b>healp</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td><b>hulp-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>geholp-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to help</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>r</b>:</td> +<td><b>weorð-an</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td><b>wearð</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td><b>wurd-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>geword-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to become</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>h</b>:</td> +<td><b>gefeoht-an</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td><b>gefeaht</b>,</td> +<td></td> +<td><b>gefuht-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gefoht-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to fight</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—If the present stem ends +in a nasal (<b>m</b>, <b>n</b>) + a consonant, the past participle +retains the <b>u</b> of the pret. plur.; but if the present stem ends in +a liquid (<b>l</b>, <b>r</b>) or <b>h</b>, + a consonant, the past +participle has <b>o</b> instead of <b>u</b>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—Why do we not find +<b>*halp</b>, <b>*warð</b>, and <b>*faht</b> in the pret. sing.? Because +<b>a</b> before <b>l</b>, <b>r</b>, or <b>h</b>, + a consonant, +underwent “breaking” to <b>ea</b>. Breaking also changes every <b>e</b> +followed by <b>r</b> or <b>h</b>, + a consonant, to <b>eo</b>: +<b>weorðan</b> (< <b>*werðan</b>), feohtan +(< <b>*fehtan</b>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_111" id = "sec_111">111.</a></h5> + +<p> </p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "4"><b>Indicative.</b></td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "4"><b>Subjunctive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic bind-e</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū bintst (bind-est)</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>bind-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē bint (bind-eð)</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">bind-að</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">bind-en</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "4">Preterit.</td> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "4">Preterit.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic bǫnd</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū bund-e</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>bund-e</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē bǫnd</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> +<span class = "pagenum">76</span> +<a name = "page76" id = "page76"> </a> + </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"> +<i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">bund-on</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">bund-en</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><b>Imperative.</b></th> +<th><b>Infinitive.</b></th> +<th><b>Present Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 2.</td> +<td>bind</td> +<td class = "center">bind-an</td> +<td class = "center">bind-ende</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>bind-an</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>bind-að</td> +<th><b>Gerund.</b></th> +<th><b>Past Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "center">tō bind-anne (-enne)</td> +<td class = "center">gebund-en</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_112" id = "sec_112">112.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>ðæt gefeoht</b>, <i>fight</i>, <i>battle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo geręcednes</b>, <i>narration</i> [<b>ręccan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ðæt gesceap</b>, <i>creation</i> [<b>scieppan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>sēo hęrgung</b> (<a href = "#sec_39">§ <b>39</b>, (3)</a>), +<i>harrying</i>, <i>plundering</i> [<b>hęrgian</b>].</p> + +<p><b>sē medu</b> (<b>medo</b>) (<a href = "#sec_51">§ <b>51</b></a>), +<i>mead</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo meolc</b>, <i>milk</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē middangeard</b>, <i>world</i> [middle-yard].</p> + +<p><b>sē munuc</b>, <i>monk</i> [monachus].</p> + +<p><b>sēo mȳre</b>, mare [<b>mearh</b>].</p> + +<p><b>hē sǣde</b>, <i>he said</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hīe sǣdon</b>, <i>they said</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo spēd</b>, <i>riches</i> [speed].</p> + +<p><b>spēdig</b>, <i>rich</i>, <i>prosperous</i> [speedy].</p> + +<p><b>sēo tīd</b>, <i>time</i> [tide].</p> + +<p><b>unspēdig</b>, <i>poor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē westanwind</b>, <i>west-wind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt wīn</b>, <i>wine</i>.</p> +</div> + +<table class = "vocab" summary = "verbs in vocabulary"> +<tr> +<td><b>ārīsan</b>,</td> +<td><b>ārās</b>,</td> +<td><b>ārison</b>,</td> +<td><b>ārisen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to arise</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>bīdan</b>,</td> +<td><b>bād</b>,</td> +<td><b>bidon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebiden</b>,</td> +<td><i>to remain</i>, <i>expect</i> (with gen.)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>drēogan</b>,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XIX_3" id = "tag_XIX_3" +href = "#note_XIX_3">3</a></td> +<td><b>drēag</b>,</td> +<td><b>drugon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gedrogen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to endure</i>, <i>suffer</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>drincan</b>,</td> +<td><b>drǫnc</b>,</td> +<td><b>druncon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gedruncen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to drink</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>findan</b>,</td> +<td><b>fǫnd</b>,</td> +<td><b>fundon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gefunden</b>,</td> +<td><i>to find</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>geswīcan</b></td> +<td><b>geswāc</b>,</td> +<td><b>geswicon</b>,</td> +<td><b>geswicen</b>,</td> +<td><p><i>to cease</i>, <i>cease from</i> (with gen.)</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>iernan</b> (<b>yrnan</b>),</td> +<td><b>ǫrn</b>,</td> +<td><b>urnon</b>,</td> +<td><b>geurnen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to run</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>onginnan</b>,</td> +<td><b>ongǫnn</b>,</td> +<td><b>ongunnon</b>,</td> +<td><b>ongunnen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to begin</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>rīdan</b>,</td> +<td><b>rād</b>,</td> +<td><b>ridon</b>,</td> +<td><b>geriden</b>,</td> +<td><i>to ride</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>singan</b>,</td> +<td><b>sǫng</b>,</td> +<td><b>sungon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesungen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to sing</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>wrītan</b>,</td> +<td><b>wrāt</b>,</td> +<td><b>writon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gewriten</b>,</td> +<td><i>to write</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">77</span> +<a name = "page77" id = "page77"> </a> +<h5><a name = "sec_113" id = "sec_113">113.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Exercises.</p> + +<p>I. 1. Æfter ðissum wordum, sē munuc wrāt ealle ðā geręcednesse on +ānre bēc. 2. Ðā eorlas ridon ūp ǣr ðǣm ðe ðā Dęne ðæs gefeohtes +geswicen. 3. Cædmon sǫng ǣrest be middangeardes gesceape. +4. Sē cyning ǫnd ðā rīcostan męn drincað mȳran meolc, ǫnd ðā +unspēdigan drincað medu. 5. Ǫnd hē ārās ǫnd sē wind geswāc. +6. Hīe sǣdon ðæt hīe ðǣr westwindes biden. 7. Hwæt is nū mā +ymbe ðās ðing tō sprecanne? 8. Ðā sęcgas ongunnon geswīcan ðǣre +hęrgunga. 9. Ðā bēag ðæt lǫnd ðǣr ēastryhte, oððe sēo sǣ in on ðæt +lǫnd. 10. Ðās lǫnd belimpað tō, ðǣm Ęnglum. 11. Ðēah ðā Dęne +ealne dæg gefuhten, gīet hæfde Ælfred cyning sige. 12. Ǫnd ðæs +(afterwards) ymbe ānne mōnað gefeaht Ælfred cyning wið ealne ðone hęre +æt Wiltūne.</p> + +<p>II. 1. The most prosperous men drank mare’s milk and wine, but the +poor men drank mead. 2. I suffered many things before you began to +help me (dat.). 3. About two days afterwards (<b>Ðæs ymbe twēgen +dagas</b>), the plundering ceased. 4. The king said that he fought +against all the army (<b>hęre</b>). 5. Although the Danes remained +one month (<a href = "#sec_98">§ <b>98</b>, (1)</a>), they did not +begin to fight. 6. These gifts belonged to my brother. 7. The +earls were glad because their lord was (indicative) with them. +8. What did you find? 9. Then wrote he about (<b>be</b>) the +wise man’s deeds. 10. What more is there to endure?</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_XIX_1" id = "note_XIX_1" href = "#tag_XIX_1">1.</a> +A few verbs of Class II have <b>ū</b> instead of <b>ēo</b> in the +infinitive:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>brūcan</b>,</td> +<td><b>brēac</b>,</td> +<td><b>brucon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebrocen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to enjoy</i> [brook].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>būgan</b>,</td> +<td><b>bēag</b>,</td> +<td><b>bugon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebogen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to bend</i>, <i>bow</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><a name = "note_XIX_2" id = "note_XIX_2" href = "#tag_XIX_2">2.</a> +By a law known as Grammatical Change, final <b>ð</b>, <b>s</b>, and +<b>h</b> of strong verbs generally become <b>d</b>, <b>r</b>, and +<b>g</b>, respectively, in the preterit plural and past participle.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XIX_3" id = "note_XIX_3" href = "#tag_XIX_3">3.</a> +<i>Cf.</i> the Scotch “to <i>dree</i> one’s weird” = <i>to endure one’s +fate</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">78</span> +<a name = "page78" id = "page78"> </a> +<h3><a name = "chap_XX" id = "chap_XX"> +CHAPTER XX.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +Strong Verbs: Classes IV, V, VI, and VII.<br> +Contract Verbs.</span></h3> + +<p class = "notation"> +[The student can now complete the conjugation for himself (<a href = +"#sec_103">§ <b>103</b></a>). Only the principal parts will be +given.]</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_114" id = "sec_114">114.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class IV: The “Bear” Conjugation.</b></p> + +<p class = "center">Vowel Succession: <b>e</b>, <b>æ</b>, <b>ǣ</b>, +<b>o</b>.</p> + +<p>The present stem ends in <b>l</b>, <b>r</b>, or <b>m</b>, no +consonant following:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>l</b>:</td> +<td><b>hel-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>hæl</b>,</td> +<td><b>hǣl-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gehol-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to conceal</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>r</b>:</td> +<td><b>ber-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>bær</b>,</td> +<td><b>bǣr-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebor-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to bear</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The two following verbs are slightly irregular:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td> +<b>m</b>:</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><b>nim-an</b>,<br> +<b>cum-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>nōm</b> (<b>nam</b>),<br> +<b>c(w)ōm</b>,</td> +<td><b>nōm-on</b> (<b>nām-on</b>),<br> +<b>c(w)ōm-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>genum-en</b>,<br> +<b>gecum-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to take</i>.<br> +<i>to come</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_115" id = "sec_115">115.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class V: The “Give” Conjugation.</b></p> + +<p class = "center"> +Succession of Vowels: <b>e</b> (<b>ie</b>), <b>æ</b>, <b>ǣ</b>, +<b>e</b>.</p> + +<p>The present stem ends in a single consonant, never a liquid or +nasal:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>met-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>mæt</b>,</td> +<td><b>mǣton</b>,</td> +<td><b>gemet-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to measure</i>,</td> +<td><i>mete</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>gief-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>geaf</b>,</td> +<td><b>gēaf-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gegief-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to give</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—The palatal consonants, +<b>g</b>, <b>c</b>, and <b>sc</b>, convert a following <b>e</b> into +<b>ie</b>, <b>æ</b> into <b>ea</b>, and <b>ǣ</b> into <b>ēa</b>. Hence +<b>giefan</b> (< <b>*gefan</b>), <b>geaf</b> +(< <b>*gæf</b>), <b>gēafon</b> (< <b>*gǣfon</b>), +<b>gegiefen</b> (< <b>*gegefen</b>). This change is known as +Palatalization. See <a href = "#sec_8">§ <b>8</b></a>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—The infinitives of the +following important verbs are only apparently exceptional:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>biddan</b>,</td> +<td><b>bæd</b>,</td> +<td><b>bǣd-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebed-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to ask for</i> [bid].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>licgan</b>,</td> +<td><b>læg</b>,</td> +<td><b>lǣg-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>geleg-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to lie</i>, <i>extend</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sittan</b>,</td> +<td><b>sæt</b>,</td> +<td><b>sǣt-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>geset-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to sit</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">79</span> +<a name = "page79" id = "page79"> </a> +<p>The original <b>e</b> reappears in the participial stems. It was +changed to <b>i</b> in the present stems on account of a former +<b>-jan</b> in the infinitive (<b>bid-jan</b>, etc.). See <a href = +"#sec_61">§ <b>61</b></a>. To the same cause is due the doubling of +consonants in the infinitive. All simple consonants in O.E., with the +exception of <b>r</b>, were doubled after a short vowel, when an +original <b>j</b> followed.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_116" id = "sec_116">116.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class VI: The “Shake” Conjugation.</b></p> + +<p class = "center">Succession of Vowels: <b>a</b>, <b>ō</b>, <b>ō</b>, +<b>a</b>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>scac-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>scōc</b>,</td> +<td><b>scōc-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gescac-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to shake</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>far-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>fōr</b>,</td> +<td><b>fōr-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gefar-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to go</i> [fare].</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_117" id = "sec_117">117.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><b>Class VII: The “Fall” Conjugation.</b></p> + + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td> +Vowel Succession:</td> +<td><b>ā<br> +ǣ</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>, <b>ē</b>, <b>ē</b>,</td> +<td><b>ā<br> +ǣ</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>; or</td> + +<td><b>ea<br> +ēa<br> +ō</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>, <b>ēo</b>, <b>ēo</b>,</td> +<td><b>ea<br> +ēa<br> +ō</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>hāt-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>hēt</b>,</td> +<td><b>hēt-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gehāt-en</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><i>to call</i>, <i>name</i>,<br> +<i>command</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><b>lǣt-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>lēt</b>,</td> +<td><b>lēt-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gelǣt-en</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> </td> +<td><i>to let</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>feall-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>fēoll</b>,</td> +<td><b>fēoll-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gefeall-en</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> </td> +<td><i>to fall</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><b>heald-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>hēold</b>,</td> +<td><b>hēold-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>geheald-en</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> </td> +<td><i>to hold</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><b>hēaw-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>hēow</b>,</td> +<td><b>hēow-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gehēaw-en</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> </td> +<td><i>to hew</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><b>grōw-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>grēow</b>,</td> +<td><b>grēow-on</b>,</td> +<td><b>gegrōw-en</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> </td> +<td><i>to grow</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—This class consists of +the Reduplicating Verbs; that is, those verbs that originally formed +their preterits not by internal vowel change (ablaut), but by prefixing +to the present stem the initial consonant + <b>e</b> (<i>cf.</i> Gk. +<span class = "greek" title = "le-loipa">λέ-λοιπα</span> and Lat. +<i>dĕ-di</i>). Contraction then took place between the syllabic prefix +and the root, the fusion resulting in <b>ē</b> or <b>ēo</b>: +<b>*he-hat</b> > <b>heht</b> > <b>hēt</b>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—A peculiar interest +attaches to <b>hātan</b>: the forms <b>hātte</b> and <b>hātton</b> are +the sole remains in O.E. of the original Germanic passive. They are used +both as presents and as preterits: <b>hātte</b> = <i>I am</i> or <i>was +called</i>, <i>he is</i> or <i>was called</i>. No other verb in O.E. +could have a passive sense without calling in the aid of the verb <i>to +be</i> (<a href = "#sec_141">§ <b>141</b></a>).</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">80</span> +<a name = "page80" id = "page80"> </a> +<h4>Contract Verbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_118" id = "sec_118">118.</a></h5> + +<p>The few Contract Verbs found in O.E. do not constitute a new class; +they fall under Classes I, II, V, VI, and VII, already treated. The +present stem ended originally in <b>h</b>. This was lost before +<b>-an</b> of the infinitive, contraction and compensatory lengthening +being the result. The following are the most important of these +verbs:</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +Classes.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td class = "right">I.</td> +<td><b>ðēon</b></td> +<td>(< <b>*ðīhan</b>),</td> +<td><b>ðāh</b>,</td> +<td><b>ðig-on</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td><b>geðig-en<br> +geðung-en</b></td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td>, <i>to thrive</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right">II.</td> +<td><b>tēon</b></td> +<td>(< <b>*tēohan</b>),</td> +<td><b>tēah</b>,</td> +<td><b>tug-on</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>getog-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to draw</i>, <i>go</i> [tug].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">V.</td> +<td><b>sēon</b></td> +<td>(< <b>*sehwan</b>),</td> +<td><b>seah</b>,</td> +<td><b>sāw-on</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>gesew-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to see</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">VI.</td> +<td><b>slēan</b></td> +<td>(< <b>*slahan</b>),</td> +<td><b>slōh</b>,</td> +<td><b>slōg-on</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>geslæg-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to slay</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">VII.</td> +<td><b>fōn</b></td> +<td>(< <b>*fōhan</b>),</td> +<td><b>fēng</b>,</td> +<td><b>fēng-on</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>gefǫng-en</b>,</td> +<td><i>to seize</i> [fang].</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_119" id = "sec_119">119.</a></h5> + +<p>The Present Indicative of these verbs runs as follows (see rules of +<b>i-</b>umlaut, <a href = "#sec_58">§ <b>58</b></a>):</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "2">Ic ðēo</td> +<td>tēo</td> +<td>sēo</td> +<td>slēa</td> +<td>fō</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "2">ðū ðīhst</td> +<td>tīehst</td> +<td>siehst</td> +<td>sliehst</td> +<td>fēhst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "2">hē ðīhð</td> +<td>tīehð</td> +<td>siehð</td> +<td>sliehð</td> +<td>fēhð</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>ðēoð</td> +<td>tēoð</td> +<td>sēoð</td> +<td>slēað</td> +<td>fōð</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The other tenses and moods are regularly formed from the given +stems.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_120" id = "sec_120">120.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>sēo ǣht</b>, <i>property</i>, <i>possession</i> [<b>āgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>aweg</b>, <i>away</i> [<b>on weg</b>].</p> + +<p><b>sēo fierd</b>, <i>English army</i> [<b>faran</b>].</p> + +<p><b>sē hęre</b>, <i>Danish army</i> [<b>hęrgian</b>].</p> + +<p><b>on gehwæðre hǫnd</b>, <i>on both sides</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige niman</b> (= <b>sige habban</b>), <i>to win</i> (<i>the</i>) +<i>victory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo sprǣc</b>, <i>speech</i>, <i>language</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">81</span> +<a name = "page81" id = "page81"> </a> + +<p><b>tō rīce fōn</b>, <i>to come to the throne</i>.<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_XX_1" id = "tag_XX_1" href = "#note_XX_1">1</a></p> +</div> + +<table class = "vocab" summary = "vocabulary"> +<tr> +<td> +<p><b>ðæt wæl</b> [Val-halla]</p> +<p><b>sē wælsliht</b>,</p> +</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle"> +<p><i>slaughter</i>, <i>carnage</i>.</p> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>sē weall</b>, <i>wall</i>, <i>rampart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt wildor</b>, <i>wild beast</i>, <i>reindeer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē wīngeard</b>, <i>vineyard</i>.</p> +</div> + +<table class = "vocab" summary = "verbs in vocabulary"> +<tr> +<td><b>ābrecan</b>,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XX_2" id = "tag_XX_2" +href = "#note_XX_2">2</a></td> +<td><b>ābræc</b>,</td> +<td><b>ābrǣcon</b>,</td> +<td><b>ābrocen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to break down</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>cweðan</b>,</td> +<td><b>cwæð</b>,</td> +<td><b>cwǣdon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gecweden</b>,</td> +<td><i>to say</i> [quoth].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>gesēon</b>,</td> +<td><b>geseah</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesāwon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesewen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to see</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>grōwan</b>,</td> +<td><b>grēow</b>,</td> +<td><b>grēowon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gegrōwen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to grow</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ofslēan</b>,</td> +<td><b>ofslōh</b>,</td> +<td><b>ofslōgon</b>,</td> +<td><b>ofslægen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to slay</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sprecan</b>,</td> +<td><b>spræc</b>,</td> +<td><b>sprǣcon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesprecen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to speak</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>stelan</b>,</td> +<td><b>stæl</b>,</td> +<td><b>stǣlon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gestolen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to steal</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>stǫndan</b>,</td> +<td><b>stōd</b>,</td> +<td><b>stōdon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gestǫnden</b>,</td> +<td><i>to stand</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>weaxan</b>,</td> +<td><b>wēox</b>,</td> +<td><b>wēoxon</b>,</td> +<td><b>geweaxen</b>,</td> +<td><i>to grow</i>, <i>increase</i> [wax].</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_121" id = "sec_121">121.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><span class = "smallcaps"> Exercises.</span></p> + +<p>I. 1. Æfter ðǣm sōðlīce (indeed) ealle męn sprǣcon āne (one) sprǣce. +2. Ǫnd hē cwæð: “Ðis is ān folc, ǫnd ealle hīe sprecað āne sprǣce.” +3. On sumum stōwum wīngeardas grōwað. 4. Hē hēt ðā nǣdran +ofslēan. 5. Ðā Ęngle ābrǣcon ðone lǫngan weall, ǫnd sige nōmon. +6. Ǫnd ðæt sǣd grēow ǫnd wēox. 7. Ic ne geseah ðone mǫn sē ðe +ðæs cnapan adesan stæl. 8. Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on ðǣm ǣhtum ðe +hiera spēda on<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XX_3" id = "tag_XX_3" href = +"#note_XX_3">3</a> bēoð, ðæt is, on wildrum. 9. Ǫnd ðǣr wearð (was) +micel wælsliht on gehwæðre hǫnd. 10. Ǫnd æfter ðissum gefeohte cōm +Ælfred cyning mid his fierde, ǫnd gefeaht wið ealne ðone hęre, ǫnd sige +nōm. 11. Ðēos burg hātte<a class = "tag" name = "tag_XX_4" id = +"tag_XX_4" href = "#note_XX_4">4</a> Æscesdūn (Ashdown). 12. Ðǣre +cwēne līc læg on ðǣm hūse. 13. Ǫnd sē dǣl ðe ðǣr aweg cōm wæs swȳðe +lȳtel. 14. Ǫnd ðæs ðrēotīene dagas Æðered tō rīce fēng.</p> + +<p>II. 1. The men stood in the ships and fought against the Danes. +2. Before the thanes came, the king rode away. +<span class = "pagenum">82</span> +<a name = "page82" id = "page82"> </a> +3. They said (<b>sǣdon</b>) that all the men spoke one language. +4. They bore the queen’s body to Wilton. 5. Alfred gave many +gifts to his army (dat. without <b>tō</b>) before he went away. +6. These men are called earls. 7. God sees all things. +8. The boy held the reindeer with (<b>mid</b>) his hands. +9. About six months afterwards, Alfred gained the victory, and came +to the throne. 10. He said that there was very great slaughter on +both sides.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_XX_1" id = "note_XX_1" href = "#tag_XX_1">1.</a> +Literally, <i>to take to</i> (<i>the</i>) <i>kingdom</i>. <i>Cf.</i> +“Have you anything to take to?” (<i>Two Gentlemen of Verona</i>, IV, +<span class = "smallcaps">i</span>, 42).</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XX_2" id = "note_XX_2" href = "#tag_XX_2">2.</a> +<b>Brecan</b> belongs properly in Class V, but it has been drawn into +Class IV possibly through the influence of the <b>r</b> in the root.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XX_3" id = "note_XX_3" href = "#tag_XX_3">3.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (5)</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_XX_4" id = "note_XX_4" href = "#tag_XX_4">4.</a> +See <a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b>, Note 2</a>.</p> +</div> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XXI" id = "chap_XXI"> +CHAPTER XXI.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead">Weak Verbs (<span class = "plain">§ +<b>18</b></span>).</span></h3> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_122" id = "sec_122">122.</a></h5> + +<p>The verbs belonging to the Weak Conjugation are generally of more +recent origin than the strong verbs, being frequently formed from the +roots of strong verbs. The Weak Conjugation was the growing conjugation +in O.E. as it is in Mn.E. We instinctively put our newly coined or +borrowed words into this conjugation (<i>telegraphed</i>, +<i>boycotted</i>); and children, by the analogy of weak verbs, say +<i>runned</i> for <i>ran</i>, <i>seed</i> for <i>saw</i>, <i>teared</i> +for <i>tore</i>, <i>drawed</i> for <i>drew</i>, and <i>growed</i> for +<i>grew</i>. So, for example, when Latin <i>dictāre</i> and +<i>breviāre</i> came into O.E., they came as weak verbs, <b>dihtian</b> +and <b>brēfian</b>.</p> + + +<h4>The Three Classes of Weak Verbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_123" id = "sec_123">123.</a></h5> + +<p>There is no difficulty in telling, from the infinitive alone, to +which of the three classes a weak verb belongs. Class III has been so +invaded by Class II +<span class = "pagenum">83</span> +<a name = "page83" id = "page83"> </a> +that but three important verbs remain to it: <b>habban</b>, <i>to +have</i>; <b>libban</b>, <i>to live</i>; and <b>sęcgan</b>, <i>to +say</i>. Distinction is to be made, therefore, only between Classes II +and I. Class II contains the verbs with infinitive in <b>-ian</b> +not preceded by <b>r</b>. Class I contains the remaining weak verbs; +that is, those with infinitive in <b>-r-ian</b> and those with +infinitive in <b>-an</b> (not <b>-ian</b>).</p> + + +<h4>Class I.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_124" id = "sec_124">124.</a></h5> + +<p>The preterit singular and past participle of Class I end in +<b>-ede</b> and <b>-ed</b>, or <b>-de</b> and <b>-ed</b> +respectively.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The infinitives of this +class ended originally in <b>-jan</b> (= <b>-ian</b>). This +accounts for the prevalence of <b>i-</b>umlaut in these verbs, and also +for the large number of short-voweled stems ending in a double consonant +(<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>). The weak verb +is frequently the causative of the corresponding strong verb. In such +cases, the root of the weak verb corresponds in form to the preterit +singular of the strong verb: Mn.E. <i>drench</i> (= <i>to make +drink</i>), <i>lay</i> (= <i>to make lie</i>), <i>rear</i> +(= <i>to make rise</i>), and <i>set</i> (= <i>to make +sit</i>), are the umlauted forms of <b>drǫnc</b> (preterit singular of +<b>drincan</b>), <b>læg</b> (preterit singular of <b>licgan</b>), +<b>rās</b> (preterit singular of <b>rīsan</b>), and <b>sæt</b> (preterit +singular of <b>sittan</b>).</p> + + +<h4>Preterit and Past Participle in <i>-ede</i> and <i>-ed</i>.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_125" id = "sec_125">125.</a></h5> + +<p>Verbs with infinitive in <b>-an</b> preceded by <b>ri-</b> or the +double consonants <b>mm</b>, <b>nn</b>, <b>ss</b>, <b>bb</b>, <b>cg</b> +(= <b>gg</b>), add <b>-ede</b> for the preterit, and <b>-ed</b> for +the past participle, the double consonant being always made single:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>ri</b>:</td> +<td><b>nęri-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>nęr-ede</b>,</td> +<td><b>genęr-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to save</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>mm</b>:</td> +<td><b>fręmm-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>fręm-ede</b>,</td> +<td><b>gefręm-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to perform</i> [frame].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>nn</b>:</td> +<td><b>ðęnn-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>ðęn-ede</b>,</td> +<td><b>geðęn-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to extend</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ss</b>:</td> +<td><b>cnyss-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>cnys-ede</b>,</td> +<td><b>gecnys-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to beat</i>. +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">84</span> +<a name = "page84" id = "page84"> </a> +<b>bb</b>:</td> +<td><b>swębb-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>swęf-ede</b>,</td> +<td><b>geswęf-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to put to sleep</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>cg</b>:</td> +<td><b>węcg-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>węg-ede</b>,</td> +<td><b>gewęg-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to agitate</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—<b>Lęcgan</b>, <i>to +lay</i>, is the only one of these verbs that syncopates the <b>e</b>: +<b>lęcgan</b>, <b>lęgde</b> (<b>lēde</b>), <b>gelęgd</b> (<b>gelēd</b>), +instead of <b>lęgede</b>, <b>gelęged</b>.</p> + + +<h4>Preterit and Past Participle in <i>-de</i> and <i>-ed</i>.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_126" id = "sec_126">126.</a></h5> + +<p>All the other verbs belonging to Class I. add <b>-de</b> for the +preterit and <b>-ed</b> for the past participle. This division includes, +therefore, all stems long by nature (<a href = +"#sec_10">§ <b>10</b>, (3)</a>, (<i>a</i>)):</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>dǣl-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>dǣl-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>gedǣl-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to deal out</i>, <i>divide</i> [<b>dǣl</b>].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>dēm-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>dēm-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>gedēm-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to judge</i> [<b>dōm</b>].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>grēt-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>grēt-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>gegrēt-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to greet</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>hīer-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>hīer-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>gehīer-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to hear</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>lǣd-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>lǣd-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>gelǣd-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to lead</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—A preceding voiceless +consonant (<a href = "#sec_9">§ <b>9</b>, Note</a>) changes +<b>-de</b> into <b>-te</b>: <b>*grēt-de</b> > <b>grēt-te</b>; +<b>*mēt-de</b> > <b>mēt-te</b>; <b>*īec-de</b> > <b>īec-te</b>. +Syncope and contraction are also frequent in the participles: +<b>gegrēt-ed</b> > <b>*gegrēt-d</b> > <b>gegrēt(t)</b>; +<b>gelǣd-ed</b> > <b>gelǣd(d)</b>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—<b>Būan</b>, <i>to +dwell</i>, <i>cultivate</i>, has an admixture of strong forms in the +past participle: <b>būan</b>, <b>būde</b>, <b>gebūd</b> (<b>bȳn</b>, +<b>gebūn</b>). The present participle survives in Mn.E. <i>husband</i> = +<i>house-dweller</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_127" id = "sec_127">127.</a></h5> + +<p>It includes, also, all stems long by position (<a href = "#sec_10">§ +<b>10</b>, (3)</a>, (<i>b</i>)) except those in <b>mm</b>, <b>nn</b>, +<b>ss</b>, <b>bb</b>, and <b>cg</b> (<a href = +"#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>):</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>sęnd-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>sęnd-e</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesęnd-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to send</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sętt-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>sęt-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesęt-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to set</i> [<b>sittan</b>].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sigl-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>sigl-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesigl-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to sail</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>spęnd-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>spęnd-e</b>,</td> +<td><b>gespęnd-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to spend</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>trędd-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>tręd-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>getręd-ed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to tread</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The participles frequently +undergo syncope and contraction: <b>gesęnded</b> > <b>gesęnd</b>; +<b>gesęted</b> > <b>gesęt(t)</b>; <b>gespęnded</b> > +<b>gespęnd</b>; <b>getręded</b> > <b>getręd(d)</b>.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">85</span> +<a name = "page85" id = "page85"> </a> +<h4>Irregular Verbs of Class I.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_128" id = "sec_128">128.</a></h5> + +<p>There are about twenty verbs belonging to Class I that are irregular +in having no umlaut in the preterit and past participle. The preterit +ends in <b>-de</b>, the past participle in <b>-d</b>; but, through the +influence of a preceding voiceless consonant (<a href = +"#sec_9">§ <b>9</b>, Note</a>), <b>-ed</b> is generally unvoiced to +<b>-te</b>, and <b>-d</b> to <b>-t</b>. The most important of these +verbs are as follows:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>bring-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>brōh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>gebrōh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to bring</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>byc-gan</b>,</td> +<td><b>boh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>geboh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to buy</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sēc-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>sōh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesōh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to seek</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sęll-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>seal-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>geseal-d</b>,</td> +<td><i>to give</i>, <i>sell</i> [hand-sel].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>tǣc-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>tǣh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>getǣh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to teach</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>tęll-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>teal-de</b>,</td> +<td><b>geteal-d</b>,</td> +<td><i>to count</i> [tell].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ðęnc-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>ðōh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>geðōh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to think</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>ðync-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>ðūh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>geðūh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to seem</i> [methinks].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>wyrc-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>worh-te</b>,</td> +<td><b>geworh-t</b>,</td> +<td><i>to work</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Such of these verbs as have +stems in <b>c</b> or <b>g</b> are frequently written with an inserted +<b>e</b>: <b>bycgean</b>, <b>sēcean</b>, <b>tǣcean</b>, etc. This +<b>e</b> indicates that <b>c</b> and <b>g</b> have palatal value; that +is, are to be followed with a vanishing <b>y-</b>sound. In such cases, +O.E. <b>c</b> usually passes into Mn.E. <i>ch</i>: <b>tǣc(e)an</b> > +<i>to teach</i>; <b>rǣc(e)an</b> > <i>to reach</i>; +<b>stręcc(e)an</b> > <i>to stretch</i>. <b>Sēc(e)an</b> gives +<i>beseech</i> as well as <i>seek</i>. See <a href = +"#sec_8">§ <b>8</b></a>.</p> + + +<h4>Conjugation of Class I.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_129" id = "sec_129">129.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>nęrian</b>, <i>to save</i>; <b>fręmman</b>, <i>to +perform</i>; <b>dǣlan</b>, <i>to divide</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Indicative.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "6">Present.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic nęrie</td> +<td>fręmme</td> +<td>dǣle</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū nęrest</td> +<td>fręmest</td> +<td>dǣlst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē nęreð</td> +<td>fręmeð</td> +<td>dǣlð</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">nęriað</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>fręmmað</td> +<td>dǣlað</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "6"> +<span class = "pagenum">86</span> +<a name = "page86" id = "page86"> </a> +Preterit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic nęrede</td> +<td>fręmede</td> +<td>dǣlde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū nęredest</td> +<td>fręmedest</td> +<td>dǣldest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē nęrede</td> +<td>fręmede</td> +<td>dǣlde</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">nęredon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>fręmedon</td> +<td>dǣldon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Subjunctive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "6">Present.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">nęrie</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>fręmme</td> +<td>dǣle</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>nęrien</td> +<td>fręmmen</td> +<td>dǣlen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "heading" colspan = "6"> +Preterit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">nęrede</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>fręmede</td> +<td>dǣlde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">nęreden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>fręmeden</td> +<td>dǣlden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Imperative.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">nęre</td> +<td>fręme</td> +<td>dǣl</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">nęrian</td> +<td>fręmman</td> +<td>dǣlan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">nęriað</td> +<td>fręmmað</td> +<td>dǣlað</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3"><b>Infinitive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td>nęrian</td> +<td>fręmman</td> +<td>dǣlan</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3"><b>Gerund.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td>tō nęrianne (-enne)</td> +<td>tō fręmmanne (-enne)</td> +<td>tō dǣlanne (-enne)</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3"><b>Present Participle.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td>nęriende</td> +<td>fręmmende</td> +<td>dǣlende</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3"><b>Past Participle.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td>genęred</td> +<td>gefręmed</td> +<td>gedǣled</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">87</span> +<a name = "page87" id = "page87"> </a> +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The endings of the preterit +present no difficulties; in the 2d and 3d singular present, however, the +student will observe (<i>a</i>) that double consonants in the stem are +made single: <b>fręmest</b>, <b>fręmeð</b> (not <b>*freęmmest</b>, +<b>*freęmmeð</b>); <b>ðęnest</b>, <b>ðęneð</b>; <b>sętest</b> +(<b>sętst</b>), <b>seęteð</b> (<b>sętt</b>); <b>fylst</b>, <b>fylð</b>, +from <b>fyllan</b>, <i>to fill</i>; (<i>b</i>) that syncope is the rule +in stems long by nature: <b>dǣlst</b> (< <b>dǣlest</b>), +<b>dǣlð</b> (< <b>dǣleð</b>); <b>dēmst</b> +(< <b>dēmest</b>), <b>dēmð</b> (< <b>dēmeð</b>); +<b>hīerst</b> (< <b>hīerest</b>), <b>hīerð</b> +(< <b>hīereð</b>). Double consonants are also made single in the +imperative 2d singular and in the past participle. Stems long by nature +take no final <b>-e</b> in the imperative: <b>dǣl</b>, <b>hīer</b>, +<b>dēm</b>.</p> + + +<h4>Class II.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_130" id = "sec_130">130.</a></h5> + +<p>The infinitive of verbs belonging to this class ends in <b>-ian</b> +(not <b>-r-ian</b>), the preterit singular in <b>-ode</b>, the past +participle in <b>-od</b>. The preterit plural usually has <b>-edon</b>, +however, instead of <b>-odon</b>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>eard-ian</b><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">, +</ins></td> +<td><b>eard-ode</b>,</td> +<td><b>geeard-od</b>,</td> +<td><i>to dwell</i> [<b>eorðe</b>].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>luf-ian</b>,</td> +<td><b>luf-ode</b>,</td> +<td><b>geluf-od</b>,</td> +<td><i>to love</i> [<b>lufu</b>].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>rīcs-ian</b>,</td> +<td><b>rīcs-ode</b>,</td> +<td><b>gerīcs-od</b>,</td> +<td><i>to rule</i> [<b>rīce</b>].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sealf-ian</b>,</td> +<td><b>sealf-ode</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesealf-od</b>,</td> +<td><i>to anoint</i> [salve].</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>segl-ian</b>,</td> +<td><b>segl-ode</b>,</td> +<td><b>gesegl-od</b>,</td> +<td><i>to sail</i> [<b>segel</b>].</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—These verbs have no trace +of original umlaut, since their <b>-ian</b> was once <b>-ōjan</b>. +Hence, the vowel of the stem was shielded from the influence of the +<b>j</b> (= <b>i</b>) by the interposition of <b>ō</b>.</p> + + +<h4>Conjugation of Class II.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_131" id = "sec_131">131.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigm of <b>lufian</b>, <i>to love</i>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "4"><b>Indicative.</b></td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "4"><b>Subjunctive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic lufie</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">lufie</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðu lufast</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē lufað</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">lufiað</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">lufien</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4"> +<span class = "pagenum">88</span> +<a name = "page88" id = "page88"> </a> +Preterit.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Preterit.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic lufode</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">lufode</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū lufodest</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē lufode</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">lufedon (-odon)</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">lufeden (-oden)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th colspan = "2"><b>Imperative.</b></th> +<th><b>Infinitive.</b></th> +<th><b>Present Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 2.</td> +<td>lufa</td> +<td class = "center">lufian</td> +<td class = "center">lufiende</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>lufian</td> +<td></td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>lufiað</td> +<th><b>Gerund.</b></th> +<th><b>Past Participle.</b></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class = "center">tō lufianne (-enne)</td> +<td class = "center">gelufod</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note<ins class = "correction" title = +"superfluous ."> </ins>1.</span>—The <b>-ie</b> (<b>-ien</b>) +occurring in the present must be pronounced as a dissyllable. The +<b>y-</b>sound thus interposed between the <b>i</b> and <b>e</b> is +frequently indicated by the letter <b>g</b>: <b>lufie</b>, or +<b>lufige</b>; <b>lufien</b>, or <b>lufigen</b>. So also for <b>ia</b>: +<b>lufiað</b>, or <b>lufigað</b>; <b>lufian</b>, or +<b>lufig(e)an</b>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—In the preterit singular, +<b>-ade</b>, <b>-ude</b>, and <b>-ede</b> are not infrequent for +<b>-ode</b>.</p> + + +<h4>Class III.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_132" id = "sec_132">132.</a></h5> + +<p>The few verbs belonging here show a blending of Classes I and II. +Like certain verbs of Class I (<a href = +"#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), the preterit and past participle are +formed by adding <b>-de</b> and <b>-d</b>; like Class II, the 2d and 3d +present indicative singular end in <b>-ast</b> and <b>-að</b>, the +imperative 2d singular in <b>-a</b>:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>habb-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>hæf-de</b><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">, </ins></td> +<td><b>gehæf-d</b>,</td> +<td><i>to have</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>libb-an</b>,</td> +<td><b>lif-de</b><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">, </ins></td> +<td><b>gelif-d</b>,</td> +<td><i>to live</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sęcg-an</b><ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">, </ins></td> +<td><b>sǣd-e</b> (<b>sæg-de</b>),</td> +<td><b>gesǣd</b> (<b>gesæg-d</b>),</td> +<td><i>to say</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class = "pagenum">89</span> +<a name = "page89" id = "page89"> </a> +<h4>Conjugation of Class III.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_133" id = "sec_133">133.</a></h5> + +<p>Paradigms of <b>habban</b>, <i>to have</i>; <b>libban</b>, <i>to +live</i>; <b>sęcgan</b>, <i>to say</i>.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Indicative.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "6">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic hæbbe</td> +<td>libbe</td> +<td>sęcge</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū hæfst (hafast)</td> +<td>lifast</td> +<td>sægst (sagast)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē hæfð (hafað)</td> +<td>lifað</td> +<td>sægð (sagað)</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">habbað</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>libbað</td> +<td>sęcgað</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "6">Preterit.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic hæfde</td> +<td>lifde</td> +<td>sǣde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū hæfdest</td> +<td>lifdest</td> +<td>sǣdest</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē hæfde</td> +<td>lifde</td> +<td>sǣde</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">hæfdon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>lifdon</td> +<td>sǣdon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Subjunctive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "6">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">hæbbe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>libbe</td> +<td>sęcge</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">hæbben</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>libben</td> +<td>sęcgen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "6">Preterit.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">hæfde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>lifde</td> +<td>sǣde</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">hæfden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>lifden</td> +<td>sǣden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Imperative.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hafa</td> +<td>lifa</td> +<td>saga</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">habban</td> +<td>libban</td> +<td>sęcgan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">habbað</td> +<td>libbað</td> +<td>sęcgað</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> +<span class = "pagenum">90</span> +<a name = "page90" id = "page90"> </a> + </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"> +<b>Infinitive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td colspan = "4">habban</td> +<td>libban</td> +<td>sęcgan</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Gerund.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td colspan = "4">tō habbanne (-enne)</td> +<td>tō libbanne (-enne)</td> +<td>tō sęcganne (-enne)</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Present Participle.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td colspan = "4">hæbbende</td> +<td>libbende</td> +<td>sęcgende</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "6"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "6"><b>Past Participle.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr class = "center"> +<td colspan = "4">gehæfd</td> +<td>gelifd</td> +<td>gesǣd</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chap_XXII" id = "chap_XXII"> +CHAPTER XXII.</a></h3> + +<p><span class = "smallcaps">Remaining Verbs</span>; <span class = +"smallcaps">Verb-Phrases with</span> <b>habban</b>, <b>bēon</b>, <span +class = "smallcaps">and</span> <b>weorðan</b>.</p> + + +<h4>Anomalous Verbs. (See <a href = "#sec_19">§ 19</a>.)</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_134" id = "sec_134">134.</a></h5> + +<p>These are:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td><b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>),</td> +<td><b>wæs</b>,</td> +<td><b>wǣron</b>,</td> +<td>——,</td> +<td><i>to be</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>willan</b>,</td> +<td><b>wolde</b>,</td> +<td><b>woldon</b>,</td> +<td>——,</td> +<td><i>to will</i>, <i>intend</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>dōn</b>,</td> +<td><b>dyde</b>,</td> +<td><b>dydon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gedōn</b>,</td> +<td><i>to do</i>, <i>cause</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>gān</b>,</td> +<td><b>ēode</b>,</td> +<td><b>ēodon</b>,</td> +<td><b>gegān</b>,</td> +<td><i>to go</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—In the original +Indo-Germanic language, the first person of the present indicative +singular ended in (1) <b>ō</b> or (2) <b>mi</b>. <i>Cf.</i> +Gk. <span class = "greek" title = "lu-ô">λύ-ω</span>, <span class = +"greek" title = "ei-mi">εἰ-μί</span>, Lat. <i>am-ō</i>, <i>su-m</i>. The +Strong and Weak Conjugations of O.E. are survivals of the +<b>ō-</b>class. The four Anomalous Verbs mentioned above are the sole +remains in O.E. of the <b>mi-</b>class. Note the surviving <b>m</b> in +<b>eom</b> <i>I am</i>, and <b>dōm</b> <i>I do</i> (Northumbrian form). +These <b>mi-</b>verbs are sometimes called non-Thematic to distinguish +them from the Thematic or <b>ō-</b>verbs.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">91</span> +<a name = "page91" id = "page91"> </a> +<h4>Conjugation of Anomalous Verbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_135" id = "sec_135">135.</a></h5> + +<p>Only the present indicative and subjunctive are at all irregular:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "7"><b>Indicative.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "7">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic eom (bēom)</td> +<td>wille</td> +<td>dō</td> +<td>gā</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū eart (bist)</td> +<td>wilt</td> +<td>dēst</td> +<td>gǣst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē is (bið)</td> +<td>wille</td> +<td>dēð</td> +<td>gǣð</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "7"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">sind(on)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>willað</td> +<td>dōð</td> +<td>gāð</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "7"><b>Subjunctive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "7">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">sīe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>wille</td> +<td>dō</td> +<td>gā</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "5"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">sīen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>willen</td> +<td>dōn</td> +<td>gān</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The preterit subjunctive of +<b>bēon</b> is formed, of course, not from <b>wæs</b>, but from +<b>wǣron</b>. See <a href = +"#sec_103">§ <b>103</b>, (3)</a>.</p> + + +<h4>Preterit-Present Verbs. (See <a href = "#sec_19">§ 19</a>.)</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_136" id = "sec_136">136.</a></h5> + +<p>These verbs are called Preterit-Present because the present tense +(indicative and subjunctive) of each of them is, in form, a strong +preterit, the old present having been displaced by the new. They all +have weak preterits. Most of the Mn.E. Auxiliary Verbs belong to +this class.</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>witan</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><b>wiste</b>,<br> +<b>wisse</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>wiston</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>gewiten</b>,</td> +<td><i>to know</i> [to wit, wot].</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><b>āgan</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>āhte</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>āhton</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>āgen</b> (adj.),</td> +<td><i>to possess</i> [owe].</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>cunnan</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>cūðe</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>cūðon</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td><b>gecunnen</b>,<br> +<b>cūð</b> (adj.),</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td><i>to know</i>, <i>can</i> [uncouth, cunning].</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">92</span> +<a name = "page92" id = "page92"> </a> +<b>durran</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>dorste</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>dorston</b>,</td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3">——</td> +<td><i>to dare</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>sculan</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>sceolde</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>sceoldon</b>,</td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3">——</td> +<td><i>shall</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr class = "middle"> +<td><b>magan</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>meahte</b>,<br> +<b>mihte</b>,</td> +<td><b>meahton</b>,<br> +<b>mihton</b>,</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3">——</td> +<td><i>to be able</i>, <i>may</i>.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><b>mōtan</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "3"><b>mōste</b>,</td> +<td colspan = "2"><b>mōston</b>,</td> +<td class = "center" colspan = "3">——</td> +<td><i>may</i>, <i>must</i>.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—The change in meaning from +preterit to present, with retention of the preterit form, is not +uncommon in other languages. Several examples are found in Latin and +Greek (cf. <i>nōvi</i> and <span class = "greek" title = +"oida">οἶδα</span>, <i>I know</i>). Mn.E. has gone further still: +<b>āhte</b> and <b>mōste</b>, which had already suffered the loss of +their old preterits (<b>āh</b>, <b>mōt</b>), have been forced back again +into the present (<i>ought</i>, <i>must</i>). Having exhausted, +therefore, the only means of preterit formation known to Germanic, the +strong and the weak, it is not likely that either <i>ought</i> or +<i>must</i> will ever develop distinct preterit forms.</p> + + +<h4>Conjugation of Preterit-Present Verbs.</h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_137" id = "sec_137">137.</a></h5> + +<p>The irregularities occur in the present indicative and +subjunctive:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "10"><b>Indicative.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "10">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic wāt</td> +<td>āh</td> +<td>cǫn (can)</td> +<td>dear</td> +<td>sceal</td> +<td>mæg</td> +<td>mōt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū wāst</td> +<td>āhst</td> +<td>cǫnst (canst)</td> +<td>dearst</td> +<td>scealt</td> +<td>meaht</td> +<td>mōst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē wāt</td> +<td>āh</td> +<td>cǫn (can)</td> +<td>dear</td> +<td>sceal</td> +<td>mæg</td> +<td>mōt</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "10"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">witon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>āgon</td> +<td>cunnon</td> +<td>durron</td> +<td>sculon</td> +<td>magon</td> +<td>mōton</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<td class = "center" colspan = "10"><b>Subjunctive.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "10">Present.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td>Ic</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">wite</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>ðū</td> +<td>āge</td> +<td>cunne</td> +<td>durre</td> +<td>scule (scyle)</td> +<td>mæge</td> +<td>mōte</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hē</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">witen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td>āgen</td> +<td>cunnen</td> +<td>durren</td> +<td>sculen (scylen)</td> +<td>mægen</td> +<td>mōten</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—<b>Willan</b> and +<b>sculan</b> do not often connote simple futurity in Early West Saxon, +yet they were fast drifting that way. +<span class = "pagenum">93</span> +<a name = "page93" id = "page93"> </a> +The Mn.E. use of <i>shall</i> only with the 1st person and <i>will</i> +only with the 2d and 3d, to express simple futurity, was wholly unknown +even in Shakespeare’s day. The elaborate distinctions drawn between +these words by modern grammarians are not only cumbersome and foreign to +the genius of English, but equally lacking in psychological basis.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—<b>Sculan</b> originally +implied the idea of (1) <i>duty</i>, or <i>compulsion</i> +(= <i>ought to</i>, or <i>must</i>), and this conception lurks with +more or less prominence in almost every function of <b>sculan</b> in +O.E.: <b>Dryhten bebēad Moyse hū hē sceolde beran ðā earce</b>, <i>The +Lord instructed Moses how he ought to bear the ark</i>; <b>Ǣlc mann +sceal be his andgietes mǣðe ... sprecan ðæt he spricð, and dōn ðæt ðæt +hē dēð</b>, <i>Every man must, according to the measure of his +intelligence, speak what he speaks, and do what he does</i>. Its next +most frequent use is to express (2) <i>custom</i>, the transition +from the obligatory to the customary being an easy one: <b>Sē byrdesta +sceall gyldan fīftȳne mearðes fell</b>, <i>The man of highest rank pays +fifteen marten skins</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 3.</span>—<b>Willan</b> expressed +originally (1) <i>pure volition</i>, and this is its most frequent use +in O.E. It may occur without the infinitive: <b>Nylle ic ðæs +synfullan dēað, ac ic wille ðæt hē gecyrre and lybbe</b>, <i>I do not +desire the sinner’s death, but I desire that he return and live</i>. The +wish being father to the intention, <b>willan</b> soon came to express +(2) <i>purpose</i>: <b>Hē sǣde ðæt hē at sumum cirre wolde fandian +hū longe ðæt land norðryhte lǣge</b>, <i>He said that he intended, at +some time, to investigate how far that land extended northward</i>.</p> + + +<h4>Verb-Phrases with <i>habban</i>, <i>bēon</i> (<i>wesan</i>), and +<i>weorðan</i>.<br> +<span class = "subhead"><i>Verb-Phrases in the Active +Voice.</i></span></h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_138" id = "sec_138">138.</a></h5> + +<p>The present and preterit of <b>habban</b>, combined with a past +participle, are used in O.E., as in Mn.E., to form the present perfect +and past perfect tenses:</p> + +<table class = "paradigm" summary = "paradigm"> +<tr> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Present Perfect.</th> +<th class = "smallcaps" colspan = "4">Past Perfect.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic hæbbe gedrifen</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Sing.</i> 1.</td> +<td colspan = "3">Ic hæfde gedrifen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū hæfst gedrifen</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td colspan = "3">ðū hæfdest gedrifen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē hæfð gedrifen</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td colspan = "3">hē hæfde gedrifen</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "spacer"> +<td colspan = "8"> +<span class = "pagenum">94</span> +<a name = "page94" id = "page94"> </a> + </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">habbað gedrifen</td> +<td class = "right"><i>Plur.</i> 1.</td> +<td>wē</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "3"> +<img src = "images/bracket3.gif" width = "8" height = "49" +alt = "}"></td> +<td class = "middle" rowspan = "3">hæfdon gedrifen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +<td class = "right">2.</td> +<td>gē</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +<td class = "right">3.</td> +<td>hīe</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The past participle is not usually inflected to agree with the direct +object: <b>Norðymbre ǫnd Ēastęngle hæfdon Ælfrede cyninge āðas +geseald</b> (not <b>gesealde</b>, <a href = +"#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>), <i>The Northumbrians and East Anglians +had given king Alfred oaths</i>; <b>ǫnd hæfdon miclne dǣl ðāra horsa +freten</b> (not <b>fretenne</b>), <i>and (they) had devoured a large +part of the horses</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Many sentences might be +quoted in which the participle does agree with the direct object, but +there seems to be no clear line of demarcation between them and the +sentences just cited. Originally, the participle expressed a +<i>resultant state</i>, and belonged in sense more to the object than to +<b>habban</b>; but in Early West Saxon <b>habban</b> had already, in the +majority of cases, become a pure auxiliary when used with the past +participle. This is conclusively proved by the use of <b>habban</b> with +intransitive verbs. In such a clause, therefore, as <b>oð ðæt hīe hine +ofslægenne hæfdon</b>, there is no occasion to translate <i>until they +had him slain</i> (= <i>resultant state</i>); the agreement here is +more probably due to the proximity of <b>ofslægenne</b> to <b>hine</b>. +So also <b>ac hī hæfdon þā hiera stemn gesętenne</b>, <i>but they had +already served out</i> (<i>sat out</i>) <i>their military term</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_139" id = "sec_139">139.</a></h5> + +<p>If the verb is intransitive, and denotes <i>a change of +condition</i>, <i>a departure or arrival</i>, <b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>) +usually replaces <b>habban</b>. The past participle, in such cases, +partakes of the nature of an adjective, and generally agrees with the +subject: <b>Mīne welan þe ic īo hæfde syndon ealle gewitene ǫnd +gedrorene</b>, <i>My possessions which I once had are all departed and +fallen away</i>; <b>wǣron þā męn uppe on lǫnde of āgāne</b>, <i>the men +had gone up ashore</i>; <b>ǫnd þā ōþre wǣron hungre ācwolen</b>, <i>and +the +<span class = "pagenum">95</span> +<a name = "page95" id = "page95"> </a> +others had perished of hunger</i>; <b>ǫnd ēac sē micla hęre wæs þā þǣr +tō cumen</b>, <i>and also the large army had then arrived there</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_140" id = "sec_140">140.</a></h5> + +<p>A progressive present and preterit (not always, however, with +distinctively progressive meanings) are formed by combining a present +participle with the present and preterit of <b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>). +The participle remains uninflected: <b>ǫnd hīe alle on ðone cyning wǣrun +feohtende</b>, <i>and they all were fighting against the king</i>; +<b>Symle hē bið lōciende, nē slǣpð hē nǣfre</b>, <i>He is always +looking, nor does He ever sleep</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—In most sentences of this +sort, the subject is masculine (singular or plural); hence no inference +can be made as to agreement, since <b>-e</b> is the participial ending +for both numbers of the nominative masculine (<a href = +"#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>). By analogy, therefore, the other +genders usually conform in inflection to the masculine: <b>wǣron þā +ealle þā dēoflu clypigende ānre stefne</b>, <i>then were all the devils +crying with one voice</i>.</p> + + +<h4 class = "subhead"><i>Verb-Phrases in the Passive Voice.</i></h4> + +<h5><a name = "sec_141" id = "sec_141">141.</a></h5> + +<p>Passive constructions are formed by combining <b>bēon</b> +(<b>wesan</b>) or <b>weorðan</b> with a past participle. The participle +agrees regularly with the subject: <b>hīe wǣron benumene ǣgðer ge þæs +cēapes ge þæs cornes</b>, <i>they were deprived both of the cattle and +the corn</i>; <b>hī bēoð āblęnde mid ðǣm þīostrum heora scylda</b>, +<i>they are blinded with the darkness of their sins</i>; <b>and sē +wælhrēowa Domiciānus on ðām ylcan gēare wearð ācweald</b>, <i>and the +murderous Domitian was killed in the same year</i>; <b>ǫnd Æþelwulf +aldormǫn wearð ofslægen</b>, <i>and Æthelwulf, alderman, was +slain</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—To express agency, Mn.E. +employs <i>by</i>, rarely <i>of</i>; M.E. <i>of</i>, rarely <i>by</i>; +O.E. <b>frǫm</b> (<b>fram</b>), rarely <b>of</b>: <b>Sē ðe Godes bebodu +<span class = "pagenum">96</span> +<a name = "page96" id = "page96"> </a> +ne gecnǣwð, ne bið hē oncnāwen frǫm Gode</b>, <i>He who does not +recognise God’s commands, will not be recognized by God</i>; <b>Betwux +þǣm wearð ofslagen Ēadwine ... fram Brytta cyninge</b>, <i>Meanwhile, +Edwin was slain by the king of the Britons</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 2.</span>—O.E. had no progressive +forms for the passive, and could not, therefore, distinguish between +<i>He is being wounded</i> and <i>He is wounded</i>. It was not until +more than a hundred years after Shakespeare’s death that <i>being</i> +assumed this function. <b>Weorðan</b>, which originally denoted <i>a +passage from one state to another</i>, was ultimately driven out by +<b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>), and survives now only in <i>Woe worth</i> +(= <i>be to</i>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_142" id = "sec_142">142.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center smallcaps">Vocabulary.</p> + +<div class = "vocab"> +<p><b>ðā Beormas</b>, <i>Permians</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā Dęeniscan</b>, <i>the Danish</i> (<i>men</i>), +<i>Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā Finnas</b>, <i>Fins</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt gewald</b>, <i>control</i> [<b>wealdan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>sēo sǣ</b>, <i>sea</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo scīr</b>, <i>shire</i>, <i>district</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo wælstōw</b>, <i>battle-field</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āgan wælstōwe gewald</b>, <i>to maintain possession of the +battle-field</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sē wealdend</b>, <i>ruler</i>, <i>wielder</i>.</p> +</div> + +<table class = "vocab" summary = "verbs in vocabulary"> +<tr> +<td><b>geflīeman</b>,</td> +<td><b>geflīemde</b>,</td> +<td><b>geflīemed</b>,</td> +<td><i>to put to flight</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>gestaðelian</b>,</td> +<td><b>gestaðelode</b>,</td> +<td><b>gestaðelod</b>,</td> +<td><i>to establish</i>, <i>restore</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>gewissian</b>,</td> +<td><b>gewissode</b>,</td> +<td><b>gewissod</b>,</td> +<td><i>to guide</i>, <i>direct</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>wīcian</b>,</td> +<td><b>wīcode</b>,</td> +<td><b>gewīcod</b>,</td> +<td><i>to dwell</i> [<b>wīc</b> = village].</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h5><a name = "sec_143" id = "sec_143">143.</a></h5> + +<p class = "center"><span class = "smallcaps"> Exercises.</span></p> + +<p>I. 1. Ǫnd ðær wæs micel wæl geslægen on gehwæþre hǫnd, ǫnd Æþelwulf +ealdormǫn wearþ ofslægen; ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe gewald. +2. Ǫnd þæs ymb ānne mōnaþ gefeaht Ælfred cyning wiþ ealne þone hęre +ond hine geflīemde. 3. Hē sǣde þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang +norþ þǫnan. 4. Þā Beormas hæfdon swīþe wel gebūd (<a href = +"#sec_126">§ <b>126</b>, Note 2</a>) hiera land. +5. Ohthęre sǣde þæt sēo scīr hātte (<a href = +"#sec_117">§ <b>117</b>, Note 2</a>) Hālgoland, þe hē on (<a +href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (5)</a>) būde. 6. Þā Finnas +wīcedon be þǣre sǣ. 7. Dryhten, ælmihtiga (<a href = +"#sec_78">§ <b>78</b>, Note</a>) God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra +gesceafta, ic bidde +<span class = "pagenum">97</span> +<a name = "page97" id = "page97"> </a> +ðē for ðīnre miclan mildheortnesse ðæt ðū mē gewissie tō ðīnum willan; +and gestaðela mīn mōd tō ðīnum willan and tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe. +8. Þā sceolde hē ðǣr bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt land bēag +þǣr sūðryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt land, hē nysse hwæðer. 9. For +ðȳ, mē ðyncð bętre, gif ēow swā ðyncð, ðæt wē ēac ðās bēc on ðæt geðēode +węnden ðe wē ealle gecnāwan mægen.</p> + +<p>II. 1. When the king heard that, he went (= then went he) westward +with his army to Ashdown. 2. Lovest thou me more than these? +3. The men said that the shire which they lived in was called +Halgoland. 4. All things were made (<b>wyrcan</b>) by God. +5. They were fighting for two days with (= against) the Danes. +6. King Alfred fought with the Danes, and gained the victory; but +the Danes retained possession of the battle-field. 7. These men +dwelt in England before they came hither. 8. I have not seen the +book of (<b>ymbe</b>) which you speak (<b>sprecan</b>).</p> + +</div> +<!-- end div textbook --> + + +<div class = "readings"> + +<span class = "pagenum">98</span> +<a name = "page98" id = "page98"> </a> + +<h2><a name = "part_III" id = "part_III"> +PART III.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"><br> +SELECTIONS FOR READING.<br> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"></span> +</h2> + +<h3><a name = "prose" id = "prose"> +PROSE.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead">Introductory.</span></h3> + +<h4>I. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.</h4> + +<p><span class = "firstword">This</span> famous work, a series of +progressive annals by unknown hands, embraces a period extending from +Cæsar’s invasion of England to 1154. It is not known when or where these +annals began to be recorded in English.</p> + +<p>“The annals from the year 866—that of Ethelred’s ascent of the +throne—to the year 887 seem to be the work of one mind. Not a +single year is passed over, and to several is granted considerable +space, especially to the years 871, 878, and 885. The whole has gained a +certain roundness and fulness, because the events—nearly all of +them episodes in the ever-recurring conflict with the Danes—are +taken in their connection, and the thread dropped in one year is resumed +in the next. Not only is the style in itself concise; it has a sort of +nervous severity and pithy rigor. The construction is often antiquated, +and suggests at times the freedom of poetry; though this purely +historical prose is far removed from poetry in profusion of language.” +(Ten Brink, <i>Early Eng. Lit.</i>, I.)</p> + +<h4>II. The Translations of Alfred.</h4> + +<p>Alfred’s reign (871-901) may be divided into four periods. The +<i>first</i>, the period of Danish invasion, extends from 871 to +<span class = "pagenum">99</span> +<a name = "page99" id = "page99"> </a> +881; the <i>second</i>, the period of comparative quiet, from 881 to +893; the <i>third</i>, the period of renewed strife (beginning with the +incursions of Hasting), from 893 to 897; the <i>fourth</i>, the period +of peace, from 897 to 901. His literary work probably falls in the +second period.<a class = "plain" name = "tag_x" id = "tag_x" href = +"#note_x">*</a></p> + +<p>The works translated by Alfred from Latin into the vernacular were +(1) <i>Consolation of Philosophy</i> (<i>De Consolatione +Philosophiae</i>) by Boëthius (475-525), (2) <i>Compendious History +of the World</i> (<i>Historiarum Libri VII</i>) by Orosius +(c. 418), (3) <i>Ecclesiastical History of the English</i> +(<i>Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum</i>) by Bede (672-735), and +(4) <i>Pastoral Care</i> (<i>De Cura Pastorali</i>) by Pope +Gregory the Great (540-604).</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +The chronological sequence of these works is wholly unknown. That given +is supported by Turner, Arend, Morley, Grein, and Pauli. Wülker argues +for an exact reversal of this order. According to Ten Brink, the order +was more probably (1) <i>Orosius</i>, (2) <i>Bede</i>, +(3) <i>Boëthius</i>, and (4) <i>Pastoral Care</i>. The most +recent contribution to the subject is from Wülfing, who contends for +(1) <i>Bede</i>, (2) <i>Orosius</i>, (3) <i>Pastoral +Care</i>, and (4) <i>Boëthius</i>.</p> + +<p class = "footnote"> +<a name = "note_x" id = "note_x" href = "#tag_x">*</a> +There is something inexpressibly touching in this clause from the great +king’s pen: gif wē ðā stilnesse habbað. He is speaking of how much he +hopes to do, by his translations, for the enlightenment of his +people.</p> + + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_I" id = "chapIII_I"> +I. THE BATTLE OF ASHDOWN.</a></h3> + +<p class = "notation"> +[From the <i>Chronicle</i>, Parker MS. The event and date are +significant. The Danes had for the first time invaded Wessex. Alfred’s +older brother, Ethelred, was king; but to Alfred belongs the glory of +the victory at Ashdown (Berkshire). Asser (<i>Life of Alfred</i>) tells +us that for a long time Ethelred remained praying in his tent, while +Alfred and his followers went forth “like a wild boar against the +hounds.”]</p> + +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line99_1" id = "line99_1">1</a></span> +871. Hēr cuōm<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_1" id = "tag_rI_1" href = +"#note_rI_1">1</a> sē hęre tō Rēadingum on Westseaxe,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line99_2" id = "line99_2">2</a></span> +ǫnd þæs ymb iii niht ridon ii eorlas ūp. Þa gemētte hīe</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">100</span> +<a name = "page100" id = "page100"> </a> +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +Æþelwulf aldorman<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_2" id = "tag_rI_2" href += "#note_rI_2">2</a> on Ęnglafelda, ǫnd him þǣr wiþ gefeaht,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +ǫnd sige nam. Þæs ymb iiii niht Æþered cyning</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +ǫnd Ælfred his brōþur<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_3" id = "tag_rI_3" +href = "#note_rI_3">3</a> þǣr micle fierd tō Rēadingum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +gelǣddon, ǫnd wiþ þone hęre gefuhton; ǫnd þǣr wæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +micel wæl geslægen on gehwæþre hǫnd, ǫnd Æþelwulf</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +aldormǫn wearþ ofslægen; ǫnd þa Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +gewald.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line100_8" id = "line100_8">8</a></span> +Ǫnd þæs ymb iiii niht <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote100_8">gefeaht</a> Æþered cyning ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +Ælfred his brōþur wiþ alne<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_4" id = +"tag_rI_4" href = "#note_rI_4">4</a> þone hęre on Æscesdūne.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +Ǫnd hīe wǣrun<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_5" id = "tag_rI_5" href = +"#note_rI_5">5</a> on twǣm gefylcum: on ōþrum wæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +Bāchsęcg ǫnd Halfdęne þā hǣþnan cyningas, ǫnd on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +ōþrum wǣron þā eorlas. Ǫnd þā gefeaht sē cyning</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +Æþered wiþ þāra cyninga getruman, ǫnd þǣr wearþ sē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +cyning Bāgsęcg ofslægen; ǫnd Ælfred his brōþur wiþ</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +þāra eorla getruman, ǫnd þǣr wearþ Sidroc eorl ofslægen</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +sē alda,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_6" id = "tag_rI_6" href = +"#note_rI_6">6</a> ǫnd Sidroc eorl sē gioncga,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rI_7" id = "tag_rI_7" href = "#note_rI_7">7</a> ǫnd Ōsbearn +eorl,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +ǫnd Frǣna eorl, ǫnd Hareld eorl; ǫnd þā hęrgas<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rI_8" id = "tag_rI_8" href = "#note_rI_8">8</a> bēgen</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line100_18" id = "line100_18">18</a></span> +geflīemde, <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote100_18">ǫnd fela +þūsenda ofslægenra</a>, ǫnd onfeohtende</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +wǣron oþ niht.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">20</span> +Ǫnd þæs ymb xiiii niht gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +Ælfred his brōður wiþ þone hęre æt Basengum, ǫnd þǣr</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +þa Dęniscan sige nāmon.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">23</span> +Ǫnd þæs ymb ii mōnaþ gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">24</span> +Ælfred his brōþur wiþ þone hęre æt Męretūne, ǫnd hīe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">25</span> +wǣrun on tuǣm<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_9" id = "tag_rI_9" href = +"#note_rI_9">9</a> gefylcium, ǫnd hīe būtū geflīemdon, ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">26</span> +lǫnge on dæg sige āhton; ǫnd þǣr wearþ micel wælsliht</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">27</span> +on gehwæþere hǫnd; ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">101</span> +<a name = "page101" id = "page101"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +gewald; ǫnd þær wearþ Hēahmund bisceop ofslægen,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +ǫnd fela gōdra mǫnna. Ǫnd æfter þissum gefeohte cuōm<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_rI_1b" id = "tag_rI_1b" href = "#note_rI_1">1</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +micel sumorlida.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">4</span> +Ǫnd þæs ofer Ēastron gefōr Æþered cyning; ǫnd hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +rīcsode v gēar; ǫnd his līc līþ æt Wīnburnan.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">6</span> +Þā fēng Ælfred Æþelwulfing his brōþur tō Wesseaxna</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +rīce. Ǫnd þæs ymb ānne mōnaþ gefeaht Ælfred cyning</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +wiþ alne<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_4b" id = "tag_rI_4b" href = +"#note_rI_4">4</a> þone hęre lȳtle werede<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rI_10" id = "tag_rI_10" href = "#note_rI_10">10</a> æt Wiltūne, ǫnd +hine</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +lǫnge on dæg geflīemde, ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +gewald.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">11</span> +Ǫnd þæs gēares wurdon viiii folcgefeoht gefohten wiþ</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line101_12" id = "line101_12">12</a></span> +þone hęre on þȳ cynerīce be sūþan Tęmese, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote101_12">būtan þām þe</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +him Ælfred þæs cyninges brōþur ǫnd ānlīpig aldormǫn<a class = "tag" name += "tag_rI_2b" id = "tag_rI_2b" href = "#note_rI_2">2</a> ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +cyninges þegnas oft rāde onridon þe mǫn nā ne rīmde;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +ǫnd þæs gēares wǣrun<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rI_5b" id = "tag_rI_5b" +href = "#note_rI_5">5</a> ofslægene viiii eorlas ǫnd ān cyning.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +Ǫnd þȳ gēare nāmon Westseaxe friþ wiþ þone hęre.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote100_8" id = "linenote100_8" href = +"#line100_8">100.8.</a> +<b>gefeaht</b>. Notice that the singular is used. This is the more +common construction in O.E. when a compound subject, composed of +singular members, follows its predicate. Cf. <i>For thine is the +kingdom, and the power, and the glory</i>. See also <a href = +"#linenote107_14">p. 107, note on <b>wæs</b></a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote100_18" id = "linenote100_18" href = +"#line100_18">100.18.</a> +<b>ǫnd fela þūsenda ofslægenra</b>, <i>and there were many thousands of +slain</i> (<a href = "#sec_91">§ <b>91</b></a>).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote101_12" id = "linenote101_12" href = +"#line101_12">101.12.</a> +<b>būtan þām þe</b>, etc., <i>besides which, Alfred ... made raids +against them</i> (<b>him</b>), <i>which were not counted</i>. See +<a href = "#sec_70">§ <b>70</b>, Note</a>.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "center smallcaps"> +Consult Glossary and Paradigms under Forms given below.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +No note is made of such variants as <b>y</b> (<b>ȳ</b>) or <b>i</b> +(<b>ī</b>) for <b>ie</b> (<b>īe</b>). See Glossary under <b>ie</b> +(<b>īe</b>); occurrences, also, of <b>and</b> for <b>ǫnd</b>, +<b>land</b> for <b>lǫnd</b>, are found on almost every page of Early +West Saxon. Such words should be sought for under the more common forms, +<b>ǫnd</b>, <b>lǫnd</b>.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_1" id = "note_rI_1" href = +"#tag_rI_1">1</a> += cwōm.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_2" id = "note_rI_2" href = +"#tag_rI_2">2</a> += ealdormǫn.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_3" id = "note_rI_3" href = +"#tag_rI_3">3</a> += brōþor.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_4" id = "note_rI_4" href = +"#tag_rI_4">4</a> += ealne.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_5" id = "note_rI_5" href = +"#tag_rI_5">5</a> += wǣron.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_6" id = "note_rI_6" href = +"#tag_rI_6">6</a> += ealda.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_7" id = "note_rI_7" href = +"#tag_rI_7">7</a> += geonga.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_8" id = "note_rI_8" href = +"#tag_rI_8">8</a> += hęras.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_9" id = "note_rI_9" href = +"#tag_rI_9">9</a> += twǣm.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rI_10" id = "note_rI_10" href = +"#tag_rI_10">10</a> += werode.</p> +</div> + + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_II" id = "chapIII_II"> +II. A PRAYER OF KING ALFRED.</a></h3> + +<p class = "notation"> +[With this characteristic prayer, Alfred concludes his translation of +Boëthius’s <i>Consolation of Philosophy</i>. Unfortunately, the only +extant MS. (Bodleian 180) is Late West Saxon. I follow, therefore, +Prof. A. S. Cook’s normalization on an Early West Saxon basis. See +Cook’s <i>First Book in Old English</i>, p. 163.]</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">102</span> +<a name = "page102" id = "page102"> </a> +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +Dryhten, ælmihtiga God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +gesceafta, ic bidde ðē for ðīnre miclan mildheortnesse,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line102_3" id = "line102_3">3</a></span> +and for ðǣre hālgan rōde tācne, and for Sanctæ <a class = "linenote" +href = "#linenote102_3">Marian</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +mægðhāde, and for Sancti <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote102_3">Michaeles</a> gehīersumnesse, and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +for ealra ðīnra hālgena lufan and hīera earnungum, ðæt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +ðū mē gewissie bęt ðonne ic āworhte tō ðē; and gewissa</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +mē tō ðīnum willan, and tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe, bęt ðonne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +ic self cunne; and gestaðela mīn mōd tō ðinum willan and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe; and gestranga mē wið ðæs dēofles</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +costnungum; and āfierr fram mē ðā fūlan gālnesse and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +ǣlce unrihtwīsnesse; and gescield mē wið mīnum wiðerwinnum,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +gesewenlīcum and ungesewenlīcum; and tǣc mē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +ðīnne willan tō wyrceanne; ðæt ic mæge ðē inweardlīce</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +lufian tōforan eallum ðingum, mid clǣnum geðance and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +mid clǣnum līchaman. For ðon ðe ðū eart mīn Scieppend,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +and mīn Alīesend, mīn Fultum, mīn Frōfor, mīn Trēownes,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line102_17" id = "line102_17">17</a></span> +and mīn Tōhopa. <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote102_17">Sīe ðē +lof</a> and wuldor nū and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line102_18" id = "line102_18">18</a></span> +ā ā ā, tō worulde būtan ǣghwilcum ęnde. Amen.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote102_3" id = "linenote102_3" href = +"#line102_3">102.3-4.</a> +<b>Marian ... Michaeles</b>. O.E. is inconsistent in the treatment of +foreign names. They are sometimes naturalized, and sometimes retain in +part their original inflections. <b>Marian</b>, an original accusative, +is here used as a genitive; while <b>Michaeles</b> has the O.E. genitive +ending.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote102_17" id = "linenote102_17" href = +"#line102_17">102.17.</a> +<b>Sīe ðē lof</b>. See <a href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b></a>, 1.</p> +</div> + + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_III" id = "chapIII_III"> +III. THE VOYAGES OF OHTHERE AND WULFSTAN.</a></h3> + +<p class = "notation"> +[Lauderdale and Cottonian MSS. These voyages are an original insertion +by Alfred into his translation of Orosius’s <i>Compendious History of +the World</i>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +“They consist,” says Ten Brink, “of a complete description of all the +countries in which the Teutonic tongue prevailed at Alfred’s time, and a +full narrative of the travels of two voyagers, which the king wrote down +from their own lips. One of these, a Norwegian named Ohthere, had +quite +<span class = "pagenum">103</span> +<a name = "page103" id = "page103"> </a> +circumnavigated the coast of Scandinavia in his travels, and had even +penetrated to the White Sea; the other, named Wulfstan, had sailed from +Schleswig to Frische Haff. The geographical and ethnographical details +of both accounts are exceedingly interesting, and their style is +attractive, clear, and concrete.”</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +Ohthere made two voyages. Sailing first northward along the western +coast of Norway, he rounded the North Cape, passed into the White Sea, +and entered the Dwina River (<b>ān micel ēa</b>). On his +second voyage he sailed southward along the western coast of Norway, +entered the Skager Rack (<b>wīdsǣ</b>), passed through the Cattegat, and +anchored at the Danish port of Haddeby (<b>æt Hǣþum</b>), modern +Schleswig.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +Wulfstan sailed only in the Baltic Sea. His voyage of seven days from +Schleswig brought him to Drausen (<b>Trūsō</b>) on the shore of the +Drausensea.]</p> + +<h4>Ohthere’s First Voyage.</h4> + +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +Ōthęre sǣde his hlāforde, Ælfrede cyninge, þæt hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +ealra Norðmǫnna norþmest būde. Hē cwæð þæt hē būde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +on þǣm lande norþweardum wiþ þā Westsæ. Hē sǣde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang norþ þonan; ac hit is</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +eal wēste, būton on fēawum stōwum styccemælum wīciað</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +Finnas, on huntoðe on wintra, ǫnd on sumera on fiscaþe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +be þǣre sǣ. Hē sǣde þæt hē æt sumum cirre wolde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +fandian hū lǫnge þæt land norþryhte lǣge, oþþe hwæðer</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +ǣnig mǫn be norðan þǣm wēstenne būde. Þā fōr hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +norþryhte be þǣm lande: lēt him ealne weg þæt wēste</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +land on ðæt stēorbord, ǫnd þā wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord þrīe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +dagas. Þā wæs hē swā feor norþ swā þā hwælhuntan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +firrest faraþ. Þā fōr hē þā gīet norþryhte swā feor swā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +hē meahte on þǣm ōþrum þrīm dagum gesiglan. Þā bēag</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +þæt land þǣr ēastryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt lǫnd, hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +nysse hwæðer, būton hē wisse ðæt hē ðǣr bād westanwindes</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +ǫnd hwōn norþan, ǫnd siglde ðā ēast be lande</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +swā swā hē meahte on fēower dagum gesiglan. Þā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +sceolde hē ðǣr bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +land bēag þǣr sūþryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt land, hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +nysse hwæþer. Þā siglde hē þǫnan sūðryhte be lande</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">104</span> +<a name = "page104" id = "page104"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +swā swā hē męhte<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_1" id = "tag_rIIIa_1" +href = "#note_rIIIa_1">1</a> on fīf dagum gesiglan. Ðā læg þǣr</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +ān micel ēa ūp in on þæt land. Þā cirdon hīe ūp in on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +ðā ēa, for þǣm hīe ne dorston forþ bī þǣre ēa siglan for</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +unfriþe; for þǣm ðæt land wæs eall gebūn on ōþre healfe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +þǣre ēas. Ne mētte hē ǣr nān gebūn land, siþþan hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line104_6" id = "line104_6">6</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote104_6">frǫm his āgnum hām</a> +fōr; ac him wæs ealne weg wēste</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +land on þæt stēorbord, būtan fiscerum ǫnd fugelerum ōnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line104_8" id = "line104_8">8</a></span> +huntum, <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote104_8">ǫnd þæt wǣron</a> +eall Finnas; ǫnd him wæs ā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord. Þā Beormas hæfdon swīþe wel</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +gebūd hira land: ac hīe ne dorston þǣr on cuman. Ac</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +þāra Terfinna land wæs eal wēste, būton ðǣr huntan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +gewīcodon, oþþe fisceras, oþþe fugeleras.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">13</span> +Fela spella him sǣdon þā Beormas ǣgþer ge of hiera</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +āgnum lande ge of þǣm landum þe ymb hīe ūtan wǣron;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line104_15" id = "line104_15">15</a></span> +ac hē nyste <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote104_15">hwæt þæs +sōþes wæs</a>, for þǣm hē hit self ne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +geseah. Þā Finnas, him þūhte, ǫnd þā Beormas sprǣcon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +nēah ān geþēode. Swīþost hē fōr ðider, tō ēacan þæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +landes scēawunge, for þǣm horshwælum, for ðǣm hīe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +habbað swīþe æþele bān on hiora<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_2" id += "tag_rIIIa_2" href = "#note_rIIIa_2">2</a> tōþum—þā tēð hīe +brōhton</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +sume þǣm cyninge—ǫnd hiora hȳd bið swīðe gōd tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +sciprāpum. Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa þonne ōðre hwalas:</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +ne bið hē lęngra ðonne syfan<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_3" id = +"tag_rIIIa_3" href = "#note_rIIIa_3">3</a> ęlna lang; ac on his +āgnum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">23</span> +lande is sē bętsta hwælhuntað: þā bēoð eahta and fēowertiges</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">24</span> +ęlna lange, and þā mǣstan fīftiges ęlna lange;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line104_25" id = "line104_25">25</a></span> +þāra hē sǣde þæt hē <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote104_25">syxa +sum</a> ofslōge syxtig on twām</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">26</span> +dagum.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">105</span> +<a name = "page105" id = "page105"> </a> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">1</span> +Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on þǣm ǣhtum þe heora<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rIIIa_2b" id = "tag_rIIIa_2b" href = "#note_rIIIa_2">2</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line105_2" id = "line105_2">2</a></span> +spēda <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote105_2">on bēoð</a>, þæt is, +on wildrum. Hē hæfde þā gȳt, ðā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +hē þone cyningc<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_5" id = "tag_rIIIa_5" +href = "#note_rIIIa_5">5</a> sōhte, tamra dēora unbebohtra syx hund.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +Þā dēor hī hātað ‘hrānas’; þāra wǣron syx stælhrānas;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +ðā bēoð swȳðe dȳre mid Finnum, for ðǣm hȳ fōð þā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +wildan hrānas mid. Hē wæs mid þǣm fyrstum mannum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +on þǣm lande: næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twēntig hrȳðera,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +and twēntig scēapa, and twēntig swȳna; and þæt lȳtle</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +þæt hē ęrede, hē ęrede mid horsan.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_4" +id = "tag_rIIIa_4" href = "#note_rIIIa_4">4</a> Ac hyra ār is mǣst</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +on þǣm gafole þe ðā Finnas him gyldað. Þæt gafol bið</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +on dēora fellum, and on fugela feðerum, and hwales bāne,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +and on þǣm sciprāpum þe bēoð of hwæles hȳde geworht</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +and of sēoles. Ǣghwilc gylt be hys gebyrdum. Sē byrdesta</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +sceall gyldan fīftȳne mearðes fell, and fīf hrānes,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +and ān beren fel, and tȳn ambra feðra, and berenne kyrtel</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +oððe yterenne, and twēgen sciprāpas; ǣgþer sȳ syxtig</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +ęlna lang, ōþer sȳ of hwæles hȳde geworht, ōþer of sīoles.<a class = +"tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_6" id = "tag_rIIIa_6" href = +"#note_rIIIa_6">6</a></p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">18</span> +Hē sǣde ðæt Norðmanna land wǣre swȳþe lang and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line105_19" id = "line105_19">19</a></span> +swȳðe smæl. <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote105_19">Eal þæt his +man</a> āðer oððe ęttan oððe ęrian</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +mæg, þæt līð wið ðā sǣ; and þæt is þēah on sumum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +stōwum swȳðe clūdig; and licgað wilde mōras wið ēastan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +and wið ūpp on emnlange þǣm bȳnum lande. On þǣm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">23</span> +mōrum eardiað Finnas. And þæt bȳne land is ēasteweard</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">24</span> +brādost, and symle swā norðor swā smælre. Ēastewęrd<a class = "tag" name += "tag_rIIIa_7" id = "tag_rIIIa_7" href = "#note_rIIIa_7">7</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">25</span> +hit mæg bīon<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIa_8" id = "tag_rIIIa_8" +href = "#note_rIIIa_8">8</a> syxtig mīla brād, oþþe hwēne brǣdre;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">26</span> +and middeweard þrītig oððe brādre; and norðeweard hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">27</span> +cwæð, þǣr hit smalost wǣre, þæt hit mihte bēon þrēora</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">28</span> +mīla brād tō þǣm mōre; and sē mōr syðþan,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rIIIa_9" id = "tag_rIIIa_9" href = "#note_rIIIa_9">9</a> on +sumum</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">106</span> +<a name = "page106" id = "page106"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +stōwum, swā brād swā man mæg on twām wucum oferfēran;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +and on sumum stōwum swā brād swā man mæg</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +on syx dagum oferfēran.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">4</span> +Ðonne is tōemnes þǣm lande sūðeweardum, on ōðre</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +healfe þæs mōres, Swēoland, oþ þæt land norðeweard;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +and tōemnes þǣm lande norðeweardum, Cwēna land. Þā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +Cwēnas hęrgiað hwīlum on ðā Norðmęn ofer ðone mōr,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +hwīlum þā Norðmęn on hȳ. And þǣr sint swīðe micle</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +męras fersce geond þā mōras; and berað þā Cwēnas hyra</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +scypu ofer land on ðā męras, and þanon hęrgiað on ðā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line106_11" id = "line106_11">11</a></span> +Norðmęn; hȳ habbað swȳðe lȳtle <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote106_11">scypa and swȳðe</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote106_11">leohte</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote104_6" id = "linenote104_6" href = +"#line104_6">104.6.</a> +<b>frǫm his āgnum hām</b>. An adverbial dative singular without an +inflectional ending is found with <b>hām</b>, <b>dæg</b>, <b>morgen</b>, +and <b>ǣfen</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote104_8" id = "linenote104_8" href = +"#line104_8">104.8.</a> +<b>ǫnd þæt wǣron</b>. See <a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b>, Note +3</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote104_15" id = "linenote104_15" href = +"#line104_15">104.15.</a> +<b>hwæt þæs sōþes wæs</b>. Sweet errs in explaining <b>sōþes</b> as +attracted into the genitive by <b>þæs</b>. It is not a predicate +adjective, but a partitive genitive after <b>hwæt</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote104_25" id = "linenote104_25" href = +"#line104_25">104.25.</a> +<b>syxa sum</b>. See <a href = "#sec_91">§ <b>91</b>, Note 2</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote105_2" id = "linenote105_2" href = +"#line105_2">105.2.</a> +<b>on bēoð</b>. See <a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (5)</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote105_19" id = "linenote105_19" href = +"#line105_19">105.19.</a> +<b>Eal þæt his man</b>. Pronominal genitives are not always possessive +in O.E.; <b>his</b> is here the partitive genitive of <b>hit</b>, the +succeeding relative pronoun being omitted: <i>All that</i> +(<i>portion</i>) <i>of it that may, either-of-the-two, either be grazed +or plowed</i>, etc. (<a href = "#sec_70">§ <b>70</b>, +Note</a>).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote106_11" id = "linenote106_11" href = +"#line106_11">106.11-12.</a> +<b>scypa ... leohte</b>. These words exhibit inflections more frequent +in Late than in Early West Saxon. The normal forms would be +<b>scypu</b>, <b>leoht</b>; but in Late West Saxon the <b>-u</b> of +short-stemmed neuters is generally replaced by <b>-a</b>; and the +nominative accusative plural neuter of adjectives takes, by analogy, the +masculine endings; <b>hwate</b>, <b>gōde</b>, <b>hālge</b>, instead of +<b>hwatu</b>, <b>gōd</b>, <b>hālgu</b>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_1" id = "note_rIIIa_1" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_1">1</a> += meahte, mihte.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_2" id = "note_rIIIa_2" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_2">2</a> += hiera.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_3" id = "note_rIIIa_3" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_3">3</a> += seofon.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_4" id = "note_rIIIa_4" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_4">4</a> += horsum.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_5" id = "note_rIIIa_5" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_5">5</a> += cyning.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_6" id = "note_rIIIa_6" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_6">6</a> += sēoles.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_7" id = "note_rIIIa_7" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_7">7</a> += -weard.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_8" id = "note_rIIIa_8" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_8">8</a> += bēon.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIa_9" id = "note_rIIIa_9" href = +"#tag_rIIIa_9">9</a> += siððan.</p> +</div> + +<h4>Ohthere’s Second Voyage.</h4> + +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +Ōhthęre sǣde þæt sīo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIb_1" id = +"tag_rIIIb_1" href = "#note_rIIIb_1">1</a> scīr hātte Hālgoland, þe hē +on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +būde. Hē cwæð þæt nān man ne būde be norðan him.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +Þonne is ān port on sūðeweardum þǣm lande, þone man</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +hǣt Sciringeshēal. Þyder hē cwæð þæt man ne mihte</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +geseglian on ānum mōnðe, gyf man on niht wīcode, and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +ǣlce dæge hæfde ambyrne wind; and ealle ðā hwīle hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +sceal seglian be lande. And on þæt stēorbord him bið</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +ǣrest Īraland, and þonne ðā īgland þe synd betux Īralande</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +and þissum lande. Þonne is þis land, oð hē cymð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +tō Scirincgeshēale, and ealne weg on þæt bæcbord Norðweg.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">107</span> +<a name = "page107" id = "page107"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +Wið sūðan þone Sciringeshēal fylð swȳðe mycel</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +sǣ ūp in on ðæt land; sēo is brādre þonne ǣnig man ofer</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +sēon mæge. And is Gotland on ōðre healfe ongēan, and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +siððan Sillęnde. Sēo sǣ līð mænig<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIb_2" +id = "tag_rIIIb_2" href = "#note_rIIIb_2">2</a> hund mīla ūp in on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +þæt land.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">6</span> +And of Sciringeshēale hē cwæð ðæt hē seglode on fīf</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line107_7" id = "line107_7">7</a></span> +dagan<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIb_3" id = "tag_rIIIb_3" href = +"#note_rIIIb_3">3</a> tō þǣm porte þe mǫn hǣt <a class = "linenote" href += "#linenote107_7">æt Hǣþum</a>; sē stęnt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +betuh Winedum, and Seaxum, and Angle, and hȳrð in</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +on Dęne. Ðā hē þiderweard seglode fram Sciringeshēale,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +þā wæs him on þæt bæcbord Dęnamearc and on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +þæt stēorbord wīdsǣ þrȳ dagas; and þā, twēgen dagas ǣr</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +hē tō Hǣþum cōme, him wæs on þæt stēorbord Gotland,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +and Sillęnde, and īglanda fela. On þǣm landum eardodon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line107_14" id = "line107_14">14</a></span> +Ęngle, ǣr hī hider on land cōman.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIb_4" +id = "tag_rIIIb_4" href = "#note_rIIIb_4">4</a> And hym <a class = +"linenote" href = "#linenote107_14">wæs</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote107_14">ðā twēgen dagas on ðæt +bæcbord þā īgland</a> þe in on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +Dęnemearce hȳrað.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote107_7" id = "linenote107_7" href = +"#line107_7">107.7.</a> +<b>æt Hǣþum</b>. “This pleonastic use of <i>æt</i> with names of places +occurs elsewhere in the older writings, as in the Chronicle (552), ‘in +þǣre stōwe þe is genęmned æt Searobyrg,’ where the <i>æt</i> has been +erased by some later hand, showing that the idiom had become obsolete. +<i>Cp.</i> the German ‘Gasthaus zur Krone,’ Stamboul = <i>es tān +pólin</i>.” (Sweet.) See, also, <i>Atterbury</i>, § 28, +Note 3.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote107_14" id = "linenote107_14" href = +"#line107_14">107.14-15.</a> +<b>wæs ... þā īgland</b>. The singular predicate is due again to +inversion (<a href = "#linenote100_8">p. 100, note on +<b>gefeaht</b></a>). The construction is comparatively rare in O.E., but +frequent in Shakespeare and in the popular speech of to-day. Cf. +<i>There is</i>, <i>Here is</i>, <i>There has been</i>, etc., with a +(single) plural subject following.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIb_1" id = "note_rIIIb_1" href = +"#tag_rIIIb_1">1</a> += sēo.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIb_2" id = "note_rIIIb_2" href = +"#tag_rIIIb_2">2</a> += mǫnig.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIb_3" id = "note_rIIIb_3" href = +"#tag_rIIIb_3">3</a> += dagum.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIb_4" id = "note_rIIIb_4" href = +"#tag_rIIIb_4">4</a> += cōmen.</p> +</div> + + +<h4>Wulfstan’s Voyage.</h4> + +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +Wulfstān sǣde þæt hē gefōre of Hǣðum, þæt hē wǣre</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +on Trūsō on syfan dagum and nihtum, þæt þæt scip wæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +ealne weg yrnende under segle. Weonoðland him wæs</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">108</span> +<a name = "page108" id = "page108"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line108_1" id = "line108_1">1</a></span> +on stēorbord, and on bæcbord <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote108_1">him</a> wæs Langaland, and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +Lǣland, and Falster, and Scōnēg; and þās land eall</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +hȳrað tō Dęnemearcan. And þonne Burgenda land wæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote108_1">ūs</a> on bæcbord, and þā +habbað him sylfe<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_1" id = "tag_rIIIc_1" +href = "#note_rIIIc_1">1</a> cyning. Þonne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +æfter Burgenda lande wǣron ūs þās land, þā synd hātene</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +ǣrest Blēcinga-ēg, and Mēore, and Ēowland, and Gotland</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +on bæcbord; and þās land hȳrað tō Swēom. And Weonodland</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +wæs ūs ealne weg on stēorbord oð Wīslemūðan.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +Sēo Wīsle is swȳðe mycel ēa, and hīo<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rIIIc_2" id = "tag_rIIIc_2" href = "#note_rIIIc_2">2</a> tōlīð +Wītland and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +Weonodland; and þæt Wītland belimpeð tō Estum; and</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +sēo Wīsle līð ūt of Weonodlande, and līð in Estmęre;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +and sē Estmęre is hūru fīftēne<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_3" id = +"tag_rIIIc_3" href = "#note_rIIIc_3">3</a> mīla brād. Þonne cymeð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +Ilfing ēastan in Estmęre of ðām męre, ðe Trūsō standeð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +in stæðe; and cumað ūt samod in Estmęre, Ilfing ēastan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +of Estlande, and Wīsle sūðan of Winodlande. And</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +þonne benimð Wīsle Ilfing hire naman, and ligeð of þǣm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +męre west and norð on sǣ; for ðȳ hit man hǣt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +Wīslemūða.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">19</span> +Þæt Estland is swȳðe mycel, and þǣr bið swȳðe manig</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +burh, and on ǣlcere byrig bið cyning. And þǣr bið</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +swȳðe mycel hunig, and fiscnað; and sē cyning and þā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +rīcostan męn drincað mȳran meolc, and þā unspēdigan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">23</span> +and þā þēowan drincað medo.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_4" id = +"tag_rIIIc_4" href = "#note_rIIIc_4">4</a> Þǣr bið swȳðe mycel</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">24</span> +gewinn betwēonan him. And ne bið ðǣr nǣnig ealo<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rIIIc_5" id = "tag_rIIIc_5" href = "#note_rIIIc_5">5</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">25</span> +gebrowen mid Estum, ac þǣr bið medo genōh. And þǣr</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">26</span> +is mid Estum ðēaw, þonne þǣr bið man dēad, þæt hē līð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">27</span> +inne unforbærned mid his māgum and frēondum mōnað,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">28</span> +ge hwīlum twēgen; and þā cyningas, and þā ōðre hēahðungene</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">29</span> +męn, swā micle lęncg<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_6" id = +"tag_rIIIc_6" href = "#note_rIIIc_6">6</a> swā hī māran spēda</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">30</span> +habbað, hwīlum healf gēar þæt hī bēoð unforbærned, and</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">109</span> +<a name = "page109" id = "page109"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +licgað bufan eorðan on hyra hūsum. And ealle þā hwīle</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line109_2" id = "line109_2">2</a></span> +þe þæt līc bið inne, þǣr <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote109_2">sceal</a> bēon gedrync and plega,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +oð ðone dæg þe hī hine forbærnað. Þonne þȳ ylcan dæge</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +þe hī hine tō þǣm āde beran wyllað, þonne tōdǣlað hī</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +his feoh, þæt þǣr tō lāfe bið æfter þǣm gedrynce and þǣm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line109_6" id = "line109_6">6</a></span> +plegan, on fīf oððe syx, hwȳlum on mā, swā swā þæs fēos</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line109_7" id = "line109_7">7</a></span> +andēfn bið. <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote109_7">Ālęcgað +hit</a> ðonne forhwæga on ānre mīle</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +þone mǣstan dǣl fram þǣm tūne, þonne ōðerne, ðonne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +þone þriddan, oþ þe hyt eall ālēd bið on þǣre ānre mīle;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +and sceall bēon sē lǣsta dǣl nȳhst þǣm tūne ðe sē dēada</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +man on lið. Ðonne sceolon<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_7" id = +"tag_rIIIc_7" href = "#note_rIIIc_7">7</a> bēon gesamnode ealle ðā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +męnn ðe swyftoste hors habbað on þǣm lande, forhwæga</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +on fīf mīlum oððe on syx mīlum fram þǣm fēo. Þonne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +ærnað hȳ ealle tōweard þǣm fēo: ðonne cymeð sē man</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +sē þæt swiftoste hors hafað tō þǣm ǣrestan dǣle and tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +þǣm mǣstan, and swā ǣlc æfter ōðrum, oþ hit bið eall</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +genumen; and sē nimð þone lǣstan dǣl sē nȳhst þǣm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line109_18" id = "line109_18">18</a></span> +tūne þæt feoh geærneð. And þonne rīdeð ǣlc hys weges</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +mid ðǣm fēo, and hyt mōtan<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_8" id = +"tag_rIIIc_8" href = "#note_rIIIc_8">8</a> habban eall; and for ðȳ</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +þǣr bēoð þā swiftan hors ungefōge dȳre. And þonne his</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +gestrēon bēoð þus eall āspęnded, þonne byrð man hine ūt,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +and forbærneð mid his wǣpnum and hrægle; and swīðost</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">110</span> +<a name = "page110" id = "page110"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +ealle hys spēda hȳ forspęndað mid þǣm langan legere</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line110_2" id = "line110_2">2</a></span> +þæs dēadan mannes inne, and þæs þe hȳ be þǣm wegum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +ālęcgað, þe ðā fręmdan tō ærnað, and nimað. And þæt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +is mid Estum þēaw þæt þǣr sceal ǣlces geðēodes man</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line110_5" id = "line110_5">5</a></span> +bēon forbærned; and gyf þār<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_9" id = +"tag_rIIIc_9" href = "#note_rIIIc_9">9</a> <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote110_5">man ān bān findeð unforbærned,</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote110_5">hī</a> hit sceolan<a class += "tag" name = "tag_rIIIc_7b" id = "tag_rIIIc_7b" href = +"#note_rIIIc_7">7</a> miclum gebētan. And þǣr is mid</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line110_7" id = "line110_7">7</a></span> +Estum ān mǣgð þæt hī magon cyle gewyrcan; and þȳ</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +þǣr licgað þā dēadan męn swā lange, and ne fūliað, þæt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +hȳ wyrcað þone cyle him on. And þēah man āsętte</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +twēgen fǣtels full ealað oððe wæteres, hȳ gedōð þæt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +ǣgþer bið oferfroren, sam hit sȳ sumor sam winter.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote108_1" id = "linenote108_1" href = +"#line108_1">108.1-4.</a> +<b>him ... ūs</b>. Note the characteristic change of person, the +transition from <i>indirect</i> to <i>direct discourse</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote109_2" id = "linenote109_2" href = +"#line109_2">109.2.</a> +<b>sceal</b>. See <a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b>, Note 2 (2)</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote109_7" id = "linenote109_7" href = +"#line109_7">109.7.</a> +<b>Ālęcgað hit</b>. Bosworth illustrates thus:</p> + +<table summary = "illustrative diagram"> +<tr> +<td colspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/pg109note.png" width = "346" height = "39" +alt = "see end of text"> +</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td> +Where the<br> +horsemen<br> +assemble. +</td> +<td class = "right"> +The six parts of<br> +the property placed<br> +within one mile.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>“The horsemen assemble five or six miles from the property, at +<i>d</i> or <i>e</i>, and run towards <i>c</i>; the man who has the +swiftest horse, coming first to 1 or <i>c</i>, takes the first and +largest part. The man who has the horse coming second takes part 2 or +<i>b</i>, and so, in succession, till the least part, 6 or <i>a</i>, is +taken.”</p> + +<p class = "right"><span class = "mynote"> +<a href = "#ascii_note">Text version of illustration</a></span></p> + +<p><a name = "linenote110_5" id = "linenote110_5" href = +"#line110_5">110.5-6.</a> +<b>man ... hī</b>. Here the plural <b>hī</b> refers to the singular +<b>man</b>. <i>Cf.</i> <a href = "#line109_18">p. 109, +ll. 18-19</a>, <b>ǣlc ... mōtan</b>. In <i>Exodus</i> xxxii, 24, we +find “<i>Whosoever</i> hath any gold, let <i>them</i> break it off”; and +Addison writes, “I do not mean that I think <i>anyone</i> to blame +for taking due care of <i>their</i> health.” The construction, though +outlawed now, has been common in all periods of our language. Paul +remarks (<i>Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte</i>, 3d ed., § 186) +that “When a word is used as an indefinite [one, man, somebody, etc.] it +is, strictly speaking, incapable of any distinction of number. Since, +however, in respect of the external form, a particular number has +to be chosen, it is a matter of indifference which this is.... Hence a +change of numbers is common in the different languages.” Paul fails to +observe that the change is always from singular to plural, not from +plural to singular. See <i>Note on the Concord of Collectives and +Indefinites</i> (Anglia XI, 1901). See <a href = +"#linenote119_19">p. 119, note on ll. 19-21</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_1" id = "note_rIIIc_1" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_1">1</a> += selfe.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_2" id = "note_rIIIc_2" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_2">2</a> += hēo.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_3" id = "note_rIIIc_3" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_3">3</a> += fīftīene.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_4" id = "note_rIIIc_4" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_4">4</a> += medu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_5" id = "note_rIIIc_5" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_5">5</a> += ealu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_6" id = "note_rIIIc_6" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_6">6</a> += lęng.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_7" id = "note_rIIIc_7" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_7">7</a> += sculon.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_8" id = "note_rIIIc_8" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_8">8</a> += mōton.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIIIc_9" id = "note_rIIIc_9" href = +"#tag_rIIIc_9">9</a> += ðǣr.</p> +</div> + + +<span class = "pagenum">111</span> +<a name = "page111" id = "page111"> </a> + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_IV" id = "chapIII_IV"> +IV. THE STORY OF CÆDMON.</a></h3> + +<p class = "notation"> +[From the so-called Alfredian version of Bede’s <i>Ecclesiastical +History</i>. The text generally followed is that of MS. Bodley, Tanner +10. Miller (<i>Early English Text Society</i>, No. 95, +<i>Introd.</i>) argues, chiefly from the use of the prepositions, that +the original O.E. MS. was Mercian, composed possibly in Lichfield +(Staffordshire). At any rate, O.E. idiom is frequently sacrificed to the +Latin original.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +“Cædmon, as he is called, is the first Englishman whose name we know who +wrote poetry in our island of England; and the first to embody in verse +the new passions and ideas which Christianity had brought into +England.... Undisturbed by any previous making of lighter poetry, he +came fresh to the work of Christianising English song. It was a great +step to make. He built the chariot in which all the new religious +emotions of England could now drive along.” (Brooke, <i>The History of +Early English Literature</i>, cap. XV.) There is no reason to doubt +the historical existence of Cædmon; for Bede, who relates the story, +lived near Whitby, and was seven years old when Cædmon died (<span class += "smallroman">A.D.</span> 680)].</p> + +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line111_1" id = "line111_1">1</a></span> +In <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote111_1">ðysse abbudissan</a> +mynstre wæs sum brōðor syndriglīce</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +mid godcundre gife gemǣred ǫnd geweorðad, for þon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +he gewunade gerisenlīce lēoð wyrcan, þā ðe tō ǣfęstnisse<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_rIV_1" id = "tag_rIV_1" href = "#note_rIV_1">1</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +ǫnd tō ārfæstnisse belumpon; swā ðætte swā hwæt swā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +hē of godcundum stafum þurh bōceras geleornode, þæt hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +æfter medmiclum fæce in scopgereorde mid þā mǣstan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +swētnisse ǫnd inbryrdnisse geglęngde, ǫnd in Ęngliscgereorde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +wel geworht forþ brōhte. Ǫnd for his lēoþsǫngum</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">112</span> +<a name = "page112" id = "page112"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +mǫnigra mǫnna mōd oft to worulde forhogdnisse ǫnd tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line112_2" id = "line112_2">2</a></span> +geþēodnisse þæs heofonlīcan līfes onbærnde wǣron. Ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line112_3" id = "line112_3">3</a></span> +ēac swelce<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_2" id = "tag_rIV_2" href = +"#note_rIV_2">2</a> mǫnige ōðre æfter him in Ǫngelþēode ongunnon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line112_4" id = "line112_4">4</a></span> +ǣfęste lēoð wyrcan, <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote112_4">ac +nǣnig hwæðre him þæt gelīce</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote112_4">dōn ne meahte</a>; for þon +hē nālæs frǫm mǫnnum nē ðurh</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +mǫn gelǣred wæs þæt hē ðone lēoðcræft leornade, ac hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +wæs godcundlīce gefultumod, ǫnd þurh Godes gife þone</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +sǫngcræft onfēng; ǫnd hē for ðon nǣfre nōht lēasunge,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +nē īdles lēoþes wyrcan ne meahte, ac efne þā ān ðā ðē tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line112_10" id = "line112_10">10</a></span> +ǣfęstnisse<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_1b" id = "tag_rIV_1b" href = +"#note_rIV_1">1</a> belumpon <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote112_10">ǫnd his þā ǣfęstan tungan gedafenode</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote112_10">singan</a>.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">12</span> +Wæs hē, sē mǫn, in weoruldhāde<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_3" id = +"tag_rIV_3" href = "#note_rIV_3">3</a> gesęted oð þā tīde þe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +hē wæs gelȳfdre ylde, ǫnd nǣfre nǣnig lēoð geleornade.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line112_14" id = "line112_14">14</a></span> +Ǫnd hē for þon oft in gebēorscipe, þonne þǣr wæs <a class = "linenote" +href = "#linenote112_14">blisse</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote112_14">intinga</a> gedēmed, þæt +hēo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_4" id = "tag_rIV_4" href = +"#note_rIV_4">4</a> ealle sceolden þurh ęndebyrdnesse</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +be hearpan singan, þonne hē geseah þā hearpan him</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +nēalēcan, þonne ārās hē for scǫme frǫm þǣm symble,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line112_18" id = "line112_18">18</a></span> +ǫnd hām ēode tō his hūse. Þā hē <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote112_18">þæt þā sumre tīde</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote112_18">dyde, þæt hē forlēt</a> +þæt hūs þæs gebēorscipes, ǫnd ūt wæs</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">113</span> +<a name = "page113" id = "page113"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line113_1" id = "line113_1">1</a></span> +gǫngende tō nēata scipene, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote113_1">þāra heord him wæs þǣre</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote113_1">nihte beboden</a>; þā hē +ðā þǣr on gelimplīcre tīde his</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +leomu<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_5" id = "tag_rIV_5" href = +"#note_rIV_5">5</a> on ręste gesętte ǫnd onslēpte, þa stōd him sum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +mǫn æt þurh swefn, ǫnd hine hālette ǫnd grētte, ǫnd hine</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +be his nǫman nęmnde: “Cædmǫn, sing mē hwæthwugu.”</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +Þā ǫndswarede hē, ǫnd cwæð: “Ne cǫn ic nōht singan;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +ǫnd ic for þon of þyssum gebēorscipe ūt ēode ǫnd hider</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +gewāt, for þon ic nāht singan ne cūðe.” Eft hē cwæð sē ðe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +wið hine sprecende wæs: “Hwæðre þū meaht mē singan.”</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +Þā cwæð hē: “Hwæt sceal ic singan?” Cwæð hē: “Sing</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +mē frumsceaft.” Þā hē ðā þās andsware onfēng, þā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +ongǫn hē sōna singan, in hęrenesse Godes Scyppendes,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line113_13" id = "line113_13">13</a></span> +þā fers ǫnd þā word þe hē nǣfre ne gehȳrde, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote113_13">þāra ęndebyrdnes</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote113_13">þis is</a>:</p> + +<div class = "poem"> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line113_15" id = "line113_15">15</a></span> +Nū sculon hęrigean<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_6" id = "tag_rIV_6" +href = "#note_rIV_6">6</a> heofonrīces Weard,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +Metodes meahte ǫnd his mōdgeþanc,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line113_17" id = "line113_17">17</a></span> +weorc Wuldorfæder, swā hē <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote113_17">wundra gehwæs</a>,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +ēce Drihten ōr onstealde.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">114</span> +<a name = "page114" id = "page114"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +Hē ǣrest scēop eorðan bearnum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line114_2" id = "line114_2">2</a></span> +heofon tō hrōfe, hālig Scyppend;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +þā middangeard mǫnncynnes Weard,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +ēce Drihten, æfter tēode</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +fīrum foldan, Frēa ælmihtig.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +Þā ārās hē frǫm þǣm slǣpe, ǫnd eal þā þe hē slǣpende</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line114_7" id = "line114_7">7</a></span> +sǫng fæste in gemynde hæfde; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote114_7">ǫnd þǣm wordum</a> sōna</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +mǫnig word in þæt ilce gemet Gode wyrðes sǫnges</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote114_7">tōgeþēodde</a>. Þā cōm hē +on morgenne tō þǣm tūngerēfan,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +sē þe his ealdormǫn wæs: sægde him hwylce gife hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +onfēng; ǫnd hē hine sōna tō þǣre abbudissan gelǣdde,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +ǫnd hire þæt cȳðde ǫnd sægde. Þā heht hēo gesǫmnian</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +ealle þā gelǣredestan męn ǫnd þā leorneras, ǫnd him</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +ǫndweardum hēt sęcgan þæt swefn, ǫnd þæt lēoð singan,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +þæt ealra heora<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_7" id = "tag_rIV_7" href += "#note_rIV_7">7</a> dōme gecoren wǣre, hwæt oððe hwǫnan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line114_16" id = "line114_16">16</a></span> +þæt cumen wǣre. <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote114_16">Þā wæs +him eallum gesewen</a>, swā swā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +hit wæs, þæt him wǣre frǫm Drihtne sylfum heofonlīc</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">115</span> +<a name = "page115" id = "page115"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +gifu forgifen. Þā ręhton hęo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_4b" id = +"tag_rIV_4b" href = "#note_rIV_4">4</a> him ǫnd sægdon sum hālig</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +spell ǫnd godcundre lāre word: bebudon him þā, gif hē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +meahte, þæt hē in swīnsunge lēoþsǫnges þæt gehwyrfde.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +Þā hē ðā hæfde þā wīsan onfǫngne, þā ēode hē hām tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +his hūse, ǫnd cwōm eft on morgenne, ǫnd þȳ bętstan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +lēoðe geglęnged him āsǫng ǫnd āgeaf þæt him beboden</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +wæs.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">8</span> +Ðā ongan sēo abbudisse clyppan ǫnd lufigean<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rIV_8" id = "tag_rIV_8" href = "#note_rIV_8">8</a> þā Godes</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line115_9" id = "line115_9">9</a></span> +gife in þǣm męn, <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote115_9">ǫnd hēo +hine þā mǫnade</a> ǫnd lǣrde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +þæt hē woruldhād forlēte ǫnd <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote115_9">munuchād onfēnge</a>: ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +hē þæt wel þafode. Ǫnd hēo hine in þæt mynster onfēng</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line115_12" id = "line115_12">12</a></span> +mid his gōdum, ǫnd hine geþēodde tō gesǫmnunge þāra</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +Godes þēowa, ǫnd heht hine lǣran þæt getæl þæs hālgan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line115_14" id = "line115_14">14</a></span> +stǣres ǫnd spelles. Ǫnd hē eal þā hē in gehȳrnesse</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line115_15" id = "line115_15">15</a></span> +geleornian meahte, mid hine gemyndgade, ǫnd swā swā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +clǣne nēten<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_9" id = "tag_rIV_9" href = +"#note_rIV_9">9</a> eodorcende in þæt swēteste lēoð gehwyrfde.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +Ǫnd his sǫng ǫnd his lēoð wǣron swā wynsumu tō gehȳranne,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line115_18" id = "line115_18">18</a></span> +þætte þā seolfan<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_10" id = "tag_rIV_10" +href = "#note_rIV_10">10</a> his lārēowas æt his mūðe writon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +ǫnd leornodon. Sǫng hē ǣrest be middangeardes gesceape,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +ǫnd bī fruman mǫncynnes, ǫnd eal þæt stǣr Genesis (þæt</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +is sēo ǣreste Moyses bōc); ǫnd eft bī ūtgǫnge Israhēla</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +folces of Ǣgypta lǫnde, ǫnd bī ingǫnge þæs gehātlandes;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">23</span> +ǫnd bī ōðrum mǫnegum spellum þæs hālgan gewrites</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">116</span> +<a name = "page116" id = "page116"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +canōnes bōca; ǫnd bī Crīstes męnniscnesse, ǫnd bī his</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +þrōwunge, ǫnd bī his ūpāstīgnesse in heofonas; ǫnd bī</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +þæs Hālgan Gāstes cyme, ǫnd þāra apostola lāre; ǫnd eft</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +bī þǣm dæge þæs tōweardan dōmes, ǫnd bī fyrhtu þæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +tintreglīcan wītes, ǫnd bī swētnesse þæs heofonlīcan rīces,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line116_6" id = "line116_6">6</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote116_6">hē monig lēoð +geworhte</a>; ǫnd swelce<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_2b" id = +"tag_rIV_2b" href = "#note_rIV_2">2</a> ēac ōðer mǫnig be</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +þǣm godcundan fręmsumnessum ǫnd dōmum hē geworhte.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +In eallum þǣm hē geornlīce gēmde<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_11" id += "tag_rIV_11" href = "#note_rIV_11">11</a> þæt hē męn ātuge</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +frǫm synna lufan ǫnd māndǣda, ǫnd tō lufan ǫnd tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +geornfulnesse āwęhte gōdra dǣda, for þon hē wæs, sē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +mǫn, swīþe ǣfęst ǫnd regollīcum þēodscipum ēaðmōdlīce</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +underþēoded; ǫnd wið þǣm þā ðe in ōðre wīsan dōn woldon,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +hē wæs mid welme<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rIV_12" id = "tag_rIV_12" +href = "#note_rIV_12">12</a> micelre ęllenwōdnisse onbærned.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +Ǫnd hē for ðon fægre ęnde his līf betȳnde ǫnd geęndade.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote111_1" id = "linenote111_1" href = +"#line111_1">111.1.</a> +<b>ðysse abbudissan.</b> The abbess referred to is the famous Hild, or +Hilda, then living in the monastery at Streones-halh, which, according +to Bede, means “Bay of the Beacon.” The Danes afterward gave it the name +Whitby, or “White Town.” The surroundings were eminently fitted to +nurture England’s first poet. “The natural scenery which surrounded him, +the valley of the Esk, on whose sides he probably lived, the great +cliffs, the billowy sea, the vast sky seen from the heights over the +ocean, played incessantly upon him.” (Brooke.)</p> + +<p>Note, also, in this connection, the numerous Latin words that the +introduction of Christianity (A.D. 597) brought into the vocabulary of +O.E.: <b>abbudisse</b>, <b>mynster</b>, <b>bisceop</b>, <b>Lǣden</b>, +<b>prēost</b>, <b>æstel</b>, <b>mancus</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote112_4" id = "linenote112_4" href = +"#line112_4">112.4-5.</a> +The more usual order of words would be <b>ac nǣnig, hwæðre, ne meahte +ðæt dōn gelīce him</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote112_10" id = "linenote112_10" href = +"#line112_10">112.10-11.</a> +<b>ǫnd his ... singan</b>, <i>and which it became his</i> (<i>the</i>) +<i>pious tongue to sing</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote112_14" id = "linenote112_14" href = +"#line112_14">112.14-15.</a> +<b>blisse intinga</b>, <i>for the sake of joy</i>; but the translator +has confused <i>laetitiae causā</i> (ablative) and <i>laetitiae +causa</i> (nominative). The proper form would be <b>for blisse</b> with +omission of <b>intingan</b>, just as <i>for my sake</i> is usually +<b>for mē</b>; <i>for his</i> (<i>or their</i>) <i>sake</i>, <b>for +him</b>. <i>Cf. Mark</i> vi, 26: “Yet <i>for his oath’s sake, and for +their sakes which sat with him</i>, he would not reject her,” <b>for ðǣm +āðe, ǫnd for ðǣm þe him mid sǣton</b>. <i>For his sake</i> is frequently +<b>for his ðingon</b> (<b>ðingum</b>), rarely <b>for his intingan</b>. +<b>Þingon</b> is regularly used when the preceding genitive is a noun +denoting a person: <i>for my wife’s sake</i>, <b>for mīnes wīfes +ðingon</b> (<i>Genesis</i> xx, 11), etc.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote112_18" id = "linenote112_18" href = +"#line112_18">112.18-19.</a> +<b>þæt ... þæt hē forlēt</b>. The substantival clause introduced by the +second <b>þæt</b> amplifies by apposition the first <b>þæt</b>: <i>When +he then, at a certain time</i> (instrumental case, <a href = +"#sec_98">§ <b>98</b>, (2)</a>), <i>did that, namely, when he left +the house</i>. The better Mn.E. would be <i>this ... that</i>: “Added +yet <i>this</i> above all, <i>that</i> he shut up John in prison” +(<i>Luke</i> iv, 20).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote113_1" id = "linenote113_1" href = +"#line113_1">113.1-2.</a> +<b>þāra ... beboden</b>. This does not mean that Cædmon was a herdsman, +but that he served in turn as did the other secular attendants at the +monastery.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote113_13" id = "linenote113_13" href = +"#line113_13">113.13-14.</a> +<b>þāra ęndebyrdnes þis is</b>. Bede writes <i>Hic est sensus, non autem +ordo ipse verborum</i>, and gives in Latin prose a translation of the +hymn from the Northumbrian dialect, in which Cædmon wrote. The O.E. +version given above is, of course, not the Northumbrian original (which, +however, with some variations is preserved in several of the Latin MSS. +of Bede’s <i>History</i>), but a West Saxon version made also from the +Northumbrian, not from the Latin.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote113_15" id = "linenote113_15" href = +"#line113_15">113.15.</a> +<b>Nū sculon hęrigean</b>, <i>Now ought we to praise</i>. The subject +<b>wē</b> is omitted in the best MSS. Note the characteristic use of +synonyms, or epithets, in this bit of O.E. poetry. Observe that it is +not the <i>thought</i> that is repeated, but rather the <i>idea</i>, the +<i>concept</i>, God. See <a href = "#structure">p. 124</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote113_17" id = "linenote113_17" href = +"#line113_17">113.17.</a> +<b>wundra gehwæs</b>. See <a href = "#linenoteVI_769">p. 140, note +on <b>cēnra gehwylcum</b></a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote114_7" id = "linenote114_7" href = +"#line114_7">114.7-9.</a> +<b>ǫnd þǣm wordum ... tōgeþēodde</b>, <i>and to those words he soon +joined, in the same meter, many</i> (<i>other</i>) <i>words of song +worthy of God</i>. But the translator has not only blundered over Bede’s +Latin (<i>eis mox plura in eundem modum verba Deo digna carminis +adjunxit</i>), but sacrificed still more the idiom of O.E. The +predicate should not come at the end; <b>in</b> should be followed by +the dative; and for <b>Gode wyrðes sǫnges</b> the better O.E. would be +<b>sǫnges Godes wyrðes</b>. When used with the dative <b>wyrð</b> +(<b>weorð</b>) usually means <i>dear</i> (= <i>of worth</i>) +<i>to</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote114_16" id = "linenote114_16" href = +"#line114_16">114.16.</a> +<b>þā ... gesewen</b>. We should expect <b>frǫm him eallum</b>; but the +translator has again closely followed the Latin (<i>visumque est +omnibus</i>), as later (in the <i>Conversion of Edwin</i>) he +renders <i>Talis mihi videtur</i> by <b>þyslīc mē is gesewen</b>. +<i>Talis</i> (<b>þyslīc</b>) agreeing with a following <i>vita</i> +(<b>līf</b>). Ælfric, however, with no Latin before him, writes that +John <b>wearð ðā him</b> [= <b>frǫm Drihtene</b>] <b>inweardlīce +gelufod</b>. It would seem that in proportion as a past participle has +the force of an adjective, the <i>to</i> relation may supplant the +<i>by</i> relation; just as we say <i>unknown to</i> instead of +<i>unknown by</i>, <i>unknown</i> being more adjectival than +participial. <b>Gesewen</b>, therefore, may here be translated +<i>visible</i>, <i>evident</i>, <i>patent</i> (= <b>gesynelīc</b>, +<b>sweotol</b>); and <b>gelufod</b>, <i>dear</i> (= <b>weorð</b>, +<b>lēof</b>).</p> + +<p>A survival of adjectival <b>gesewen</b> is found in Wycliffe’s <i>New +Testament</i> (1 <i>Cor.</i> xv, 5-8): “He was <i>seyn to</i> +Cephas, and aftir these thingis <i>to</i> enleuene; aftirward he was +<i>seyn to</i> mo than fyue hundrid britheren togidere ... aftirward he +was <i>seyn to</i> James, and aftirward <i>to</i> alle the apostlis. And +last of alle he was <i>seyn to</i> me, as <i>to</i> a deed borun child.” +The construction is frequent in Chaucer.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote115_9" id = "linenote115_9" href = +"#line115_9">115.9-10.</a> +<b>ǫnd hēo hine þā mǫnade ... munuchād onfēnge</b>. Hild’s advice has in +it the suggestion of a personal experience, for she herself had lived +half of her life (thirty-three years) “before,” says Bede, “she +dedicated the remaining half to our Lord in a monastic life.”</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote116_6" id = "linenote116_6" href = +"#line116_6">116.6.</a> +<b>hē mǫnig lēoð geworhte</b>. The opinion is now gaining ground that of +these “many poems” only the short hymn, already given, has come down to +us. Of other poems claimed for Cædmon, the strongest arguments are +advanced in favor of a part of the fragmentary poetical paraphrase of +<i>Genesis</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_1" id = "note_rIV_1" href = +"#tag_rIV_1">1</a> += ǣfæstnesse.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_2" id = "note_rIV_2" href = +"#tag_rIV_2">2</a> += swilce.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_3" id = "note_rIV_3" href = +"#tag_rIV_3">3</a> += woruldhāde.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_4" id = "note_rIV_4" href = +"#tag_rIV_4">4</a> += hīe.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_5" id = "note_rIV_5" href = +"#tag_rIV_5">5</a> += limu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_6" id = "note_rIV_6" href = +"#tag_rIV_6">6</a> += hęrian.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_7" id = "note_rIV_7" href = +"#tag_rIV_7">7</a> += hiera.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_8" id = "note_rIV_8" href = +"#tag_rIV_8">8</a> += lufian.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_9" id = "note_rIV_9" href = +"#tag_rIV_9">9</a> += nīeten.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_10" id = "note_rIV_10" href = +"#tag_rIV_10">10</a> += selfan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_11" id = "note_rIV_11" href = +"#tag_rIV_11">11</a> += gīemde.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rIV_12" id = "note_rIV_12" href = +"#tag_rIV_12">12</a> += wielme.</p> +</div> + + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_V" id = "chapIII_V"> +V. ALFRED’S PREFACE TO THE PASTORAL CARE.</a></h3> + +<p class = "notation"> +[Based on the Hatton MS. Of the year 597, the <i>Chronicle</i> says: “In +this year, Gregory the Pope sent into Britain Augustine with very many +monks, who gospelled [preached] God’s word to the English folk.” Gregory +I, surnamed “The Great,” has ever since been considered the apostle of +English Christianity, and his <i>Pastoral Care</i>, which contains +instruction in conduct and doctrine for all bishops, was a work that +Alfred could not afford to leave untranslated. For this translation +Alfred wrote a <i>Preface</i>, the historical value of which it would be +hard to overrate. In it he describes vividly the intellectual ruin that +the Danes had wrought, and develops at the same time his plan for +repairing that ruin.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">117</span> +<a name = "page117" id = "page117"> </a> +<p class = "notation"> +This <i>Preface</i> and the <i>Battle of Ashdown</i> (<a href = +"#chapIII_I">p. 99</a>) show the great king in his twofold +character of warrior and statesman, and justify the inscription on the +base of the statue erected to him in 1877, at Wantage (Berkshire), his +birth-place: “Ælfred found Learning dead, and he restored it; Education +neglected, and he revived it; the laws powerless, and he gave them +force; the Church debased, and he raised it; the Land ravaged by a +fearful Enemy, from which he delivered it. Ælfred’s name will live as +long as mankind shall respect the Past.”]</p> + +<div class = "prose"> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line117_1" id = "line117_1">1</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote117_1">Ælfred kyning</a> hāteð +grētan Wærferð biscep<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_1" id = "tag_rV_1" +href = "#note_rV_1">1</a> his wordum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +luflīce ǫnd frēondlīce; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote117_1">ǫnd ðē cȳðan hāte</a> ðæt mē cōm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +swīðe oft on gemynd, hwelce<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_2" id = +"tag_rV_2" href = "#note_rV_2">2</a> witan īu<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_3" id = "tag_rV_3" href = "#note_rV_3">3</a> wǣron giond<a class += "tag" name = "tag_rV_4" id = "tag_rV_4" href = "#note_rV_4">4</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +Angelcynn, ǣgðer ge godcundra hāda ge woruldcundra;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +ǫnd hū gesǣliglīca tīda ðā wǣron giond Angelcynn; ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +hū ðā kyningas ðe ðone onwald hæfdon ðæs folces on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +ðām dagum Gode ǫnd his ǣrendwrecum hērsumedon<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_5" id = "tag_rV_5" href = "#note_rV_5">5</a>;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +ǫnd hū hīe ǣgðer ge hiora sibbe ge hiora siodo<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_6" id = "tag_rV_6" href = "#note_rV_6">6</a> ge hiora</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +onweald innanbordes gehīoldon,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_4b" id = +"tag_rV_4b" href = "#note_rV_4">4</a> ǫnd ēac ūt hiora ēðel</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +gerȳmdon; ǫnd hū him ðā spēow ǣgðer ge mid wīge ge</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +mid wīsdōme; ǫnd ēac ða godcundan hādas hū giorne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +hīe wǣron ǣgðer ge ymb lāre ge ymb liornunga, ge ymb</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +ealle ðā ðīowotdōmas ðe hīe Gode dōn scoldon; ǫnd hū</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +man ūtanbordes wīsdōm ǫnd lāre hieder on lǫnd sōhte,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +ǫnd hū wē hīe nū sceoldon ūte begietan, gif wē hīe habban</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +sceoldon. Swǣ<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_7" id = "tag_rV_7" href = +"#note_rV_7">7</a> clǣne hīo wæs oðfeallenu on Angelcynne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line117_17" id = "line117_17">17</a></span> +ðæt swīðe fēawa wǣron behionan Humbre ðe hiora ðēninga</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line117_18" id = "line117_18">18</a></span> +cūðen understǫndan on Ęnglisc oððe furðum ān ǣrendgewrit</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +of Lǣdene on Ęnglisc āręccean; ǫnd ic wēne ðætte</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +nōht mǫnige begiondan Humbre nǣren. Swǣ<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_7b" id = "tag_rV_7b" href = "#note_rV_7">7</a> fēawa</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +hiora wǣron ðæt ic furðum ānne ānlēpne<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_8" +id = "tag_rV_8" href = "#note_rV_8">8</a> ne mæg geðencean</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">118</span> +<a name = "page118" id = "page118"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +be sūðan Tęmese, ðā ðā ic tō rīce fēng. Gode ælmihtegum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +sīe ðǫnc ðætte wē nū ǣnigne onstāl habbað</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +lārēowa. Ǫnd for ðon ic ðē bebīode ðæt ðū dō swǣ<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_7c" id = "tag_rV_7c" href = "#note_rV_7">7</a> ic</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +gelīefe ðæt ðū wille, ðæt ðū ðē ðissa woruldðinga tō ðǣm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line118_5" id = "line118_5">5</a></span> +geǣmetige, swǣ ðū oftost <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote118_5">mæge</a>, ðæt ðū ðone wīsdōm ðe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +ðē God sealde ðǣr ðǣr ðū hiene befæstan <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote118_5">mæge</a>, befæste.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +Geðęnc hwelc<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_9" id = "tag_rV_9" href = +"#note_rV_9">9</a> wītu ūs ðā becōmon for ðisse worulde, ðā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line118_8" id = "line118_8">8</a></span> +ðā wē hit nōhwæðer nē selfe ne lufodon, nē ēac ōðrum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line118_9" id = "line118_9">9</a></span> +mǫnnum ne lēfdon<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_10" id = "tag_rV_10" +href = "#note_rV_10">10</a>: <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote118_9">ðone naman</a> ānne wē lufodon ðætte</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +wē Crīstne wǣren, ǫnd swīðe <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote118_9">fēawe ðā ðēawas</a>.</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">11</span> +Ðā ic ðā ðis eall gemunde, ðā gemunde ic ēac hū ic</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +geseah, ǣr ðǣm ðe hit eall forhęrgod wǣre ǫnd forbærned,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +hū ðā ciricean giond eall Angelcynn stōdon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +māðma ǫnd bōca gefylda, ǫnd ēac micel męnigeo<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_11" id = "tag_rV_11" href = "#note_rV_11">11</a> Godes</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +ðīowa; ǫnd ðā swīðe lȳtle fiorme ðāra bōca wiston, for</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +ðǣm ðe hīe hiora nānwuht<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_12" id = +"tag_rV_12" href = "#note_rV_12">12</a> ongietan ne meahton, for</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +ðǣm ðe hīe nǣron on hiora āgen geðīode awritene.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +Swelce<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_13" id = "tag_rV_13" href = +"#note_rV_13">13</a> hīe cwǣden: “Ure ieldran, ðā ðe ðās stōwa ǣr</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +hīoldon, hīe lufodon wīsdōm, ǫnd ðurh ðone hīe begēaton</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +welan, ǫnd ūs lǣfdon. Hēr mǫn mæg gīet gesīon hiora</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +swæð, ac wē him ne cunnon æfter spyrigean,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rV_14" id = "tag_rV_14" href = "#note_rV_14">14</a> ǫnd for</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +ðǣm wē habbað nū ǣgðer forlǣten ge ðone welan ge ðone</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">23</span> +wīsdōm, for ðǣm ðe wē noldon tō ðǣm spore mid ūre</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">24</span> +mōde onlūtan.”</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">25</span> +Ðā ic ðā ðis eall gemunde, ðā wundrade ic swīðe swīðe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">26</span> +ðāra gōdena wiotona<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_15" id = "tag_rV_15" +href = "#note_rV_15">15</a> ðe gīu wǣron giond Angelcynn, ǫnd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">27</span> +ðā bēc ealla be fullan geliornod hæfdon, ðæt hīe hiora ðā</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">119</span> +<a name = "page119" id = "page119"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +nǣnne dǣl noldon on hiora āgen geðīode węndan. Ac</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2</span> +ic ðā sōna eft mē selfum andwyrde, ǫnd cwæð: “Hīe ne</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +wēndon þætte ǣfre męnn sceolden swǣ<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_7d" +id = "tag_rV_7d" href = "#note_rV_7">7</a> reccelēase weorðan,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_4" id = "line119_4">4</a></span> +ǫnd sīo lār swǣ oðfeallan; for ðǣre wilnunga hīe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_5" id = "line119_5">5</a></span> +hit forlēton, ǫnd woldon ðæt hēr ðȳ māra wīsdōm on</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +lǫnde wǣre ðȳ wē mā geðēoda cūðon.”</p> + +<p class = "break"> +<span class = "linenum">7</span> +Ðā gemunde ic hū sīo ǣ wæs ǣrest on Ebrēisc geðīode</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +funden, ǫnd eft, ðā hīe Crēacas geliornodon, ðā węndon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +hīe hīe on hiora āgen geðīode ealle, ǫnd ēac ealle ōðre</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +bēc. Ǫnd eft Lǣdenware swǣ same, siððan hīe hīe geliornodon,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">11</span> +hīe hīe węndon ealla ðurh wīse wealhstōdas</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +on hiora āgen geðīode. Ǫnd ēac ealla ōðra Crīstena</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +ðīoda sumne dǣl hiora on hiora āgen geðīode węndon.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_14" id = "line119_14">14</a></span> +For ðȳ mē ðyncð bętre, gif <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote119_14">īow</a> swǣ ðyncð, ðæt wē ēac</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +suma bēc, ðā ðe nīedbeðearfosta sīen eallum mǫnnum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_16" id = "line119_16">16</a></span> +tō wiotonne,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rV_16" id = "tag_rV_16" href = +"#note_rV_16">16</a> <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote119_16">ðæt +wē ðā</a> on ðæt geðīode węnden ðe wē</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_17" id = "line119_17">17</a></span> +ealle gecnāwan mægen, ǫnd <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote119_17">gedōn</a> swǣ wē swīðe ēaðe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +magon mid Godes fultume, gif wē ðā stilnesse habbað,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_19" id = "line119_19">19</a></span> +ðætte eall <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote119_19">sīo gioguð</a> +ðe nū <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote119_19">is</a> on +Angelcynne friora</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line119_20" id = "line119_20">20</a></span> +mǫnna, ðāra ðe ðā spēda hæbben ðæt <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote119_19">hīe</a> ðǣm befēolan</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +mægen, <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote119_19">sīen</a> tō +liornunga oðfæste, ðā hwīle ðe hīe tō</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">120</span> +<a name = "page120" id = "page120"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">1</span> +nānre ōðerre note ne mægen, oð ðone first ðe hīe wel</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line120_2" id = "line120_2">2</a></span> +cunnen Ęnglisc gewrit ārǣdan: <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote120_2">lǣre mǫn</a> siððan furður</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +on Lǣdengeðīode ðā ðe mǫn furðor lǣran wille, ǫnd tō</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">4</span> +hīerran hāde dōn wille. Ðā ic ðā gemunde hū sīo lār</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +Lǣdengeðīodes ǣr ðissum āfeallen wæs giond Angelcynn,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">6</span> +ǫnd ðeah mǫnige cūðon Ęnglisc gewrit ārǣdan, ðā</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">7</span> +ongan ic ongemang oðrum mislīcum ǫnd manigfealdum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">8</span> +bisgum ðisses kynerīces ðā bōc węndan on Ęnglisc ðe is</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">9</span> +genęmned on Lǣden “Pastoralis,” ǫnd on Ęnglisc “Hierdebōc,”</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">10</span> +hwīlum word be worde, hwīlum andgit of andgiete,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line120_11" id = "line120_11">11</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote120_11">swǣ swǣ ic hīe +geliornode</a> æt <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote120_11">Plegmunde mīnum</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">12</span> +ærcebiscepe, ǫnd æt <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote120_11">Assere </a>mīnum biscepe, ǫnd æt <a class = "linenote" +href = "#linenote120_11">Grimbolde</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">13</span> +mīnum mæsseprīoste, ǫnd æt <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote120_11">Iōhanne</a> mīnum mæsseprēoste.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">14</span> +Siððan ic hīe ðā geliornod hæfde, swǣ swǣ</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +ic hīe forstōd, ǫnd swǣ ic hīe andgitfullīcost āręccean</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">16</span> +meahte, ic hīe on Ęnglisc āwęnde; ǫnd tō ǣlcum biscepstōle</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">17</span> +on mīnum rīce wille āne onsęndan; ǫnd on ǣlcre</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">18</span> +bið ān æstel, sē bið on fīftegum mancessa. Ǫnd ic bebīode</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">19</span> +on Godes naman ðæt nān mǫn ðone æstel frǫm</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +ðǣre bēc ne dō, nē ðā bōc frǫm ðǣm mynstre; uncūð hū</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">21</span> +lǫnge ðǣr swǣ gelǣrede biscepas sīen, swǣ swǣ nū, Gode</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">22</span> +ðonc, wel hwǣr siendon. For ðȳ ic wolde ðætte hīe ealneg</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">121</span> +<a name = "page121" id = "page121"> </a> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line121_1" id = "line121_1">1</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote121_1">æt ðǣre stōwe</a> wǣren, +būton sē biscep hīe mid him</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "line121_2" id = "line121_2">2</a></span> +habban wille, oððe hīo hwǣr tō lǣne sīe, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenote121_2">oððe hwā ōðre</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">3</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenote121_2">bī wrīte</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenote117_1" id = "linenote117_1" href = +"#line117_1">117.1-2.</a> +<b>Ælfred kyning hāteð ... hāte</b>. Note the change from the formal and +official third person (<b>hāteð</b>) to the more familiar first person +(<b>hāte</b>). So Ælfric, in his <i>Preface to Genesis</i>, writes +<b>Ælfric munuc grēt Æðelwærd ealdormann ēadmōdlīce. Þū bǣde mē, lēof, +þæt ic</b>, etc.: <i>Ælfric, monk, greets Æthelweard, alderman, humbly. +Thou, beloved, didst bid me that I</i>, etc.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote118_5" id = "linenote118_5" href = +"#line118_5">118.5.</a> +Notice that <b>mæge</b> (l. 5) and <b>mæge</b> (l. 6) are not in the +subjunctive because the sense requires it, but because they have been +attracted by <b>gǣmetige</b> and <b>befæste</b>. <b>Sīen</b> (<a href = +"#line119_5">p. 119, l. 15</a>) and <b>hæbben</b> (<a href = +"#line119_20">p. 119, l. 20</a>) illustrate the same +construction.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote118_9" id = "linenote118_9" href = +"#line118_9">118.9-10.</a> +<i>We liked only the reputation of being Christians, very few</i> +(<i>of us</i>) <i>the Christian virtues</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote119_14" id = "linenote119_14" href = +"#line119_14">119.14.</a> +Alfred is here addressing the bishops collectively, and hence uses the +plural <b>īow</b> (= <b>ēow</b>), not <b>þē</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote119_16" id = "linenote119_16" href = +"#line119_16">119.16.</a> +<b>ðæt wē ðā</b>. These three words are not necessary to the sense. They +constitute the figure known as epanalepsis, in which “the same word or +phrase is repeated after one or more intervening words.” <b>Þā</b> is +the pronominal substitute for <b>suma bēc</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote119_17" id = "linenote119_17" href = +"#line119_17">119.17.</a> +<b>Gedōn</b> is the first person plural subjunctive (from infinitive +<b>gedōn</b>). It and <b>węnden</b> are in the same construction. Two +things seem “better” to Alfred: (1) <i>that we translate</i>, etc., +(2) <i>that we cause</i>, etc.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote119_19" id = "linenote119_19" href = +"#line119_19">119.19-21.</a> +<b>sīo gioguð ... is ... hīe ... sīen</b>. Notice how the collective +noun, <b>gioguð</b>, singular at first both in form and function, +gradually loses its oneness before the close of the sentence is reached, +and becomes plural. The construction is entirely legitimate in Mn.E. +Spanish is the only modern language known to me that condemns such an +idiom: “Spanish ideas of congruity do not permit a collective noun, +though denoting a plurality, to be accompanied by a plural verb or +adjective in the same clause” (Ramsey, <i>Text-Book of Modern +Spanish</i>, § 1452).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote120_2" id = "linenote120_2" href = +"#line120_2">120.2.</a> +<b>lǣre mǫn</b>. See <a href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b>, 1</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote120_11" id = "linenote120_11" href = +"#line120_11">120.11-13.</a> +That none of these advisers of the king, except Plegmond, +a Mercian, were natives, bears out what Alfred says about the +scarcity of learned men in England when he began to reign. Asser, to +whose Latin <i>Life of Alfred</i>, in spite of its mutilations, we owe +almost all of our knowledge of the king, came from St. David’s +(in Wales), and was made Bishop of Sherborne.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote121_1" id = "linenote121_1" href = +"#line121_1">121.1.</a> +Translate <b>ǣt ðǣre stōwe</b> by <i>each in its place</i>. The change +from plural <b>hīe</b> (in <b>hīe ... wǣren</b>) to singular +<b>hīe</b> (in the clauses that follow) will thus be prepared +for.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenote121_2" id = "linenote121_2" href = +"#line121_2">121.2-3.</a> +<b>oððe hwā ōðre bī wrīte</b>, <i>or unless some one wish to copy a new +one</i> (<i>write thereby another</i>).</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_1" id = "note_rV_1" href = +"#tag_rV_1">1</a> += bisceop.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_2" id = "note_rV_2" href = +"#tag_rV_2">2</a> += hwilce.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_3" id = "note_rV_3" href = +"#tag_rV_3">3</a> += gīu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_4" id = "note_rV_4" href = +"#tag_rV_4">4</a> += For all words with <i>io</i> (<i>īo</i>), consult Glossary under +<i>eo</i> (<i>ēo</i>).</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_5" id = "note_rV_5" href = +"#tag_rV_5">5</a> += hīersumedon.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_6" id = "note_rV_6" href = +"#tag_rV_6">6</a> += sidu (siodu).</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_7" id = "note_rV_7" href = +"#tag_rV_7">7</a> += swā.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_8" id = "note_rV_8" href = +"#tag_rV_8">8</a> += ānlīpigne.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_9" id = "note_rV_9" href = +"#tag_rV_9">9</a> += hwilc.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_10" id = "note_rV_10" href = +"#tag_rV_10">10</a> += līefdon.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_11" id = "note_rV_11" href = +"#tag_rV_11">11</a> += męnigu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_12" id = "note_rV_12" href = +"#tag_rV_12">12</a> += nānwiht.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_13" id = "note_rV_13" href = +"#tag_rV_13">13</a> += swilce.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_14" id = "note_rV_14" href = +"#tag_rV_14">14</a> += spyrian.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_15" id = "note_rV_15" href = +"#tag_rV_15">15</a> += witena.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rV_16" id = "note_rV_16" href = +"#tag_rV_16">16</a> += witanne.</p> +</div> + +</div> +<!-- end div readings --> + +<span class = "pagenum">122</span> +<a name = "page122" id = "page122"> </a> + +<h2><a name = "poetry" id = "poetry">POETRY.</a><br> +<span class = "subhead"> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"><br> +INTRODUCTORY.<br> +<img src = "images/decsmall.gif" width = "34" height = "18" +alt = "----"></span> +</h2> + +<div class = "mynote"> + +<p>In <a href = "#structure">Section II., Structure</a>, the stress +markers ´ and ` are intended to display above the macron – or +(rarely) breve ˘:</p> + +<p class = "inset nospace"> +–́ × –̀</p> + +<p class = "nospace"> +Some computers will instead show them after (to the right of) the +macron. “Resolved stress” (two short syllables acting as one long) is +shown with a double breve below the syllables:</p> + +<p class = "inset nospace"> +˘́͜×</p> + +<p class = "nospace"> +If your computer does not have this character, it will probably +display a box or question mark between the two syllables.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "poetry"> + +<h3><a name = "history" id = "history">I. HISTORY.</a></h3> + +<h4>(a) Old English Poetry as a Whole.</h4> + +<p><span class = "firstword">Northumbria</span> was the home of Old +English poetry. Beginning with Cædmon and his school <span class = +"smallroman">A.D.</span> 670, Northumbria maintained her poetical +supremacy till <span class = "smallroman">A.D.</span> 800, seven years +before which date the ravages of the Danes had begun. When Alfred +ascended the throne of Wessex (871), the Danes had destroyed the seats +of learning throughout the whole of Northumbria. As Whitby had been “the +cradle of English poetry,” Winchester (Alfred’s capital) became now the +cradle of English prose; and the older poems that had survived the fire +and sword of the Vikings were translated from the original Northumbrian +dialect into the West Saxon dialect. It is, therefore, in the West Saxon +dialect that these poems<a class = "tag" name = "tag_ph_1" id = +"tag_ph_1" href = "#note_ph_1">1</a> have come down to us.</p> + +<p>Old English poetry contains in all only about thirty thousand lines; +but it includes epic, lyric, didactic, +<span class = "pagenum">123</span> +<a name = "page123" id = "page123"> </a> +elegiac, and allegorical poems, together with war-ballads, paraphrases, +riddles, and charms. Of the five elegiac poems (<i>Wanderer</i>, +<i>Seafarer</i>, <i>Ruin</i>, <i>Wife’s Complaint</i>, and <i>Husband’s +Message</i>), the <i>Wanderer</i> is the most artistic, and best +portrays the gloomy contrast between past happiness and present grief so +characteristic of the Old English lyric.</p> + +<p>Old English literature has no love poems. The central themes of its +poets are battle and bereavement, with a certain grim resignation on the +part of the hero to the issues of either. The movement of the thought is +usually abrupt, there being a noticeable poverty of transitional +particles, or connectives, “which,” says Ten Brink, “are the cement of +sentence-structure.”</p> + + +<h4>(b) Beowulf.</h4> + +<p>The greatest of all Old English poems is the epic, <i>Beowulf</i>.<a +class = "tag" name = "tag_ph_2" id = "tag_ph_2" href = +"#note_ph_2">2</a> It consists of more than three thousand lines, and +probably assumed approximately its present form in Northumbria about +<span class = "smallroman">A.D.</span> 700. It is a crystallization of +continental myths; and, though nothing is said of England, the story is +an invaluable index to the social, political, and ethical ideals of our +Germanic ancestors before and after they settled along the English +coast. It is most poetical, and its testimony is historically most +valuable, in the character-portraits that it contains. The fatalism that +runs through it, +<span class = "pagenum">124</span> +<a name = "page124" id = "page124"> </a> +instead of making the characters weak and less human, serves at times +rather to dignify and elevate them. “Fate,” says Beowulf (l. 572), +recounting his battle with the sea-monsters, “often saves an undoomed +man <i>if his courage hold out</i>.”</p> + +<p>“The ethical essence of this poetry,” says Ten Brink, “lies +principally in the conception of manly virtue, undismayed courage, the +stoical encounter with death, silent submission to fate, in the +readiness to help others, in the clemency and liberality of the prince +toward his thanes, and the self-sacrificing loyalty with which they +reward him.”</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—Many different +interpretations have been put upon the story of <i>Beowulf</i> (for +argument of story, see texts). Thus Müllenhoff sees in Grendel the +giant-god of the storm-tossed equinoctial sea, while Beowulf is the +Scandinavian god Freyr, who in the spring drives back the sea and +restores the land. Laistner finds the prototype of Grendel in the +noxious exhalations that rise from the Frisian coast-marshes during the +summer months; Beowulf is the wind-hero, the autumnal storm-god, who +dissipates the effluvia.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_ph_1" id = "note_ph_1" href = "#tag_ph_1">1.</a> +This does not, of course, include the few short poems in the +<i>Chronicle</i>, or that portion of <i>Genesis</i> +(<i>Genesis B</i>) supposed to have been put directly into West +Saxon from an Old Saxon original. There still remain in Northumbrian the +version of <i>Cædmon’s Hymn</i>, fragments of the <i>Ruthwell Cross</i>, +<i>Bede’s Death-Song</i>, and the <i>Leiden Riddle</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_ph_2" id = "note_ph_2" href = "#tag_ph_2">2.</a> +The word <i>bēowulf</i>, says Grimm, meant originally <i>bee-wolf</i>, +or <i>bee-enemy</i>, one of the names of the woodpecker. Sweet thinks +the bear was meant. But the word is almost certainly a compound of +<i>Bēow</i> (cf. O.E. <b>bēow</b> = grain), a Danish demigod, +and <i>wulf</i> used as a mere suffix.</p> +</div> + + +<h3><a name = "structure" id = "structure">II. STRUCTURE.</a></h3> + +<h4>(a) Style.</h4> + +<p>In the structure of Old English poetry the most characteristic +feature is the constant repetition of the idea (sometimes of the +thought) with a corresponding variation of phrase, or epithet. When, for +example, the Queen passes into the banquet hall in <i>Beowulf</i>, she +is designated at first by her name, <b>Wealhþēow</b>; she is then +described in turn as <b>cwēn Hrōðgāres</b> (<i>Hrothgar’s queen</i>), +<b>gold-hroden</b> (<i>the gold-adorned</i>), <b>frēolīc wīf</b> +<span class = "pagenum">125</span> +<a name = "page125" id = "page125"> </a> +(<i>the noble woman</i>), <b>ides Helminga</b> (<i>the Helmings’ +lady</i>), <b>bēag-hroden cwēn</b> (<i>the ring-adorned queen</i>), +<b>mōde geþungen</b> (<i>the high-spirited</i>), and <b>gold-hroden +frēolīcu folc-cwēn</b> (<i>the gold-adorned, noble folk-queen</i>).</p> + +<p>And whenever the sea enters largely into the poet’s verse, not +content with simple (uncompounded) words (such as <b>sǣ</b>, +<b>lagu</b>, <b>holm</b>, <b>strēam</b>, <b>męre</b>, etc.), he will use +numerous other equivalents (phrases or compounds), such as <b>waþema +gebind</b> (<i>the commingling of waves</i>), <b>lagu-flōd</b> (<i>the +sea-flood</i>), <b>lagu-strǣt</b> (<i>the sea-street</i>), +<b>swan-rād</b> (<i>the swan-road</i>), etc. These compounds are usually +nouns, or adjectives and participles used in a sense more appositive +than attributive.</p> + +<p>It is evident, therefore, that this abundant use of compounds, or +periphrastic synonyms, grows out of the desire to repeat the idea in +varying language. It is to be observed, also, that the Old English poets +rarely make any studied attempt to balance phrase against phrase or +clause against clause. Theirs is a repetition of idea, rather than a +parallelism of structure.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—It is impossible to tell +how many of these synonymous expressions had already become stereotyped, +and were used, like many of the epithets in the <i>Iliad</i> and +<i>Odyssey</i>, purely as padding. When, for example, the poet tells us +that at the most critical moment Beowulf’s sword failed him, adding in +the same breath, <b>īren ǣr-gōd</b> (<i>matchless blade</i>), we +conclude that the bard is either nodding or parroting.</p> + + +<h4>(b) Meter.</h4> + +<p class = "center">[Re-read <a href = "#sec_10">§ <b>10</b>, +(3)</a>.]</p> + +<h5>Primary Stress.</h5> + +<p>Old English poetry is composed of certain rhythmically ordered +combinations of accented and unaccented +<span class = "pagenum">126</span> +<a name = "page126" id = "page126"> </a> +syllables. The accented syllable (the arsis) is usually long, and will +be indicated by the macron with the acute accent over it (–́); when +short, by the breve with the same accent (˘́). The unaccented syllable +or syllables (the thesis) may be long or short, and will be indicated by +the oblique cross (×).</p> + + +<h5>Secondary Stress.</h5> + +<p>A secondary accent, or stress, is usually put upon the second member +of compound and derivative nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. This will be +indicated by the macron with the grave accent, if the secondary stress +falls on a long syllable (–̀); by the breve with the same accent, if the +secondary stress falls on a short syllable (˘̀). Nouns:</p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>Hrōðgāres</b> (–́–̀×), <b>fēondgrāpum</b> (–́–̀×), +<b>frēomǣgum</b><span class = "locked"> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>Ēast-Dęna</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>Helminga</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>Scyldinga</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>ānhaga</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>Ecgþēowes</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>sinc-fato</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>.</p> + +<p>Adjectives:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_ps_1" id = "tag_ps_1" href = +"#note_ps_1">1</a></p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>ǣghwylcne</b> (–́–̀×), <b>þrīsthȳdig</b> (–́–̀×), <span class = +"locked"><b>gold-hroden</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>drēorigne</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>gyldenne</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>ōðerne</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>gǣstlīcum</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>wynsume</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>ǣnigne</b> (–́–̀×)</span>.</p> + +<p>Adverbs:<a class = "tag" name = "tag_ps_2" id = "tag_ps_2" href = +"#note_ps_2">2</a></p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>unsōfte</b> (–́–̀×), <b>heardlīce</b> (–́–̀×), <span class = +"locked"><b>sęmninga</b> (–́–̀×)</span>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">127</span> +<a name = "page127" id = "page127"> </a> +<p>The Old English poets place also a secondary accent upon the ending +of present participles (<b>-ende</b>), and upon the penultimate of weak +verbs of the second class (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +provided the root-syllable is long.<a class = "tag" name = "tag_ps_3" id += "tag_ps_3" href = "#note_ps_3">3</a> Present participles:</p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>slǣpendne</b> (–́–̀×), <b>wīs-hycgende</b> (–́–́–̀×), <span class = +"locked"><b>flēotendra</b> (–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>hrēosende</b> (–́–̀×)</span>.</p> + +<p>Weak verbs:</p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>swynsode</b> (–́˘̀×), <b>þancode</b> (–́˘̀×), <span class = +"locked"><b>wānigean</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>scēawian</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>scēawige</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>hlīfian</b> (–́˘̀×)</span>.</p> + + +<h5>Resolved Stress.</h5> + +<p>A short accented syllable followed in the same word by an unaccented +syllable (usually short also) is equivalent to one long accented +syllable <span class = "locked">(˘́× = –́)</span>. This is known as +a resolved stress, and will be indicated thus, ˘́͜×;</p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>hæleða</b> (˘́͜͜××), <b>guman</b> (˘́͜×), <span class = +"locked"><b>Gode</b> (˘́͜×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>sęle-ful</b> (˘́͜××)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>ides</b> (˘́͜×)</span>, <span class = "locked"><b>fyrena</b> +(˘́͜××)</span>, <span class = "locked"><b>maðelode</b> (˘́͜ע̀×)</span>, +<span class = "locked"><b>hogode</b> (˘́͜××)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>mægen-ęllen</b> (˘́͜×–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>hige-þihtigne</b> (˘́͜×–́–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>Metudes</b> (˘́͜××)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>lagulāde</b> (˘́͜×–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>unlyfigendes</b> (–́˘́͜×–̀×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>biforan</b> (ע́͜×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>forþolian</b> (ע́͜××)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>baðian</b> (˘́͜××)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>worolde</b> (˘́͜–×)</span>.</p> + +<p>Resolution of stress may also attend secondary stresses:</p> + +<p class = "meter"> +<b>sinc-fato</b> (–́˘̀͜×), <b>dryht-sęle</b> (–́˘̀͜×), <span class = +"locked"><b>ferðloca</b> (–́˘̀͜×)</span>, <span class = +"locked"><b>forðwege</b> (–́˘̀͜×)</span>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">128</span> +<a name = "page128" id = "page128"> </a> +<h5>The Normal Line.</h5> + +<p>Every normal line of Old English poetry has four primary accents, two +in the first half-line and two in the second half-line. These half-lines +are separated by the cesura and united by alliteration, the alliterative +letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the second +half-line. This syllable, therefore, gives the cue to the scansion of +the whole line. It is also the only alliterating syllable in the second +half-line. The first half-line, however, usually has two alliterating +syllables, but frequently only one (the ratio being about three to two +in the following selections). When the first half-line contains but one +alliterating syllable, that syllable marks the first stress, rarely the +second. The following lines are given in the order of their +frequency:</p> + +<div class = "list"> +<p>(1) <b>þǣr wæs <i>h</i>ǽleða <i>h</i>léahtor; <i>h</i>lýn +swýnsode</b>.</p> +<p>(2) <b><i>m</i>ṓde geþúngen, <i>m</i>édo-ful ætbǽr</b>.</p> +<p>(3) <b>sṓna þæt on<i>f</i>únde <i>f</i>ýrena hýrde</b>.</p> +</div> + +<p>Any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with any other initial +vowel or diphthong; but a consonant requires the same consonant, except +<b>st</b>, <b>sp</b>, and <b>sc</b>, each of which alliterates only with +itself.</p> + +<p>Remembering, now, that either half-line (especially the second) may +begin with several unaccented syllables (these syllables being known in +types A, D, and E as the <i>anacrusis</i>), but that neither half-line +can end with more than one unaccented syllable, the student may begin at +once to read and properly accentuate Old English poetry. It will be +found that the alliterative +<span class = "pagenum">129</span> +<a name = "page129" id = "page129"> </a> +principle does not operate mechanically, but that the poet employs it +for the purpose of emphasizing the words that are really most important. +Sound is made subservient to sense.</p> + +<p>When, from the lack of alliteration, the student is in doubt as to +what word to stress, let him first get the exact meaning of the line, +and then put the emphasis on the word or words that seem to bear the +chief burden of the poet’s thought.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note 1.</span>—A few lines, rare or +abnormal in their alliteration or lack of alliteration, may here be +noted. In the texts to be read, there is one line with no alliteration: +<i>Wanderer</i> 58; three of the type <i>a ··· b</i> | <i>a ··· b</i>: +<i>Beowulf</i> 654, 830, 2746; one of the type <i>a ··· a</i> | <i>b ··· +a</i>: <i>Beowulf</i> 2744; one of the type <i>a ··· a</i> | <i>b ··· +c</i>: <i>Beowulf</i> 2718; and one of the type <i>a ··· b</i> | <i>c +··· a</i>: <i>Beowulf</i> 2738.</p> + + +<h5>The Five Types.</h5> + +<p>By an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical unit in Old +English verse, the half-line, Professor Eduard Sievers,<a class = "tag" +name = "tag_ps_4" id = "tag_ps_4" href = "#note_ps_4">4</a> of the +University of Leipzig, has shown that there are only five types, or +varieties, +<span class = "pagenum">130</span> +<a name = "page130" id = "page130"> </a> +employed. These he classifies as follows, the perpendicular line serving +to separate the so-called feet, or measures:</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>1.</td> +<td>A</td> +<td></td> +<td>  –́ × | –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2.</td> +<td>B</td> +<td></td> +<td>  × –́ | × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3.</td> +<td>C</td> +<td></td> +<td>  × –́ | –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td>4.</td> +<td>D</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>D<sup>1</sup> –́ | –́ –̀ ×<br> +D<sup>2</sup> –́ | –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr class = "middle"> +<td>5.</td> +<td>E</td> +<td class = "bracket"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>E<sup>1</sup> –́ –̀ × | –́<br> +E<sup>2</sup> –́ × –̀ | –́</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>It will be seen (1) that each half-line contains two, and only two, +feet; (2) that each foot contains one, and only one, primary +stress; (3) that A is trochaic, B iambic; (4) that C is +iambic-trochaic; (5) that D and E consist of the same feet but in +inverse order.</p> + + +<h5>The Five Types Illustrated.</h5> + +<p class = "notation"> +[All the illustrations, as hitherto, are taken from the texts to be +read. The figures prefixed indicate whether first or second half-line is +cited. B = <i>Beowulf</i>; W = <i>Wanderer</i>.]</p> + +<p class = "center"> +1. <span class = "smallcaps">Type A</span>, –́ × | –́ ×</p> + +<p>Two or more unaccented syllables (instead of one) may intervene +between the two stresses, but only one may follow the last stress. If +the thesis in either foot is the second part of a compound it receives, +of course, a secondary stress.</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>ful gesealde</b>, B. 616,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>wīdre gewindan</b>, B. 764,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ × ×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)<a class = "tag" name = "tag_ps_5" id = "tag_ps_5" href = +"#note_ps_5">5</a></td> +<td><b>Gemunde þā sē gōda</b>, B. 759,</td> +<td class = "right">× | –́ × × ×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)<a class = "tag" href = "#note_ps_5">5</a></td> +<td><b>swylce hē on ealder-dagum</b>, B. 758,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × ×</td> +<td>| –́ × | ˘́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>ȳþde swā þisne eardgeard</b>, W. 85,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ × × × ×</td> +<td>| –́ –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>wīs-fæst wordum</b>, B. 627,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>gryre-lēoð galan</b>, B. 787,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –̀</td> +<td>| ˘́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>sǫmod ætgædre</b>, W. 39,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× ×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> +<span class = "pagenum">131</span> +<a name = "page131" id = "page131"> </a> +(1)</td> +<td><b>duguðe ǫnd geogoðe</b>, B. 622,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× × ×</td> +<td>| ˘́͜× ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>fǣger fold-bold</b>, B. 774,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>atelīc ęgesa</b>, B. 785,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –̀</td> +<td>| ˘́͜× ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>goldwine mīnne</b>, W. 22,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ˘̀͜×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>ęgesan þēon</b> [> <b>*þīhan</b>: <a href = "#sec_118">§ +<b>118</b></a>], B. 2737,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× ×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Rare forms of A are –́ –̀ × +| –́ × (does not occur in texts), –́ –̀ × | –́ –̀ (occurs once, B. 781 +(1)), and –́ × –̀ | –́ × (once, B. 2743 (1)).</p> + +<p class = "center"> +2. <span class = "smallcaps">Type B</span>, × –́ | × –́</p> + +<p>Two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables may intervene +between the stresses. The type of B most frequently occurring is × × –́ +| × –́<ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">. </ins></p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>ǫnd þā frēolīc wīf</b>, B. 616,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>hē on lust geþeah</b>, B. 619,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>þā se æðeling gīong</b>, B. 2716,</td> +<td class = "right">× × ˘́͜×</td> +<td>| × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>seah on ęnta geweorc</b>, B. 2718,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| × × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>ofer flōda genipu</b>, B. 2809,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| × × ˘́͜×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>forþam mē wītan ne þearf</b>, B. 2742,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × –́</td> +<td>| × × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>þaes þe hire se willa gelamp</b>, B. 627,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × × × –́</td> +<td>| × × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>forþon ne mæg weorþan wīs</b>, W. 64,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × × –́</td> +<td>| × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>Nǣfre ic ǣnegum</b> [= <b>ǣn’gum</b>] <b>męn</b>, B. 656,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × –́</td> +<td>| × –́</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—In the last half-line +Sievers substitutes the older form <b>ǣngum</b>, and supposes elision of +the <b>e</b> in <b>Nǣfre</b> (= <b>Nǣfr-ic</b>: ××–́ | ×–́).</p> + +<p class = "center"> +3. <span class = "smallcaps">Type C</span>, × –́ | –́ ×</p> + +<p>The conditions of this type are usually satisfied by compound and +derivative words, and the second stress (not so strong as the first) is +frequently on a short syllable. The two arses rarely alliterate. As in +B, two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more common than +one.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">132</span> +<a name = "page132" id = "page132"> </a> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>þæt hēo on ǣnigne</b>, B. 628,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × –́</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>þæt ic ānunga</b>, B. 635,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>ēode gold-hroden</b>, B. 641,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| ˘́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>gemyne mǣrðo</b>, B. 660,</td> +<td class = "right">× ˘́͜×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>on þisse meodu-healle</b>, B. 639,</td> +<td class = "right">× × × ˘́͜×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>æt brimes nosan</b>, B. 2804,</td> +<td class = "right">× ˘́͜×</td> +<td>| ˘́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>æt Wealhþéon</b> [= <b>-þēowan</b>], B. 630,</td> +<td class = "right">× –́</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>geond lagulāde</b>, W. 3,</td> +<td class = "right">× ˘́͜×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>Swā cwæð eardstapa</b>, W. 6,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| ˘́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>ēalā byrnwiga</b>, W. 94,</td> +<td class = "right">× × –́</td> +<td>| ˘́ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>nō þǣr fela bringeð</b>, W. 54,</td> +<td class = "right">× × ˘́͜×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table summary = "heading"> +<tr> +<td class = "middle smallcaps" rowspan = "2"> +4. Type D,</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>D<sup>1</sup> –́ | –́ –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>D<sup>2</sup> –́ | –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Both types of D may take one unaccented syllable between the two +primary stresses (–́ × | –́ –̀ ×, –́ × | –́ × –̀). The +secondary stress in D<sup>1</sup> falls usually on the second syllable +of a compound or derivative word, and this syllable (as in C) +is frequently short.</p> + +<p class = "center">(a) D<sup>1</sup> –́ | –́ –̀ ×</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>cwēn Hrōðgāres</b>, B. 614,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>dǣl ǣghwylcne</b>, B. 622,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>Bēowulf maðelode</b>, B. 632,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| ˘́͜× ˘̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>slāt unwearnum</b>, B. 742,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>wrāþra wælsleahta</b>, W. 7,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>wōd wintercearig</b> [= <b>wint’rcearig</b>], W. 24,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ ˘̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>sōhte sęle drēorig</b>, W. 25,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| ˘́͜× –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>ne sōhte searo-nīðas</b>, B. 2739,</td> +<td class = "right">× | –́ ×</td> +<td>| ˘́͜× –̀ ×</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—There is one instance in +the texts (B. 613, (1)) of apparent –́ × × | –́ ˘̀ ×: <b>word wǣron +wynsume</b>. (The triple alliteration has no significance. The sense, +besides, precludes our stressing <b>wǣron</b>.) The difficulty is +avoided by bringing the line under the A type: –́ × × | –́ ˘́͜×.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">133</span> +<a name = "page133" id = "page133"> </a> + +<p class = "center">(b) D<sup>2</sup> –́ | –́ × –̀</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>Forð nēar ætstōp</b>, B. 746,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>eorl furður stōp</b>, B. 762,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>Dęnum eallum wearð</b>, B. 768,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜×</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>grētte Gēata lēod</b>, B. 626,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>ǣnig yrfe-weard</b>, B. 2732,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>hrēosan hrīm and snāw</b>, W. 48,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>swimmað eft on weg</b>, W. 53,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ × –̀</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded.</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>þegn ungemete till</b>, B. 2722,</td> +<td class = "right">–́</td> +<td>| –́ × × × –̀</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>hrūsan heolster biwrāh</b>, W. 23,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| –́ × × –̀</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<table summary = "heading"> +<tr> +<td class = "middle smallcaps" rowspan = "2"> +5. Type E,</td> +<td class = "bracket" rowspan = "2"> +<img src = "images/bracket_rt.gif" width = "8" height = "33" +alt = "{"></td> +<td>E<sup>1</sup> –́ –̀ × | –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>E<sup>2</sup> –́ × –̀ | –́</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The secondary stress in E<sup>1</sup> falls frequently on a short +syllable, as in D<sup>1</sup>.</p> + +<p class = "center">(a) E<sup>1</sup> –́ –̀ × | –́</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>wyrmlīcum fāh</b>, W. 98,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>medo-ful ætbær</b>, B. 625,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× ˘̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>sǣ-bāt gesæt</b>, B. 634,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>sige-folca swēg</b>, B. 645,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>Norð-Dęnum stōd</b>, B. 784,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ ˘̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>fēond-grāpum fæst</b>, B. 637,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>wyn eal gedrēas</b>, W. 36,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(2)</td> +<td><b>feor oft gemǫn</b>, W. 90,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>As in D<sup>2</sup>, the thesis in the first foot is very rarely +expanded.</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>wīn-ærnes geweald</b>, B. 655,</td> +<td class = "right">–́ –̀ × ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>Hafa nū ǫnd geheald</b>, B. 659,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –̀ × ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>(1)</td> +<td><b>searo-þǫncum besmiðod</b>, B. 776,</td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –̀ × ×</td> +<td>| ˘́͜×</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class = "pagenum">134</span> +<a name = "page134" id = "page134"> </a> + +<div class = "notation"> +<p><span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—Our ignorance of Old +English sentence-stress makes it impossible for us to draw a +hard-and-fast line in all cases between D<sup>2</sup> and E<sup>1</sup>. +For example, in these half-lines (already cited),</p> + +<div class = "list"> +<p><b>wyn eal gedrēas</b></p> +<p><b>feor oft gemǫn</b></p> +<p><b>Forð nēar ætstōp</b></p> +</div> + +<p>if we throw a strong stress on the adverbs that precede their verbs, +the type is D<sup>2</sup>. Lessen the stress on the adverbs and increase +it on the verbs, and we have E<sup>1</sup>. The position of the adverbs +furnishes no clue; for the order of words in Old English was governed +not only by considerations of relative emphasis, but by syntactic and +euphonic considerations as well.</p> +</div> + +<p class = "center">(<i>b</i>) E<sup>2</sup> –́ × –̀ | –́</p> + +<p>This is the rarest of all types. It does not occur in the texts, +there being but one instance of this type (l. 2437 (2)), and that +doubtful, in the whole of <i>Beowulf</i>.</p> + + +<h5>Abnormal Lines.</h5> + +<p>The lines that fall under none of the five types enumerated are +comparatively few. They may be divided into two classes, +(1) hypermetrical lines, and (2) defective lines.</p> + +<p class = "center smallcaps"> +(1) Hypermetrical Lines.</p> + +<p>Each hypermetrical half-line has usually three stresses, thus giving +six stresses to the whole line instead of two. These lines occur chiefly +in groups, and mark increased range and dignity in the thought. Whether +the half-line be first or second, it is usually of the A type without +anacrusis. To this type belong the last five lines of the +<i>Wanderer</i>. Lines 92 and 93 are also unusually long, but not +hypermetrical. The +<span class = "pagenum">135</span> +<a name = "page135" id = "page135"> </a> +first half-line of 65 is hypermetrical, a fusion of A and C, +consisting of <span class = "locked">(–́××ע́͜– | –́×)</span>.</p> + +<p class = "center smallcaps"> +(2) Defective Lines.</p> + +<p>The only defective lines in the texts are B. 748 and 2715 (the second +half-line in each). As they stand, these half-lines would have to be +scanned thus:</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td><b>rǣhte ongēan</b></td> +<td class = "right">–́ ×</td> +<td>| × –́</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>bealo-nīð wēoll</b></td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –̀</td> +<td>| –́</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Sievers emends as follows:</p> + +<table class = "inline" title = "scansion examples"> +<tr> +<td><b>rǣhte tōgēanes</b></td> +<td class = "right">–́ × ×</td> +<td>| –́ ×</td> +<td>= A</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><b>bealo-nīðe wēoll</b></td> +<td class = "right">˘́͜× –́ ×</td> +<td>| –́</td> +<td>= E<sup>1</sup></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>These defective half-lines are made up of syntactic combinations +found on almost every page of Old English prose. That they occur so +rarely in poetry is strong presumptive evidence, if further evidence +were needed, in favor of the adequacy of Sievers’ five-fold +classification.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +<span class = "smallcaps">Note.</span>—All the lines that could +possibly occasion any difficulty to the student have been purposely +cited as illustrations under the different types. If these are mastered, +the student will find it an easy matter to scan the lines that +remain.</p> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a name = "note_ps_1" id = "note_ps_1" href = "#tag_ps_1">1.</a> +It will be seen that the adjectives are chiefly derivatives in +<b>-ig</b>, <b>-en</b>, <b>-er</b>, <b>-līc</b>, and <b>-sum</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_ps_2" id = "note_ps_2" href = "#tag_ps_2">2.</a> +Most of the adverbs belonging here end in <b>-līce</b>, <b>-unga</b>, +and <b>-inga</b>, <a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, +(1), (2)</a>: such words as <b>æt-gǽdere</b>, <b>on-gḗan</b>, +<b>on-wég</b>, <b>tō-gḗanes</b>, <b>tō-míddes</b>, etc., are invariably +accented as here indicated.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_ps_3" id = "note_ps_3" href = "#tag_ps_3">3.</a> +It will save the student some trouble to remember that this means long +by nature (<b>līcodon</b>), or long by position (<b>swynsode</b>), or +long by resolution of stress (<b>maðelode</b>),—see next +paragraph.</p> + +<p><a name = "note_ps_4" id = "note_ps_4" href = "#tag_ps_4">4.</a> +Sievers’ two articles appeared in the <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der +deutschen Sprache und Literatur</i>, Vols. X (1885) and XII (1887). +A brief summary, with slight modifications, is found in the same +author’s <i>Altgermanische Metrik</i>, pp. 120-144 (1893).</p> + +<p>Before attempting to employ Sievers’ types, the student would do well +to read several pages of Old English poetry, taking care to accentuate +according to the principles already laid down. In this way his ear will +become accustomed to the rhythm of the line, and he will see more +clearly that Sievers’ work was one primarily of systematization. Sievers +himself says: “I had read Old English poetry for years exactly as I +now scan it, and long before I had the slightest idea that what I did +instinctively could be formulated into a system of set rules.” +(<i>Altgermanische Metrik</i>, <i>Vorwort</i>, p. 10.)</p> + +<p><a name = "note_ps_5" id = "note_ps_5" href = "#tag_ps_5">5.</a> +The first perpendicular marks the limit of the anacrusis.</p> +</div> + +</div> +<!-- end div poetry --> + + +<div class = "readings"> + +<span class = "pagenum">136</span> +<a name = "page136" id = "page136"> </a> + +<h2><span class = "subhead">SELECTIONS FOR READING.</span></h2> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_VI" id = "chapIII_VI"> +VI. EXTRACTS FROM BEOWULF.</a></h3> + +<h5>The Banquet in Heorot. [<span class = "plain">Lines +612-662.</span>]</h5> + +<p class = "notation"> +[The Heyne-Socin text has been closely followed. I have attempted no +original emendations, but have deviated from the Heyne-Socin edition in +a few cases where the Grein-Wülker text seemed to give the better +reading.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +The argument preceding the first selection is as follows: Hrothgar, king +of the Danes, or Scyldings, elated by prosperity, builds a magnificent +hall in which to feast his retainers; but a monster, Grendel by name, +issues from his fen-haunts, and night after night carries off thane +after thane from the banqueting hall. For twelve years these ravages +continue. At last Beowulf, nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats +(a people of South Sweden), sails with fourteen chosen companions +to Dane-land, and offers his services to the aged Hrothgar. “Leave me +alone in the hall to-night,” says Beowulf. Hrothgar accepts Beowulf’s +proffered aid, and before the dread hour of visitation comes, the time +is spent in wassail. The banquet scene follows.]</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>Þǣr wæs hæleþa hleahtor, hlyn swynsode,</p> +<p>word wǣron wynsume. Ēode Wealhþēow forð,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_614" id = "lineVI_614"> </a> +cwēn Hrōðgāres, cynna gemyndig;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">615</span> +grētte gold-hroden guman on healle,</p> +<p>ǫnd þā frēolīc wīf ful gesealde</p> +<p>ǣrest Ēast-Dęna ēþel-wearde,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_618" id = "lineVI_618"> </a> +bæd hine blīðne æt þǣre bēor-þęge,</p> +<p>lēodum lēofne; hē on lust geþeah</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">620</span> +symbel ǫnd sęle-ful, sige-rōf kyning.</p> +<p>Ymb-ēode þā ides Helminga</p> +<p>duguðe ǫnd geogoðe dǣl ǣghwylcne,</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">137</span> +<a name = "page137" id = "page137"> </a> + +<p><a name = "lineVI_623" id = "lineVI_623"> </a> +sinc-fato <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_623">sealde</a>, + oð þæt sǣl ālamp</p> +<p>þæt hīo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_1" id = "tag_rVIa_1" href = +"#note_rVIa_1">1</a> Bēowulfe, bēag-hroden cwēn,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">625</span> +mōde geþungen, medo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_2" id += "tag_rVIa_2" href = "#note_rVIa_2">2</a>-ful ætbær;</p> +<p>grētte Gēata lēod, Gode þancode</p> +<p>wīs-fæst wordum, þæs þe hire se willa gelamp,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_628" id = "lineVI_628"> </a> +þæt hēo on ǣnigne eorl gelȳfde</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_629" id = "lineVI_629"> </a> +fyrena frōfre. Hē þæt ful geþeah,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_630" id = "lineVI_630">630</a></span> +wæl-rēow wiga, æt Wealhþēon,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_631" id = "lineVI_631"> </a> +ǫnd þā gyddode gūðe gefȳsed;</p> +<p>Bēowulf maðelode, bearn Ecgþēowes:</p> +<p>“Ic þæt hogode, þā ic on holm gestāh,</p> +<p>sǣ-bāt gesæt mid mīnra sęcga gedriht,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">635</span> +þæt ic ānunga ēowra lēoda</p> +<p>willan geworhte, oððe on wæl crunge</p> +<p>fēond-grāpum fæst. Ic gefręmman sceal</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_638" id = "lineVI_638"> </a> +eorlīc ęllen, oððe <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_638">ęnde-dæg</a></p> +<p><a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_638">on þisse meodu</a><a +class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_2b" id = "tag_rVIa_2b" href = +"#note_rVIa_2">2</a><a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_638">-healle mīnne</a> gebīdan.”</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">640</span> +Þām wīfe þā word wel līcodon,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_641" id = "lineVI_641"> </a> +gilp-cwide Gēates; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_641">ēode</a> gold-hroden</p> +<p>frēolicu folc-cwēn tō hire frēan <a class = "linenote" +href = "#linenoteVI_641">sittan</a>.</p> +<p>Þā wæs eft swā ǣr inne on healle</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_644" id = "lineVI_644"> </a> +þrȳð-word sprecen,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_3" id = "tag_rVIa_3" +href = "#note_rVIa_3">3</a> þēod on sǣlum,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">645</span> +sige-folca swēg, oþ þæt sęmninga</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">138</span> +<a name = "page138" id = "page138"> </a> + +<p>sunu Healfdęnes sēcean wolde</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_647" id = "lineVI_647"> </a> +ǣfen-ræste; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_647">wiste</a> þǣm āhlǣcan<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIa_4" id = "tag_rVIa_4" href = "#note_rVIa_4">4</a></p> +<p>tō þǣm hēah-sęle hilde geþinged,</p> +<p>siððan hīe sunnan lēoht gesēon <i>ne</i> meahton</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">650</span> +oððe nīpende niht ofer ealle,</p> +<p>scadu-helma gesceapu scrīðan <a class = "linenote" href += "#linenoteVI_647">cwōman</a>,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_5" id = +"tag_rVIa_5" href = "#note_rVIa_5">5</a></p> +<p>wan under wolcnum. Werod eall ārās;</p> +<p>grētte þā <i>giddum</i> guma ōðerne</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_654" id = "lineVI_654"> </a> +Hrōðgār Bēowulf, ǫnd him hǣl ābēad,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">655</span> +wīn-ærnes geweald, ǫnd þæt word ācwæð:</p> +<p>“Nǣfre ic ǣnegum<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_6" id = +"tag_rVIa_6" href = "#note_rVIa_6">6</a> męn ǣr +ālȳfde,</p> +<p>siððan ic hǫnd ǫnd rǫnd hębban mihte,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_658" id = "lineVI_658"> </a> +ðrȳþ-ærn Dęna būton þē nū þā.</p> +<p>Hafa nū ǫnd geheald hūsa sēlest,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_660" id = "lineVI_660">660</a></span> +gemyne mǣrþo,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIa_7" id = "tag_rVIa_7" href += "#note_rVIa_7">7</a> mægen-ęllen cȳð,</p> +<p>waca wið wrāðum. Ne bið þē wilna gād,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_662" id = "lineVI_662"> </a> +gif þū þæt ęllen-weorc aldre<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIa_8" id = "tag_rVIa_8" href = "#note_rVIa_8">8</a> +gedīgest.”</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_623" id = "linenoteVI_623" href = +"#lineVI_623">623.</a> +<b>sinc-fato sealde</b>. Banning (<i>Die epischen Formeln im +Beowulf</i>) shows that the usual translation, <i>gave costly gifts</i>, +must be given up; or, at least, that the <i>costly gifts</i> are nothing +more than <i>beakers of mead</i>. The expression is an epic formula for +<i>passing the cup</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_638" id = "linenoteVI_638" href = +"#lineVI_638">638-39.</a> +<b>ęnde-ðæg ... mīnne</b>. This unnatural separation of noun and +possessive is frequent in O.E. poetry, but almost unknown in prose.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_641" id = "linenoteVI_641" href = +"#lineVI_641">641-42.</a> +<b>ēode ... sittan</b>. The poet might have employed <b>tō sittanne</b> +(<a href = "#sec_108">§ <b>108</b>, (1)</a>); but in poetry the +infinitive is often used for the gerund. Alfred himself uses the +infinitive or the gerund to express purpose after <b>gān</b>, +<b>gǫngan</b>, <b>cuman</b>, and <b>sęndan</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_647" id = "linenoteVI_647" href = +"#lineVI_647">647-51.</a> +<b>wiste ... cwōman</b>. A difficult passage, even with Thorpe’s +inserted <b>ne</b>; but there is no need of putting a period after +<b>geþinged</b>, or of translating <b>oððe</b> by <i>and</i>: <i>He</i> +(<i>Hrothgar</i>) <i>knew that battle was in store</i> (<b>geþinged</b>) +<i>for the monster in the high hall, after</i> [= <i>as soon as</i>] +<i>they could no longer see the sun’s light, or</i> [= <i>that is</i>] +<i>after night came darkening over all, and shadowy figures +stalking</i>. The subject of <b>cwōman</b> [= <b>cwōmon</b>] is +<b>niht</b> and <b>gesceapu</b>.</p> + +<p>The student will note that the infinitive (<b>scrīðan</b>) is here +employed as a present participle after a verb of motion (<b>cwōman</b>). +This construction with <b>cuman</b> is frequent in prose and poetry. The +infinitive expresses the kind of motion: <b>ic cōm drīfan</b> = <i>I +came driving</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_1" id = "note_rVIa_1" href = +"#tag_rVIa_1">1</a> += hēo.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_2" id = "note_rVIa_2" href = +"#tag_rVIa_2">2</a> += medu-.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_3" id = "note_rVIa_3" href = +"#tag_rVIa_3">3</a> += gesprecen.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_4" id = "note_rVIa_4" href = +"#tag_rVIa_4">4</a> += āglǣcan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_5" id = "note_rVIa_5" href = +"#tag_rVIa_5">5</a> += cwōmon.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_6" id = "note_rVIa_6" href = +"#tag_rVIa_6">6</a> += ǣnigum.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_7" id = "note_rVIa_7" href = +"#tag_rVIa_7">7</a> += mǣrþe (acc. sing.).</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIa_8" id = "note_rVIa_8" href = +"#tag_rVIa_8">8</a> += ealdre (instr. sing.)<ins class = "correction" title = ". missing">. </ins></p> +</div> + +<span class = "pagenum">139</span> +<a name = "page139" id = "page139"> </a> + +<h5>The Fight Between Beowulf and Grendel. [<span class = "plain">Lines +740-837.</span>]</h5> + +<p class = "notation"> +[The warriors all retire to rest except Beowulf. Grendel stealthily +enters the hall. From his eyes gleams “a luster unlovely, likest to +fire.” The combat begins at once.]</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_740" id = "lineVI_740">740</a></span> +Ne <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_740">þæt</a> se āglǣca + yldan þōhte,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_741" id = "lineVI_741"> </a> +ac hē gefēng hraðe forman sīðe</p> +<p>slǣpendne rinc, slāt unwearnum,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_743" id = "lineVI_743"> </a> +bāt bān-locan, blōd ēdrum dranc,</p> +<p>syn-snǣdum swealh; sōna hæfde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">745</span> +unlyfigendes eal gefeormod</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_746" id = "lineVI_746"> </a> +fēt ǫnd folma. Forð nēar <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_746">ætstōp</a>,</p> +<p>nam þā mid handa hige-þihtigne</p> +<p>rinc on ræste; rǣhte ongēan</p> +<p>fēond mid folme; hē onfēng hraþe</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_750" id = "lineVI_750">750</a></span> +inwit-þancum ǫnd wið earm gesæt.</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_751" id = "lineVI_751"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_751">Sōna þæt onfunde</a> + fyrena hyrde,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_752" id = "lineVI_752"> </a> +þæt hē ne mētte <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_751">middan-geardes</a>,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_753" id = "lineVI_753"> </a> +eorðan scēatta, on ęlran męn</p> +<p>mund-gripe māran; hē on mōde wearð</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">140</span> +<a name = "page140" id = "page140"> </a> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_755" id = "lineVI_755">755</a></span> +forht, on ferhðe; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_755">nō þȳ ǣr fram meahte</a>.</p> +<p>Hyge wæs him hin-fūs, wolde on heolster flēon,</p> +<p>sēcan dēofla gedræg; ne wæs his drohtoð þǣr,</p> +<p>swylce hē on ealder<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIb_1" id = +"tag_rVIb_1" href = "#note_rVIb_1">1</a>-dagum ǣr +gemētte.</p> +<p>Gemunde þā se gōda mǣg Higelāces</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">760</span> +ǣfen-sprǣce, ūp-lang āstōd</p> +<p>ǫnd him fæste wiðfēng; fingras burston;</p> +<p>eoten wæs ūt-weard; eorl furþur stōp.</p> +<p>Mynte se mǣra, hwǣr hē meahte swā,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_764" id = "lineVI_764"> </a> +wīdre gewindan ǫnd on weg þanon</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">765</span> +flēon on fęn-hopu; wiste his fingra geweald</p> +<p>on grames grāpum. Þæt wæs gēocor sīð,</p> +<p>þæt se hearm-scaþa tō Heorute<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIb_2" id = "tag_rVIb_2" href = "#note_rVIb_2">2</a> ātēah.</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_768" id = "lineVI_768"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_768">Dryht-sęle dynede</a>; + Dęnum eallum wearð</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_769" id = "lineVI_769"> </a> +ceaster-būendum, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_769">cēnra gehwylcum</a>,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">770</span> +eorlum ealu-scerwen. Yrre wǣron bēgen</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">141</span> +<a name = "page141" id = "page141"> </a> +<p>rēþe rēn-weardas. Ręced hlynsode;</p> +<p>þā wæs wundor micel, þæt se wīn-sęle</p> +<p>wiðhæfde heaþo-dēorum, þæt hē on hrūsan ne fēol,</p> +<p>fǣger fold-bold; ac hē þæs fæste wæs</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">775</span> +innan ǫnd ūtan īren-bęndum</p> +<p>searo-þǫncum besmiðod. Þǣr fram sylle ābēag</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_777" id = "lineVI_777"> </a> +medu-bęnc mǫnig, mīne gefrǣge,</p> +<p>golde geregnad, þǣr þā graman wunnon;</p> +<p>þæs ne wēndon ǣr witan Scyldinga,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_780" id = "lineVI_780">780</a></span> +þæt <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_780">hit</a> ā mid gemete + manna ǣnig,</p> +<p>betlīc ǫnd bān-fāg, tōbrecan meahte,</p> +<p>listum tōlūcan, nymþe līges fæðm</p> +<p>swulge on swaþule. Swēg ūp āstāg</p> +<p>nīwe geneahhe; Norð-Dęnum stōd</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_785" id = "lineVI_785">785</a></span> +atelīc ęgesa, ānra gehwylcum,</p> +<p>þāra þe of wealle wōp gehȳrdon,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_787" id = "lineVI_787"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_787">gryre-lēoð</a> galan + Godes ǫndsacan,</p> +<p>sige-lēasne sang, sār wānigean</p> +<p>hęlle <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_787">hæfton</a>.<a +class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIb_3" id = "tag_rVIb_3" href = +"#note_rVIb_3">3</a> Hēold hine fæste,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">790</span> +sē þe manna wæs mægene stręngest</p> +<p>on þǣm dæge þysses līfes.</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_792" id = "lineVI_792"> </a> +Nolde eorla hlēo ǣnige þinga</p> +<p>þone cwealm-cuman cwicne forlǣtan,</p> +<p>nē his līf-dagas lēoda ǣnigum</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">142</span> +<a name = "page142" id = "page142"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_795" id = "lineVI_795">795</a></span> +nytte tealde. <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_795">Þǣr</a> genehost brǣgd</p> +<p>eorl Bēowulfes ealde <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_795">lāfe</a>,</p> +<p>wolde frēa-drihtnes feorh ealgian,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_798" id = "lineVI_798"> </a> +mǣres þēodnes, ðǣr hīe meahton swā.</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_799" id = "lineVI_799"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_799">Hīe ðæt ne wiston, + þā hīe gewin drugon</a>,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">800</span> +heard-hicgende hilde-męcgas,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_801" id = "lineVI_801"> </a> +ǫnd on healfa gehwone hēawan þōhton,</p> +<p>sāwle sēcan: þone syn-scaðan</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_803" id = "lineVI_803"> </a> +ǣnig ofer eorðan īrenna cyst,</p> +<p>gūþ-billa nān, grētan nolde;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">805</span> +ac hē sige-wǣpnum forsworen hæfde,</p> +<p>ęcga gehwylcre. Scolde his aldor<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIb_4" id = "tag_rVIb_4" href = "#note_rVIb_4">4</a>-gedāl</p> +<p>on ðǣm dæge þysses līfes</p> +<p>earmlīc wurðan<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIb_5" id = "tag_rVIb_5" +href = "#note_rVIb_5">5</a> ǫnd se ęllor-gāst</p> +<p>on fēonda geweald feor sīðian.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">810</span> +Þā þæt onfunde, sē þe fela ǣror</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_811" id = "lineVI_811"> </a> +mōdes myrðe manna cynne</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_812" id = "lineVI_812"> </a> +fyrene gefręmede (hē <i>wǣs</i> fāg wið God),</p> +<p>þæt him se līc-hǫma lǣstan nolde,</p> +<p>ac hine se mōdega<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIb_6" id = +"tag_rVIb_6" href = "#note_rVIb_6">6</a> mǣg Hygelāces</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">815</span> +hæfde be hǫnda; wæs gehwæþer ōðrum</p> +<p>lifigende lāð. Līc-sār gebād</p> +<p>atol ǣglǣca<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIb_7" id = "tag_rVIb_7" +href = "#note_rVIb_7">7</a>; him on eaxle wearð</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">143</span> +<a name = "page143" id = "page143"> </a> + +<p>syn-dolh sweotol; seonowe onsprungon;</p> +<p>burston bān-locan. Bēowulfe wearð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">820</span> +gūð-hrēð gyfeðe. Scolde Gręndel þǫnan</p> +<p>feorh-sēoc flēon under fęn-hleoðu,<a class = "tag" name += "tag_rVIb_8" id = "tag_rVIb_8" href = "#note_rVIb_8">8</a></p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_822" id = "lineVI_822"> </a> +sēcean wyn-lēas wīc; wiste þē geornor,</p> +<p>þæt his aldres<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIb_9" id = "tag_rVIb_9" +href = "#note_rVIb_9">9</a> wæs ęnde gegǫngen,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_824" id = "lineVI_824"> </a> +dōgera dæg-rīm. Dęnum eallum wearð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">825</span> +æfter þām wæl-rǣse willa gelumpen.</p> +<p>Hæfde þā gefǣlsod, sē þe ǣr feorran cōm,</p> +<p>snotor ǫnd swȳð-ferhð, sęle Hrōðgāres,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_828" id = "lineVI_828"> </a> +genęred wið nīðe. Niht-weorce gefeh,</p> +<p>ęllen-mǣrþum; hæfde Ēast-Dęnum</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">830</span> +Gēat-męcga lēod gilp gelǣsted;</p> +<p>swylce oncȳððe ealle gebētte,</p> +<p>inwid-sorge, þe hīe ǣr drugon</p> +<p>ǫnd for þrēa-nȳdum þolian scoldon,</p> +<p>torn unlȳtel. Þæt wæs tācen sweotol,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">835</span> +syððan hilde-dēor hǫnd ālęgde,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_836" id = "lineVI_836"> </a> +earm ǫnd eaxle (þǣr wæs eal geador</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_837" id = "lineVI_837"> </a> +Gręndles <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_837">grāpe</a>) + under gēapne hrōf.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_740" id = "linenoteVI_740" href = +"#lineVI_740">740.</a> +<b>þæt</b>, the direct object of <b>yldan</b>, refers to the contest +about to ensue. Beowulf, in the preceding lines, was wondering how it +would result.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_746" id = "linenoteVI_746" href = +"#lineVI_746">746.</a> +<b>ætstōp</b>. The subject of this verb and of <b>nam</b> is Grendel; +the subject of the three succeeding verbs (<b>rǣhte</b>, <b>onfēng</b>, +<b>gesæt</b>) is Beowulf.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_751" id = "linenoteVI_751" href = +"#lineVI_751">751-52.</a> +The O.E. poets are fond of securing emphasis or of stimulating interest +by indirect methods of statement, by suggesting more than they affirm. +This device often appears in their use of negatives (<b>ne</b>, <a href += "#lineVI_752">l. 13</a>; <a href = "#lineVI_753">p. 140, +l. 3</a>; <b>nō</b>, <a href = "#lineVI_755">p. 140, +l. 1</a>), and in the unexpected prominence that they give to some +minor detail usually suppressed because understood; as where the +narrator, wishing to describe the terror produced by Grendel’s midnight +visits to Heorot, says (ll. 138-139), “Then was it easy to find one +who elsewhere, more commodiously, sought rest for himself.” It is hard +to believe that the poet saw nothing humorous in this point of view.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_755" id = "linenoteVI_755" href = +"#lineVI_755">755.</a> +<b>nō ... meahte</b>, <i>none the sooner could he away</i>. The omission +of a verb of motion after the auxiliaries <b>magan, mōtan, sculan</b>, +and <b>willan</b> is very frequent. <i>Cf.</i> Beowulf’s last utterance, +<a href = "#lineVI_2817">p. 147, l. 17</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_768" id = "linenoteVI_768" href = +"#lineVI_768">768.</a> +The lines that immediately follow constitute a fine bit of description +by indication of effects. The two contestants are withdrawn from our +sight; but we hear the sound of the fray crashing through the massive +old hall, which trembles as in a blast; we see the terror depicted on +the faces of the Danes as they listen to the strange sounds that issue +from their former banqueting hall; by these sounds we, too, measure the +progress and alternations of the combat. At last we hear only the +“terror-lay” of Grendel, “lay of the beaten,” and know that Beowulf has +made good his promise at the banquet (<b>gilp gelǣsted</b>).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_769" id = "linenoteVI_769" href = +"#lineVI_769">769.</a> +<b>cēnra gehwylcum</b>. The indefinite pronouns (<a href = +"#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>) may be used as adjectives, agreeing in +case with their nouns; but they frequently, as here, take a partitive +genitive: <b>ānra gehwylcum</b>, <i>to each one</i> (= <i>to each +of ones</i>); <b>ǣnige</b> (instrumental) <b>þinga</b>, <i>for any +thing</i> (= <i>for any of things</i>); <b>on healfa gehwone</b>, +<i>into halves</i> (= <i>into each of halves</i>); <b>ealra dōgra +gehwām</b>, <i>every day</i> (= <i>on each of all days</i>); +<b>ūhtna gehwylce</b>, <i>every morning</i> (= <i>on each of +mornings</i>).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_780" id = "linenoteVI_780" href = +"#lineVI_780">780.</a> +Notice that <b>hit</b>, the object of <b>tōbrecan</b>, stands for +<b>wīn-sęle</b>, which is masculine. See <a href = "#sec_55">p. 39, +Note 2</a>. <b>Manna</b> is genitive after <b>gemete</b>, not after +<b>ǣnig</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_787" id = "linenoteVI_787" href = +"#lineVI_787">787-89.</a> +<b>gryre-lēoð ... hæfton</b> [= <b>hæftan</b>]. Note that verbs of +hearing and seeing, as in Mn.E., may be followed by the infinitive. They +heard <i>God’s adversary sing</i> (<b>galan</b>) ... <i>hell’s captive +bewail</i> (<b>wānigean</b>). Had the present participle been used, the +effect would have been, as in Mn.E., to emphasize the agent (the subject +of the infinitive) rather than the action (the infinitive itself).</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_795" id = "linenoteVI_795" href = +"#lineVI_795">795-96.</a> +<b>þǣr ... lāfe</b>. Beowulf’s followers now seem to have seized their +swords and come to his aid, not knowing that Grendel, having forsworn +war-weapons himself, is proof against the best of swords. <i>Then many +an earl of Beowulf’s</i> (= <i>an earl of B. very often</i>) +<i>brandished his sword.</i> That no definite earl is meant is shown by +the succeeding <b>hīe meahton</b> instead of <b>hē meahte</b>. See +<a href = "#linenote110_5">p. 110, Note</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_799" id = "linenoteVI_799" href = +"#lineVI_799">799.</a> +<i>They did not know this</i> (<b>ðæt</b>), <i>while they were +fighting</i>; but the first <b>Hīe</b> refers to the warriors who +proffered help; the second <b>hīe</b>, to the combatants, Beowulf and +Grendel. In apposition with <b>ðǣt</b>, stands the whole clause, <b>þone +synscaðan</b> (object of <b>grētan</b>) <b>... nolde</b>. The second, or +conjunctional, <b>ðæt</b> is here omitted before <b>þone</b>. See +<a href = "#linenote112_18">p. 112, note on ll. 18-19</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_837" id = "linenoteVI_837" href = +"#lineVI_837">837.</a> +<b>grāpe</b> = genitive singular, feminine, after <b>eal</b>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_1" id = "note_rVIb_1" href = +"#tag_rVIb_1">1</a> += ealdor-.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_2" id = "note_rVIb_2" href = +"#tag_rVIb_2">2</a> += Heorote.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_3" id = "note_rVIb_3" href = +"#tag_rVIb_3">3</a> += hæftan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_4" id = "note_rVIb_4" href = +"#tag_rVIb_4">4</a> += ealdor-.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_5" id = "note_rVIb_5" href = +"#tag_rVIb_5">5</a> += weorðan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_6" id = "note_rVIb_6" href = +"#tag_rVIb_6">6</a> += mōdiga.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_7" id = "note_rVIb_7" href = +"#tag_rVIb_7">7</a> += āglǣca.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_8" id = "note_rVIb_8" href = +"#tag_rVIb_8">8</a> += -hliðu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIb_9" id = "note_rVIb_9" href = +"#tag_rVIb_9">9</a> += ealdres.</p> +</div> + +<h5>Beowulf Fatally Wounded. [<span class = "plain">Lines +2712-2752.</span>]</h5> + +<p class = "notation"> +[Hrothgar, in his gratitude for the great victory, lavishes gifts upon +Beowulf; but Grendel’s mother must be reckoned with. Beowulf finds her +at the sea-bottom, and after a desperate struggle slays her. Hrothgar +again pours treasures into Beowulf’s lap. Beowulf, having now +accomplished his mission, returns to Sweden. After a reign of fifty +years, he goes forth to meet a fire-spewing dragon that is ravaging his +kingdom. In the struggle Beowulf is fatally wounded. Wiglaf, +a loyal thane, is with him.]</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">144</span> +<a name = "page144" id = "page144"> </a> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>        Þā sīo<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIc_1" id = "tag_rVIc_1" href = "#note_rVIc_1">1</a> wund +ongǫn,</p> +<p>þe him se eorð-draca ǣr geworhte,</p> +<p>swēlan ǫnd swellan. Hē þǣt sōna onfand,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2715</span> +þǣt him on brēostum bealo-nīð wēoll</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2716" id = "lineVI_2716"> </a> +āttor on innan. Þā <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2716">se æðeling</a> gīong,<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIc_2" id = "tag_rVIc_2" href = "#note_rVIc_2">2</a></p> +<p>þæt hē bī wealle, wīs-hycgende,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2718" id = "lineVI_2718"> </a> +gesæt on sesse; seah on <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2718">ęnta geweorc</a>,</p> +<p>hū þā stān-bogan stapulum fæste</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2720" id = "lineVI_2720">2720</a></span> +ēce eorð-ręced innan <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2720">healde</a>.</p> +<p>Hyne þā mid handa heoro-drēorigne,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2722" id = "lineVI_2722"> </a> +þēoden mǣrne, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2722">þegn ungemete till</a>,</p> +<p>wine-dryhten his wætere gelafede,</p> +<p>hilde-sædne, ǫnd his helm onspēon.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2725" id = "lineVI_2725">2725</a></span> +Bīowulf<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIc_3" id = "tag_rVIc_3" href = +"#note_rVIc_3">3</a> maðelode; <a class = "linenote" href += "#linenoteVI_2725">hē ofer bęnne spræc</a>,</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">145</span> +<a name = "page145" id = "page145"> </a> + +<p>wunde wæl-blēate; wisse hē gearwe,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2727" id = "lineVI_2727"> </a> +þæt hē dæg-hwīla gedrogen hæfde</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2728" id = "lineVI_2728"> </a> +eorðan wynne; þā wæs eall sceacen</p> +<p>dōgor-gerīmes, dēað ungemete nēah:</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2730</span> +“Nū ic suna mīnum syllan wolde</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2731" id = "lineVI_2731"> </a> +gūð-gewǣdu, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2731">þǣr mē</a> gifeðe swā</p> +<p>ǣnig yrfe-weard æfter wurde</p> +<p>līce <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2731">gelęnge</a>. + Ic ðās lēode hēold</p> +<p>fīftig wintra; næs se folc-cyning</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2735</span> +ymbe-sittendra ænig þāra,</p> +<p>þe mec gūð-winum grētan dorste,</p> +<p>ęgesan ðēon. Ic on earde bād</p> +<p>mǣl-gesceafta, hēold mīn tela,</p> +<p>nē sōhte searo-nīðas, nē mē swōr fela</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2740" id = "lineVI_2740">2740</a></span> +āða on unriht. Ic ðæs ealles mæg,</p> +<p>feorh-bęnnum sēoc, gefēan habban;</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2742" id = "lineVI_2742"> </a> +for-þām mē wītan ne ðearf Waldend<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVIc_4" id = "tag_rVIc_4" href = "#note_rVIc_4">4</a> fīra</p> +<p>morðor-bealo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIc_5" id = "tag_rVIc_5" +href = "#note_rVIc_5">5</a> māga, þonne mīn sceaceð</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2744" id = "lineVI_2744"> </a> +līf of līce. Nū ðū lungre <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2744">geong</a><a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIc_6" id = +"tag_rVIc_6" href = "#note_rVIc_6">6</a></p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2745</span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2744">hord scēawian</a> + under hārne stān,</p> +<p>Wīglāf lēofa, nū se wyrm ligeð,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2747" id = "lineVI_2747"> </a> +swefeð sāre wund, since berēafod.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">146</span> +<a name = "page146" id = "page146"> </a> + +<p>Bīo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVIc_7" id = "tag_rVIc_7" href = +"#note_rVIc_7">7</a> nū on ofoste, þæt ic ǣr-welan,</p> +<p>gold-ǣht ongite, gearo scēawige</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2750</span> +swegle searo-gimmas, þæt ic ðȳ sēft mæge</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2751" id = "lineVI_2751"> </a> +æfter māððum-welan <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2751">mīn ālǣtan</a></p> +<p><a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2751">līf</a> ǫnd +lēod-scipe, þone ic lǫnge hēold.”</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2716" id = "linenoteVI_2716" href = +"#lineVI_2716">2716.</a> +<b>se æðeling</b> is Beowulf.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2718" id = "linenoteVI_2718" href = +"#lineVI_2718">2718.</a> +<b>ęnta geweorc</b> is a stereotyped phrase for anything that occasions +wonder by its size or strangeness.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2720" id = "linenoteVI_2720" href = +"#lineVI_2720">2720.</a> +<b>healde</b>. Heyne, following Ettmüller, reads <b>hēoldon</b>, thus +arbitrarily changing mood, tense, and number of the original. Either +mood, indicative or subjunctive, would be legitimate. As to the tense, +the narrator is identifying himself in time with the hero, whose wonder +was “how the stone-arches ... <i>sustain</i> the ever-during +earth-hall”: the construction is a form of <i>oratio recta</i>, a sort +of <i>miratio recta</i>. The singular <b>healde</b>, instead of +<b>healden</b>, has many parallels in the dependent clauses of +<i>Beowulf</i>, most of these being relative clauses introduced by +<b>þāra þe</b> (= <i>of those that ...</i> + a singular predicate). +In the present instance, the predicate has doubtless been influenced by +the proximity of <b>eorð-ręced</b>, a <i>quasi</i>-subject; and we have +no more right to alter to <b>healden</b> or <b>hēoldon</b> than we have +to change Shakespeare’s <i>gives</i> to <i>give</i> in</p> + +<p class = "center"> +“Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath <i>gives</i>.”</p> + +<p class = "right">(<i>Macbeth</i>, II, <span class = +"smallroman">I</span>, 61.)</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2722" id = "linenoteVI_2722" href = +"#lineVI_2722">2722.</a> +The <b>þegn ungemete till</b> is Wiglaf, the bravest of Beowulf’s +retainers.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2725" id = "linenoteVI_2725" href = +"#lineVI_2725">2725.</a> +<b>hē ofer bęnne spræc</b>. The editors and translators of +<i>Beowulf</i> invariably render <b>ofer</b> in this passage by +<i>about</i>; but Beowulf says not a word about his wound. The context +seems to me to show plainly that <b>ofer</b> (cf. Latin +<i>supra</i>) denotes here opposition = <i>in spite of</i>. We read in +<i>Genesis</i>, l. 594, that Eve took the forbidden fruit <b>ofer +Drihtenes word</b>. Beowulf fears (l. 2331) that he may have ruled +unjustly = <b>ofer ealde riht</b>; and he goes forth (l. 2409) +<b>ofer willan</b> to confront the dragon.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2731" id = "linenoteVI_2731" href = +"#lineVI_2731">2731-33.</a> +<b>þǣr mē ... gelęnge</b>, <i>if so be that</i> (<b>þǣr ... swā</b>) +<i>any heir had afterwards been given me</i> (<b>mē gifeðe ... +æfter wurde</b>) <i>belonging to my body</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2744" id = "linenoteVI_2744" href = +"#lineVI_2744">2744-45.</a> +<b>geong</b> [= <b>gǫng</b>] <b>... scēawian</b>. See note on <b>ēode +... sittan</b>, <a href = "#linenoteVI_641">p. 137, +ll. 19-20</a>. In Mn.E. <i>Go see, Go fetch</i>, etc., is the +second verb imperative (coördinate with the first), or subjunctive +(<i>that you may see</i>), or infinitive without <i>to</i>?</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2751" id = "linenoteVI_2751" href = +"#lineVI_2751">2751-52.</a> +<b>mīn ... līf</b>. See note on <b>ęnde-dæg ... mīnne</b>, <a href = +"#lineVI_638">p. 137, ll. 16-17</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_1" id = "note_rVIc_1" href = +"#tag_rVIc_1">1</a> += sēo.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_2" id = "note_rVIc_2" href = +"#tag_rVIc_2">2</a> += gēong.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_3" id = "note_rVIc_3" href = +"#tag_rVIc_3">3</a> += Bēowulf.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_4" id = "note_rVIc_4" href = +"#tag_rVIc_4">4</a> += Wealdend.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_5" id = "note_rVIc_5" href = +"#tag_rVIc_5">5</a> += morðor-bealu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_6" id = "note_rVIc_6" href = +"#tag_rVIc_6">6</a> += gǫng (gang).</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVIc_7" id = "note_rVIc_7" href = +"#tag_rVIc_7">7</a> += Bēo.</p> +</div> + +<h5>Beowulf’s Last Words. [<span class = "plain">Lines +2793-2821.</span>]</h5> + +<p class = "notation"> +[Wiglaf brings the jewels, the tokens of Beowulf’s triumph. Beowulf, +rejoicing to see them, reviews his career, and gives advice and final +directions to Wiglaf.]</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>        <i>Bīowulf<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVId_1" id = "tag_rVId_1" href = "#note_rVId_1">1</a> +maðelode</i>,</p> +<p>gǫmel on giohðe (gold scēawode):</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2795" id = "lineVI_2795">2795</a></span> +“Ic þāra frætwa Frēan ealles <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2795">ðanc</a>,</p> +<p>Wuldur-cyninge, wordum <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2795">sęcge</a></p> +<p>ęcum Dryhtne, þe ic hēr on starie,</p> +<p>þæs þe ic mōste mīnum lēodum</p> +<p>ǣr swylt-dæge swylc gestrȳnan.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2800" id = "lineVI_2800">2800</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2800">Nū ic on māðma hord + mīne bebohte</a></p> + +<span class = "pagenum">147</span> +<a name = "page147" id = "page147"> </a> + +<p><a name = "lineVI_2801" id = "lineVI_2801"> </a> +frōde feorh-lęge, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2801">fręmmað gē</a> nū</p> +<p>lēoda þearfe; ne mæg ic hēr lęng wesan.</p> +<p>Hātað heaðo-mǣre hlǣw gewyrcean,</p> +<p>beorhtne æfter bǣle æt brimes nosan;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2805" id = "lineVI_2805">2805</a></span> +sē scel<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVId_2" id = "tag_rVId_2" href = +"#note_rVId_2">2</a> tō gemyndum mīnum lēodum</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2806" id = "lineVI_2806"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2806">hēah hlīfian</a> + on Hrǫnes næsse,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2807" id = "lineVI_2807"> </a> +þæt <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2807">hit</a> sǣ-līðend + syððan hātan<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVId_3" id = +"tag_rVId_3" href = "#note_rVId_3">3</a></p> +<p>Bīowulfes<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVId_1b" id = "tag_rVId_1b" +href = "#note_rVId_1">1</a> biorh<a class = "tag" href = +"#note_rVId_1">1</a> þā þe brentingas</p> +<p>ofer flōda genipu feorran drīfað.”</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2810" id = "lineVI_2810">2810</a></span> +Dyde <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2810">him</a> of healse + hring gyldenne</p> +<p><a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2810">þīoden</a><a class = +"tag" name = "tag_rVId_1c" id = "tag_rVId_1c" href = +"#note_rVId_1">1</a> þrīst-hȳdig; þegne gesealde,</p> +<p>geongum gār-wigan, gold-fāhne helm,</p> +<p>bēah ǫnd byrnan, hēt hyne brūcan well.</p> +<p>“Þū eart ęnde-lāf ūsses cynnes,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">2815</span> +Wǣgmundinga; ealle wyrd forswēop</p> +<p>mīne māgas tō metod-sceafte,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVI_2817" id = "lineVI_2817"> </a> +eorlas on ęlne; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2817">ic him æfter sceal</a>.”</p> +<p>Þæt wæs þām gǫmelan gingeste word</p> +<p>brēost-gehygdum, ǣr hē bǣl cure,</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">148</span> +<a name = "page148" id = "page148"> </a> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVI_2820" id = "lineVI_2820">2820</a></span> +hāte heaðo-wylmas; <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2820">him of hreðre</a> <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVI_2821">gewāt</a></p> +<p>sāwol <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVI_2821">sēcean</a> + sōð-fæstra dōm.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2795" id = "linenoteVI_2795" href = +"#lineVI_2795">2795-99.</a> +The expression <b>sęcgan þanc</b> takes the same construction as +<b>þancian</b>; i.e., the dative of the person (<b>Frēan</b>) and the +genitive (a genitive of cause) of the thing (<b>þāra frætwa</b>). +Cf. note on <b>biddan</b>, <a href = "#sec_65">p. 45</a>. The +antecedent of <b>þe</b> is <b>frætwa</b>. For the position of <b>on</b>, +see <a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (5)</a>. The clause introduced +by <b>þæs þe</b> (<i>because</i>) is parallel in construction with +<b>frætwa</b>, both being causal modifiers of <b>sęcge þanc</b>. The +Christian coloring in these lines betrays the influence of priestly +transcribers.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2800" id = "linenoteVI_2800" href = +"#lineVI_2800">2800.</a> +<i>Now that I, in exchange for</i> (<b>on</b>) <i>a hoard of treasures, +have bartered</i> (<b>bebohte</b>) <i>the laying down</i> (<b>-lęge</b> +> <b>licgan</b>) <i>of my old life.</i> The ethical codes of the +early Germanic races make frequent mention of blood-payments, or +life-barters. There seems to be here a suggestion of the “wergild.”</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2801" id = "linenoteVI_2801" href = +"#lineVI_2801">2801.</a> +<b>fręmmað gē</b>. The plural imperative (as also in <b>Hātað</b>) +shows that Beowulf is here speaking not so much to Wiglaf in particular +as, through Wiglaf, to his retainers in general,—to his +<i>comitatus</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2806" id = "linenoteVI_2806" href = +"#lineVI_2806">2806.</a> +The desire for conspicuous burial places finds frequent expression in +early literatures. The tomb of Achilles was situated “high on a jutting +headland over wide Hellespont that it might be seen from off the sea.” +Elpenor asks Ulysses to bury him in the same way. Æneas places the ashes +of Misenus beneath a high mound on a headland of the sea.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2807" id = "linenoteVI_2807" href = +"#lineVI_2807">2807.</a> +<b>hit = hlǣw</b>, which is masculine. See <a href = +"#sec_55">p. 39, Note 2</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2810" id = "linenoteVI_2810" href = +"#lineVI_2810">2810-11.</a> +<b>him ... þīoden</b>. The reference in both cases is to Beowulf, who is +disarming himself (<span class = "fancy">do-of</span><!-- blackletter +--> > <i>doff</i>) for the last time; <b>þegne</b> = <i>to +Wiglaf</i>.</p> + +<p>Note, where the personal element is strong, the use of the dative +instead of the more colorless possessive; <b>him of healse</b>, not +<b>of his healse</b>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2817" id = "linenoteVI_2817" href = +"#lineVI_2817">2817.</a> +<b>ic ... sceal</b>. See note on <b>nō ... meahte</b>, <a href = +"#linenoteVI_755">p. 140, l. 1</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2820" id = "linenoteVI_2820" href = +"#lineVI_2820">2820.</a> +<b>him of hreðre</b>. Cf. note on <b>him ... þīoden</b>, <a href = +"#linenoteVI_2810">p. 147, ll. 10-11</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVI_2821" id = "linenoteVI_2821" href = +"#lineVI_2820">2820-21.</a> +For construction of <b>gewāt ... sēcean</b>, see note on <b>ēode ... +sittan</b>, <a href = "#linenoteVI_641">p. 137, +ll. 19-20</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVId_1" id = "note_rVId_1" href = +"#tag_rVId_1">1</a> += īo, io = ēo, eo.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVId_2" id = "note_rVId_2" href = +"#tag_rVId_2">2</a> += sceal.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVId_3" id = "note_rVId_3" href = +"#tag_rVId_3">3</a> += hāten.</p> +</div> + + + +<h3><a name = "chapIII_VII" id = "chapIII_VII"> +VII. THE WANDERER.</a></h3> + + +<p class = "notation"> +[Exeter MS. “The epic character of the ancient lyric appears especially +in this: that the song is less the utterance of a momentary feeling than +the portrayal of a lasting state, perhaps the reflection of an entire +life, generally that of one isolated, or bereft by death or exile of +protectors and friends.” (Ten Brink, <i>Early Eng. Lit.</i>, I.) +I adopt Brooke’s threefold division (<i>Early Eng. Lit.</i>, +p. 356): “It opens with a Christian prologue, and closes with a +Christian epilogue, but the whole body of the poem was written, it seems +to me, by a person who thought more of the goddess Wyrd than of God, +whose life and way of thinking were uninfluenced by any distinctive +Christian doctrine.”</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +The author is unknown.]</p> + +<h5>Prologue.</h5> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p><a name = "lineVII_1" id = "lineVII_1"> </a> +Oft him ānhaga āre gebīdeð,</p> +<p>Metudes<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_1" id = "tag_rVII_1" href = +"#note_rVII_1">1</a> miltse, þēah þe hē mōdcearig</p> +<p>geond lagulāde lǫnge sceolde</p> +<p>hrēran mid hǫndum hrīmcealde sǣ,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">5</span> +wadan wræclǣstas: wyrd bið ful ārǣd!</p> +<p>Swā cwæð eardstapa earfeþa<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVII_2" id = "tag_rVII_2" href = "#note_rVII_2">2</a> gemyndig,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_7" id = "lineVII_7"> </a> +wrāþra wælsleahta, winemǣga <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVII_7">hryres</a>:</p> +</div> + +<h5>Plaint of the Wanderer.</h5> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p><a name = "lineVII_8" id = "lineVII_8"> </a> +“Oft ic sceolde āna <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVII_8">ūhtna gehwylce</a></p> +<p>mīne ceare cwīþan; nis nū cwicra nān,</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">149</span> +<a name = "page149" id = "page149"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVII_10" id = "lineVII_10">10</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_10">þe ic him</a> mōdsefan + mīnne durre</p> +<p>sweotule<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_3" id = "tag_rVII_3" href = +"#note_rVII_3">3</a> āsęcgan. Ic tō sōþe wāt</p> +<p>þæt biþ in eorle indryhten þēaw,</p> +<p>þæt hē his ferðlocan fæste binde,</p> +<p>healde his hordcofan, hycge swā hē wille;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">15</span> +ne mæg wērig mōd wyrde wiðstǫndan</p> +<p>nē sē hrēo hyge helpe gefręmman:</p> +<p>for ðon dōmgeorne drēorigne oft</p> +<p>in hyra brēostcofan bindað fæste.</p> +<p>Swā ic mōdsefan mīnne sceolde</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">20</span> +oft earmcearig ēðle bidǣled,</p> +<p>frēomǣgum feor feterum sǣlan,</p> +<p>siþþan gēara iū goldwine mīnne</p> +<p>hrūsan heolster biwrāh, and ic hēan þǫnan</p> +<p>wōd wintercearig ofer waþema gebind,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">25</span> +sōhte sęle drēorig sinces bryttan,</p> +<p>hwǣr ic feor oþþe nēah findan meahte</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_27" id = "lineVII_27"> </a> +þone þe in meoduhealle<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_4" id = +"tag_rVII_4" href = "#note_rVII_4">4</a> <a class = +"linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_27">miltse</a> wisse</p> +<p>oþþe mec frēondlēasne frēfran wolde,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_29" id = "lineVII_29"> </a> +węnian mid wynnum. Wāt sē þe cunnað</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">30</span> +hū slīþen bið sorg tō gefēran</p> +<p>þām þe him lȳt hafað lēofra geholena:</p> +<p>warað hine wræclāst, nāles wunden gold,</p> +<p>ferðloca frēorig, nālæs foldan blǣd;</p> +<p>gemǫn hē sęlesęcgas and sincþęge,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">35</span> +hū hine on geoguðe his goldwine</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_36" id = "lineVII_36"> </a> +węnede tō wiste: wyn eal gedrēas!</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">150</span> +<a name = "page150" id = "page150"> </a> +<p><a name = "lineVII_37" id = "lineVII_37"> </a> +For þon <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_37">wāt</a> sē þe +sceal his winedryhtnes</p> +<p>lēofes lārcwidum lǫnge forþolian,</p> +<p>ðonne sorg and slǣp sǫmod ætgædre</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">40</span> +earmne ānhagan oft gebindað:</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_41" id = "lineVII_41"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_41">þinceð him on mōde</a> + þæt hē his mǫndryhten</p> +<p>clyppe and cysse, and on cnēo lęcge</p> +<p>hǫnda and hēafod, swā hē hwīlum ǣr</p> +<p>in gēardagum giefstōles brēac;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">45</span> +ðonne onwæcneð eft winelēas guma,</p> +<p>gesihð him biforan fealwe wǣgas,</p> +<p>baþian brimfuglas, brǣdan feþra,</p> +<p>hrēosan hrīm and snāw hagle gemęnged.</p> +<p>Þonne bēoð þȳ hęfigran heortan bęnne,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">50</span> +sāre æfter swǣsne; sorg bið genīwad;</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_51" id = "lineVII_51"> </a> +þonne māga gemynd mōd geondhweorfeð,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_52" id = "lineVII_52"> </a> +grēteð glīwstafum, georne geondscēawað.</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_53" id = "lineVII_53"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_53">Sęcga</a> geseldan + swimmað eft on weg;</p> +<p>flēotendra ferð<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_5" id = "tag_rVII_5" +href = "#note_rVII_5">5</a> nō þǣr fela bringeð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">55</span> +cūðra <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_53">cwidegiedda</a>; + cearo<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_6" id = +"tag_rVII_6" href = "#note_rVII_6">6</a> bið genīwad</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">151</span> +<a name = "page151" id = "page151"> </a> + +<p>þām þe sęndan sceal swīþe geneahhe</p> +<p>ofer waþema gebind wērigne sefan.</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_58" id = "lineVII_58"> </a> +For þon ic geþęncan ne mæg geond þās woruld</p> +<p>for hwan mōdsefa mīn ne gesweorce,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">60</span> +þonne ic eorla līf eal geondþęnce,</p> +<p>hū hī fǣrlīce flęt ofgēafon,</p> +<p>mōdge maguþegnas. Swā þēs middangeard</p> +<p>ealra dōgra gehwām drēoseð and fealleþ;</p> +<p>for þon ne mæg weorþan wīs wer, ǣr hē āge</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVII_65" id = "lineVII_65">65</a></span> +wintra dǣl in woruldrīce. <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVII_65">Wita sceal geþyldig</a>,</p> +<p>ne sceal nō tō hātheort nē tō hrædwyrde,</p> +<p>nē tō wāc wiga nē tō wanhȳdig,</p> +<p>nē tō forht nē tō fægen nē tō feohgīfre,</p> +<p>nē nǣfre gielpes tō georn, ǣr hē geare cunne.</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">70</span> +Beorn sceal gebīdan, þonne hē bēot spriceð,</p> +<p>oþ þæt collenferð cunne gearwe</p> +<p>hwider hreþra gehygd hweorfan wille.</p> +<p>Ongietan sceal glēaw hæle hū gǣstlīc bið,</p> +<p>þonne eall þisse worulde wela wēste stǫndeð,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVII_75" id = "lineVII_75">75</a></span> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_75">swā nū</a> missenlīce + geond þisne middangeard</p> +<p>winde biwāune<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_7" id = "tag_rVII_7" +href = "#note_rVII_7">7</a> weallas stǫndaþ,</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">152</span> +<a name = "page152" id = "page152"> </a> + +<p>hrīme bihrorene,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_8" id = +"tag_rVII_8" href = "#note_rVII_8">8</a> hryðge þā +ederas.</p> +<p>Wōriað þā wīnsalo,<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_9" id = +"tag_rVII_9" href = "#note_rVII_9">9</a> waldend +licgað</p> +<p>drēame bidrorene<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_10" id = +"tag_rVII_10" href = "#note_rVII_10">10</a>; duguð eal +gecrǫng</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">80</span> +wlǫnc bī wealle: sume wīg fornōm,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_81" id = "lineVII_81"> </a> +fęrede in forðwege; sumne fugel<a class = "tag" name = +"tag_rVII_11" id = "tag_rVII_11" href = "#note_rVII_11">11</a> oþbær</p> +<p>ofer hēanne holm; sumne sē hāra wulf</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_83" id = "lineVII_83"> </a> +dēaðe gedǣlde; sumne drēorighlēor</p> +<p>in eorðscræfe eorl gehȳdde:</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">85</span> +ȳþde swā þisne eardgeard ælda Scyppend,</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_86" id = "lineVII_86"> </a> +oþ þæt burgwara breahtma lēase</p> +<p>eald ęnta geweorc īdlu stōdon.</p> +<p>Sē þonne þisne wealsteal wīse geþōhte,</p> +<p>and þis deorce līf dēope geondþęnceð,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">90</span> +frōd in ferðe<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_12" id = "tag_rVII_12" +href = "#note_rVII_12">12</a> feor oft gemǫn</p> +<p>wælsleahta worn, and þās word ācwið:</p> +<p>‘Hwǣr cwōm mearg? hwǣr cwōm mago<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_13" +id = "tag_rVII_13" href = "#note_rVII_13">13</a>? hwǣr cwōm +māþþumgyfa?</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_93" id = "lineVII_93"> </a> +hwǣr <a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_93">cwōm symbla +gesetu</a>? hwǣr sindon sęledrēamas?</p> +<p>Ēalā beorht bune! ēalā byrnwiga!</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">95</span> +ēalā þēodnes þrym! hū sēo þrāg gewāt,</p> +<p>genāp under nihthelm, swā hēo nō wǣre!</p> +<p>Stǫndeð nū on lāste lēofre duguþe</p> +<p>weal wundrum hēah, wyrmlīcum fāh:</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_99" id = "lineVII_99"> </a> +eorlas fornōmon asca þrȳþe,</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">153</span> +<a name = "page153" id = "page153"> </a> + +<p><span class = "linenum">100</span> +wǣpen wælgīfru, wyrd sēo mǣre;</p> +<p>and þās stānhleoþu<a class = "tag" name = "tag_rVII_14" id = +"tag_rVII_14" href = "#note_rVII_14">14</a> stormas +cnyssað;</p> +<p>hrīð hrēosende hrūsan bindeð,</p> +<p>wintres wōma, þonne wǫn cymeð,</p> +<p>nīpeð nihtscūa, norþan onsęndeð</p> +<p><span class = "linenum"> +<a name = "lineVII_105" id = "lineVII_105">105</a></span> +hrēo hæglfare hæleþum on andan.</p> +<p>Eall is earfoðlīc eorþan rīce,</p> +<p>onwęndeð wyrda gesceaft weoruld under heofonum:</p> +<p>hēr bið feoh lǣne, hēr bið frēond lǣne,</p> +<p>hēr bið mǫn lǣne, hēr bið mǣg lǣne;</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">110</span> +eal þis eorþan gesteal īdel weorþeð!’”</p> + +<h5>Epilogue.</h5> + +<p><a name = "lineVII_111" id = "lineVII_111"> </a> +Swā cwæð snottor on mōde, <a class = "linenote" href = +"#linenoteVII_111">gesæt him sundor æt rune</a>.</p> +<p>Til biþ sē þe his trēowe gehealdeð; ne sceal nǣfre his +torn tō rycene</p> +<p>beorn of his brēostum ācȳþan, nemþe hē ǣr þā bōte +cunne;</p> +<p><a name = "lineVII_114" id = "lineVII_114"> </a> +<a class = "linenote" href = "#linenoteVII_114">eorl mid ęlne +gefręmman</a>. Wel bið þām þe him āre sēceð,</p> +<p><span class = "linenum">115</span> +frōfre tō Fæder on heofonum, þǣr ūs eal sēo fæstnung +stǫndeð.</p> +</div> + +<div class = "linenote"> +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_7" id = "linenoteVII_7" href = +"#lineVII_7">7.</a> +The MS. reading is <b>hryre</b> (nominative), which is meaningless.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_8" id = "linenoteVII_8" href = +"#lineVII_8">8.</a> +For <b>ūhtna gehwylce</b>, see note on <b>cēnra gehwylcum</b>, <a href = +"#linenoteVI_769">p. 140</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_10" id = "linenoteVII_10" href = +"#lineVII_10">10.</a> +<b>þe ... him</b>. See <a href = "#sec_75">§ <b>75</b> (4)</a>. Cf. +<i>Merchant of Venice</i>, II, <span class = "smallcaps">v</span>, +50-51.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_27" id = "linenoteVII_27" href = +"#lineVII_27">27.</a> +For <b>mine</b> (MS. <b>in</b>), which does not satisfy metrical +requirements, I adopt Kluge’s plausible substitution of +<b>miltse</b>; <b>miltse witan</b> = <i>to show</i> (<i>know, feel</i>), +<i>pity</i>. The <b>myne wisse</b> of <i>Beowulf</i> (l. 169) is +metrically admissible.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_37" id = "linenoteVII_37" href = +"#lineVII_37">37.</a> +The object of <b>wāt</b> is <b>þinceð him on mōde</b>; but the +construction is unusual, inasmuch as both <b>þæt’s</b> (<b>þæt</b> +pronominal before <b>wāt</b> and <b>þæt</b> conjunctional before +<b>þinceð</b>) are omitted. See <a href = "#line112_18">p. 112, +ll. 18-19</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_41" id = "linenoteVII_41" href = +"#lineVII_41">41.</a> +<b>þinceð him on mōde</b> (see note on <b>him ... þīoden</b>, <a href = +"#linenoteVI_2810">p. 147</a>). “No more sympathetic picture has +been drawn by an Anglo-Saxon poet than where the wanderer in exile falls +asleep at his oar and dreams again of his dead lord and the old hall and +revelry and joy and gifts,—then wakes to look once more upon the +waste of ocean, snow and hail falling all around him, and sea-birds +dipping in the spray.” (Gummere, <i>Germanic Origins</i>, +p. 221.)</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_53" id = "linenoteVII_53" href = +"#lineVII_53">53-55.</a> +<b>Sęcga ... cwidegiedda</b> = <i>But these comrades of warriors</i> [= +those seen in vision] <i>again swim away</i> [= <i>fade away</i>]; +<i>the ghost of these fleeting ones brings not there many familiar +words</i>; i.e. he sees in dream and vision the old familiar faces, but +no voice is heard: they bring neither greetings to him nor tidings of +themselves.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_65" id = "linenoteVII_65" href = +"#lineVII_65">65.</a> +<b>Wita sceal geþyldig</b>. Either <b>bēon</b> (<b>wesan</b>) is here to +be understood after <b>sceal</b>, or <b>sceal</b> alone means <i>ought +to be</i>. Neither construction is to be found in Alfredian prose, +though the omission of a verb of motion after <b>sculan</b> is common in +all periods of Old English. See note on <b>nō ... meahte</b>, <a href = +"#linenoteVI_755">p. 140</a>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_75" id = "linenoteVII_75" href = +"#lineVII_75">75.</a> +<b>swā nū</b>. “The Old English lyrical feeling,” says Ten Brink, citing +the lines that immediately follow <b>swā nū</b>, “is fond of the image +of physical destruction”; but I do not think these lines have a merely +figurative import. The reference is to a period of real devastation, +antedating the Danish incursions. “We might fairly find such a time in +that parenthesis of bad government and of national tumult which filled +the years between the death of Aldfrith in 705 and the renewed peace of +Northumbria under Ceolwulf in the years that followed 729.” (Brooke, +<i>Early Eng. Lit.</i>, p. 355.)</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_93" id = "linenoteVII_93" href = +"#lineVII_93">93.</a> +<b>cwōm ... gesetu</b>. Ettmüller reads <b>cwōmon</b>; but see <a href = +"#linenote107_14">p. 107</a>, note on <b>wæs ... þā īgland</b>. The +occurrence of <b>hwǣr cwōm</b> three times in the preceding line tends +also to hold <b>cwōm</b> in the singular when its plural subject +follows. Note the influence of a somewhat similar structural parallelism +in <i>seas hides</i> of these lines (<i>Winter’s Tale</i>, IV, <span +class = "smallroman">IV</span>, 500-502):</p> + +<div class = "verse"> +<p>“Not for ... all the <i>sun sees</i> or</p> +<p>The close <i>earth wombs</i> or the profound <i>seas hides</i></p> +<p>In unknown fathoms, will I break my oath.”</p> +</div> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_111" id = "linenoteVII_111" href = +"#lineVII_111">111.</a> +<b>gesæt ... rūne</b>, <i>sat apart to himself in silent +meditation</i>.</p> + +<p><a name = "linenoteVII_114" id = "linenoteVII_114" href = +"#lineVII_114">114.</a> +<b>eorl ... gefręmman</b>. Supply <b>sceal</b> after <b>eorl</b>.</p> + +</div> + +<div class = "footnote"> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_1" id = "note_rVII_1" href = +"#tag_rVII_1">1</a> += Metodes.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_2" id = "note_rVII_2" href = +"#tag_rVII_2">2</a> += earfoþa.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_3" id = "note_rVII_3" href = +"#tag_rVII_3">3</a> += sweotole.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_4" id = "note_rVII_4" href = +"#tag_rVII_4">4</a> += medu-.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_5" id = "note_rVII_5" href = +"#tag_rVII_5">5</a> += ferhð.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_6" id = "note_rVII_6" href = +"#tag_rVII_6">6</a> += cearu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_7" id = "note_rVII_7" href = +"#tag_rVII_7">7</a> += See bewāwan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_8" id = "note_rVII_8" href = +"#tag_rVII_8">8</a> += See behrēosan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_9" id = "note_rVII_9" href = +"#tag_rVII_9">9</a> += wīnsalu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_10" id = "note_rVII_10" href = +"#tag_rVII_10">10</a> += See bedrēosan.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_11" id = "note_rVII_11" href = +"#tag_rVII_11">11</a> += fugol.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_12" id = "note_rVII_12" href = +"#tag_rVII_12">12</a> += ferhðe.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_13" id = "note_rVII_13" href = +"#tag_rVII_13">13</a> += magu.</p> +<p><a class = "tag" name = "note_rVII_14" id = "note_rVII_14" href = +"#tag_rVII_14">14</a> += -hliðu.</p> +</div> + +</div> +<!-- end div readings --> + +<a name = "page154" id = "page154"> </a> + +<span class = "pagenum">155</span> +<a name = "page155" id = "page155"> </a> +<h3><a name = "gloss_I" id = "gloss_I"> +I. GLOSSARY.</a></h3> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h4>OLD ENGLISH—MODERN ENGLISH.</h4> + + +<p class = "notation"> +[The order of words is strictly alphabetical, except that <b>ð</b> +follows <b>t</b>. The combination <b>æ</b> follows <b>ad</b>.</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +Gender is indicated by the abbreviations, m. (= masculine), f. +(= feminine), n. (= neuter). The usual abbreviations are +employed for the cases, nom., gen., dat., acc., and instr. Other +abbreviations are sing. (= singular), pl. (= plural), ind. +(= indicative mood), sub. (= subjunctive mood), pres. +(= present tense), pret. (= preterit tense), prep. +(= preposition), adj. (= adjective), adv. (= adverb), +part. (= participle), conj. (= conjunction), pron. +(= pronoun), intrans. (= intransitive), trans. +(= transitive).</p> + +<p class = "notation"> +Figures not preceded by § refer to page and line of the texts.</p> + +<p class = "mynote center"> +<a href = "#gloss1_A"> A </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_B"> B </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_C"> C </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_D"> D </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_E"> E </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_F"> F </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_G"> G </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_H"> H </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_I"> I </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_K"> K </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_L"> L </a><br> +<a href = "#gloss1_M"> M </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_N"> N </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_O"> O </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_P"> P </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_R"> R </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_S"> S </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_T"> T </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_Th"> Ð </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_U"> U </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_W"> W </a> +<a href = "#gloss1_Y"> Y </a> +</p> + +<div class = "glossary"> + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_A" id = "gloss1_A" href = "#gloss_I">A.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ā</b>, <i>ever, always, aye</i>.</p> + +<p><b>abbudisse</b>, f., <i>abbess</i> [Lat. abbatissa].</p> + +<p><b>ābēodan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), <i>bid, +offer</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>him hǣl ābēad</b> <a href = "#lineVI_654">138, 9</a> = <i>bade him +hail, wished him health</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ābrecan</b> (<a href = "#sec_120">§ <b>120</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>break down, destroy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ābūgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b>, Note<ins class = +"correction" title = "superfluous ,"> </ins>1</a>), <i>give way, +start</i> [bow away].</p> + +<p><b>ac</b>, conj., <i>but</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ācweðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>say, +speak</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ācȳðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>reveal, +proclaim</i> [<b>cūð</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ād</b>, m., <i>funeral pile</i>.</p> + +<p><b>adesa</b>, m., <i>adze, hatchet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣ</b> (<b>ǣw</b>), f., <i>law</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">155b</span> +<p><b>ǣdre</b> (<b>ēdre</b>), f., <i>stream, canal, vein</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>blōd ēdrum dranc</b> <a href = "#lineVI_743">139, 4</a> = <i>drank +blood in streams</i> (instr.).</p> + +<p><b>ǣfæstnis</b>, f., <i>piety</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣfen-ræst</b>, f., <i>evening rest</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣfen-sprǣc</b>, f., <i>evening speech</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣfęst</b> (<b>ǣwfęst</b>), <i>law-abiding, pious</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣfęstnis</b>, see <b>ǣfæstnis</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣfre</b>, <i>ever, always</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣfter</b>, prep. (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>after</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣfter ðǣm</b>, <i>after that, thereafter</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>æfter ðǣm ðe</b>, conj., <i>after</i>.</p> + +<p><b>æfter</b>, adv., <i>after, afterwards</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣghwā</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, Note</a>), <i>each, +every</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣghwilc</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, Note</a>), <i>each, +any</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣglǣca</b>, see <b>āglǣca</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">156</span> +<a name = "page156" id = "page156"> </a> +<p><b>ǣgðer</b> (<b>ǣghwæðer, āðer</b>) (<a href = "#sec_77">§ +<b>77</b>, Note</a>), <i>each, either</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣgðer ... ōðer ... ōðer</b>, <i>either ... or ... or</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣgðer ge ... ge</b> (<a href = "#sec_95">§ <b>95</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>both ... and</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣgðer ge ... ge ... ge</b>, <i>both ... and ... and</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣht</b>, f., <i>property, possession</i> [<b>āgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ǣlc</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>), <i>each</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ælde</b> (<b>ielde</b>) (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>), m. +pl., <i>men</i>; gen. pl., <b>ælda</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ælmihtig</b>, <i>almighty</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣmetta</b>, m., <i>leisure</i> [<i>empti</i>-ness].</p> + +<p><b>ǣnig</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>), <i>any</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣnige ðinga</b> <a href = "#lineVI_792">141, 22</a> = <i>for +anything</i>.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +(See <a href = "#linenoteVI_769">140, 15, Note</a>.)</p> + +<p><b>ǣr</b>, adv., <i>before, formerly, sooner</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>nō þȳ ǣr</b> <a href = "#lineVI_755">140, 1</a> = <i>none the +sooner</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣror</b>, comparative, <i>before, formerly</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣrest</b>, superlative, <i>first</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣr</b>, conj. (<a href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b></a>, 2), <i>ere, +before</i> = <b>ǣr ðǣm ðe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣr</b>, prep, with dat., <i>before</i> (time);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣr ðǣm ðe</b>, conj. (<a href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b></a>, 2), +<i>before</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ærcebisceop</b>, m., <i>archbishop</i> [Lat. archiepiscopus].</p> + +<p><b>ǣrendgewrit</b>, n., <i>message, letter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣrendwreca</b> (<b>-raca</b>), m., <i>messenger</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣrest</b>, adj. (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (4)</a>), +<i>first</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ærnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>ride, +gallop</i> [<b>iernan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ǣrra</b>, adj. (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (4)</a>), +<i>former</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǣrwela</b>, m., <i>ancient wealth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>æsc</b>, m., <i>ash, spear</i>; gen. pl., <b>asca</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Æscesdūn</b>, f., <i>Ashdown</i> (in Berkshire).</p> + +<p><b>æstel</b>, m., <i>book-mark</i> [Lat. hastula].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">156b</span> +<p><b>æt</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), <i>at, +in</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +with <b>leornian</b>, <i>to learn</i>, <b>geðicgan</b>, <i>to +receive</i>, and other verbs of similar import,</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>æt</b> = <i>from</i>: <a href = "#line115_18">115, 18</a>; <a href = +"#lineVI_630">137, 8</a>, etc.</p> + +<p><b>ætberan</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>bear to, +hand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ætgæd(e)re</b>, adv., <i>together</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ætsteppan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>step up, +advance</i>; pret. sing., <b>ætstōp</b>.</p> + +<p><b>æðele</b>, <i>noble, excellent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>æðeling</b>, m., <i>a noble, prince</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Æðelwulfing</b>, m., <i>son of Ethelwulf</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Æðered</b>, m., <i>Ethelred</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āfeallan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), +<i>fall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āfierran</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>remove</i> [<b>feor</b>].</p> + +<p><b>āgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>), <i>to own, +possess</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āgen</b>, adj.-part., <i>own</i>; dat. sing., <b>āgnum</b> +[<b>āgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>āgiefan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>give +back</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āglǣca</b> (<b>ǣglǣca</b>), m., <i>monster, champion</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āhton</b>, see <b>āgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ālǣtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>let go, +leave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>aldor</b>, see <b>ealdor</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ālęcgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b>, Note</a>), <i>lay +down</i> [<b>licgan</b>]; past part., <b>ālēd</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Ālīesend</b>, m., <i>Redeemer</i> [<b>ālīesan</b> = <i>release, +ransom</i>].</p> + +<p><b>ālimpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>befall, +occur</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ālȳfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>entrust, +permit</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ambor</b>, m., <i>measure</i>; gen. pl., <b>ambra</b> (<a href = +"#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>ambyre</b>, <i>favorable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ān</b> (<a href = "#sec_89">§ <b>89</b></a>), <i>one</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>āna</b>, <i>alone, only</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ānra gehwylcum</b> <a href = "#lineVI_785">141, 15</a> = <i>to each +one</i>.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +(See <a href = "#linenoteVI_769">140, 15, Note</a>.)</p> + +<p><b>anda</b>, m., <i>zeal, injury, indignation</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hæleðum on andan</b> <a href = "#lineVII_105">153, 6</a> = <i>harmful +to men</i>.</p> + +<p><b>andēfn</b>, f., <i>proportion, amount</i>.</p> + +<p><b>andgiet</b> (<b>-git</b>), n., <i>sense, meaning</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">157</span> +<a name = "page157" id = "page157"> </a> +<p><b>andgitfullīce</b>, <i>intelligibly</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>-gitfullīcost</b>, <i>superlative</i>.</p> + +<p><b>andswaru</b>, f., <i>answer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>andwyrdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>to +answer</i>; pret., <b>andwyrde</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Angel</b>, n., <i>Anglen</i> (in Denmark); dat. sing., +<b>Angle</b> (<a href = "#sec_27">§ <b>27</b> (4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>Angelcynn</b>, n., <i>English kin</i>, <i>English people</i>, +<i>England</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ānhaga</b> (<b>-hoga</b>), m., <i>a solitary</i>, <i>wanderer</i> +[<b>ān</b> + <b>hogian</b>, <i>to meditate</i>].</p> + +<p><b>ānlīpig</b>, <i>single</i>, <i>individual</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ānunga</b> (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, (2)</a>), <i>once for +all</i> [<b>ān</b>].</p> + +<p><b>apostol</b>, m., <i>apostle</i> [Gr. <span class = "greek" title = +"apostolos">ἀπόστολος</span>].</p> + +<p><b>ār</b>, f., <i>honor</i>, <i>property</i>, <i>favor</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>āre gebīdeð</b> <a href = "#lineVII_1">148, 3</a> = <i>waits for +divine favor</i> (gen.).</p> + +<p><b>ārǣd</b>, adj., <i>inexorable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ārǣdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>read</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āręcc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>translate</i>, <i>expound</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ārfæstnis</b>, f., <i>virtue</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ārīsan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>arise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>asca</b>, see <b>aesc</b>.</p> + +<p><b>āsęcgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_132">§ <b>132</b></a>), <i>say</i>, +<i>relate</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āsęttan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>set</i>, +<i>place</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āsingan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>sing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āspęndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>spend</i>, <i>expend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āstīgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>ascend</i>, <i>arise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āstǫndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>stand +up</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ātēah</b>, see <b>ātēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>atelīc</b>, <i>horrible</i>, <i>dire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ātēon</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>draw</i>, +<i>draw away</i>, <i>take</i> (as a journey).</p> + +<p><b>atol</b>, <i>horrible</i>, <i>dire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āttor</b>, n., <i>poison</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ātuge</b>, see <b>ātēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>āð</b>, m., <i>oath</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āðer</b>, see <b>ǣgðer</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">157b</span> +<p><b>āwęccan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), <i>awake</i>, +<i>arouse</i>; pret. sing., <b>āweahte</b>, <b>āwęhte</b>.</p> + +<p><b>aweg</b>, <i>away</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āwęndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>turn</i>, +<i>translate</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āwrītan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>write</i>, +<i>compose</i>.</p> + +<p><b>āwyrcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), <i>work</i>, +<i>do</i>, <i>perform</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_B" id = "gloss1_B" href = "#gloss_I">B.</a></h5> + +<p><b>Bāchsęcg</b>, m., <i>Bagsac</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bæcbord</b>, n., <i>larboard</i>, <i>left side of a ship</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bǣl</b>, n., <i>funeral fire</i>, <i>funeral pile</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bān</b>, n., <i>bone</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bān-fāg</b>, <i>adorned with bones</i> or <i>antlers</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bān-loca</b>, m., <i>flesh</i> [bone-locker].</p> + +<p><b>Basengas</b>, m. pl., <i>Basing</i> (in Hantshire).</p> + +<p><b>be</b> (<b>bī</b>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>by</i>, <i>about</i>, <i>concerning</i>, <i>near</i>, <i>along</i>, +<i>according to</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>be norðan þǣm wēstenne</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(4)</a>), <i>north of the waste</i> (<i>desert</i>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>be fullan</b>, <i>fully</i>, <i>perfectly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bēag</b>, see <b>būgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bēag-hroden</b>, <i>ring-adorned</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bēah</b> (<b>bēag</b>), m., <i>ring</i>, <i>bracelet</i>, +<i>collar</i> [<b>būgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>bealo-nīð</b>, m., <i>dire hatred</i>, <i>poison</i>, +<i>venom</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bearn</b>, n., <i>child</i>, <i>son</i> [bairn].</p> + +<p><b>bebēodan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>command</i>, <i>bid</i>, <i>entrust</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>bebīo-</b>, see <b>bebēo-</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bebohte</b>, see <b>bebycgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bebycgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>sell</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bēc</b>, see <b>bōc</b>.</p> + +<p><b>becuman</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>come</i>, +<i>arrive</i>, <i>befall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bedǣlan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>separate</i>, <i>deprive</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">158</span> +<a name = "page158" id = "page158"> </a> +<p><b>bedrēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>deprive</i>; past part. pl., <b>bedrorene</b> (<b>bidrorene</b>) +[dross, dreary].</p> + +<p><b>befǣstan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>fasten</i>, <i>implant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>befēolan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>apply +one’s self</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðāra ðe ðā spēda hæbben ðǣt hīe ðǣm befēolan mægen</b> <a href = +"#line119_20">119, 20</a> = <i>of those who have the means by which they +may apply themselves to it</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beforan</b>, prep. with dat., <i>before</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bēgen</b> (declined like <b>twēgen</b>, <a href = "#sec_89">§ +<b>89</b></a>), <i>both</i>.</p> + +<p><b>begeondan</b> (<b>begiondan</b>), prep. with dat., +<i>beyond</i>.</p> + +<p><b>begietan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>get</i>, +<i>obtain</i>, <i>find</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beginnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>begin</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beheonan</b> (<b>behionan</b>), prep. with dat., <i>on this +side of</i>.</p> + +<p><b>behreōsan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), <i>fall +upon</i>, <i>cover</i>; past part. pl., <b>behrorene</b> +(<b>bihrorene</b>).</p> + +<p><b>belimpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>pertain</i>, <i>belong</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beniman</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>take</i>, +<i>derive</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bęnn</b>, f., <i>wound</i> [<b>bana</b> = <i>murderer</i>].</p> + +<p><b>bēon</b> (<b>bīon</b>) (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>), +<i>be</i>, <i>consist</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beorh</b> (<b>beorg</b>, <b>biorh</b>), m., <i>mound</i> +[barrow].</p> + +<p><b>beorht</b>, <i>bright</i>, <i>glorious</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Beormas</b>, m. pl., <i>Permians</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beorn</b>, m., <i>man</i>, <i>hero</i>, <i>chief</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bēor-þęgu</b>, f., <i>beer-drinking</i> [<b>þicgan</b> = +<i>receive</i>].</p> + +<p><b>bēot</b>, n., <i>boast</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beran</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), +<i>bear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>berēafian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>bereave</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>since berēafod</b> <a href = "#lineVI_2747">145, 22</a> = <i>bereft +of treasure</i>.</p> + +<p><b>beren</b>, adj., <i>of a bear</i>, <i>bear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>berstan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>burst</i>, +<i>crack</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">158b</span> +<p><b>besmiðian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>make +hard</i> (as at the forge of a smith).</p> + +<p><b>bęt</b>, see <b>wel</b> (<a href = "#sec_97">§ <b>97</b>, +(2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>bētan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>make +good</i>, <i>requite</i>; past part. pl., <b>gebētte</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bętera</b> (<b>bętra</b>), see <b>gōd</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ +<b>96</b>, (3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>betlīc</b>, <i>excellent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bętsta</b>, see <b>gōd</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, +(3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>betuh</b> (<b>betux</b>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(1)</a>), <i>between</i>.</p> + +<p><b>betwēonan</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>between</i>.</p> + +<p><b>betȳnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>close</i>, +<i>end</i> [<b>tūn</b> = <i>enclosure</i>].</p> + +<p><b>bewāwan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>blow +upon</i>; past part. pl., <b>bewāune</b> (<b>biwāune</b>, +<b>bewāwene</b>).</p> + +<p><b>bewrēon</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>, 1), +<i>enwrap</i>; pret. 3d sing., <b>bewrāh</b> (<b>biwrāh</b>).</p> + +<p><b>bī</b>, see <b>be</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bi-</b>, see <b>be-</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bīdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>bide</i>, +<i>await</i>, <i>expect</i>, <i>endure</i> (with gen.).</p> + +<p><b>biddan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>bid</i>, <i>pray</i>, <i>request</i> (<a href = +"#sec_65">§ <b>65</b>, Note 3</a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>bæd hine blīðne</b> <a href = "#lineVI_618">136, 7</a> = <i>bade him +be blithe</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bindan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>bind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bīo</b>, see <b>bēo</b> (imperative sing.).</p> + +<p><b>bisceop</b> (<b>biscep</b>), m., <i>bishop</i> [Lat. +episcopus].</p> + +<p><b>bisceop-stōl</b>, m., <i>episcopal seat</i>, <i>bishopric</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bisigu</b>, f., <i>business</i>, <i>occupation</i>; dat. pl., +<b>bisgum</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bītan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>bite</i>, +<i>cut</i>.</p> + +<p><b>biwrāh</b>, see <b>bewrēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>blǣd</b>, m., <i>glory</i>, <i>prosperity</i> [<b>blāwan</b> = +<i>blow</i>, <i>inflate</i>].</p> + +<p><b>Blēcinga-ēg</b>, f., <i>Blekingen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bliss</b>, f., <i>bliss</i> [<b>blīðe</b>].</p> + +<p><b>blīðe</b>, <i>blithe</i>, <i>happy</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">159</span> +<a name = "page159" id = "page159"> </a> +<p><b>blōd</b>, n., <i>blood</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bōc</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1), Note 1</a>), f., +<i>book</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bōcere</b>, m., <i>scribe</i> [<b>bōc</b>].</p> + +<p><b>bǫna</b> (<b>bana</b>), m., <i>murderer</i> [bane].</p> + +<p><b>bōt</b>, f., <i>boot</i>, <i>remedy</i>, <i>help</i>, +<i>compensation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brād</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>broad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brǣdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>extend</i>, +<i>spread</i> [<b>brād</b>].</p> + +<p><b>brǣdra</b>, see <b>brād</b>.</p> + +<p><b>brægd</b>, see <b>bregdan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>brēac</b>, see <b>brūcan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>breahtm</b>, m., <i>noise</i>, <i>revelry</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>burgwara breahtma lēase</b> <a href = "#lineVII_86">152, 10</a> = +<i>bereft of the revelries of citizens</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bregdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>brandish</i>, <i>draw</i> [braid]; pret. ind. 3d sing., +<b>brægd</b>.</p> + +<p><b>brenting</b>, m., <i>high ship</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brēost</b>, n., <i>breast</i> (the pl. has the same meaning as the +sing.).</p> + +<p><b>brēost-cofa</b>, m., <i>breast-chamber</i>, <i>heart</i>, +<i>mind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brēost-gehygd</b>, n., <i>breast-thought</i>, <i>thought of the +heart</i>, <i>emotion</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brim</b>, n., <i>sea</i>, <i>ocean</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brimfugol</b>, m., <i>sea-fowl</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bringan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>bring</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brōhte</b>, <b>brōhton</b>, see <b>bringan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>brōðor</b> (<b>brōður</b>) (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, +(2)</a>), m., <i>brother</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brūcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b>, Note 1</a>), +<i>use</i>, <i>enjoy</i> (<a href = "#sec_62">§ <b>62</b>, Note +1</a>; but Alfred frequently employs the acc. with <b>brūcan</b>).</p> + +<p><b>brycg</b>, f., <i>bridge</i>.</p> + +<p><b>brȳcð</b>, see <b>brūcan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>brytta</b>, m., <i>distributor</i>, <i>dispenser</i> +[<b>brēotan</b> = <i>break in pieces</i>].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">159b</span> +<p><b>būan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>dwell</i>, <i>cultivate</i> [bower].</p> + +<p><b>būde</b>, see <b>būan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bufan</b>, prep. with dat. and acc., <i>above</i>.</p> + +<p><b>būgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b>, Note 1</a>), +<i>bow</i>, <i>bend</i>, <i>turn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>bune</b>, f., <i>cup</i>.</p> + +<p><b>burg</b> (<b>burh</b>) (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1), +Note</a>), f., <i>city</i>, <i>borough</i>; dat. sing., +<b>byrig</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Burgenda</b>, m. gen. pl., <i>of the Burgundians</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>Burgenda land</b>, <i>Bornholm</i>.</p> + +<p><b>burgware</b> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>), m. pl., +<i>burghers</i>, <i>citizens</i>.</p> + +<p><b>burh</b>, see <b>burg</b>.</p> + +<p><b>būtan</b> (<b>būton</b>), prep. (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(1)</a>), <i>without</i>, <i>except</i>, <i>except for</i>, +<i>but</i>.</p> + +<p><b>būtan</b> (<b>būton</b>), conj., <i>except that</i>, +<i>unless</i>.</p> + +<p><b>būtū</b>, <i>both</i> (= <i>both</i>—<i>two</i>.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +The word is compounded of the combined neuters of <b>bēgen</b> and +<b>twēgen</b>, but is m. and f. as well as n.).</p> + +<p><b>bȳn</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>cultivated</i>.</p> + +<p><b>byrde</b>, adj., <i>of high rank</i>, <i>aristocratic</i>.</p> + +<p><b>byrig</b>, see <b>burg</b>.</p> + +<p><b>byrne</b>, f., <i>byrnie</i>, <i>corselet</i>, <i>coat of +mail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>byrnwiga</b>, m., <i>byrnie-warrior</i>, <i>mailed +soldier</i>.</p> + +<p><b>byrð</b>, see <b>beran</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_C" id = "gloss1_C" href = "#gloss_I">C.</a></h5> + +<p><b>canōn</b>, m., <i>sacred canon</i>, <i>Bible</i> [Lat. canon, Gr. +<span class = "greek" title = "kanôn">κανών</span>].</p> + +<p><b>cearu</b> (<b>cearo</b>), f., <i>care</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ceaster-būend</b>, m., <i>castle-dweller</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cēne</b>, <i>keen</i>, <i>bold</i>, <i>brave</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">160</span> +<a name = "page160" id = "page160"> </a> +<p><b>cēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), <i>choose</i>, +<i>accept</i>, <i>encounter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cild</b>, n., <i>child</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cirice</b>, f., <i>church</i>; nom. pl., <b>ciricean</b>.</p> + +<p><b>cirr</b> (<b>cierr</b>), m., <i>turn</i>, <i>time</i>, +<i>occasion</i> [char, chore, ajar = on char, on the turn].</p> + +<p><b>cirran</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>turn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>clǣne</b>, <i>clean</i>, <i>pure</i>.</p> + +<p><b>clǣne</b>, adv., <i>entirely </i> [“clean out of the way,” +Shaks.].</p> + +<p><b>clūdig</b>, <i>rocky</i> [having boulders or masses like +<i>clouds</i>].</p> + +<p><b>clyppan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>embrace</i>, <i>accept</i> [clip = clasp for letters, papers, +etc.].</p> + +<p><b>cnapa</b>, m., <i>boy</i> [knave].</p> + +<p><b>cnēo</b> (<b>cnēow</b>), n., <i>knee</i>; acc. pl., +<b>cnēo</b>.</p> + +<p><b>cniht</b>, m., <i>knight</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cnyssan</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), +<i>beat</i>.</p> + +<p><b>collenferð</b> (<b>-ferhð</b>), <i>proud-minded</i>, +<i>fierce</i>.</p> + +<p><b>costnung</b>, f., <i>temptation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Crēcas</b> (<b>Crēacas</b>), m. pl., <i>Greeks</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cringan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>cringe</i>, <i>fall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Crīst</b>, m., <i>Christ</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Crīsten</b>, <i>Christian</i>; nom. pl. m., <b>Crīstene</b>, +<b>Crīstne</b>.</p> + +<p><b>cuma</b>, m., <i>new-comer</i>, <i>stranger</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cuman</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>come</i>. +(See <a href = "#linenoteVI_647">p. 138, Note on ll. 2-6</a>.)</p> + +<p><b>cunnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b></a>), <i>know</i>, +<i>can</i>, <i>understand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cunnian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>make trial +of</i>, <i>experience</i> [<b>cunnan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>cure</b>, see <b>cēosan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>cūð</b>, <i>well-known</i>, <i>familiar</i> [past part. of +<b>cunnan</b>: cf. uncouth].</p> + +<p><b>cūðe</b>, <b>cūðen</b>, <b>cūðon</b>, see <b>cunnan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>cwǣden</b>, <b>cwǣdon</b>, see <b>cweðan</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">160b</span> +<p><b>cwalu</b>, f., <i>death</i>, <i>murder</i> [<b>cwelan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>cwealm-cuma</b>, m., <i>murderous comer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cwelan</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>die</i> [to +quail].</p> + +<p><b>cwēn</b>, f., <i>queen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Cwēnas</b>, m. pl., <i>a Finnish tribe</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cweðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>say</i>, +<i>speak</i> [quoth, bequeath].</p> + +<p><b>cwic</b>, <i>living</i>, <i>alive</i> [quicksilver; the quick and +the dead].</p> + +<p><b>cwidegiedd</b>, n., <i>word</i>, <i>utterance</i> [<b>cweðan</b> +and <b>gieddian</b>, both meaning <i>to speak</i>].</p> + +<p><b>cwīðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>bewail</i> +(trans.).</p> + +<p><b>cwōm</b>, see <b>cuman</b>.</p> + +<p><b>cyle</b> (<b>ciele</b>), m., <i>cold</i> [chill];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>cyle gewyrcan</b> <a href = "#line110_7">110, 7</a> = <i>produce +cold</i>, <i>freeze</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cyme</b>, m., <i>coming</i> [<b>cuman</b>].</p> + +<p><b>cyn(n)</b>, n., <i>kin</i>, <i>race</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cyn(n)</b>, adj. (used only in pl.), <i>fitting things</i>, +<i>etiquette</i>, <i>proprieties</i>, <i>courtesies</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>cynna gemyndig</b> <a href = "#lineVI_614">136, 3</a> = <i>mindful of +courtesies</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cynerīce</b>, n., <i>kingdom</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cyning</b>, m., <i>king</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cyssan</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), +<i>kiss</i>.</p> + +<p><b>cyst</b>, f., <i>the choice</i>, <i>the pick</i>, <i>the best</i> +[<b>cēosan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>cȳðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>make +known</i>, <i>display</i>, [<b>cūð</b>];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +2d sing. imperative, <b>cȳð</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_D" id = "gloss1_D" href = "#gloss_I">D.</a></h5> + +<p><b>dǣd</b>, f., <i>deed</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dæg</b>, m., <i>day</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dæg-hwīl</b>, f., <i>day-while</i>, <i>day</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hē dæg-hwīla gedrogen hæfde eorðan wynne</b> <a href = +"#lineVI_2727">145, 2</a> = <i>he had spent his days of earth’s +joy</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">161</span> +<a name = "page161" id = "page161"> </a> +<p><b>dæg-rīm</b>, n., <b>number of days</b> [day-rime];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>dōgera daeg-rīm</b> <a href = "#lineVI_824">143, 7</a> = <i>the +number of his days</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dæl</b>, n., <i>dale</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dǣl</b>, m., <i>part</i>, <i>deal</i>, <i>division</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dēad</b>, <i>dead</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dēað</b>, m., <i>death</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dēman</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>deem</i>, +<i>judge</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Dęnamearc</b>, see <b>Dęnemearc</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Dęne</b> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>), m. pl., +<i>Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Dęnemearc</b> (<b>Dęnemearce</b>), f., <i>Denmark</i>; dat. sing., +<b>Dęnemearce</b> (strong), <b>Dęnemearcan</b> (weak).</p> + +<p><b>Dęnisc</b>, <i>Danish</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðā Dęniscan</b>, <i>the Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dēofol</b>, m<ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">.,</ins> n., +<i>devil</i>; gen. sing., <b>dēofles</b> (<a href = "#sec_27">§ +<b>27</b>, (4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>dēope</b>, <i>deeply</i>, <i>profoundly</i> [<b>dēop</b>].</p> + +<p><b>dēor</b>, n., <i>wild animal</i> [deer].</p> + +<p><b>deorc</b>, <i>dark</i>, <i>gloomy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dōgor</b>, n., <i>day</i>; gen. pl., <b>dōgora</b>, <b>dōgera</b>, +<b>dōgra</b>.</p> + +<p><b>dōgor-gerīm</b>, n., <i>number of days</i>, <i>lifetime</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dōm</b>, m., <i>doom</i>, <i>judgment</i>, <i>glory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dōmgeorn</b>, adj., <i>eager for glory</i> +[<i>doom-yearning</i>].</p> + +<p><b>dōn</b> (<a href = "#sec_135">§ <b>135</b></a>), <i>do</i>, +<i>cause</i>, <i>place</i>, <i>promote</i>, <i>remove</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dorste</b>, <b>dorston</b>, see <b>durran</b>.</p> + +<p><b>drēam</b>, m., <i>joy</i>, <i>mirth</i> [dream].</p> + +<p><b>drēogan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>endure</i>, <i>enjoy</i>, <i>spend</i> [Scotch dree].</p> + +<p><b>drēorig</b>, <i>dreary</i>, <i>sad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>drēorighlēor</b>, adj., <i>with sad face</i> [<b>hlēor</b> = +<i>cheek</i>, <i>face</i>, <i>leer</i>].</p> + +<p><b>drēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), <i>fall</i>, +<i>perish</i> [dross].</p> + +<p><b>drīfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>drive</i>.</p> + +<p><b>drihten</b>, see <b>dryhten</b>.</p> + +<p><b>drincan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>drink</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">161b</span> +<p><b>drohtoð</b> (<b>-að</b>), m., <i>mode of living</i>, +<i>occupation</i> [<b>drēogan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>drugon</b>, see <b>drēogan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>dryhten</b> (<b>drihten</b>), m., <i>lord</i>, <i>Lord</i>; dat. +sing., <b>dryhtne</b>.</p> + +<p><b>dryht-sęle</b>, m., <i>lordly hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>duguð</b>, f., <i>warrior-band</i>, <i>host</i>, <i>retainers</i> +[<b>doughtiness</b>].</p> +<p class = "inset"> +In <b>duguð</b> and <b>geogoð</b>, the higher (older) and lower +(younger) ranks are represented, the distinction corresponding roughly +to the mediæval distinction between knights and squires.</p> + +<p><b>durran</b> (<a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b></a>), +<i>dare</i>.</p> + +<p><b>duru</b>, f., <i>door</i>.</p> + +<p><b>dyde</b>, see <b>dōn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>dynnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), <b>resound</b> +[din].</p> + +<p><b>dȳre</b> (<b>dīere</b>, <b>dēore</b>, <b>dīore</b>), <i>dear</i>, +<i>costly</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_E" id = "gloss1_E" href = "#gloss_I">E.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ēa</b>, f., <i>river</i>; gen. sing., <b>ēas</b>; dat. and acc. +sing., <b>ēa</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ēac</b>, <i>also</i>, <i>likewise</i> [a nickname = an eek-name. +See <a href = "#sec_65">§ <b>65</b>, Note 2</a>];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ēac swilce</b> (<b>swelce</b>) <a href = "#line112_3">112, 3</a> = +<i>also</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēaca</b>, m., <i>addition</i> [<b>ēac</b>];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō ēacan</b> = <i>in addition to</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ +<b>94</b>, (4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>ēage</b>, n., <i>eye</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eahta</b>, <i>eight</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēalā</b>, <i>oh!</i> <i>alas!</i></p> + +<p><b>ealað</b>, see <b>ealu</b>.</p> + +<p><b>eald</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>old</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ealdor</b> (<b>aldor</b>), n., <i>life</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>gif ðū ðæt ęllenweorc aldre gedīgest</b> <a href = "#lineVI_662">138, +17</a> = <i>if thou survivest that feat with thy life</i> (instr.).</p> + +<p><b>ealdor-dæg</b> (<b>aldor-</b>, <b>ealder-</b>), m., <i>day of +life</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">162</span> +<a name = "page162" id = "page162"> </a> +<p><b>ealdor-gedāl</b> (<b>aldor-</b>), n., <i>death</i> +[life-deal].</p> + +<p><b>ealdormǫn</b>, m., <i>alderman</i>, <i>chief</i>, +<i>magistrate</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ealgian</b>, (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>protect</i>, <i>defend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eall</b> (<b>eal</b>), <i>all</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ealne weg</b>, <i>all the way</i> (<a href = "#sec_98">§ <b>98</b>, +(1)</a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ealneg</b> (< <b>ealne weg</b>), <i>always</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ealles</b> (<a href = "#sec_98">§ <b>98</b>, (3)</a>), adv., +<i>altogether</i>, <i>entirely</i>.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>Eall</b> (<b>eal</b>) is frequently used with partitive gen. = <i>all +of</i>: <a href = "#lineVI_836">143, 19</a>; <a href = +"#lineVI_2728">145, 3</a>.</p> + +<p><b>ealu</b> (<b>ealo</b>) (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b></a>), n., +<i>ale</i>; gen. sing., <b>ealað</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ealu-scerwen</b>, f., <i>mortal panic</i> [ale-spilling].</p> + +<p><b>eard</b>, m., <i>country</i>, <i>home</i> [<b>eorðe</b>].</p> + +<p><b>eardgeard</b>, m. <i>earth</i> [earth-yard].</p> + +<p><b>eardian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>dwell</i> +[<b>eard</b>].</p> + +<p><b>eardstapa</b>, m., <i>wanderer</i> [earth-stepper].</p> + +<p><b>ēare</b>, n., <i>ear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>earfoð</b> (<b>earfeð</b>), n. <i>hardship</i>, <i>toil</i>; gen. +pl., <b>earfeða</b>.</p> + +<p><b>earfoðlīc</b>, adj., <i>full of hardship</i>, <i>arduous</i>.</p> + +<p><b>earm</b>, m., <i>arm</i>.</p> + +<p><b>earm</b>, adj., <i>poor</i>, <i>wretched</i>.</p> + +<p><b>earmcearig</b>, <i>wretched</i>, <i>miserable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>earmlīc</b>, <i>wretched</i>, <i>miserable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>earnung</b>, f., <i>merit</i> [earning].</p> + +<p><b>ēast</b>, <i>east</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēastan</b> (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, (5)</a>), <i>from the +east</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Ēast-Dęne</b> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>), +<i>East-Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēasteweard</b>, <i>eastward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēastrihte</b> (<b>ēastryhte</b>) (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, +(6)</a>), <i>eastward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Ēastron</b>, pl., <i>Easter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēaðe</b>, <i>easily</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēaðmōdlīce</b>, <i>humbly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eaxl</b>, f., <i>shoulder</i> [axle].</p> + +<p><b>Ebrēisc</b>, adj., <i>Hebrew</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">162b</span> +<p><b>ēce</b>, <i>eternal</i>, <i>everlasting</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęcg</b>, f., <i>sword</i> [edge].</p> + +<p><b>edor</b>, m., <i>enclosure</i>, <i>dwelling</i>; nom. pl., +<b>ederas</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ēdrum</b>, see <b>ǣdre</b>.</p> + +<p><b>efne</b>, adv., <i>just</i>, <i>only</i> [evenly].</p> + +<p><b>eft</b>, adv., <i>again</i>, <i>afterwards</i> [aft].</p> + +<p><b>ęgesa</b>, m., <i>fear</i>, <i>terror</i> [awe].</p> + +<p><b>ęllen</b>, n., <i>strength</i>, <i>courage</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>mid ęlne</b> = <i>boldly</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on ęlne</b> <a href = "#lineVI_2817">147, 17</a> = <i>mightily</i>, +<i>suddenly</i>, or <i>in their</i> (<i>earls’</i>) <i>strength</i> +(<i>prime</i>).</p> + +<p><b>ęllen-mǣrðu</b>, f. <i>fame for strength</i>, <i>feat of +strength</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęllen-weorc</b>, n., <i>feat of strength</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęllenwōdnis</b>, f., <i>zeal</i>, <i>fervor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęllor-gāst</b>, m., <i>inhuman monster</i> [alien ghost].</p> + +<p><b>ęln</b>, f., <i>ell</i> [el-bow].</p> + +<p><b>ęlne</b>, <i>see</i> <b>ęllen</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ęlra</b>, adj. comparative, <i>another</i> [<b>*ęle</b> cognate +with Lat. alius];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on ęlran męn</b> <a href = "#lineVI_753">139, 14</a> = <i>in another +man</i>.</p> + +<p><b>emnlong</b> (<b>-lang</b>), <i>equally long</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on emnlange</b> = <i>along</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>ęnde</b>, m., <i>end</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęndebyrdnes</b>, f., <i>order</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęnde-dæg</b>, m., <i>end-day</i>, <i>day of death</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ęnde-lāf</b>, f., <i>last remnant</i> [end-leaving].</p> + +<p><b>ęngel</b>, m., <i>angel</i> [Lat. angelus].</p> + +<p><b>Ęnglafeld</b> (<a href = "#sec_51">§ <b>51</b></a>), m., +<i>Englefield</i> (in Berkshire).</p> + +<p><b>Ęngle</b> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>), m. pl., +<i>Angles</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Ęnglisc</b>, adj., <i>English</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on Ęnglisc</b> <a href = "#line117_18">117, 18</a> and 19 = <i>in +English</i>, <i>into English</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Ęngliscgereord</b>, n., <i>English language</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">163</span> +<a name = "page163" id = "page163"> </a> +<p><b>ęnt</b>, m., <i>giant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēode</b>, see <b>gān</b>.</p> + +<p><b>eodorcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>ruminate</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eorl</b>, m., <i>earl</i>, <i>warrior</i>, <i>chieftain</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eorlīc</b>, <i>earl-like</i>, <i>noble</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eorð-draca</b>, m., <b>dragon</b> [earth-drake].</p> + +<p><b>eorðe</b>, f., <i>earth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eorð-ręced</b>, n., <i>earth-hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eorðscræf</b>, n., <i>earth-cave</i>, <i>grave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>eoten</b>, m., <i>giant</i>, <i>monster</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ēow</b>, see <b>ðū</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Ēowland</b>, n., <i>Öland</i> (an island in the Baltic Sea).</p> + +<p><b>ęrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), <i>plow</i> [to +ear].</p> + +<p><b>Estland</b>, n., <i>land of the Estas</i> (on the eastern coast of +the Baltic Sea).</p> + +<p><b>Estmęre</b>, m., <i>Frische Haff</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Estum</b>, dat. pl., <i>the Estas</i>.</p> + +<p><b>etan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>eat</i> +[<b>ort</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ęttan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>graze</i> +[<b>etan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ēðel</b>, m., <i>territory</i>, <i>native land</i> [allodial].</p> + +<p><b>ēðel-weard</b>, m., <i>guardian of his country</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_F" id = "gloss1_F" href = "#gloss_I">F.</a></h5> + +<p><b>fæc</b>, n., <i>interval</i>, <i>space</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fæder</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (2)</a>), m., +<i>father</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fægen</b>, <i>fain</i>, <i>glad</i>, <i>exultant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fæger</b> (<b>fǣger</b>), <i>fair</i>, <i>beautiful</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fǣlsian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>cleanse</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fǣrlīce</b>, <i>suddenly</i> [<b>fǣr</b> = <i>fear</i>].</p> + +<p><b>fæst</b>, <i>fast</i>, <i>held fast</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fæste</b>, adv., <i>fast</i>, <i>firmly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fæstnung</b>, f., <i>security</i>, <i>safety</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fæt</b>, n., <i>vessel</i> [wine-fat, vat].</p> + +<p><b>fǣtels</b>, m., <i>vessel</i>; acc. pl., <b>fǣtels</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fæðm</b>, m., <i>embrace</i>, <i>bosom</i> [fathom = the space +<i>embraced</i> by the extended arms].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">163b</span> +<p><b>fāg</b> (<b>fāh</b>), <i>hostile</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hē wæs fāg wið God</b> <a href = "#lineVI_812">142, 18</a> = <i>he +was hostile to God</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fāh</b> (<b>fāg</b>), <i>variegated</i>, <i>ornamented</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Falster</b>, <i>Falster</i> (island in the Baltic Sea).</p> + +<p><b>fandian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>try</i>, +<i>investigate</i> [<b>findan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>faran</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>go</i> +[fare].</p> + +<p><b>feallan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>fall</i>, +<i>flow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fealu</b>, <i>fallow</i>, <i>pale</i>, <i>dark</i>; nom. pl. m., +<b>fealwe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fēawe</b> (<b>fēa</b>, <b>fēawa</b>), pl., <i>few</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fela</b> (indeclinable), <i>much</i>, <i>many</i> (with gen.).</p> + +<p><b>feld</b> (<a href = "#sec_51">§ <b>51</b></a>), m., +<i>field</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fell</b> (<b>fel</b>), n., <i>fell</i>, <i>skin</i>, +<i>hide</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fēng</b>, see <b>fōn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fęn-hlið</b>, n., <i>fen-slope</i>. <!-- a truly zen concept! +--></p> + +<p><b>fęn-hop</b>, n., <i>fen-retreat</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feoh</b>, n., <i>cattle</i>, <i>property</i> [fee]; gen. and dat. +sing., <b>fēos</b>, <b>fēo</b>.</p> + +<p><b>feohgīfre</b>, <i>greedy of property</i>, <i>avaricious</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feohtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>fight</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fēol</b>, see <b>feallan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fēond</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (3)</a>), m., +<i>enemy</i>, <i>fiend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fēond-grāp</b>, f., <i>fiend-grip</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feor</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (4)</a>), adj., +<i>far</i>, <i>far from</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>feor</b>, adv., <i>far</i>, <i>far back</i> (time).</p> + +<p><b>feorh</b>, m., n., <i>life</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feorh-bęnn</b>, f., <i>life-wound</i>, <i>mortal wound</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feorh-lęgu</b>, f., <i>laying down of life</i>. (See <a href = +"#linenoteVI_2800">p. 146, Note on l. 13.</a>)</p> + +<p><b>feorh-sēoc</b>, <i>life-sick</i>, <i>mortally wounded</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feorm</b> (<b>fiorm</b>), f., <i>use</i>, <i>benefit</i> +(<i>food</i>, <i>provisions</i>) [farm].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">164</span> +<a name = "page164" id = "page164"> </a> +<p><b>feormian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>eat</i>, +<i>devour</i>.</p> + +<p><b>feorran</b>, <i>from afar</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fēowertig</b>, <i>forty</i>; gen., <b>fēowertiges</b> (<a href = +"#sec_91">§ <b>91</b>, Note 1</a>).</p> + +<p><b>ferhð</b> (<b>ferð</b>), m., <i>heart</i>, <i>mind</i>, +<i>spirit</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fęrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), <i>carry</i>, +<i>transport</i> [to ferry];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>fęrede in forðwege</b> <a href = "#lineVII_81">152, 5</a> = +<i>carried away</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fers</b>, n., <i>verse</i> [Lat. versus].</p> + +<p><b>fersc</b>, <i>fresh</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ferðloca</b> (<b>ferhð-</b>), m., <i>heart</i>, <i>mind</i>, +<i>spirit</i> [heart-locker].</p> + +<p><b>fēt</b>, see <b>fōt</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fetor</b>, f., <i>fetter</i> [<b>fōt</b>]; instr. pl., +<b>feterum</b>.</p> + +<p><b>feðer</b>, f., <i>feather</i>; acc. pl., <b>feðra</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fierd</b>, f., <i>English army</i> [<b>faran</b>].</p> + +<p><b>fīf</b>, <i>five</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fīftīene</b>, <i>fifteen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fīftig</b>, <i>fifty</i>; gen. sing., <b>fīftiges</b> (<a href = +"#sec_91">§ <b>91</b>, Note 1</a>); dat. pl., <b>fīftegum</b> (<a href = +"#sec_91">§ <b>91</b>, Note 3</a>).</p> + +<p><b>findan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>find</i>.</p> + +<p><b>finger</b>, m., <i>finger</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Finnas</b>, m. pl., <i>Fins</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fiorm</b>, see <b>feorm</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fīras</b>, m. pl., <i>men</i> [<b>feorh</b>]; gen. pl., +<b>fīra</b>; dat. pl., <b>fīrum</b>.</p> + +<p><b>firrest</b> (<b>fierrest</b>), see <b>feor</b> (<a href = +"#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>first</b>, m., <i>time</i>, <i>period</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fiscað</b> (<b>fiscnað</b>), m., <i>fishing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fiscere</b>, m., <i>fisherman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fiscnað</b>, see <b>fiscað</b>.</p> + +<p><b>flēon</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>, II.), +<i>flee</i>.</p> + +<p><b>flēotan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>float</i>.</p> + +<p><b>flęt</b>, n., <i>floor of the hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>flōd</b>, m., <i>flood</i>, <i>wave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>folc</b>, n., <i>folk</i>, <i>people</i>.</p> + +<p><b>folc-cwēn</b>, f., <i>folk-queen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>folc-cyning</b>, m., <i>folk-king</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">164b</span> +<p><b>folcgefeoht</b>, n., <i>folk-fight</i>, <i>battle</i>, <i>general +engagement</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fold-bold</b>, n., <i>earth-building</i>, <i>hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>folde</b>, f., <i>earth</i>, <i>land</i>, <i>country</i> +[<b>feld</b>].</p> + +<p><b>folm</b>, f., <i>hand</i> [<b>fēlan</b> = <i>feel</i>].</p> + +<p><b>fōn</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>seize</i>, +<i>capture</i>, <i>take</i> [fang];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō rīce fōn</b> = <i>come to</i> (<i>ascend</i>) <i>the +throne</i>.</p> + +<p><b>for</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), <i>for</i>, +<i>on account of</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>for ðǣm</b> (<b>ðe</b>), <b>for ðon</b> (<b>ðe</b>), +<i>because</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>for ðon</b>, <b>for ðȳ</b>, <b>for ðǣm</b> (<b>for-ðām</b>), +<i>therefore</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fōr</b>, see <b>faran</b>.</p> + +<p><b>forbærnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>burn +thoroughly</i> [<b>for</b> is intensive, like Lat. per].</p> + +<p><b>forgiefan</b> (<b>-gifan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_115">§ +<b>115</b></a>), <i>give</i>, <i>grant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forhęrgian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>harry</i>, <i>lay waste</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forhogdnis</b>, f., <i>contempt</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forht</b>, <i>fearful</i>, <i>afraid</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forhwæga</b>, <i>about</i>, <i>at least</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forlǣtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), +<i>abandon</i>, <i>leave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forlēt</b>, <b>forlēton</b>, see <b>forlǣtan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>forma</b>, <i>first</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>forman sīðe</b>, <i>the first time</i> (instr.).</p> + +<p><b>forniman</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>take +off</i>, <i>destroy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forspęndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>spend</i>, <i>squander</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forstǫndan</b> (<b>-standan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_116">§ +<b>116</b></a>), <i>understand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forswāpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>sweep +away</i>; pret. 3d sing. indic., <b>forswēop</b>.</p> + +<p><b>forswęrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>forswear</i> (with dat.); past part., <b>forsworen</b>.</p> + +<p><b>forð</b>, <i>forth</i>, <i>forward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>forðolian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>miss</i>, <i>go without</i> (with dat.) [not to <i>thole</i> or +experience].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">165</span> +<a name = "page165" id = "page165"> </a> +<p><b>forðweg</b>, m., <i>way forth</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>in forðwege</b>, <i>away</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fōt</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1)</a>), m. +<i>foot</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Frǣna</b>, m., <i>Frene</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frætwe</b>, f. pl., <i>fretted armor</i>, <i>jewels</i> +[fret].</p> + +<p><b>fram</b>, see <b>frǫm</b>.</p> + +<p><b>frēa</b>, m., <i>lord</i>, <i>Lord</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēa-drihten</b>, m., <i>lord</i>, <i>master</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēfran</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>console</i>, <i>cheer</i> [<b>frōfor</b>].</p> + +<p><b>fręmde</b>, <i>strange</i>, <i>foreign</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðā fręmdan</b>, <i>the strangers</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fręmman</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), +<i>accomplish</i>, <i>perform</i>, <i>support</i> [to frame].</p> + +<p><b>fręmsumnes</b> (<b>-nis</b>), f., <i>kindness</i>, +<i>benefit</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēo</b> (<b>frīo</b>), <i>free</i>; gen. pl., <b>frēora</b> +(<b>frīora</b>).</p> + +<p><b>frēodōm</b>, m., <i>freedom</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēolīc</b>, <i>noble</i> [free-like].</p> + +<p><b>frēomǣg</b>, m., <i>free kinsman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēond</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (3)</a>), m., +<i>friend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēondlēas</b>, <i>friendless</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēondlīce</b>, <i>in a friendly manner</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frēorig</b>, <i>cold</i>, <i>chill</i> [<b>frēoran</b>].</p> + +<p><b>frīora</b>, see <b>frēo</b>.</p> + +<p><b>frið</b>, m., n., <i>peace</i>, <i>security</i> +[bel-<i>fry</i>].</p> + +<p><b>frōd</b>, <i>old</i>, <i>sage</i>, <i>prudent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frōfor</b>, f., <i>comfort</i>, <i>consolation</i>, +<i>alleviation</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>fyrena frōfre</b> <a href = "#lineVI_629">137, 7</a> = <i>as an +alleviation of outrages</i> (dat.).</p> + +<p><b>frǫm</b> (<b>fram</b>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>from</i>, <i>by</i>.</p> + +<p><b>frǫm</b>, adv., <i>away</i>, <i>forth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fruma</b>, m., <i>origin</i>, <i>beginning</i> [<b>frǫm</b>].</p> + +<p><b>frumsceaft</b>, f., <i>creation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fugela</b>, see <b>fugol</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fugelere</b>, m., <i>fowler</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fugol</b> (<b>fugel</b>), m., <i>fowl</i>, <i>bird</i>; gen. pl., +<b>fugela</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">165b</span> +<p><b>ful</b>, n., <i>cup</i>, <i>beaker</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fūl</b>, <i>foul</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fūlian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>grow +foul</i>, <i>decompose</i>.</p> + +<p><b>full</b> (<b>ful</b>), adj., <i>full</i> (with gen.);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>be fullan</b>, <i>fully</i>, <i>perfectly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>full</b> (<b>ful</b>) adv., <i>fully</i>, <i>very</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fultum</b>, m., <i>help</i>.</p> + +<p><b>furðor</b> (<b>furður</b>), adv., <i>further</i>.</p> + +<p><b>furðum</b>, adv., <i>even</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fylð</b>, see <b>feallan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fyren</b> (<b>firen</b>), f., <i>crime</i>, <i>violence</i>, +<i>outrage</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fyrhtu</b>, f., <i>fright</i>, <i>terror</i>; dat. sing., +<b>fyrhtu</b>.</p> + +<p><b>fyrst</b>, adj., superlative, <i>first</i>, <i>chief</i>.</p> + +<p><b>fȳsan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>make +ready</i>, <i>prepare</i> [<b>fūs</b> = <i>ready</i>];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>gūðe gefȳsed</b> <a href = "#lineVI_631">137, 9</a> = <i>ready for +battle</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_G" id = "gloss1_G" href = "#gloss_I">G.</a></h5> + +<p><b>gād</b>, n., <i>lack</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gǣst</b>, see <b>gāst</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gafol</b>, n., <i>tax</i>, <i>tribute</i>.</p> + +<p><b>galan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>sing</i> +[nightingale].</p> + +<p><b>gālnes</b>, f., <i>lust</i>, <i>impurity</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gān</b> (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>), <i>go</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gār</b>, m., <i>spear</i> [gore, gar-fish].</p> + +<p><b>gār-wiga</b>, m., <i>spear-warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gāst</b> (<b>gǣst</b>), m., <i>spirit</i>, <i>ghost</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gāstlīc</b> (<b>gǣstlīc</b>), <i>ghastly</i>, <i>terrible</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ge</b>, <i>and</i>; see <b>ǣgðer</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gē</b>, <i>ye</i>; see <b>ðū</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geador</b>, <i>together</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geǣmetigian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>disengage from</i> (with acc. of person and gen. of thing) +[empty].</p> + +<p><b>geærnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>gain by +running</i> [<b>iernan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gēap</b>, <i>spacious</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">166</span> +<a name = "page166" id = "page166"> </a> +<p><b>gēar</b>, n., <i>year</i>; gen. pl., <b>gēara</b>, is used +adverbially = <i>of yore</i>, <i>formerly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gēardæg</b>, m., <i>day of yore</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geare</b> (<b>gearo</b>, <b>gearwe</b>), <i>readily</i>, +<i>well</i>, <i>clearly</i> [yarely].</p> + +<p><b>Gēat</b>, m., <i>a Geat</i>, <i>the Geat</i> (i.e. Beowulf).</p> + +<p><b>Gēatas</b>, m. pl., <i>the Geats</i> (a people of South +Sweden).</p> + +<p><b>Gēat-mecgas</b>, m. pl., <i>Geat men</i> (= the fourteen who +accompanied Beowulf to Heorot).</p> + +<p><b>gebēorscipe</b>, m., <i>banquet</i>, <i>entertainment</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gebētan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>make +amends for</i> [<b>bōt</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gebīdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>wait</i>, +<i>bide one’s time</i> (intrans.); <i>endure</i>, <i>experience</i> +(trans., with acc.).</p> + +<p><b>gebind</b>, n., <i>commingling</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gebindan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>bind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gebrēowan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>brew</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gebrowen</b>, see <b>gebrēowan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gebūd</b>, <b>gebūn</b>, see <b>būan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b>, Note 2</a>).</p> + +<p><b>gebyrd</b>, n., <i>rank</i>, <i>social distinction</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gecēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>choose</i>, <i>decide</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gecnāwan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>know</i>, +<i>understand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gecoren</b>, see <b>gecēosan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gecringan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>fall</i>, <i>die</i> [cringe].</p> + +<p><b>gedǣlan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>deal +out</i>, <i>give</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>dēaðe gedǣlde</b> <a href = "#lineVII_83">152, 7</a> = <i>apportioned +to death</i> (dat.), or, <i>tore</i> (?) <i>in death</i> (instr.).</p> + +<p><b>gedafenian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>become</i>, <i>befit</i>, <i>suit</i> (impersonal, usually with dat., +but with acc. <a href = "#line112_10">112, 10</a>).</p> + +<p><b>gedīgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>endure</i>, <i>survive</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">166b</span> +<p><b>gedōn</b> (<a href = "#sec_135">§ <b>135</b></a>), <i>do</i>, +<i>cause</i>, <i>effect</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gedræg</b>, n., <i>company</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gedrēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>fall</i>, <i>fail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gedriht</b> (<b>gedryht</b>), n., <i>band</i>, <i>troop</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gedrogen</b>, see <b>drēogan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gedrync</b>, n., <i>drinking</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geęndian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>end</i>, +<i>finish</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefaran</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>go</i>, +<i>die</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefēa</b>, m., <b>joy</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefeaht</b>, see <b>gefeohtan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefeh</b>, see <b>gefēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefēng</b>, see <b>gefōn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefeoht</b>, n., <i>fight</i>, <i>battle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefeohtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>fight</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefēon</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>, v.), <i>rejoice +at</i> (with dat.); pret. 3d sing., <b>gefeah</b>, <b>gefeh</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefēra</b>, m., <i>companion</i>, <i>comrade</i> [co-farer].</p> + +<p><b>geflīeman</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>put to +flight</i> [<b>flēon</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gefohten</b>, see <b>gefeohtan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefōn</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>, vii.), +<i>seize</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefōr</b>, see <b>gefaran</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefrǣge</b>, n., <i>hearsay</i>, <i>report</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>mīne gefrǣge</b> (instr.) <a href = "#lineVI_777">141, 7</a> = <i>as +I have heard say</i>, <i>according to my information</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefręmman</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), +<i>perform</i>, <i>accomplish</i>, <i>effect</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gefultumian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>help</i> [<b>fultum</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gefylce</b>, n., <i>troop</i>, <i>division</i> [<b>folc</b>]; dat. +pl., <b>gefylcum</b>, <b>gefylcium</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gefyllan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>fill</i> +(with gen.); past part. pl., f., <b>gefylda</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geglęngan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>adorn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehātland</b>, n., <i>promised land</i> [<b>gehātan</b> = <i>to +promise</i>].</p> + +<p><b>gehealdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), +<i>hold</i>, <i>maintain</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">167</span> +<a name = "page167" id = "page167"> </a> +<p><b>gehīeran</b> (<b>gehȳran</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b></a>), <i>hear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehīersumnes</b>, f., <i>obedience</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehola</b>, m., <i>protector</i> [<b>helan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gehwā</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, Note</a>), +<i>each</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on healfa gehwone</b> <a href = "#lineVI_801">142, 7</a> (see <a href += "#linenoteVI_769">Note 140, 15</a>. Observe that the pron. may, as +here, be masc. and the gen. fem.).</p> + +<p><b>gehwæðer</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, Note</a>), +<i>each</i>, <i>either</i>, <i>both</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehwylc</b> (<b>gehwilc</b>) (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, +Note</a>), <i>each</i> (with gen. pl. See <a href = +"#linenoteVI_769">Note 140, 15</a>).</p> + +<p><b>gehwyrfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>convert</i>, <i>change</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehȳdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>hide</i>, +<i>conceal</i>, <i>consign</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehygd</b>, f., n., <i>thought</i>, <i>purpose</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gehȳran</b>, see <b>gehīeran</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gehȳrnes</b>, f., <i>hearing</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>eal ðā hē in gehȳrnesse geleornian meahte</b> <a href = +"#line115_14">115, 14</a> = <i>all things that he could learn by +hearing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelǣdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>lead</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelǣred</b>, part.-adj., <i>learned</i>; superlative, +<b>gelǣredest</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gelafian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>lave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelęnge</b>, <i>along of</i>, <i>belonging to</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>geleornian</b> (<b>-liornian</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>learn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelīce</b>, <i>likewise</i>; <i>in like manner to</i> (with +dat.).</p> + +<p><b>gelīefan</b> (<b>gelȳfan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b></a>), <i>believe</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðæt hēo on ǣnigne eorl gelȳfde</b> <a href = "#lineVI_628">137, 6</a> += <i>that she believed in any earl</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelimpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>happen</i>, <i>be fulfilled</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelimplīc</b>, <i>proper</i>, <i>fitting</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gelȳfan</b>, see <b>gelīefan</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">167b</span> +<p><b>gelȳfed</b>, <i>weak</i>, <i>infirm</i> [left (hand)].</p> + +<p><b>gēmde</b>, see <b>gīeman</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gemet</b>, n., <i>meter</i>, <i>measure</i>, <i>ability</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gemētan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>meet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gemǫn</b>, see <b>gemunan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gemunan</b> (<a href = "#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>), +<i>remember</i>; indic. pres. 1st and 3d sing., <b>gemǫn</b>; pret. +sing., <b>gemunde</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gemynd</b>, n., <i>memory</i>, <i>memorial</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō gemyndum</b> <a href = "#lineVI_2805">147, 5</a> = <i>as a +memorial</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gemyndgian</b> (<b>-mynian</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>remember</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>mid hine gemyndgade</b> <a href = "#line115_15">115, 15</a> = <i>he +treasured in his memory</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>gemyne mǣrðo</b> <a href = "#lineVI_660">138, 15</a> = <i>be mindful +of glory</i> (imperative 2d sing.).</p> + +<p><b>gemyndig</b>, <i>mindful of</i> (with gen.).</p> + +<p><b>genāp</b>, see <b>genīpan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geneahhe</b>, <i>enough</i>, <i>often</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>genehost</b>, superlative, <i>very often</i>.</p> + +<p><b>genip</b>, n., <i>mist</i>, <i>darkness</i>.</p> + +<p><b>genīpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>grow +dark</i>.</p> + +<p><b>genīwian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>renew</i>.</p> + +<p><b>genōh</b>, <i>enough</i>.</p> + +<p><b>genumen</b>, see <b>niman</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geoc</b>, n., <i>yoke</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gēocor</b>, <i>dire</i>, <i>sad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geogoð</b>, f., <i>youth</i>, <i>young people</i>, <i>young +warriors</i>. (See <b>duguð</b>.)</p> + +<p><b>geond</b> (<b>giond</b>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(2)</a>), <i>throughout</i> [yond].</p> + +<p><b>geondhweorfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>pass +over</i>, <i>traverse</i>, <i>recall</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðonne māga gemynd mōd geondhweorfeð</b> <a href = "#lineVII_51">150, +15</a> = <i>then his mind recalls the memory of kinsmen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geondscēawian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), survey, +review;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>georne geondscēawað</b> <a href = "#lineVII_52">150, 16</a> = +<i>eagerly surveys them</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">168</span> +<a name = "page168" id = "page168"> </a> +<p><b>geondðęnc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>think over</i>, <i>consider</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geong</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>young</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>giengest</b>, (<b>gingest</b>), superlative, <i>youngest</i>, +<i>latest</i>, <i>last</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geong</b> = <b>gǫng</b>, see <b>gǫngan</b> (imperative 2d +sing.).</p> + +<p><b>gēong</b> (<b>gīong</b>), see <b>gǫngan</b> (pret. 3d sing.).</p> + +<p><b>georn</b> (<b>giorn</b>), <i>eager</i>, <i>desirous</i>, +<i>zealous</i>, <i>sure</i> [yearn].</p> + +<p><b>georne</b>, <i>eagerly</i>, <i>certainly</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>wiste ðē geornor</b> <a href = "#lineVI_822">143, 5</a> = <i>knew the +more certainly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geornfulnes</b>, f., <i>eagerness</i>, <i>zeal</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geornlīce</b>, <i>eagerly</i>, <i>attentively</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geornor</b>, see <b>georne</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geręcednes</b>, f., <i>narration</i> [<b>ręccan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gerisenlīc</b>, <i>suitable</i>, <i>becoming</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gerȳman</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>extend</i>, (trans.) [<b>rūm</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gesǣliglīc</b>, <i>happy</i>, <i>blessed</i> [silly].</p> + +<p><b>gesamnode</b>, see <b>gesǫmnian</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gesceaft</b>, f., <i>creature</i>, <i>creation</i>, <i>destiny</i> +[<b>scieppan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gesceap</b>, n., <i>shape</i>, <i>creation</i>, <i>destiny</i> +[<b>scieppan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gescieldan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>shield</i>, <i>defend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesealde</b>, see <b>gesęllan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geseglian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>sail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geselda</b>, m., <i>comrade</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesęllan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>give</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesēon</b> (<b>gesīon</b>) (<a href = "#sec_118">§ +<b>118</b></a>), <i>see</i>, <b>observe</b>; pres. indic. 3d sing., +<b>gesihð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geset</b>, n., <i>habitation</i>, <i>seat</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesęttan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>set</i>, +<i>place</i>, <i>establish</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesewen</b>, see <b>sēon</b>, <b>gesēon</b> (past part.).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">168b</span> +<p><b>gesewenlīc</b>, <i>seen</i>, <i>visible</i> [seen-like].</p> + +<p><b>gesiglan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>sail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesihð</b>, see <b>gesēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gesittan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>sit</i> (trans., as <i>to sit a horse</i>, <i>to sit a boat</i>, +etc.); <i>sit</i>, <i>sit down</i> (intrans.).</p> + +<p><b>geslægen</b>, see <b>slēan</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ +<b>118</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>gesǫmnian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>assemble</i>, <i>collect</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gesǫmnung</b>, f., <i>collection</i>, <i>assembly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gestāh</b>, see <b>gestīgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gestaðelian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>establish</i>, <i>restore</i> [<b>standan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gesteal</b>, n., <i>establishment</i>, <i>foundation</i> +[stall].</p> + +<p><b>gestīgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>ascend</i>, <i>go</i> [stile, stirrup, sty (= a <i>rising</i> on +the eye)].</p> + +<p><b>gestrangian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>strengthen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gestrēon</b>, n., <i>property</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gestrȳnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>obtain</i>, <i>acquire</i> [<b>gestrēon</b>].</p> + +<p><b>gesweorcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>grow +dark</i>, <i>become sad</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>For ðon ic geðęncan ne mæg geond ðās woruld for hwan mōdsefa mīn ne +gesweorce</b> <a href = "#lineVII_58">151, 3-4</a> = <i>Therefore in +this world I may not understand wherefore my mind does not grow “black +as night.”</i> (Brooke.)</p> + +<p><b>geswīcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>cease</i>, <i>cease from</i> (with gen.).</p> + +<p><b>getæl</b>, n., <i>something told</i>, <i>narrative</i>.</p> + +<p><b>getruma</b>, m., <i>troop</i>, <i>division</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geðanc</b>, m., n., <i>thought</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geðeah</b>, see <b>geðicgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geðęnc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>think</i>, <i>remember</i>, <i>understand</i>, <i>consider</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">169</span> +<a name = "page169" id = "page169"> </a> +<p><b>geðēodan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>join</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geðēode</b> (<b>-ðīode</b>), n., <i>language</i>, +<i>tribe</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geðēodnis</b>, f., <i>association</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +but in <a href = "#line112_2">112, 2</a> this word is used to render the +Lat. <i>appetitus</i> = <i>desire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geðicg(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>take</i>, <i>receive</i>; pret. indic. 3d sing., <b>geðeah</b>.</p> + +<p><b>geðungen</b>, part.-adj., <i>distinguished</i>, <i>excellent</i> +[<b>ðēon</b>, <i>to thrive</i>].</p> + +<p><b>geðyldig</b>, <i>patient</i> [<b>ðolian</b>].</p> + +<p><b>geweald</b> (<b>gewald</b>), n., <i>control</i>, +<i>possession</i>, <i>power</i> [wield].</p> + +<p><b>geweorc</b>, n., <i>work</i>, <i>labor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geweorðian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>honor</i> [to attribute <i>worth</i> to].</p> + +<p><b>gewīcian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>dwell</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gewin(n)</b>, n., <i>strife</i>, <i>struggle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gewindan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>flee</i> +[wend].</p> + +<p><b>gewissian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>guide</i>, <i>direct</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gewītan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>go</i>, +<i>depart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>geworht</b>, see <b>gewyrcan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gewrit</b>, n., <i>writing</i>, <i>Scripture</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gewunian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>be +accustomed</i>, <i>be wont</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gewyrc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>work</i>, <i>create</i>, <i>make</i>, <i>produce</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gid(d)</b>, n., <i>word</i>, <i>speech</i>.</p> + +<p><b>giefan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), +<i>give</i>.</p> + +<p><b>giefstōl</b>, m., <i>gift-stool</i>, <i>throne</i>.</p> + +<p><b>giefu</b> (<b>gifu</b>), f., <i>gift</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gielp</b> (<b>gilp</b>), m., n., <i>boast</i> [yelp].</p> + +<p><b>gīeman</b> (<b>gēman</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>endeavor</i>, <i>strive</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gīet</b> (<b>gīt</b>, <b>gȳt</b>), <i>yet</i>, <i>still</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gif</b> (<b>gyf</b>), <i>if</i> [not related to <i>give</i>].</p> + +<p><b>gifeðe</b> (<b>gyfeðe</b>), <i>given</i>, <i>granted</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gilp</b>, see <b>gielp</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gilp-cwide</b>, m., <i>boasting speech</i> +[<i>yelp</i>-speech].</p> + +<p><b>gingest</b>, see <b>geong</b> (adj.).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">169b</span> +<p><b>giohðo</b> (<b>gehðu</b>), f., <i>care</i>, <i>sorrow</i>, +<i>grief</i>.</p> + +<p><b>giū</b> (<b>iū</b>), <i>formerly</i>, <i>of old</i>.</p> + +<p><b>glæd</b> (<b>glǣd</b>), <i>glad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>glēaw</b>, <i>wise</i>, <i>prudent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>glīwstæf</b>, m., <i>glee</i>, <i>joy</i>; instr. pl. (used +adverbially), <b>glīwstafum</b> <a href = "#lineVII_52">150, 16</a> = +<i>joyfully</i>.</p> + +<p><b>God</b>, m., <i>God</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gōd</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (3)</a>), +<i>good</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>mid his gōdum</b> <a href = "#line115_12">115, 12</a> = <i>with his +possessions</i> (<i>goods</i>).</p> + +<p><b>godcund</b>, <i>divine</i> [<b>God</b>].</p> + +<p><b>godcundlīce</b>, <i>divinely</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gold</b>, n., <i>gold</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gold-ǣht</b>, f., <i>gold treasure</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gold-fāh</b>, <i>gold-adorned</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gold-hroden</b>, part.-adj., <i>gold-adorned</i>.</p> + +<p><b>goldwine</b>, m., <i>prince</i>, <i>giver of gold</i>, <i>lord</i> +[gold-friend].</p> + +<p><b>gomel</b> (<b>gomol</b>), <i>old</i>, <i>old man</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gǫngan</b> (<b>gangan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_117">§ +<b>117</b></a>), <i>go</i> [gang]; imperative 2d sing., <b>geong</b>; +pret. sing., <b>gēong</b>, <b>gīong</b>, <b>gēng</b>; past part., +<b>gegǫngen</b>, <b>gegangen</b>.</p> +<p class = "inset"> +The most commonly used pret. is <b>ēode</b>, which belongs to <b>gān</b> +(<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Gotland</b>, n., <i>Jutland</i> (in <i>Ohthere’s Second +Voyage</i>), <i>Gothland</i> (in <i>Wulfstan’s Voyage</i>).</p> + +<p><b>gram</b>, <i>grim</i>, <i>angry</i>, <i>fierce</i>, <i>the angry +one</i>.</p> + +<p><b>grāp</b>, f., <i>grasp</i>, <i>clutch</i>, <i>claw</i>.</p> + +<p><b>grētan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>greet</i>, +<i>attack</i>, <i>touch</i>.</p> + +<p><b>grōwan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>grow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gryre-lēoð</b>, n., <i>terrible song</i> [grisly lay].</p> + +<p><b>guma</b>, m., <i>man</i>, <i>hero</i> [groom; see <a href = +"#sec_65">§ <b>65</b>, Note 1</a>].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">170</span> +<a name = "page170" id = "page170"> </a> +<p><b>gūð</b>, f., <i>war</i>, <i>battle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gūð-bill</b>, n., <i>sword</i> [war-bill].</p> + +<p><b>gūð-gewǣde</b>, n., <i>armor</i> [war-weeds].</p> + +<p><b>gūð-hrēð</b>, f., <i>war-fame</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gūð-wine</b>, m., <i>sword</i> [war-friend].</p> + +<p><b>gyddian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>speak +formally</i>, <b>chant</b> [giddy; the original meaning of <i>giddy</i> +was <i>mirthful</i>, as when one sings].</p> + +<p><b>gyf</b>, see <b>gif</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gyfeðe</b>, see <b>gifeðe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gyldan</b> (<b>gieldan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>), <i>pay</i>; indic. 3d sing., <b>gylt</b>.</p> + +<p><b>gylden</b>, <i>golden</i> [<b>gold</b>].</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_H" id = "gloss1_H" href = "#gloss_I">H.</a></h5> + +<p><b>habban</b> (<a href = "#sec_133">§ <b>133</b></a>), +<i>have</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hād</b>, m., <i>order</i>, <i>rank</i>, <i>office</i>, +<i>degree</i> [-hood, -head].</p> + +<p><b>hæfta</b>, m., <i>captive</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hægel</b> (<b>hagol</b>), m., <i>hail</i>; instr. sing., +<b>hagle</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hæglfaru</b>, f., <i>hail-storm</i> [hail-faring].</p> + +<p><b>hæle</b>, see <b>hæleð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hǣl</b>, f., <i>hail</i>, <i>health</i>, <i>good luck</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hæleð</b> (<b>hæle</b>), m., <i>hero</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hǣt</b>, see <b>hātan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hǣðen</b>, <i>heathen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Hǣðum</b> (<b>æt Hǣðum</b>), <i>Haddeby</i> (= +<i>Schleswig</i>).</p> + +<p><b>hāl</b>, <i>hale</i>, <i>whole</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hālettan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>greet</i>, <i>salute</i> [to hail].</p> + +<p><b>Halfdęne</b>, <i>Halfdane</i> (proper name).</p> + +<p><b>hālga</b>, m., <i>saint</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Hālgoland</b>, <i>Halgoland</i> (in ancient Norway).</p> + +<p><b>hālig</b>, <i>holy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hālignes</b>, f., <i>holiness</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">170b</span> +<p><b>hām</b>, m., <i>home</i>; dat. sing., <b>hāme</b>, <b>hām</b> (p. +104, Note);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +used adverbially in <b>hām ēode</b> <a href = "#line112_18">112, 18</a> += <i>went home</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hand</b>, see <b>hǫnd</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hār</b>, <i>hoary</i>, <i>gray</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hāt</b>, <i>hot</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hātan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>call</i>, <i>name</i>, <i>command</i>; pret. sing., <b>heht</b>, +<b>hēt</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hātheort</b>, <i>hot-hearted</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hātte</b>, see <b>hātan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hē</b>, <b>hēo</b>, <b>hit</b> (<a href = "#sec_53">§ +<b>53</b></a>), <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēafod</b>, n., <i>head</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēah</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (2)</a>), <i>high</i>; +acc. sing, m., <b>hēanne</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hēah-sęle</b>, m., <i>high hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēahðungen</b>, <i>highly prosperous</i>, <i>aristocratic</i> +[<b>hēah</b> + past part. of <b>ðēon</b> (<a href = +"#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>)].</p> + +<p><b>healdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>hold</i>, +<i>govern</i>, <i>possess</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<a href = "#lineVI_2720">144, 9</a> = <i>hold up</i>, +<i>sustain</i>.</p> + +<p><b>healf</b>, adj., <i>half</i>.</p> + +<p><b>healf</b>, f., <i>half</i>, <i>side</i>, <i>shore</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heall</b>, f., <i>hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heals</b>, m., <i>neck</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēan</b>, <i>abject</i>, <i>miserable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēanne</b>, see <b>hēah</b>.</p> + +<p><b>heard</b>, <i>hard</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heard-hicgende</b>, <i>brave-minded</i> [hard-thinking].</p> + +<p><b>hearm-scaða</b>, m., <i>harmful foe</i> [harm-scather].</p> + +<p><b>hearpe</b>, f., <i>harp</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heaðo-dēor</b>, <i>battle-brave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heaðo-mǣre</b>, <i>famous in battle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heaðo-wylm</b>, m., <i>flame-surge</i>, <i>surging of fire</i> +[battle-welling].</p> + +<p><b>hēawan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>hew</i>, +<i>cut</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hębban</b>, <b>hōf</b>, <b>hōfon</b>, <b>gehafen</b> (<a href = +"#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>heave</i>, <i>lift</i>, +<i>raise</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">171</span> +<a name = "page171" id = "page171"> </a> +<p><b>hęfig</b>, <i>heavy</i>, <i>oppressive</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heht</b>, see <b>hātan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>helan</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), +<i>conceal</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hęll</b>, f., <i>hell</i>.</p> + +<p><b>helm</b>, m., <i>helmet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Helmingas</b>, m. pl., <i>Helmings</i> (Wealtheow, Hrothgar’s +queen, is a Helming).</p> + +<p><b>help</b>, f., <i>help</i>.</p> + +<p><b>helpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>help</i> +(with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>heofon</b>, m., <i>heaven</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heofonlīc</b>, <i>heavenly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>heofonrīce</b>, n., <i>kingdom of heaven</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēold</b>, see <b>healdan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>heolstor</b> (<b>-ster</b>), n., <i>darkness</i>, +<i>concealment</i>, <i>cover</i> [holster].</p> + +<p><b>heora</b> (<b>hiera</b>), see <b>hē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>heord</b>, f., <b>care</b>, <b>guardianship</b> [hoard].</p> + +<p><b>heoro-drēorig</b>, <i>bloody</i> [sword-dreary].</p> + +<p><b>Heorot</b>, <i>Heorot</i>, <i>Hart</i> (the famous hall which +Hrothgar built).</p> + +<p><b>heorte</b>, f., <i>heart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hēr</b>, <i>here</i>, <i>hither</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +in the <i>Chronicle</i> the meaning frequently is <i>at this date</i>, +<i>in this year</i>: <a href = "#line99_1">99, 1</a>.</p> + +<p><b>hęre</b>, m., <i>Danish army</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hęrenis</b>, f., <i>praise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hęrgian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>raid</i>, +<i>harry</i>, <i>ravage</i> [<b>hęre</b>].</p> + +<p><b>hęrgung</b>, f., <i>harrying</i>, <i>plundering</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hęrian</b> (<b>hęrigean</b>) (<a href = "#sec_125">§ +<b>125</b></a>), <i>praise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hērsumedon</b>, see <b>hīersumian</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hēt</b>, see <b>hātan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hider</b> (<b>hieder</b>), <i>hither</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hiera</b>, see <b>hē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hīeran</b> (<b>hȳran</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>hear</i>, <i>belong</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hierde</b>, m., <i>shepherd</i>, <i>instigator</i> [keeper of a +<i>herd</i>].</p> + +<p><b>hierdebōc</b>, f., <i>pastoral treatise</i> +<span class = "pagenum">171b</span> +[shepherd-book, a translation of Lat. <i>Cura Pastoralis</i>].</p> + +<p><b>hīerra</b>, see <b>hēah</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hīersumian</b> (<b>hȳr-</b>, <b>hēr-</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>obey</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>hige</b> (<b>hyge</b>), m., <i>mind</i>, <i>heart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hige-ðihtig</b>, <i>bold-hearted</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hild</b>, f., <i>battle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hilde-dēor</b>, <i>battle-brave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hilde-mecg</b>, m., <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hilde-sæd</b>, <i>battle-sated</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hin-fūs</b>, <i>eager to be gone</i> [hence-ready].</p> + +<p><b>hira</b>, see <b>hē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hlǣw</b> (<b>hlāw</b>), m., <i>mound</i>, <i>burial mound</i> +[Lud<i>low</i> and other place-names, <i>low</i> meaning +<i>hill</i>].</p> + +<p><b>hlāford</b>, m., <i>lord</i>, <i>master</i> [loaf-ward?].</p> + +<p><b>hleahtor</b>, m., <i>laughter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hlēo</b>, m., <i>refuge</i>, <i>protector</i> [lee].</p> + +<p><b>hlīfian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>rise</i>, +<i>tower</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hlyn</b>, m., <i>din</i>, <i>noise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hlynsian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>resound</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hof</b>, n., <i>court</i>, <i>abode</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hogode</b>, see <b>hycgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>holm</b>, m., <i>sea</i>, <i>ocean</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hǫnd</b> (<b>hand</b>), f., <i>hand</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on gehwæðre hǫnd</b>, <i>on both sides</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hord</b>, m., n., <i>hoard</i>, <i>treasure</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hordcofa</b>, m., <i>breast</i>, <i>heart</i> [hoard-chamber]</p> + +<p><b>hors</b>, n., <i>horse</i>.</p> + +<p><b>horshwæl</b>, m., <i>walrus</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hrædwyrde</b>, <i>hasty of speech</i> [<b>hræd</b> = +<i>quick</i>].</p> + +<p><b>hrægel</b>, n., <i>garment</i>; dat. sing., <b>hrægle</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hrān</b>, m., <i>reindeer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hraðe</b>, <i>quickly</i>, <i>soon</i> [<i>rath</i>-er].</p> + +<p><b>hrēo</b> (<b>hrēoh</b>), <i>rough</i>, <i>cruel</i>, +<i>sad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hrēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>fall</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">172</span> +<a name = "page172" id = "page172"> </a> +<p><b>hrēran</b> (§ <b>126)</b>, <i>stir</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hreðer</b>, m., n., <i>breast</i>, <i>purpose</i>; dat. sing., +<b>hreðre</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hrīm</b>, m., <i>rime</i>, <i>hoarfrost</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hrīmceald</b>, <i>rime-cold</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hring</b>, m., <i>ring</i>, <i>ring-mail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hrīð</b>, f. (?), <i>snow-storm</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hrōf</b>, m., <i>roof</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Hrones næss</b>, literally <i>Whale’s Ness</i>, <i>whale’s +promontory</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +see <b>næss</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hrūse</b>, f., <i>earth</i> [<b>hrēosan</b>: deposit].</p> + +<p><b>hryre</b>, m., <i>fall</i>, <i>death</i> [<b>hrēosan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>hrȳðer</b>, n., <i>cattle</i> [rinder-pest].</p> + +<p><b>hryðig</b>, <i>ruined</i> (?), <i>storm-beaten</i>; nom. pl. m., +<b>hryðge</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hū</b>, <i>how</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Humbre</b>, f., <i>river Humber</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hund</b>, <i>hundred</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hunig</b>, n., <i>honey</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hunta</b>, m., <i>hunter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>huntoð</b> (<b>-tað</b>), m., <i>hunting</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hūru</b>, adv., <i>about</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hūs</b>, n., <i>house</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwā</b>, <b>hwæt</b> (<a href = "#sec_74">§ <b>74</b></a>), +<i>who?</i> <i>what?</i> <b>swā hwæt swā</b> (<a href = +"#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, Note</a>), <i>whatsoever</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +indefinite, <i>any one</i>, <i>anything</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>for hwan</b> (instr.), <i>wherefore</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwæl</b>, m., <i>whale</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwælhunta</b>, m., <i>whale-hunter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwælhuntað</b>, m., <i>whale-fishing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwǣr</b>, <i>where?</i> <b>hwǣr ... swā</b>, +<i>wheresoever</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>wel hwǣr</b>, <i>nearly everywhere</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwæthwugu</b>, <i>something</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwæðer</b>, <i>whether</i>, <i>which of two?</i></p> + +<p><b>hwæðre</b>, <i>however</i>, <i>nevertheless</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwēne</b>, see <b>hwōn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hweorfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>turn</i>, +<i>go</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwider</b>, <i>whither</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">172b</span> +<p><b>hwīl</b>, f., <i>while</i>, <i>time</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ealle ðā hwīle ðe</b>, <i>all the while that</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hwīlum</b> (instr. pl.), <i>sometimes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwilc</b> (<b>hwylc</b>, <b>hwelc</b>) (<a href = "#sec_74">§ +<b>74</b>, Note 1</a>), <i>which?</i> <i>what?</i></p> + +<p><b>hwōn</b>, n., <i>a trifle</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hwēne</b> (instr. sing.), <i>somewhat</i>, <i>a little</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hwǫnan</b>, <i>when</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hȳ</b>, see <b>hīe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hycgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_132">§ <b>132</b></a>), <i>think</i>, +<i>resolve</i>; pret. 3d sing., <b>hogode</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hȳd</b>, f., <i>hide</i>, <i>skin</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hyge</b>, see <b>hige</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hyra</b> (<b>hiera</b>), see <b>hē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hȳran</b>, see <b>hīeran</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hyrde</b>, see <b>hierde</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hys</b> (<b>his</b>), see <b>hē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>hyt</b> (<b>hit</b>), see <b>hē</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_I" id = "gloss1_I" href = "#gloss_I">I.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ic</b> (<a href = "#sec_72">§ <b>72</b></a>), <i>I</i>.</p> + +<p><b>īdel</b>, <i>idle</i>, <i>useless</i>, <i>desolate</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ides</b>, f., <i>woman</i>, <i>lady</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ieldra</b>, adj., see <b>eald</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ieldra</b>, m., <i>an elder</i>, <i>parent</i>, +<i>ancestor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>iernan</b> (<b>yrnan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_112">§ <b>112</b></a>), +<i>run</i>.</p> + +<p><b>īglǫnd</b> (<b>īgland</b>), n., <i>island</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ilca</b> (<b>ylca</b>), <i>the same</i> [of that ilk].</p> + +<p><b>Ilfing</b>, <i>the Elbing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>in</b>, <i>in</i>, <i>into</i> (with dat. and acc.);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>in on</b>, <i>in on</i>, <i>to</i>, <i>toward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>inbryrdnis</b> (<b>-nes</b>), f., <i>inspiration</i>, +<i>ardor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>indryhten</b>, <i>very noble</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ingǫng</b>, m., <i>entrance</i>.</p> + +<p><b>innan</b>, adv., <i>within</i>, <i>inside</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on innan</b>, <i>within</i>.</p> + +<p><b>innanbordes</b>, adv.-gen., <i>within borders</i>, <i>at +home</i>.</p> + +<p><b>inne</b>, adv., <i>within</i>, <i>inside</i>.</p> + +<p><b>intinga</b><ins class = "correction" title = ". for ,">, </ins>m., +<i>cause</i>, <i>sake</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">173</span> +<a name = "page173" id = "page173"> </a> +<p><b>inweardlīce</b>, <i>inwardly</i>, <i>fervently</i>.</p> + +<p><b>inwid-sorg</b> (<b>inwit-sorh</b>), f., <i>sorrow caused by an +enemy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>inwit-ðanc</b>, m., <i>hostile intent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Īraland</b>, n., <i>Ireland</i> (but in <i>Ohthere’s Second +Voyage</i>, <i>Iceland</i> is probably meant).</p> + +<p><b>īren</b>, n., <i>iron</i>, <i>sword</i>; gen. pl., <b>īrenna</b>, +<b>īrena</b>.</p> + +<p><b>īren-bęnd</b>, m., f., <i>iron-band</i>.</p> + +<p><b>īu</b>, see <b>gīu</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_K" id = "gloss1_K" href = "#gloss_I">K.</a></h5> + +<p><b>kynerīce</b>, see <b>cynerīce</b>.</p> + +<p><b>kyning</b>, see <b>cyning</b>.</p> + +<p><b>kyrtel</b>, m., <i>kirtle</i>, <i>coat</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_L" id = "gloss1_L" href = "#gloss_I">L.</a></h5> + +<p><b>Lǣden</b>, <i>Latin</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Lǣdengeðēode</b> (<b>-ðīode</b>), n., <i>Latin language</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Lǣdenware</b> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>), m. pl., +<i>Latin people</i>, <i>Romans</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǣfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>leave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǣge</b>, see <b>licgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Lǣland</b>, n., <i>Laaland</i> (in Denmark).</p> + +<p><b>lǣn</b>, n., <i>loan</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō lǣne</b> <a href = "#line121_2">121, 2</a> = <i>as a loan</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǣne</b>, adj., <i>as a loan</i>, <i>transitory</i>, +<i>perishable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǣran</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>teach</i>, +<i>advise</i>, <i>exhort</i> [<b>lār</b>].</p> + +<p><b>lǣssa</b>, <b>lǣsta</b>, see <b>lȳtel</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lǣstan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>last</i>, +<i>hold out</i> (intrans.); <i>perform</i>, <i>achieve</i> (trans.).</p> + +<p><b>lǣtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>let</i>, +<i>leave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lāf</b>, f., <i>something left</i>, <i>remnant</i>, +<i>heirloom</i> (often a <i>sword</i>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō lāfe</b>, <i>as a remnant</i>, <i>remaining</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">173b</span> +<p><b>lagulād</b>, f., <i>sea</i> [lake-way, <b>lād</b> = +<i>leading</i>, <i>direction</i>, <i>way</i><ins class = "correction" +title = ") for ]">].</ins></p> + +<p><b>land</b>, see <b>lǫnd</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lang</b>, see <b>lǫng</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Langaland</b>, n., <i>Langeland</i> (in Denmark).</p> + +<p><b>lār</b>, f., <i>lore</i>, <i>teaching</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lārcwide</b>, m., <i>precept</i>, <i>instruction</i>, +[<b>cwide</b> < <b>cweðan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>lārēow</b>, m., <i>teacher</i> [<b>lār</b> + <b>ðēow</b>].</p> + +<p><b>lāst</b>, m., <i>track</i>, <i>footprint</i> [shoemaker’s +last];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on lāst(e)</b>, <i>in the track of</i>, <i>behind</i> (with +dat.).</p> + +<p><b>lāð</b>, <i>loathsome</i>, <i>hateful</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēas</b>, <i>loose</i>, <i>free from</i>, <i>bereft of</i> (with +gen.).</p> + +<p><b>lēasung</b>, f., <i>leasing</i>, <i>deception</i>, +<i>falsehood</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lęcgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b>, Note</a>), +<i>lay</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēfdon</b>, see <b>līefan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>leger</b>, n., <i>lying in</i>, <i>illness</i> +[<b>licgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>lęng</b>, see <b>lǫnge</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lęngra</b>, see <b>lǫng</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lēod</b>, m., <i>prince</i>, <i>chief</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēod</b>, f., <i>people</i>, <i>nation</i> (the plural has the +same meaning).</p> + +<p><b>lēod-scipe</b>, m., <i>nation</i> [people-ship].</p> + +<p><b>lēof</b>, <i>dear</i> [lief].</p> + +<p><b>leoht</b>, adj., <i>light</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēoht</b>, n., <i>light</i>, <i>brightness</i>.</p> + +<p><b>leornere</b>, m., <i>learner</i>, <i>disciple</i>.</p> + +<p><b>leornian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>learn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>leornung</b> (<b>liornung</b>), f., <i>learning</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēoð</b>, n., <i>song</i> [lay?].</p> + +<p><b>lēoðcræft</b>, m., <i>poetic skill</i> [lay-craft].</p> + +<p><b>lēoðsǫng</b>, n., <i>song</i>, <i>poem</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lēt</b>, see <b>lǣtan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>libban</b> (<a href = "#sec_133">§ <b>133</b></a>), <i>live</i>; +pres. part., <b>lifigende</b>, <i>living</i>, <i>alive</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">174</span> +<a name = "page174" id = "page174"> </a> +<p><b>līc</b>, n., <i>body</i>, <i>corpse</i> [lich-gate, +Lichfield].</p> + +<p><b>licgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>lie</i>, <i>extend</i>, <i>flow</i>, <i>lie dead</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +3d sing. indic. pres., <b>ligeð</b>, <b>līð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>līchama</b> (<b>-hǫma</b>), m., <i>body</i> [body-covering].</p> + +<p><b>līcian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>please</i> +(with dat.) [like].</p> + +<p><b>līc-sār</b>, n., <i>body-sore</i>, <i>wound in the body</i>.</p> + +<p><b>līefan</b> (<b>lēfan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>permit</i>, <i>allow</i> (with dat.) [grant +<i>leave</i> to].</p> + +<p><b>līf</b>, n., <i>life</i>.</p> + +<p><b>līf-dagas</b>, m. pl., <i>life-days</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lifigende</b>, see <b>libban</b>.</p> + +<p><b>līg</b>, m., <i>flame</i>, <i>fire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ligeð</b>, see <b>licgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lim</b>, n., <i>limb</i>.</p> + +<p><b>list</b>, f., <i>cunning</i>; dat. pl., <b>listum</b>, is used +adverbially = <i>cunningly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>līð</b>, see <b>licgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lof</b>, m., <i>praise</i>, <i>glory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǫnd</b> (<b>land</b>), n., <i>land</i>, <i>country</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǫng</b> (<b>lang</b>) (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>long</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lǫnge</b> (<b>lange</b>) (<a href = "#sec_97">§ <b>97</b>, +(2)</a>), <i>long</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>lǫnge on dæg</b>, <i>late in the day</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lufan</b>, see <b>lufu</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lufian</b> (<b>lufigean</b>) (<a href = "#sec_131">§ +<b>131</b></a>), <i>love</i>.</p> + +<p><b>luflīce</b>, <i>lovingly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lufu</b>, f., <i>love</i>; dat. sing. (weak), <b>lufan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>lungre</b>, <i>quickly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lust</b>, m., <i>joy</i> [lust];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on lust</b>, <i>joyfully</i>.</p> + +<p><b>lȳt</b>, indeclinable, <i>little</i>, <i>few</i> (with partitive +gen.).</p> + +<p><b>lȳtel</b> (<b>lītel</b>) (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, +(2)</a>), <i>little</i>, <i>small</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_M" id = "gloss1_M" href = "#gloss_I">M.</a></h5> + +<p><b>mā</b>, see <b>micle</b> (<a href = "#sec_97">§ <b>97</b>, +(2)</a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">174b</span> +<p><b>mæg</b>, see <b>magan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mǣg</b>, m., <i>kinsman</i>; nom. pl., <b>māgas</b> (<a href = +"#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>mægen</b> n., <i>strength</i>, <i>power</i> [might and +<i>main</i>].</p> + +<p><b>mægen-ęllen</b>, n., <i>main strength</i>, <i>mighty +courage</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǣgð</b>, f., <i>tribe</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mægðhād</b>, m., <i>maidenhood</i>, <i>virginity</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǣl-gesceaft</b>, f., <i>appointed time</i> [<b>mǣl</b> = +<i>meal</i>, <i>time</i>].</p> + +<p><b>mǣran</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>make +famous</i>, <i>honor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǣre</b>, <i>famous</i>, <i>glorious</i>, <i>notorious</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǣrðo</b> (<b>mǣrðo</b>, <b>mǣrð</b>), f., <i>glory</i>, +<i>fame</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mæsseprēost</b>, m., <i>mass-priest</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǣst</b>, see <b>micel</b>.</p> + +<p><b>magan</b> (<a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b></a>), <i>be able</i>, +<i>may</i>.</p> + +<p><b>māgas</b>, see <b>mǣg</b>.</p> + +<p><b>magu</b> (<b>mago</b>), m., <i>son</i>, <i>man</i>.</p> + +<p><b>maguðegn</b>, m., <i>vassal</i>, <i>retainer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>man(n)</b>, see <b>mǫn(n)</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mancus</b>, m., <i>mancus</i>, <i>half-crown</i>; gen. pl., +<b>mancessa</b>.</p> + +<p><b>māndǣd</b>, f., <i>evil deed</i>.</p> + +<p><b>manig</b>, see <b>mǫnig</b>.</p> + +<p><b>manigfeald</b>, see <b>mǫnigfeald</b>.</p> + +<p><b>māra</b>, see <b>micel</b>.</p> + +<p><b>maðelian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>harangue</i>, <i>speak</i>.</p> + +<p><b>māðum</b> (<b>māððum</b>), m., <i>gift</i>, <i>treasure</i>, +<i>jewel</i>; gen. pl., <b>māðma</b>.</p> + +<p><b>māððumgyfa</b>, m., <i>treasure-giver</i>, <i>lord</i>.</p> + +<p><b>māððum-wela</b>, m., <i>wealth of treasure</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mē</b>, see <b>ic</b>.</p> + +<p><b>meaht</b>, f., <i>might</i>, <i>power</i>.</p> + +<p><b>meahte</b>, see <b>magan</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">175</span> +<a name = "page175" id = "page175"> </a> +<p><b>mearc</b>, f., <i>boundary</i>, <i>limit</i> [mark, march].</p> + +<p><b>mearg</b> (<b>mearh</b>), m., <i>horse</i>; nom. pl., +<b>mēaras</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mearð</b>, m., <i>marten</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mec</b>, see <b>ic</b>.</p> + +<p><b>medmicel</b>, <i>moderately large</i>, <i>short</i>, +<i>brief</i>.</p> + +<p><b>medu</b> (<b>medo</b>), m., <i>mead</i>.</p> + +<p><b>medu-bęnc</b>, f., <i>mead-bench</i>.</p> + +<p><b>medu-ful</b>, n., <i>mead-cup</i>.</p> + +<p><b>medu-heall</b>, f., <i>mead-hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>męn</b>, see <b>mǫn(n)</b>.</p> + +<p><b>męngan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>mingle</i>, +<i>mix</i>.</p> + +<p><b>męnigu</b> (<b>męnigeo</b>), f., <i>multitude</i> [many].</p> + +<p><b>męnniscnes</b>, f., <i>humanity</i>, <i>incarnation</i> [man].</p> + +<p><b>meolc</b>, f., <i>milk</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Mēore</b>, <i>Möre</i> (in Sweden).</p> + +<p><b>męre</b>, m., <i>lake</i>, <i>mere</i>, <i>sea</i> [mermaid].</p> + +<p><b>Meretūn</b>, m., <i>Merton</i> (in Surrey).</p> + +<p><b>mētan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>meet</i>, +<i>find</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Metod</b> (<b>Meotod</b>, <b>Metud</b>), m., <i>Creator</i>, +<i>God</i>.</p> + +<p><b>metod-sceaft</b>, f., <i>appointed doom</i>, <i>eternity</i>.</p> + +<p><b>micel</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (3)</a>), +<i>great</i>, <i>mighty</i>, <i>strong</i>, <i>large</i> [mickle];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>māra</b>, <i>more</i>, <i>stronger</i>, <i>larger</i>.</p> + +<p><b>micle</b> (<b>micele</b>), <i>greatly</i>, <i>much</i>.</p> + +<p><b>miclum</b>, (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, (4)</a>), +<i>greatly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mid</b>, <i>with</i>, <i>amid</i>, <i>among</i> (with dat. and +acc.).</p> + +<p><b>middangeard</b>, m., <i>earth</i>, <i>world</i> [middle-yard].</p> + +<p><b>middeweard</b>, <i>midward</i>, <i>toward the middle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Mierce</b>, m. pl., <i>Mercians</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mihte</b>, see <i>magan</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mīl</b>, f., <i>mile</i> [Lat. mille].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">175b</span> +<p><b>mildheortnes</b>, f., <i>mild-heartedness</i>, <i>mercy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>milts</b>, f., <i>mildness</i>, <i>mercy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mīn</b> (<a href = "#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a>), <i>my</i>, +<i>mine</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mislīc</b>, <i>various</i>.</p> + +<p><b>missenlīc</b>, <i>various</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōd</b>, n., <i>mood</i>, <i>mind</i>, <i>courage</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōdcearig</b>, <i>sorrowful of mind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōdega</b>, <b>mōdga</b>, see <b>mōdig</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mōdgeðanc</b>, m., <i>purpose of mind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōdig</b>, <i>moody</i>, <i>brave</i>, <i>proud</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōdor</b>, f., <i>mother</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōdsefa</b>, m., <i>mind</i>, <i>heart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫn(n)</b> (<b>man</b>, <b>mann</b>) (<a href = "#sec_68">§ +<b>68</b></a>; <a href = "#sec_70">§ <b>70</b>, Note</a>), m., +<i>man</i>, <i>one</i>, <i>person</i>, <i>they</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōna</b>, m., <i>moon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōnað</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1), Note</a>), m., +<i>month</i> [<b>mōna</b>]; dat. sing., <b>mōnðe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫn(n)cynn</b>, n., <i>mankind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫndryhten</b>, m., <i>liege lord</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫnian</b> (<b>manian</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>admonish</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫnig</b> (<b>manig</b>, <b>mǫneg</b>, <b>mænig</b>), +<i>many</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mǫnigfeald</b> (<b>manig-</b>), <i>manifold</i>, +<i>various</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mōnðe</b>, see <b>mōnað</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mōr</b>, m., <i>moor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>morgen</b>, m., <i>morning</i>; dat. sing., <b>morgen(n)e</b>.</p> + +<p><b>morðor-bealu</b> (<b>-bealo</b>), n., <i>murder</i> +[murder-bale];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +see <b>ðurfan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mōste</b>, see <b>mōtan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mōtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b></a>), <i>may</i>, +<i>be permitted</i>, <i>must</i>.</p> + +<p><b>mund-gripe</b>, m., <i>hand-grip</i>.</p> + +<p><b>munuc</b>, m., <i>monk</i> [Lat. monachus].</p> + +<p><b>munuchād</b>, m., <i>monkhood</i>, <i>monastic rank</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">176</span> +<a name = "page176" id = "page176"> </a> +<p><b>mūð</b>, m., <i>mouth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>myntan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>be +minded</i>, <i>intend</i>; pret. indic. 3d sing., <b>mynte</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mynster</b>, n., <i>monastery</i> [Lat. monasterium]; dat. sing., +<b>mynstre</b>.</p> + +<p><b>mȳre</b>, f., <i>mare</i> [<b>mearh</b>].</p> + +<p><b>myrð</b>, f., <i>joy</i>, <i>mirth</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>mōdes myrðe</b> <a href = "#lineVI_811">142, 17</a> = <i>with joy of +heart</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_N" id = "gloss1_N" href = "#gloss_I">N.</a></h5> + +<p><b>nā</b> (<b>nō</b>), <i>not</i> [<b>ne ā</b> = <i>n-ever</i>];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>nā ne</b>, <i>not</i>, <i>not at all</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nabban</b> (p. 32, Note), <i>not to have</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nǣdre</b>, f., <i>serpent</i>, <i>adder</i>.</p> + +<p><b>næfde</b>, see <b>nabban</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nǣfre</b>, <i>never</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nǣnig</b> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>), <i>no one</i>, +<i>no</i>, <i>none</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nǣre</b>, <b>nǣren</b>, <b>nǣron</b>, see <a href = "#sec_40">§ +<b>40</b>, Note 2</a>.</p> + +<p><b>næs</b> = <b>ne wæs</b>, see <a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b>, Note +2</a>.</p> + +<p><b>næss</b>, m., <i>ness</i>, <i>headland</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nāht</b>, see <b>nōht</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nālæs</b> (<b>nāles</b>), <i>not at all</i> [<b>nā +ealles</b>].</p> + +<p><b>nam</b>, see <b>niman</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nama</b>, see <b>nǫma</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nāmon</b>, see <b>niman</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nān</b>, <i>not one</i>, <i>no</i>, <i>none</i> [<b>ne +ān</b>].</p> + +<p><b>nānwuht</b>, n., <i>nothing</i> [no whit].</p> + +<p><b>ne</b>, <i>not</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nē</b>, <i>nor</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>nē ... nē</b>, <i>neither ... nor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nēah</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (4)</a>), +<i>near</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nēah</b>, adv., <i>nigh</i>, <i>near</i>, <i>nearly</i>, +<i>almost</i>; comparative, <b>nēar</b>, <i>nearer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>neaht</b>, see <b>niht</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nēalēcan</b> (<b>-lǣcan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b></a>), <i>draw near to</i>, <i>approach</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">176b</span> +<p><b>nēar</b>, see <b>nēah</b>, adv.</p> + +<p><b>nēat</b>, n., <i>neat</i>, <i>cattle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nęmnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>name</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nemðe</b>, (<b>nymðe</b>), <i>except</i>, <i>unless</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nęrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), <i>save</i>, +<i>preserve</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nēten</b>, see <b>nīeten</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nīedbeðearf</b>, <i>needful</i>, <i>necessary</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nīehst</b>, see <b>nēah</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, +(4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>nīeten</b> (<b>nēten</b>), n., <i>neat</i>, <i>beast</i>, +<i>cattle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nigontīene</b>, <i>nineteen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>niht</b> (<b>neaht</b>) (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1), +Note</a>), <i>night</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nihthelm</b>, m., <i>night-helm</i>, <i>shade of night</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nihtscūa</b>, m., <i>shadow of night</i>.</p> + +<p><b>niht-weorc</b>, n., <i>night-work</i>.</p> + +<p><b>niman</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>take</i>, +<i>gain</i> [nimble, numb].</p> + +<p><b>nīpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>grow +dark</i>, <i>darken</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nis</b>, see <a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b>, Note 2</a>.</p> + +<p><b>nīð</b>, m., <i>malice</i>, <i>violence</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nīwe</b>, <i>new</i>, <i>novel</i>, <i>startling</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nō</b>, see <b>nā</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nōht</b> (<b>nāht</b>, <b>nā-wiht</b>), n., <i>not a whit</i>, +<i>naught</i>, <i>nothing</i>; <i>not</i>, <i>not at all</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nōhwæðer</b> (<b>nāhwæðer</b>), <i>neither</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>nōhwæðer nē ... ne ... nē ... ne</b> <a href = "#line118_8">118, +8</a> = <i>neither ... nor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nolde</b>, <b>noldon</b> = <b>ne wolde</b>, <b>ne woldon</b>, see +<b>willan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nǫma</b> (<b>nama</b>), m., <i>name</i>.</p> + +<p><b>norð</b> (<a href = "#sec_97">§ <b>97</b>, (1)</a>), <i>north</i>, +<i>in the north</i>, <i>northwards</i>.</p> + +<p><b>norðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b></a>, (5)<ins class = +"correction" title = "outer ) missing">),</ins> <i>from the +north</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>be norðan</b>, see <a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (4)</a>.</p> + +<p><b>Norð-Dęne</b>, m. pl., <i>North-Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>norðeweard</b>, <i>northward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Norðhymbre</b>, m. pl., <i>Northumbrians</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Norðmanna</b>, see <b>Norðmǫn</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">177</span> +<a name = "page177" id = "page177"> </a> +<p><b>Norðmęn</b>, see <b>Norðmǫn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>norðmest</b>, see <b>norð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Norðmǫn</b> (<b>-man</b>) (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, +(1)</a>), <i>Norwegian</i>.</p> + +<p><b>norðor</b>, see <b>norð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>norðryhte</b>, <i>northward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>norðweard</b>, <i>northward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Norðweg</b>, <i>Norway</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nose</b>, f., <i>cape</i>, <i>naze</i> [ness, nose].</p> + +<p><b>notu</b>, f., <i>office</i>, <i>employment</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nū</b>, <i>now</i>; <i>now that</i>, <i>seeing that</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>nū ðā</b> <a href = "#lineVI_658">138, 13</a> = <i>now then</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nȳhst</b> (<b>nīehst</b>), see <b>nēah</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nymðe</b>, see <b>nemðe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nysse</b>, see <b>nytan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nyste</b>, see <b>nytan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>nyt(t)</b>, <i>useful</i>, <i>profitable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>nytan</b> (<b>nitan</b> < <b>ne witan</b>, <a href = +"#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>), <i>not to know</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +3d sing. pret., <b>nysse</b>, <b>nyste</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_O" id = "gloss1_O" href = "#gloss_I">O.</a></h5> + +<p><b>of</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), <i>of</i>, +<i>from</i>, <i>concerning</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ofer</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (2)</a>), <i>over</i>, +<i>across</i>, <i>after</i>, <i>in spite of</i> (see <a href = +"#lineVI_2725">144, 14</a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ofer eorðan</b> <a href = "#lineVI_803">142, 9</a> = <i>on +earth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ofer</b>, adv., <i>over</i>, <i>across</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oferfēran</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>go +over</i>, <i>traverse</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oferfrēosan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), <i>freeze +over</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oferfroren</b>, see <b>oferfrēosan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ofgiefan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>give +up</i>, <i>relinquish</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ofost</b>, f., <i>haste</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ofslægen</b>, see <b>ofslēan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ofslēan</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>slay +off</i>, <i>slay</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ofslōge</b>, see <b>ofslēan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>oft</b>, <i>oft</i>, <i>often</i>; superlative, <b>oftost</b>.</p> + +<p><b>on</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (3)</a>), <i>in</i>, +<i>into</i>, <i>on</i>, <i>against</i>, <i>to</i>, <i>among</i>, +<i>during</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on fīf oððe +<span class = "pagenum">177b</span> +syx</b> <a href = "#line109_6">109, 6</a> = <i>into five or six +parts</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on weg</b> <a href = "#lineVI_764">140, 10</a> = <i>away</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on innan</b> <a href = "#lineVI_2716">144, 5</a> = <i>within</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on unriht</b> <a href = "#lineVI_2740">145, 15</a> = +<i>falsely</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onbærnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>kindle</i>, <i>inspire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oncȳðð</b>, f., <i>distress</i>, <i>suffering</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǫnd</b> (<b>and</b>), <i>and</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǫndsaca</b>, m., <i>adversary</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǫndswarian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>answer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ǫndweard</b>, adj., <i>present</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onfēng</b>, see <b>onfōn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>onfeohtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>fight</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onfindan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>find +out</i>, <i>discover</i>; pret. indic. 3d sing., <b>onfunde</b>.</p> + +<p><b>onfōn</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>receive</i>, +<i>seize violently</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onfunde</b>, see <b>onfindan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ongēan</b>, prep., <i>against</i>, <i>towards</i> (with dat. and +acc.).</p> + +<p><b>ongēan</b>, adv., <i>just across</i>, <i>opposite</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Ǫngelcynn</b> (<b>Angel-</b>), n., <i>Angle kin</i>, <i>English +people</i>, <i>England</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Ǫngelðēod</b> (<b>Angel-</b>), f., <i>the English people or +nation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ongemang</b> (<b>-mǫng</b>), <i>among</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>ongietan</b> (<b>-gitan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_115">§ +<b>115</b></a>), <i>perceive</i>, <i>see</i>, <i>understand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onginnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>begin</i>, <i>attempt</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onlūtan</b> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), <i>bow</i>, +<i>incline</i> (intrans.) [lout = a stooper].</p> + +<p><b>onrīdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>ride +against</i>, <i>make a raid on</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onsęndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>send</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onslǣpan</b> (<b>onslēpan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b></a>), <i>fall asleep</i>, <i>sleep</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onspǫnnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), +<i>loosen</i> [unspan]; pret. 3d sing. indic., <b>onspēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>onspringan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>spring +apart</i>, <i>unspring</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">178</span> +<a name = "page178" id = "page178"> </a> +<p><b>onstāl</b>, m., <i>institution</i>, <i>supply</i>.</p> + +<p><b>onstęllan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>establish</i>; pret. 3d sing. indic., <b>onstealde</b>.</p> + +<p><b>onwæcnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>awake</i> +(intrans.).</p> + +<p><b>onweald</b> (<b>-wald</b>), m., <i>power</i>, <i>authority</i> +[wield].</p> + +<p><b>onwęndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>change</i>, <i>overturn</i> [to wind].</p> + +<p><b>ōr</b>, n., <i>beginning</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oð</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (2)</a>), <i>until</i>, +<i>as far as</i> (of time and place);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>oð ðæt</b>, <b>oð ðe</b>, <i>until</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oðberan</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), <i>bear +away</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ōðer</b>, <i>other</i>, <i>second</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ōðer ... ōðer</b>, <i>the one ... the other</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oðfæstan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>set +to</i> (a task).</p> + +<p><b>oðfeallan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>) <i>fall +off</i>, <i>decline</i>.</p> + +<p><b>oððe</b>, <i>or</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>oððe ... oððe</b>, <i>either ... or</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_P" id = "gloss1_P" href = "#gloss_I">P.</a></h5> + +<p><b>plega</b>, m., <i>play</i>, <i>festivity</i>.</p> + +<p><b>port</b>, m., <i>port</i> [Lat. portus].</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_R" id = "gloss1_R" href = "#gloss_I">R.</a></h5> + +<p><b>rād</b>, f., <i>raid</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rǣcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>reach</i>; +pret. 3d sing., <b>rǣhte</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ræst</b>, see <b>ręst</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Rēadingas</b>, m. pl., <i>Reading</i> (in Berkshire).</p> + +<p><b>ręccan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>narrate</i>, <i>tell</i>; pret. pl. indic., <b>ręhton</b>, +<b>reahton</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ręccelēas</b>, <i>reckless</i>, <i>careless</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ręced</b>, n., <i>house</i>, <i>hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>regnian</b> (<b>rēnian</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>adorn</i>, <i>prepare</i>; past part., +<b>geregnad</b>.</p> + +<p><b>regollīc</b> (<b>-lec</b>), <i>according to rule</i>, +<i>regular</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rēn-weard</b>, m., <i>mighty warden</i>, <i>guard</i>, +<i>champion</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">178b</span> +<p><b>ręst</b> (<b>ræst</b>), f., <i>rest</i>, <i>resting-place</i>, +<i>bed</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rēðe</b>, <i>fierce</i>, <i>furious</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rīce</b>, <i>rich</i>, <i>powerful</i>, <i>aristocratic</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rīce</b>, n., <i>realm</i>, <i>kingdom</i> [bishopric].</p> + +<p><b>rīcsian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>rule</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rīdan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>ride</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rīman</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>count</i> +[rime].</p> + +<p><b>rinc</b>, m., <i>man</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rōd</b>, f., <i>rood</i>, <i>cross</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>rōde tācen</b>, <i>sign of the cross</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Rōmware</b>, m. pl., <i>Romans</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rǫnd</b> (<b>rand</b>), m., <i>shield</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rūn</b>, f., <i>rune</i>, <i>secret meditation</i> [to round = to +whisper].</p> + +<p><b>rycene</b> (<b>ricene</b>), <i>quickly</i>, <i>rashly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ryhtnorðanwind</b>, m., <i>straight north-wind</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_S" id = "gloss1_S" href = "#gloss_I">S.</a></h5> + +<p><b>sǣ</b>, f., <i>sea</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǣ-bāt</b>, m., <i>sea-boat</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǣd</b>, n., <i>seed</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǣde</b>, see <b>sęcgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sǣl</b>, m<ins class = "correction" title = ", missing">.,</ins> +f., <i>time</i>, <i>happiness</i> [sil-ly];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on sǣlum</b> <a href = "#lineVI_644">137, 22</a> = <i>joyous</i>, +<i>merry</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǣlan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>bind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǣ-līðend</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (3)</a>), m., +<i>seafarer</i> (nom. and acc. pl. same as nom. and acc. sing.).</p> + +<p><b>sam ... sam</b>, <i>whether ... or</i>.</p> + +<p><b>same</b>, <i>similarly</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>swā same</b>, <i>just the same</i>, <i>in like manner</i>.</p> + +<p><b>samod</b>, see <b>sǫmod</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sanct</b>, m., f., <i>saint</i> [Lat. sanctus]; gen. sing., +<b>sanctæ</b>, f., <b>sancti</b>, m.</p> + +<p><b>sang</b>, see <b>sǫng</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sār</b>, f., n., <i>sore</i>, <i>pain</i>, <i>wound</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sār</b>, adj., <i>sore</i>, <i>grievous</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sāre</b>, <i>sorely</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">179</span> +<a name = "page179" id = "page179"> </a> +<p><b>sāwan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>,) <i>sow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sāwol</b>, f., <i>soul</i>; oblique cases, sing., <b>sāwle</b> (<a +href = "#sec_39">§ <b>39</b>, Note</a>).</p> + +<p><b>scacan</b> (<b>sceacan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_116">§ +<b>116</b></a>), <i>shake</i>, <i>go</i>, <i>depart</i>; past part., +<b>scacen</b>, <b>sceacen</b>.</p> + +<p><b>scadu-helm</b>, m., <i>cover of night</i>, <i>shadow-covering</i> +[shadow-helm];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>scadu-helma gesceapu</b>, see <a href = "#lineVI_647">Note on 138, +2-6</a>.</p> + +<p><b>sceal</b>, see <b>sculan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>scēap</b>, n., <i>sheep</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scēat</b>, m., <i>corner</i>, <i>region</i>, <i>quarter</i> +[sheet];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>eorðan scēatta</b> <a href = "#lineVI_753">139, 14</a> = <i>in the +regions of earth</i> (gen. used as locative).</p> + +<p><b>scēawi(g)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>view</i>, <i>see</i> [shew].</p> + +<p><b>scēawung</b>, f., <i>seeing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sceolde</b>, see <b>sculan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>scēop</b> (<b>scōp</b>), see <b>scieppan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>scēowyrhta</b>, m., <i>shoe-maker</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scęððan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>injure</i>, <i>scathe</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>scieppan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>create</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Scieppend</b>, m., <i>Creator</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scīnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>shine</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scip</b> (<b>scyp</b>), n., <i>ship</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scipen</b>, n., <i>stall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sciprāp</b>, m., <i>ship-rope</i>, <i>cable</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scīr</b>, f., <i>shire</i>, <i>district</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Sciringeshēal</b>, m., <i>Sciringesheal</i> (in Norway).</p> + +<p><b>scolde</b>, see <b>sculan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>scǫmu</b>, f., <i>shame</i>, <i>dishonor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Scōnēg</b>, f., <i>Skaane</i> (southern district of the +Scandinavian peninsula).</p> + +<p><b>scopgereord</b>, n., <i>poetic language</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scrīðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>stride</i>, <i>stalk</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sculan</b> (<a href = "#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>; <a href = +"#sec_137">§ <b>137</b>, Note 2</a>), <i>shall</i>, <i>have to</i>, +<i>ought</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">179b</span> +<p><b>Scyldingas</b>, m. pl., <i>Scyldings</i>, <i>Danes</i>.</p> + +<p><b>scyp</b>, see <b>scip</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Scyppend</b>, see <b>Scieppend</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sē</b>, <b>sēo</b>, <b>ðæt</b> (<a href = "#sec_28">§ +<b>28</b></a>; <a href = "#sec_28">§ <b>28</b>, Note 3</a>), +<i>the</i>; <i>that</i>; <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>; <i>who</i>, +<i>which</i>, <i>that</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðæs</b>, <i>from then</i>, <i>afterwards</i>, <i>therefore</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðæs ðe</b> (<a href = "#line110_2">p. 110, l. 2</a>), <i>with +what</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðȳ ... ðæt</b> (<a href = "#line110_7">p. 110, ll. 7-8</a>), <i>for +this reason ... because</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō ðǣm ... swā</b>, <i>to such an extent ... as</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðy</b> (<b>ðē</b>), <i>the</i> (adverbial, with comparatives);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðȳ ... ðȳ</b>, <i>the ... the</i>.</p> + +<p><b>seah</b>, see <b>sēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sealde</b>, see <b>sęllan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>searo-gimm</b>, m., <i>artistic gem</i>, <i>jewel</i>.</p> + +<p><b>searo-nīð</b>, m., <i>cunning hatred</i>, <i>plot</i>.</p> + +<p><b>searo-ðǫnc</b>, m., <i>cunning thought</i>, <i>device</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Seaxe</b>, m. pl., <i>Saxons</i>, <i>Saxony</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), <i>to +seek</i>, <i>visit</i>, <i>meet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęcg</b>, m., <i>man</i>, <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęcgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_132">§ <b>132</b></a>), <i>say</i>, +<i>tell</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sefa</b>, m., <i>mind</i>, <i>spirit</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēfte</b>, <i>more easily</i> (comparative of <b>sōfte</b><ins +class = "correction" title = ") missing">).</ins></p> + +<p><b>segel</b>, m., n., <i>sail</i>; dat. sing. = <b>segle</b>.</p> + +<p><b>seglian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>sail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęle</b>, m., <i>hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęledrēam</b>, m., <i>hall joy</i>, <i>festivity</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęle-ful</b>, n., <i>hall cup</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęlesęcg</b>, m., <i>hall warrior</i>, <i>retainer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēlest</b>, <i>best</i> (no positive).</p> + +<p><b>self</b> (<b>sylf</b>), <i>self</i>, <i>himself</i> (declined as +strong or weak adjective).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">180</span> +<a name = "page180" id = "page180"> </a> +<p><b>sęllan</b> (<b>syllan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_128">§ +<b>128</b></a>), <i>give</i> [sell, han(d)sel].</p> + +<p><b>sęmninga</b>, <i>forthwith</i>, <i>straightway</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sęndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>send</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sēo</b>, see <b>sē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sēoc</b>, <i>sick</i>.</p> + +<p><b>seofon</b> (<b>syfan</b>), <i>seven</i>.</p> + +<p><b>seolh</b>, m., <i>seal</i>; gen. sing. = <b>sēoles</b> (<a href = +"#sec_27">§ <b>27</b>, (3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>sēon</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>see</i>, +<i>look</i>.</p> + +<p><b>seonu</b>, f., <i>sinew</i>; nom. pl., <b>seonowe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sess</b>, m., <i>seat</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sibb</b>, f., <i>friendship</i>, <i>peace</i> [gos<i>sip</i>].</p> + +<p><b>sidu</b> (<b>siodu</b>), m., <i>custom</i>, <i>morality</i>, +<i>good conduct</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sīe</b>, see <b>bēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>siex</b>, <i>six</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>syxa</b> (<b>siexa</b>) <b>sum</b>, see <b>sum</b>.</p> + +<p><b>siextig</b>, <i>sixty</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige</b>, m., <i>victory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige-folc</b>, n., <i>victorious people</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige-lēas</b>, <i>victory-less</i>, <i>of defeat</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige-rōf</b>, <b>victory-famed</b>, <i>victorious</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sige-wǣpen</b>, n., <i>victory-weapon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>siglan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>sail</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Sillende</b>, <i>Zealand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sinc</b>, n., <i>treasure</i>, <i>prize</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sinc-fǣt</b>, n., see <a href = "#lineVI_623">137, 1</a> +[treasure-vat].</p> + +<p><b>sinc-ðęgu</b>, f., <i>receiving of treasure</i> +[<b>ðicgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>sind</b>, <b>sint</b>, <b>sindon</b>, see <b>bēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>singan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>sing</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sittan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>sit</i>, <i>take position</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sīð</b>, m., <i>journey</i>, <i>time</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>forman sīðe</b> <a href = "#lineVI_741">139, 2</a> = <i>the first +time</i> (instr. sing.).</p> + +<p><b>sīðian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>journey</i>.</p> + +<p><b>siððan</b>, <i>after that</i>, <i>afterwards</i>, +<i>after</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">180b</span> +<p><b>slǣp</b>, m., <i>sleep</i>.</p> + +<p><b>slǣpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), +<i>sleep</i>.</p> + +<p><b>slēan</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>slay</i> +[slow-worm].</p> + +<p><b>slītan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), <i>slit</i>, +<i>tear to pieces</i>.</p> + +<p><b>slīðen</b>, <i>savage</i>, <i>perilous</i>.</p> + +<p><b>smæl</b>, <i>narrow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>smalost</b>, see <b>smæl</b>.</p> + +<p><b>snāw</b>, m., <i>snow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>snot(t)or</b>, <i>wise</i>, <i>prudent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōhte</b>, see <b>sēcan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sǫmod</b> (<b>samod</b>), <i>together</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōna</b>, <i>soon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǫng</b>, m., n., <i>song</i>, <i>poem</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sǫngcræft</b>, m., <i>art of song and poetry</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sorg</b> (<b>sorh</b>), f., <i>sorrow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōð</b>, <i>true</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōð</b>, n., <i>truth</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō sōðe</b>, <i>for a truth</i>, <i>truly</i>, <i>verily</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōð-fæst</b>, <i>truthful</i>, <i>just</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sōðlīce</b>, <i>truly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>spēd</b>, f., <i>possessions</i>, <i>success</i>, <i>riches</i> +[speed].</p> + +<p><b>spēdig</b>, <i>rich</i>, <i>prosperous</i>.</p> + +<p><b>spell</b>, n., <i>story</i>, <i>tale</i> [gospel].</p> + +<p><b>spēow</b>, see <b>spōwan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>spere</b>, n., <i>spear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>spor</b>, n., <i>track</i>, <i>footprint</i>.</p> + +<p><b>spōwan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>succeed</i> +(impersonal with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>sprǣc</b>, f., <i>speech</i>, <i>language</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sprecan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), +<i>speak</i>.</p> + +<p><b>spyrian</b> (<b>spyrigean</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>follow</i> (intrans.) [<b>spor</b>].</p> + +<p><b>stæf</b>, <i>staff</i>, <i>rod</i>; pl. = <i>literature</i>, +<i>learning</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stælhrān</b>, m., <i>decoy-reindeer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stælwierðe</b>, <i>serviceable</i> (see p. 56, Note 2).</p> + +<p><b>stǣr</b>, n., <i>story</i>, <i>narrative</i> [Lat. historia].</p> + +<p><b>stæð</b>, n., <i>shore</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">181</span> +<a name = "page181" id = "page181"> </a> +<p><b>stān</b>, m., <i>stone</i>, <i>rock</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stān-boga</b>, m., <i>stone-arch</i> [stone-bow].</p> + +<p><b>standan</b>, see <b>stǫndan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>stānhlið</b> (<b>-hleoð</b>), n., <i>stone-cliff</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stapol</b>, m., <i>column</i> [staple].</p> + +<p><b>starian</b> (<a href = "#sec_125">§ <b>125</b></a>), <i>stare</i>, +<i>gaze</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stęde</b>, m., <i>place</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stelan</b> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>), +<i>steal</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stęnt</b>, see <b>stǫndan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>stēorbord</b>, n., <i>starboard</i>, <i>right side of a +ship</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stęppan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>step</i>, +<i>advance</i>; pret. indic. 3d sing., <b>stōp</b>.</p> + +<p><b>stilnes</b>, f., <i>stillness</i>, <i>quiet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stǫndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>stand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stōp</b>, see <b>stęppan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>storm</b>, m., <i>storm</i>.</p> + +<p><b>stōw</b>, f., <i>place</i> [stow, and in names of places].</p> + +<p><b>strang</b>, see <b>strǫng</b>.</p> + +<p><b>stręngest</b>, see <b>strǫng</b>.</p> + +<p><b>strǫng</b> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>strong</i>.</p> + +<p><b>styccemǣlum</b>, <i>here and there</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sum</b> (<a href = "#sec_91">§ <b>91</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>some</i>, <i>certain</i>, <i>a certain one</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hē syxa sum</b> <a href = "#line104_25">104, 25</a> = <i>he with five +others</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sumera</b>, see <b>sumor</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sumor</b>, m., <i>summer</i>; dat. sing. = <b>sumera</b>.</p> + +<p><b>sumorlida</b>, m., <i>summer-army</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sundor</b>, <i>apart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sunne</b>, f., <i>sun</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sunu</b>, m., <i>son</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sūð</b>, <i>south</i>, <i>southwards</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sūðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, (5)</a>), <i>from the +south</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>be sūðan</b>, <i>south of</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(4)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>sūðeweard</b>, <i>southward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sūðryhte</b>, <i>southward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swā</b> (<b>swǣ</b>), <i>so</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>how</i>, +<i>as if</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>swā swā</b>, <i>just as</i>, <i>as far as</i>;</p> +<span class = "pagenum">181b</span> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>swā ... swā</b>, <i>the ... the</i>, <i>as ... as</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>swā hwæt swā</b>, <i>whatsoever</i> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b>, +Note</a>).</p> + +<p><b>swǣs</b>, <i>beloved</i>, <i>own</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swæð</b>, n., <i>track</i>, <i>footprint</i> [swath].</p> + +<p><b>swaðul</b>, m.? n.?, <i>smoke</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swealh</b>, see <b>swelgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swefan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), <i>sleep</i>, +<i>sleep the sleep of death</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swefn</b>, n., <i>sleep</i>, <i>dream</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swēg</b>, m., <i>sound</i>, <i>noise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swegle</b>, <i>bright</i>, <i>clear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swēlan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>burn</i> +[sweal].</p> + +<p><b>swelgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>swallow</i>; pret. indic. 3d sing., <b>swealh</b>; subj., +<b>swulge</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swellan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>swell</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Swēoland</b>, n., <i>Sweden</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Swēom</b>, m., dat. pl., <i>the Swedes</i><ins class = +"correction" title = ". missing">. </ins></p> + +<p><b>sweotol</b>, <i>clear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sweotole</b>, <i>clearly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swęrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>swear</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swēte</b>, <i>sweet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swētnes</b> (<b>-nis</b>), f., <i>sweetness</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swift</b> (<b>swyft</b>), <i>swift</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swilc</b> (<b>swylc</b>) (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>), +<i>such</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swilce</b>, <i>in such manner</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>likewise</i>; +<i>as if</i>, <i>as though</i> (with subj.).</p> + +<p><b>swimman</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>swim</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swīn</b> (<b>swȳn</b>), n., <i>swine</i>, <i>hog</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swīnsung</b>, f., <i>melody</i>, <i>harmony</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swīðe</b> (<b>swȳðe</b>), <i>very</i>, <i>exceedingly</i>, +<i>greatly</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swīðost</b>, <i>chiefly</i>, <i>almost</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swōr</b>, see <b>swęrian</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swulge</b>, see <b>swelgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swuster</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (2)</a>), f., +<i>sister</i>.</p> + +<p><b>swylce</b> (<b>swelce</b>), see <b>swilce</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swȳn</b>, see <b>swīn</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swynsian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>resound</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">182</span> +<a name = "page182" id = "page182"> </a> +<p><b>swȳðe</b>, see <b>swīðe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>swȳð-ferhð</b>, <i>strong-souled</i>.</p> + +<p><b>sylf</b>, see <b>self</b>.</p> + +<p><b>syll</b>, f., <i>sill</i>, <i>floor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>syllan</b>, see <b>sęllan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>symbel</b>, n., <i>feast</i>, <i>banquet</i>.</p> + +<p><b>symle</b>, <i>always</i>.</p> + +<p><b>synd</b>, see <b>bēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>syn-dolh</b>, n., <i>ceaseless wound</i>, <i>incurable +wound</i>.</p> + +<p><b>syndriglīce</b>, <i>specially</i>.</p> + +<p><b>synn</b>, f., <i>sin</i>.</p> + +<p><b>syn-scaða</b>, m., <i>ceaseless scather</i>, <i>perpetual +foe</i>.</p> + +<p><b>syn-snǣd</b>, f., <i>huge bit</i> [ceaseless bit].</p> + +<p><b>syððan</b>, see <b>siððan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>syx</b>, see <b>siex</b>.</p> + +<p><b>syxtig</b>, see <b>siextig</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_T" id = "gloss1_T" href = "#gloss_I">T.</a></h5> + +<p><b>tācen</b>, n., <i>sign</i>, <i>token</i>; dat. sing., <b>tācne</b> +(<a href = "#sec_33">§ <b>33</b>, Note</a>).</p> + +<p><b>tǣcan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>teach</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tam</b>, <i>tame</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tela</b>, <i>properly</i>, <i>well</i> [til].</p> + +<p><b>tęllan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), <i>count</i>, +<i>deem</i> [tell]; pret. 3d sing., <b>tealde</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Tęmes</b>, f., <i>the Thames</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tēon</b>, <i>arrange</i>, <i>create</i>; pret. sing., +<b>tēode</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Terfinna</b>, m., gen. pl., <i>the Terfins</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tēð</b>, see <b>tōð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>tīd</b>, f., <i>tide</i>, <i>time</i>, <i>hour</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tīen</b> (<b>tȳn</b>), <i>ten</i>.</p> + +<p><b>til(l)</b>, <i>good</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tīma</b>, m., <i>time</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tintreglīc</b>, <i>full of torment</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tō</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), <i>to</i>, +<i>for</i>, <i>according to</i>, <i>as</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō hrōfe</b> <a href = "#line114_2">114, 2</a> = <i>for (as) a +roof</i> [cf. Biblical <i>to wife</i>, modern <i>to boot</i>].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">182b</span> +<p><b>tō</b>, adv., <i>too</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōbrecan</b> (p. 81, Note 2), <i>break to pieces</i>, <i>knock +about</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōdǣlan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>divide</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōemnes</b> (<b>tō emnes</b>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(4)</a>), <i>along</i>, <i>alongside</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōforan</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>before</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōgeðēodan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>join</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōhopa</b>, m., <i>hope</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōlicgan</b> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>), +<i>separate</i>, <i>lie between</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +3d sing, indic. = <b>tōlīð</b>.</p> + +<p><b>tōlīð</b>, see <b>tōlicgan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>tolūcan</b> (<ins class = "correction" title = "§ missing">§ +</ins><b>109</b>, Note 1), <i>destroy</i> [the prefix <b>tō</b> reverses +the meaning of <b>lūcan</b>, <i>to lock</i>].</p> + +<p><b>torn</b>, m., <i>anger</i>, <i>insult</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōð</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1)</a>), m., +<i>tooth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōweard</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>toward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tōweard</b>, adj., <i>approaching</i>, <i>future</i>.</p> + +<p><b>trēow</b>, f., <i>pledge</i>, <i>troth</i>.</p> + +<p><b>trēownes</b>, f., <i>trust</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Trūsō</b>, <i>Drausen</i> (a city on the Drausensea).</p> + +<p><b>tūn</b>, m., <i>town</i>, <i>village</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tunge</b>, f., <i>tongue</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tūngerēfa</b>, m., <i>bailiff</i> [town-reeve; so sheriff = +shire-reeve].</p> + +<p><b>tungol</b>, n., <i>star</i>.</p> + +<p><b>twā</b>, see <b>twēgen</b>.</p> + +<p><b>twēgen</b>, (<a href = "#sec_89">§ <b>89</b></a>), <i>two</i>, +<i>twain</i>.</p> + +<p><b>twēntig</b>, <i>twenty</i>.</p> + +<p><b>tȳn</b>, see <b>tīen</b>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_Th" id = "gloss1_Th" href = "#gloss_I">Ð.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ðā</b>, <i>then</i>, <i>when</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðā ... ðā</b>, <i>when ... then</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðā ðā</b>, <i>then when</i> = <i>when</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðā</b>, see <b>sē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðǣr</b>, <i>there</i>, <i>where</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðǣr ðǣr</b>, <i>there where</i> = <i>where</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðǣr ... +<span class = "pagenum">183</span> +<a name = "page183" id = "page183"> </a> +swā</b> <a href = "#lineVI_798">142, 4</a> = <i>wheresoever</i>; +<a href = "#lineVI_2731">145, 6</a> = <i>if so be that</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæs</b>, <i>afterwards</i>, <i>therefore</i>, <i>thus</i>, +<i>because</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +see <b>sē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðæt</b> (<b>ðætte</b> = <b>ðæt ðe</b>), <i>that</i>, <i>so +that</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðafian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>consent +to</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðanc</b>, see <b>ðǫnc</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðancian</b> (<b>ðǫncian</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>thank</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðanon</b>, see <b>ðǫnan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðās</b>, see <b>ðēs</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðē</b>, see <b>sē</b> (instr. sing.) and <b>ðū</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðe</b> (<a href = "#sec_75">§ <b>75</b></a>), <i>who</i>, +<i>whom</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>that</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēah</b>, <i>though</i>, <i>although</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðēah ðe</b>, <i>though</i>, <i>although</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðearf</b>, see <b>ðurfan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðearf</b>, f., <i>need</i>, <i>benefit</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēaw</b>, m., <i>habit</i>, <i>custom</i> [thews].</p> + +<p><b>ðegn</b> (<b>ðegen</b>), m., <i>servant</i>, <i>thane</i>, +<i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðęnc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>think</i>, <i>intend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðening</b> (<b>-ung</b>), f., <i>service</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +the pl. may mean <i>book of service</i> (<a href = "#line117_17">117, +17</a>).</p> + +<p><b>ðēod</b>, f., <i>people</i>, <i>nation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēoden</b>, m., <i>prince</i>, <i>lord</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēodscipe</b>, m., <i>discipline</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēon</b> (<b>ðȳwan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), +<i>oppress</i> [<b>ðēow</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ðēow</b>, m., <i>servant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēowa</b>, m., <i>servant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēowotdōm</b> (<b>ðīowot-</b>), m., <i>service</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðēs</b> (<a href = "#sec_73">§ <b>73</b></a>), <i>this</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðider</b>, <i>thither</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðiderweard</b>, <i>thitherward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðīn</b> (<a href = "#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a>), <i>thine</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðing</b>, n., <i>thing</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ǣnige ðinga</b>, see <a href = "#linenoteVI_769">140, 15, +Note</a>.</p> + +<p><b>ðingan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), +<i>arrange</i>, <i>appoint</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">183b</span> +<p><b>ðis</b>, see <b>ðēs</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðissum</b>, see <b>ðēs</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðōhte</b>, <b>ðōhton</b>, see <b>ðęncean</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðolian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>endure</i> +[thole].</p> + +<p><b>ðǫnan</b>, <i>thence</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðǫnc</b>, m., <i>thanks</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðone</b>, see <b>sē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðonne</b>, <i>than</i>, <i>then</i>, <i>when</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðonne ... ðonne</b>, <i>when ... then</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrāg</b>, f., <i>time</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrēa-nȳd</b>, f., <i>compulsion</i>, <i>oppression</i>, +<i>misery</i> [throe-need].</p> + +<p><b>ðrēora</b>, see <b>ðrīe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðridda</b>, <i>third</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrie</b> (<b>ðrȳ</b>) (<a href = "#sec_89">§ <b>89</b></a>), +<i>three</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrīm</b>, see <b>ðrīe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrīst-hȳdig</b>, <i>bold-minded</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrītig</b>, <i>thirty</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrōwung</b>, f., <i>suffering</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrȳ</b>, see <b>ðrīe</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrym(m)</b>, m., <i>renown</i>, <i>glory</i>, <i>strength</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrȳð</b>, f., <i>power</i>, <i>multitude</i> (pl. used in sense of +sing.);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>asca ðrȳðe</b> <a href = "#lineVII_99">152, 23</a> = <i>the might of +spears</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrȳð-ærn</b>, n., <i>mighty house</i>, <i>noble hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðrȳð-word</b>, n., <i>mighty word</i>, <i>excellent +discourse</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðū</b> (<a href = "#sec_72">§ <b>72</b></a>), <i>thou</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðūhte</b>, see <b>ðyncan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðurfan</b> (<a href = "#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>), <i>need</i>; +pres. indic. 3d sing., <b>ðearf</b>; pret. 3d sing., <b>ðorfte</b>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>for-ðām mē wītan ne ðearf Waldend fīra morðor-bealo māga</b> <a href += "#lineVI_2742">145, 17</a> = <i>therefore the Ruler of men need not +charge me with the murder of kinsmen</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðurh</b> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>through</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðus</b>, <i>thus</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ðūsend</b>, <i>thousand</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">184</span> +<a name = "page184" id = "page184"> </a> +<p><b>ðȳ</b>, see <b>sē</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðyder</b>, see <b>ðider</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ðyncan</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), <i>seem</i>, +<i>appear</i> (impersonal);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>mē ðyncð</b>, <i>methinks</i>, <i>it seems to me</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>him ðūhte</b>, <i>it seemed to him</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_U" id = "gloss1_U" href = "#gloss_I">U.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ūhta</b>, m., <i>dawn</i>; gen. pl., <b>ūhtna</b>.</p> + +<p><b>unbeboht</b>, <i>unsold</i> [<b>bebycgan</b> = <i>to +sell</i>].</p> + +<p><b>uncūð</b>, <i>unknown</i>, <i>uncertain</i> [uncouth].</p> + +<p><b>under</b>, <i>under</i> (with dat. and acc.).</p> + +<p><b>understǫndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>understand</i>.</p> + +<p><b>underðēodan</b> (<b>-ðīedan</b>) (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b></a>), <i>subject to</i>; past part. <b>underðēoded</b> = +<i>subjected to</i>, <i>obedient to</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>unforbærned</b>, <i>unburned</i>.</p> + +<p><b>unfrið</b>, m., <i>hostility</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ungefōge</b>, <i>excessively</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ungemete</b>, <i>immeasurably</i>, <i>very</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ungesewenlīc</b>, <i>invisible</i> [past part. of <b>sēon</b> + +<b>līc</b>].</p> + +<p><b>unlyfigend</b>, <i>dead</i>, <i>dead man</i> [unliving].</p> + +<p><b>unlȳtel</b>, <i>no little</i>, <i>great</i>.</p> + +<p><b>unriht</b>, n., <i>wrong</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on unriht</b>, see <b>on</b>.</p> + +<p><b>unrihtwīsnes</b>, f., <i>unrighteousness</i>.</p> + +<p><b>unspēdig</b>, <i>poor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>unwearnum</b>, <i>unawares</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ūp</b> (<b>ūpp</b>), <i>up</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ūpāstīgnes</b>, f., <i>ascension</i> [<b>stīgan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>ūp-lang</b>, <i>upright</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ūre</b> (<a href = "#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a>), <i>our</i>.</p> + +<p><b>usses</b> = gen. sing. neut. of <b>ūser</b>, see <b>ic</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">184b</span> +<p><b>ūt</b>, <i>out</i>, <i>outside</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ūtan</b>, <i>from without</i>, <i>outside</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ūtanbordes</b>, <i>abroad</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ūtgǫng</b>, m., <i>exodus</i>.</p> + +<p><b>uton</b>, <i>let us</i> (with infin.) [literally <i>let us go</i> +with infin. of purpose (see <a href = "#linenoteVI_641">137, 19-20, +Note</a>); <b>uton</b> = <b>wuton</b>, corrupted form of 1st pl. subj. +of <b>wītan</b>, <i>to go</i>].</p> + +<p><b>ūt-weard</b>, <i>outward bound</i>, <i>moving outwards</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss1_W" id = "gloss1_W" href = "#gloss_I">W.</a></h5> + +<p><b>wāc</b>, <i>weak</i>, <i>insignificant</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wacian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>watch</i>, +<i>be on guard</i>; imperative sing., <b>waca</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wadan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), <i>go</i>, +<i>tread</i> [wade].</p> + +<p><b>wǣg</b>, m., <i>wave</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wǣgmundigas</b>, m. <i>Wægmundings</i> (family to which Beowulf +and Wiglaf belonged).</p> + +<p><b>wæl</b>, n., <i>slaughter</i>, <i>the slain</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wæl-blēat</b>, <i>deadly</i> [slaughter-pitiful].</p> + +<p><b>wælgīfre</b>, <i>greedy for slaughter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wæl-rǣs</b>, m., <i>mortal combat</i> [slaughter-race].</p> + +<p><b>wæl-rēow</b>, <i>fierce in strife</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wælsliht</b> (<b>-sleaht</b>), m., <i>slaughter</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wælstōw</b>, f., <i>battle-field</i> [slaughter-place];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>wælstōwe gewald</b>, <i>possession of the battle-field</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wǣpen</b>, n., <i>weapon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wǣre</b>, see <b>bēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wæs</b>, see <b>bēon</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wæter</b>, n., <i>water</i>.</p> + +<p><b>waldend</b>, see <i>wealdend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wan</b> (<b>wǫn</b>), <i>wan</i>, <i>dark</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wanhȳdig</b>, <i>heedless</i>, <i>rash</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wānigean</b> (<b>wānian</b>) (<a href = "#sec_130">§ +<b>130</b></a>), <i>bewail</i>, <i>lament</i> (trans.) [whine].</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">185</span> +<a name = "page185" id = "page185"> </a> +<p><b>warian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>attend</i>, +<i>accompany</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wāt</b>, see <b>witan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>waðum</b>, m., <i>wave</i>; gen. pl., <b>waðema</b>.</p> + +<p><b>weal(l)</b>, m., <i>wall</i>, <i>rampart</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wealdend</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (3)</a>), +<i>wielder</i>, <i>ruler</i>, <i>lord</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wealh</b>, m., <i>foreigner</i>, <i>Welshman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wealhstōd</b>, m., <i>interpreter</i>, <i>translator</i>.</p> + +<p><b>weallan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>well +up</i>, <i>boil</i>, <i>be agitated</i>; pret. 3d. sing. indic., +<b>wēoll</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wealsteal(l)</b>, m., <i>wall-place</i>, <i>foundation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>weard</b>, m., <i>ward</i>, <i>keeper</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wearð</b>, see <b>weorðan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>weaxan</b> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b></a>), <i>wax</i>, +<i>grow</i>.</p> + +<p><b>weg</b>, m., <i>way</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>hys weges</b>, see <a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, (3)</a>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>on weg</b>, see <b>on</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wel(l)</b>, <i>well</i>, <i>readily</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wela</b>, m., <i>weal</i>, <i>prosperity</i>, <i>riches</i>.</p> + +<p><b>welm</b>, see <b>wielm</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wēnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>ween</i>, +<i>think</i>, <i>expect</i>.</p> + +<p><b>węndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>change</i>, +<i>translate</i> [wend, <b>windan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>węnian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), +<i>entertain</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>węnian mid wynnum</b> <a href = "#lineVII_29">149, 20</a> = +<i>entertain joyfully</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>węnede tō wiste</b> <a href = "#lineVII_36">149, 27</a> = +<i>feasted</i> (trans.).</p> + +<p><b>Weonodland</b> (<b>Weonoðland</b>), n., <i>Wendland</i>.</p> + +<p><b>weorc</b>, n., <i>work</i>, <i>deed</i>.</p> + +<p><b>weorold</b> (<b>weoruld</b>), see <b>woruld</b>.</p> + +<p><b>weorpan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), +<i>throw</i>.</p> + +<p><b>weorðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>be</i>, +<i>become</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wer</b>, m., <i>man</i> [werwulf].</p> + +<p><b>wērig</b>, <i>weary</i>, <i>dejected</i>.</p> + +<p><b>werod</b>, n., <i>army</i>, <i>band</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wesan</b>, see <b>bēon</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">185b</span> +<p><b>Wesseaxe</b>, m. pl., <i>West Saxons</i>; gen. pl. = +<b>Wesseaxna</b>.</p> + +<p><b>west</b>, <i>west</i>, <i>westward</i>.</p> + +<p><b>westanwind</b>, m., <i>west wind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wēste</b>, <i>waste</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wēsten</b>, n., <i>waste</i>, <i>desert</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Westsǣ</b>, f., <i>West Sea</i> (west of Norway).</p> + +<p><b>Westseaxe</b>, m. pl., <i>West Saxons</i>, <i>Wessex</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīc</b>, n., <i>dwelling</i> [bailiwick].</p> + +<p><b>wīcian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>stop</i>, +<i>lodge</i>, <i>sojourn</i> [<b>wīc</b>].</p> + +<p><b>wīdre</b>, adv., <i>farther</i>, <i>more widely</i> (comparative +of <b>wīde</b>).</p> + +<p><b>wīdsǣ</b>, f., <i>open sea</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wielm</b> (<b>welm</b>), m., <i>welling</i>, <i>surging flood</i> +[<b>weallan</b>].</p> + +<p><b>wīf</b>, n., <i>wife</i>, <i>woman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīg</b>, m., n., <i>war</i>, <i>battle</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wiga</b>, m., <i>warrior</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wild</b>, <i>wild</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wildor</b>, n., <i>wild beast</i>, <i>reindeer</i>; dat. pl. = +<b>wildrum</b> (<a href = "#sec_33">§ <b>33</b>, Note</a>).</p> + +<p><b>willa</b>, m., <i>will</i>, <i>pleasure</i>; gen. pl., +<b>wilna</b> (<b>138</b>, 16).</p> + +<p><b>willan</b> (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>; <a href = +"#sec_137">§ <b>137</b>, Note 3</a>), <i>will</i>, <i>intend</i>, +<i>desire</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wilnung</b>, f., <i>wish</i>, <i>desire</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>for ðǣre wilnunga</b> <a href = "#line119_4">119, 4</a> = +<i>purposely</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wiltūn</b>, m., <i>Wilton</i> (in Wiltshire).</p> + +<p><b>wīn</b>, n., <i>wine</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīn-ærn</b>, n., <i>wine-hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wīnburne</b>, f., <i>Wimborne</i> (in Dorsetshire).</p> + +<p><b>wind</b>, m., <i>wind</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wine</b>, m., <i>friend</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Winedas</b>, m. pl., <i>the Wends</i>, <i>the Wend +country</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wine-dryhten</b>, m., <i>friendly lord</i>.</p> + +<p><b>winelēas</b>, <i>friendless</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">186</span> +<a name = "page186" id = "page186"> </a> +<p><b>winemǣg</b>, m., <i>friendly kinsman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīngeard</b>, m., <i>vineyard</i>.</p> + +<p><b>winnan</b> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>), <i>strive</i>, +<i>fight</i> [win].</p> + +<p><b>wīnsæl</b>, n., <i>wine-hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīn-sęle</b>, m., <i>wine-hall</i>.</p> + +<p><b>winter</b>, m., <i>winter</i>; dat. sing. = <b>wintra</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wintercearig</b>, <i>winter-sad</i>, <i>winter-worn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīs</b>, <i>wise</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīsdōm</b>, m., <i>wisdom</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīse</b>, <i>wisely</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wīse</b>, f., <i>manner</i>, <i>matter</i>, <i>affair</i> [in this +wise].</p> + +<p><b>wīs-fæst</b>, <i>wise</i> [wise-fast; cf. shame-faced = +shamefast].</p> + +<p><b>wīs-hycgende</b>, <i>wise-thinking</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wīsle</b>, f., <i>the Vistula</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wīslemūða</b>, m., <i>the mouth of the Vistula</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wisse</b>, see <b>witan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wist</b>, f., <i>food</i>, <i>feast</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wita</b>, m., <i>wise man</i>, <i>councillor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>witan</b> (<a href = "#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>), <i>know</i>, +<i>show</i>, <i>experience</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wītan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>reproach</i>, <i>blame</i> (with acc. of thing, dat. of person).</p> + +<p><b>wīte</b>, n., <i>punishment</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wītland</b>, n., <i>Witland</i> (in Prussia).</p> + +<p><b>wið</b> (<ins class = "correction" title = "§ missing">§ +</ins><b>94</b>, (3)), <i>against</i>, <i>toward</i>, <i>with</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>wið ēastan and wið ūpp on emnlange ðǣm bȳnum lande</b>, <i>toward the +east, and upwards along the cultivated land</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>wið earm gesæt</b> <a href = "#lineVI_750">139, 11</a> = <i>supported +himself on his arm</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>genęred wið nīðe</b> (dat.) <a href = "#lineVI_828">143, 11</a> = +<i>had preserved it from</i> (<i>against</i>) <i>violence</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wiðerwinna</b>, m., <i>adversary</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">186b</span> +<p><b>wiðfōn</b> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), <i>grapple +with</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>wiðhabban</b> (<a href = "#sec_133">§ <b>133</b></a>), +<i>withstand</i>, <i>resist</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>wiðstǫndan</b> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>), +<i>withstand</i>, <i>resist</i> (with dat.).</p> + +<p><b>wlǫnc</b>, <i>proud</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wōd</b>, see <b>wadan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wolcen</b>, n., <i>cloud</i> [welkin]; dat. pl., +<b>wolcnum</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wolde</b>, see <b>willan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wōma</b>, m., <i>noise</i>, <i>alarm</i>, <i>terror</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wǫn</b>, see <b>wan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wōp</b>, n., <i>weeping</i>.</p> + +<p><b>word</b>, n., <i>word</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wōrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>totter</i>, +<i>crumble</i>.</p> + +<p><b>worn</b>, m., <i>large number</i>, <i>multitude</i>.</p> + +<p><b>woruld</b>, f., <i>world</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>tō worulde būtan ǣghwilcum ęnde</b> <a href = "#line102_18">102, +18</a> = <i>world without end</i>.</p> + +<p><b>woruldcund</b>, <i>worldly</i>, <i>secular</i>.</p> + +<p><b>woruldhād</b>, m., <i>secular life</i> [world-hood].</p> + +<p><b>woruldrīce</b>, n., <i>world-kingdom</i>, <i>world</i>.</p> + +<p><b>woruldðing</b>, n., <i>worldly affair</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wræclāst</b>, m., <i>track or path of an exile</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wrāð</b>, <i>wroth</i>, <i>angry</i>; <i>foe</i>, +<i>enemy</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wrītan</b> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>write</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wucu</b>, f., <i>week</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wudu</b>, m., <i>wood</i>, <i>forest</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wuldor</b>, n., <i>glory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Wuldorfæder</b> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (2)</a>), m., +<i>Father of glory</i>; gen. sing., <b>Wuldorfæder</b>.</p> + +<p><b>Wuldur-cyning</b>, m., <i>King of glory</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wulf</b>, m., <i>wolf</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wund</b>, f., <i>wound</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wund</b>, <i>wounded</i>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">187</span> +<a name = "page187" id = "page187"> </a> +<p><b>wunden</b>, <i>twisted</i>, <i>woven</i>, <i>convolute</i> (past +part. of <b>windan</b>).</p> + +<p><b>wundor</b>, n., <i>wonder</i>, <i>marvel</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wundrian</b> (<a href = "#sec_130">§ <b>130</b></a>), <i>wonder +at</i> (with gen.).</p> + +<p><b>wurdon</b>, see <b>weorðan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wurðan</b>, see <b>weorðan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wylf</b>, f., <i>she wolf</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wyllað</b>, see <b>willan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>wyn-lēas</b>, <i>joyless</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wynn</b>, f., <i>joy</i>, <i>delight</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wynsum</b>, <i>winsome</i>, <i>delightful</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wyrc(e)an</b> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ <b>128</b></a>), +<i>work</i>, <i>make</i>, <i>compose</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wyrd</b>, f., <i>weird</i>, <i>fate</i>, <i>destiny</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wyrhta</b>, m., <i>worker</i>, <i>creator</i> [-wright].</p> + +<p><b>wyrm</b>, m., <i>worm</i>, <i>dragon</i>, <i>serpent</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wyrmlīca</b>, m., <i>serpentine ornamentation</i>.</p> + +<p><b>wyrð</b> (<b>weorð</b>), <i>worthy</i>; see <a href = +"#linenote114_7">114, 7-9, Note</a>.</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">187b</span> +<h5><a name = "gloss1_Y" id = "gloss1_Y" href = "#gloss_I">Y.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ylca</b>, see <b>ilca</b>.</p> + +<p><b>yldan</b> (<a href = "#sec_127">§ <b>127</b></a>), <i>delay</i>, +<i>postpone</i> [<b>eald</b>].</p> + +<p><b>yldu</b>, f., <i>age</i> [eld].</p> + +<p><b>ymbe</b> (<b>ymb</b>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (2)</a>), +<i>about</i>, <i>around</i>, <i>concerning</i> [<i>um</i>while];</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>ðæs ymb iii niht</b> <a href = "#line99_2">99, 2</a> = <i>about three +nights afterwards</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ymb-ēode</b>, see <b>ymb-gān</b>.</p> + +<p><b>ymbe-sittend</b>, <i>one who sits (dwells) round about +another</i>, <i>neighbor</i>.</p> + +<p><b>ymb-gān</b> (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>), <i>go +about</i>, <i>go around</i>, <i>circle</i> (with acc.).</p> + +<p><b>yrfe-weard</b>, m., <i>heir</i>.</p> + +<p><b>yrnan</b>, see <b>iernan</b>.</p> + +<p><b>yrre</b>, <i>ireful</i>, <i>angry</i>.</p> + +<p><b>yteren</b>, <i>of an otter</i> [<i>otor</i>].</p> + +<p><b>ȳðan</b> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b></a>), <i>lay waste</i> +(as by a deluge) [<b>ȳð</b> = <i>wave</i>].</p> + +</div> + +<span class = "pagenum">188</span> +<a name = "page188" id = "page188"> </a> + + +<span class = "pagenum">189</span> +<a name = "page189" id = "page189"> </a> +<h3><a name = "gloss_II" id = "gloss_II">II. GLOSSARY.</a></h3> + +<p class = "illustration"> +<img src = "images/decline.gif" width = "71" height = "7" +alt = "----"></p> + +<h4>MODERN ENGLISH—OLD ENGLISH.</h4> + +<p class = "mynote center"> +<a href = "#gloss2_A"> A </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_B"> B </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_C"> C </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_D"> D </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_E"> E </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_F"> F </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_G"> G </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_H"> H </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_I"> I </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_K"> K </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_L"> L </a><br> +<a href = "#gloss2_M"> M </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_N"> N </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_O"> O </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_P"> P </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_Q"> Q </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_R"> R </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_S"> S </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_T"> T </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_V"> V </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_W"> W </a> +<a href = "#gloss2_Y"> Y </a> +</p> + +<div class = "glossary"> + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_A" id = "gloss2_A" href = "#gloss_II">A.</a></h5> + +<p><b>a</b>, <i>ān</i> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>abide</b>, <i>bīdan</i> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>ābīdan</i>.</p> + +<p><b>about</b>, <i>be</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>), +<i>ymbe</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (2)</a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>to write about</b>, <i>wrītan be</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>to speak about</b> (= <b>of</b>), <i>sprecan ymbe</i>;</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>about two days afterwards</b>, <i>ðæs ymbe twēgen dagas</i>.</p> + +<p><b>adder</b>, <i>nǣdre</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>afterwards</b>, <i>ðæs</i> (<a href = "#sec_93">§ <b>93</b>, +(3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>against</b>, <i>wið</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(3)</a>), <i>on</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>Alfred</b>, <i>Ælfred</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>all</b>, <i>eall</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>also</b>, <i>ēac</i>.</p> + +<p><b>although</b>, <i>ðēah</i> (<a href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b></a>, +2).</p> + +<p><b>always</b>, <i>ā</i>; <i>ealne weg</i> (<a href = "#sec_98">§ +<b>98</b>, (1)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>am</b>, <i>eom</i> (<a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>an</b>, see <b>a</b>.</p> + +<p><b>and</b>, <i>ǫnd</i> (<i>and</i>).</p> + +<p><b>angel</b>, <b>ęngel</b> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>animal</b>, <i>dēor</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>are</b>, <i>sind</i>, <i>sint</i>, <i>sindon</i> (<a href = +"#sec_40">§ <b>40</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>army</b>, <i>werod</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>Danish army</b>, <i>hęre</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>English army</b>, <i>fierd</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>art</b>, <i>eart</i> (<a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Ashdown</b>, <i>Æscesdūn</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">189b</span> +<p><b>ask</b>, <i>biddan</i> (<a href = "#sec_65">§ <b>65</b>, Note +3</a>; <a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b>, Note 2</a>).</p> + +<p><b>away</b>, <i>aweg</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_B" id = "gloss2_B" href = "#gloss_II">B.</a></h5> + +<p><b>battle-field</b>, <i>wælstōw</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>be</b>, <i>bēon</i> (<a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b></a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>not to be</b>, see <a href = "#sec_40">§ <b>40</b>, Note 2</a>.</p> + +<p><b>bear</b>, <i>beran</i> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ +<b>114</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>because</b>, <i>for ðǣm</i> (<i>ðe</i>), <i>for ðon</i> +(<i>ðe</i>).</p> + +<p><b>become</b>, <i>weorðan</i> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>before</b> (temporal conjunction), <i>ǣr</i>, <i>ǣr ðǣm ðe</i> (<a +href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b></a>, 2).</p> + +<p><b>begin</b>, <i>onginnan</i> (<a href = "#sec_107">§ <b>107</b>, +(1)</a>; <a href = "#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>belong to</b>, <i>belimpan tō</i> + dative (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>best</b>, see <b>good</b>.</p> + +<p><b>better</b>, see <b>good</b>.</p> + +<p><b>bind</b>, <i>bindan</i> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>bird</b>, <i>fugol</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>bite</b>, <i>bītan</i> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ +<b>102</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>body</b>, <i>līc</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>bone</b>, <i>bān</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>book</b>, <i>bōc</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>both ... and</b>, <i>ǣgðer ge ... ge</i>.</p> + +<p><b>boundary</b>, <i>mearc</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>boy</b>, <i>cnapa</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">190</span> +<a name = "page190" id = "page190"> </a> +<p><b>break</b>, <i>brēotan</i> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b></a>), +<i>brecan</i>, <i>ābrecan</i> (<a href = +"#sec_114">§ <b>114</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>brother</b>, <i>brōðor</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, +(2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>but</b>, <i>ac</i>.</p> + +<p><b>by</b>, <i>frǫm</i> (<i>fram</i>) (<a href = "#sec_94">§ +<b>94</b>, (1)</a>; <a href = "#sec_141">§ <b>141</b>, +Note 1</a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_C" id = "gloss2_C" href = "#gloss_II">C.</a></h5> + +<p><b>Cædmon</b>, <i>Cædmǫn</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, +(1)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>call</b>, <i>hātan</i> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b>, +(1)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>cease</b>, <b>cease from</b>, <i>geswīcan</i> (<a href = +"#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>child</b>, <i>bearn</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>choose</b>, <i>cēosan</i> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ +<b>109</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Christ</b>, <i>Crīst</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>church</b>, <i>cirice</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>come</b>, <i>cuman</i> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ +<b>114</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>comfort</b>, <i>frōfor</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>companion</b>, <i>gefēra</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>consolation</b>, <i>frōfor</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>create</b>, <i>gescieppan</i> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ +<b>116</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_D" id = "gloss2_D" href = "#gloss_II">D.</a></h5> + +<p><b>Danes</b>, <i>Dęne</i> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ <b>47</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>day</b>, <i>dæg</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>dead</b>, <i>dēad</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>dear</b> (= <b>beloved</b>), <i>lēof</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ +<b>80</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>deed</b>, <i>dǣd</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>die</b>, <i>cwelan</i> (<a href = "#sec_114">§ +<b>114</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>division</b> (of troops), <i>gefylce</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ +<b>32</b></a>), <i>getruma</i> (<a href = +"#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>do</b>, <i>dōn</i> (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>door</b>, <i>dor</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>), +<i>duru</i> (<a href = "#sec_52">§ <b>52</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>drink</b>, <i>drincan</i> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>during</b>, <i>on</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (3)</a>). +See also <a href = "#sec_98">§ <b>98</b></a>.</p> + +<p><b>dwell in</b>, <i>būan on</i> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b>, +Note 2</a>).</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">190b</span> +<h5><a name = "gloss2_E" id = "gloss2_E" href = "#gloss_II">E.</a></h5> + +<p><b>earl</b>, <i>eorl</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>endure</b>, <i>drēogan</i> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ +<b>109</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>England</b>, <i>Ęnglalǫnd</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ +<b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>enjoy</b>, <i>brūcan</i> (<a href = "#sec_62">§ <b>62</b>, Note +1</a>; <a href = "#sec_109">§ <b>109</b>, Note 1</a>).</p> + +<p><b>every</b>, <i>ǣlc</i> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>eye</b>, <i>ēage</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_F" id = "gloss2_F" href = "#gloss_II">F.</a></h5> + +<p><b>father</b>, <i>fæder</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, +(2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>field</b>, <i>feld</i> (<a href = "#sec_51">§ <b>51</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>fight</b>, <i>feohtan</i>, <i>gefeohtan</i> (<a href = +"#sec_110">§ <b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>find</b>, <i>findan</i> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>finger</b>, <i>finger</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>fire</b>, <i>fȳr</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>fisherman</b>, <i>fiscere</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>foreigner</b>, <i>wealh</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>freedom</b>, <i>frēodōm</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>friend</b>, <i>wine</i> (<a href = "#sec_45">§ <b>45</b></a>), +<i>frēond</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>friendship</b>, <i>frēondscipe</i> (<a href = "#sec_45">§ +<b>45</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>full</b>, <i>full</i> (with genitive) (<a href = "#sec_80">§ +<b>80</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_G" id = "gloss2_G" href = "#gloss_II">G.</a></h5> + +<p><b>gain the victory</b>, <i>sige habban</i>, <i>sige niman</i>.</p> + +<p><b>gift</b>, <i>giefu</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>give</b>, <i>giefan</i> (with dative of indirect object) (<a href += "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>glad</b>, <i>glæd</i> (<a href = "#sec_81">§ <b>81</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>glove</b>, <i>glōf</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>go</b>, <i>gān</i> (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>), +<i>faran</i> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>God</b>, <i>God</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>good</b>, <i>gōd</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_H" id = "gloss2_H" href = "#gloss_II">H.</a></h5> + +<p><b>Halgoland</b>, <i>Hālgoland</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ +<b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>hall</b>, <i>heall</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">191</span> +<a name = "page191" id = "page191"> </a> +<p><b>hand</b>, <i>hǫnd</i> (<a href = "#sec_52">§ <b>52</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>hard</b>, <i>heard</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>have</b>, <i>habban</i> (<a href = "#sec_34">§ <b>34</b></a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>not to have</b>, <i>nabban</i> (p. 32, Note).</p> + +<p><b>he</b>, <i>hē</i> (<a href = "#sec_53">§ <b>53</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>head</b>, <i>hēafod</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>hear</b>, <i>hīeran</i> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ +<b>126</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>heaven</b>, <i>heofon</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>help</b>, <i>helpan</i> (with dative) (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>herdsman</b>, <i>hierde</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>here</b>, <i>hēr</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hither</b>, <i>hider</i>.</p> + +<p><b>hold</b>, <i>healdan</i> (<a href = "#sec_117">§ <b>117</b>, +(2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>holy</b>, <i>hālig</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>horse</b>, <i>mearh</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), +<i>hors</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>house</b>, <i>hūs</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_I" id = "gloss2_I" href = "#gloss_II">I.</a></h5> + +<p><b>I</b>, <i>ic</i> (<a href = "#sec_72">§ <b>72</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>in</b>, <i>on</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>indeed</b>, <i>sōðlīce</i>.</p> + +<p><b>injure</b>, <i>scęððan</i> (with dative) (<a href = "#sec_116">§ +<b>116</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>it</b>, <i>hit</i> (<a href = "#sec_53">§ <b>53</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_K" id = "gloss2_K" href = "#gloss_II">K.</a></h5> + +<p><b>king</b>, <i>cyning</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>kingdom</b>, <i>rīce</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>), +<i>cynerīce</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_L" id = "gloss2_L" href = "#gloss_II">L.</a></h5> + +<p><b>land</b>, <i>lǫnd</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>language</b>, <i>sprǣc</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>), +<i>geðēode</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>large</b>, <i>micel</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>leisure</b>, <i>ǣmetta</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>let us</b>, <i>uton</i> (with infinitive).</p> + +<p><b>limb</b>, <i>lim</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>little</b>, <i>lytel</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ +<b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>live in</b>, <i>būan on</i> (<a href = "#sec_126">§ <b>126</b>, +Note 2</a>).</p> + +<p><b>lord</b>, <i>hlāford</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">191b</span> +<p><b>love</b>, <i>lufian</i> (<a href = "#sec_131">§ +<b>131</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>love</b> (noun), <i>lufu</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_M" id = "gloss2_M" href = "#gloss_II">M.</a></h5> + +<p><b>make</b>, <i>wyrcan</i> (<a href = "#sec_128">§ +<b>128</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>man</b>, <i>sęcg</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), +<i>mǫn</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>many</b>, <i>mǫnig</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>mare</b>, <i>mȳre</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>mead</b>, <i>medu</i> (<a href = "#sec_51">§ <b>51</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Mercians</b>, <i>Mierce</i> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ +<b>47</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>milk</b>, <i>meolc</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>month</b>, <i>mōnað</i> (<a href = "#sec_68">§ <b>68</b>, (1), +Note 1</a>).</p> + +<p><b>mouth</b>, <i>mūð</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>much</b>, <i>micel</i> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, (3)</a>), +<i>micle</i> (<a href = "#sec_97">§ <b>97</b>, (2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>murderer</b>, <i>bǫna</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>my</b>, <i>mīn</i> (<a href = "#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_N" id = "gloss2_N" href = "#gloss_II">N.</a></h5> + +<p><b>natives</b>, <i>lǫndlēode</i> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ +<b>47</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>nephew</b>, <i>nefa</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>new</b>, <i>nīwe</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>Northumbrians</b>, <i>Norðymbre</i> (<a href = "#sec_47">§ +<b>47</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>not</b>, <i>ne</i>.</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_O" id = "gloss2_O" href = "#gloss_II">O.</a></h5> + +<p><b>of</b>, see <b>about</b>.</p> + +<p><b>on</b>, <i>on</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (3)</a>), +<i>ofer</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>one</b>, <i>ān</i> (<a href = "#sec_89">§ <b>89</b></a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>the one ... the other</b>, <i>ōðer ... ōðer</i>.</p> + +<p><b>other</b>, <i>ōðer</i> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ <b>77</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>our</b>, <i>ūre</i> (<a href = "#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>ox</b>, <i>oxa</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_P" id = "gloss2_P" href = "#gloss_II">P.</a></h5> + +<p><b>place</b>, <i>stōw</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>plundering</b>, <i>hęrgung</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ +<b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">192</span> +<a name = "page192" id = "page192"> </a> +<p><b>poor</b>, <i>earm</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>), +<i>unspēdig</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>prosperous</b>, <i>spēdig</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ +<b>82</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_Q" id = "gloss2_Q" href = "#gloss_II">Q.</a></h5> + +<p><b>queen</b>, <i>cwēn</i> (<a href = "#sec_49">§ <b>49</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_R" id = "gloss2_R" href = "#gloss_II">R.</a></h5> + +<p><b>reindeer</b>, <i>hrān</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>remain</b>, <i>bīdan</i> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ <b>102</b></a>), +<i>ābīdan</i>.</p> + +<p><b>retain possession of the battle-field</b>, <i>āgan wælstōwe +gewald</i>.</p> + +<p><b>rich</b>, <i>rīce</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>), +<i>spēdig</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>ride</b>, <i>rīdan</i> (<a href = "#sec_102">§ +<b>102</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_S" id = "gloss2_S" href = "#gloss_II">S.</a></h5> + +<p><b>say</b>, <i>cweðan</i> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ <b>115</b></a>), +<i>sęcgan</i> (<a href = "#sec_133">§ <b>133</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>scribe</b>, <i>bōcere</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>seal</b>, <i>seolh</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>see</b>, <i>sēon</i> (<a href = "#sec_118">§ <b>118</b></a>), +<i>gesēon</i>.</p> + +<p><b>serpent</b>, <i>nǣdre</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>servant</b>, <i>ðēowa</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>), +<i>ðegn</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>shall</b>, <i>sculan</i> (<a href = "#sec_136">§ <b>136</b></a>; +<a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b>, Note 2</a>).</p> + +<p><b>she</b>, <i>hēo</i> (<a href = "#sec_53">§ <b>53</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>shepherd</b>, <i>hierde</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>ship</b>, <i>scip</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>shire</b>, <i>scīr</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>shoemaker</b>, <i>scēowyrhta</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>side</b>, <b>on both sides</b>, <i>on gehwæðre hǫnd</i>.</p> + +<p><b>six</b>, <i>siex</i> (<a href = "#sec_90">§ <b>90</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>slaughter</b>, <i>wæl</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>), +<i>wælsliht</i> (<a href = "#sec_45">§ <b>45</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>small</b>, <i>lȳtel</i> (<a href = "#sec_82">§ <b>82</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>son</b>, <i>sunu</i> (<a href = "#sec_51">§ <b>51</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>soul</b>, <i>sāwol</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>speak</b>, <i>sprecan</i> (<a href = "#sec_115">§ +<b>115</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>spear</b>, <i>gār</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), +<i>spere</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">192b</span> +<p><b>stand</b>, <i>stǫndan</i> (<a href = "#sec_116">§ +<b>116</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>stone</b>, <i>stān</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>stranger</b>, <i>wealh</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), +<i>cuma</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>suffer</b>, <i>drēogan</i> (<a href = "#sec_109">§ +<b>109</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>sun</b>, <i>sunne</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ <b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>swift</b>, <i>swift</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_T" id = "gloss2_T" href = "#gloss_II">T.</a></h5> + +<p><b>take</b>, <i>niman</i> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>than</b>, <i>ðonne</i> (<a href = "#sec_96">§ <b>96</b>, +(6)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>thane</b>, <i>ðegn</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>that</b> (conjunction), <i>ðæt</i>.</p> + +<p><b>that</b> (demonstrative), <i>sē</i>, <i>sēo</i>, <i>ðæt</i> (<a +href = "#sec_28">§ <b>28</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>that</b> (relative), <i>ðe</i> (<a href = "#sec_75">§ +<b>75</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>the</b>, <i>se</i>, <i>sēo</i>, <i>ðæt</i> (<a href = "#sec_28">§ +<b>28</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>then</b>, <i>ðā</i>, <i>ðonne</i>.</p> + +<p><b>these</b>, see <b>this</b>.</p> + +<p><b>they</b>, <i>hīe</i> (<a href = "#sec_53">§ <b>53</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>thing</b>, <i>ðing</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>thirty</b>, <i>ðrītig</i>.</p> + +<p><b>this</b>, <i>ðēs</i>, <i>ðēos</i>, <i>ðis</i> (<a href = +"#sec_73">§ <b>73</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>those</b>, see <b>that</b> (demonstrative).</p> + +<p><b>thou</b>, <i>ðū</i> (<a href = "#sec_72">§ <b>72</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>though</b>, <i>ðēah</i> (<a href = "#sec_105">§ <b>105</b></a>, +2).</p> + +<p><b>three</b>, <i>ðrīe</i> (<a href = "#sec_89">§ <b>89</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>throne</b>, <b>ascend the throne</b>, <i>tō rīce fōn</i>.</p> + +<p><b>throw</b>, <i>weorpan</i> (<a href = "#sec_110">§ +<b>110</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>to</b>, <i>tō</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (1)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>tongue</b>, <i>tunge</i> (<a href = "#sec_64">§ +<b>64</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>track</b>, <i>spor</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>true</b>, <i>sōð</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>truly</b>, <i>sōðlīce</i>.</p> + +<p><b>two</b>, <i>twēgen</i> (<a href = "#sec_89">§ <b>89</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_V" id = "gloss2_V" href = "#gloss_II">V.</a></h5> + +<p><b>very</b>, <i>swīðe</i>.</p> + +<p><b>vessel</b>, <i>fæt</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>victory</b>, <i>sige</i> (<a href = "#sec_45">§ +<b>45</b></a>).</p> + + +<span class = "pagenum">193</span> +<a name = "page193" id = "page193"> </a> +<h5><a name = "gloss2_W" id = "gloss2_W" href = "#gloss_II">W.</a></h5> + +<p><b>wall</b>, <i>weall</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>warrior</b>, <i>sęcg</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), +<i>eorl</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>way</b>, <i>weg</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>weapon</b>, <i>wǣpen</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ +<b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>well</b>, <i>wel</i> (<a href = "#sec_97">§ <b>97</b>, +(2)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>Welshman</b>, <i>Wealh</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>went</b>, see <b>go</b>.</p> + +<p><b>westward</b>, <i>west</i>, <i>westrihte</i>.</p> + +<p><b>whale</b>, <i>hwæl</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>what?</b> <i>hwæt</i> (<a href = "#sec_74">§ <b>74</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>when</b>, <i>ðā</i>, <i>ðonne</i>.</p> + +<p><b>where?</b> <i>hwǣr</i>.</p> + +<p><b>which</b>, <i>ðe</i> (<a href = "#sec_75">§ <b>75</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>who?</b> <i>hwā</i> (<a href = "#sec_74">§ <b>74</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>who</b> (relative), <i>ðe</i> (<a href = "#sec_75">§ +<b>75</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>whosoever</b>, <i>swā hwā swā</i> (<a href = "#sec_77">§ +<b>77</b>, Note</a>).</p> + +<p><b>will</b>, <i>willan</i> (<a href = "#sec_134">§ <b>134</b></a>; +<a href = "#sec_137">§ <b>137</b>, Note 3</a>).</p> + +<p><b>Wilton</b>, <i>Wiltūn</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>win</b>, see <b>gain</b>.</p> + +<span class = "pagenum">193b</span> +<p><b>wine</b>, <i>wīn</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>wisdom</b>, <i>wīsdōm</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ +<b>26</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>wise</b>, <i>wīs</i> (<a href = "#sec_80">§ <b>80</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>with</b>, <i>mid</i> (<a href = "#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, +(1)</a>);</p> +<p class = "inset"> +<b>to fight with</b> (= <b>against</b>), <i>gefeohtan wið</i> (<a href = +"#sec_94">§ <b>94</b>, (3)</a>).</p> + +<p><b>withstand</b>, <i>wiðstǫndan</i> (with dative) (<a href = +"#sec_116">§ <b>116</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>wolf</b>, <i>wulf</i> (<a href = "#sec_26">§ <b>26</b></a>), +<i>wylf</i> (<a href = "#sec_38">§ <b>38</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>woman</b>, <i>wīf</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>word</b>, <i>word</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>worm</b>, <i>wyrm</i> (<a href = "#sec_45">§ <b>45</b></a>).</p> + + +<h5><a name = "gloss2_Y" id = "gloss2_Y" href = "#gloss_II">Y.</a></h5> + +<p><b>ye</b>, <i>gē</i> (<a href = "#sec_72">§ <b>72</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>year</b>, <i>gēar</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>yoke</b>, <i>geoc</i> (<a href = "#sec_32">§ <b>32</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>you</b>, <i>ðū</i> (singular), <i>gē</i> (plural) (<a href = +"#sec_72">§ <b>72</b></a>).</p> + +<p><b>your</b>, <i>ðīn</i> (singular), <i>ēower</i> (plural) (<a href = +"#sec_76">§ <b>76</b></a>).</p> + +</div> +<!-- end div glosssary --> + +</div> +<!-- end div maintext --> + +<div class = "endnote"> +<h5><a name = "ascii_note" id = "ascii_note" href = "#linenote109_7"> +Page 109,7: linenote</a></h5> +<pre> vi v iv iii ii i 1 2 3 4 5 6 + | | | | | | X + | | | | | | XX X X + | | | | | | XXX XX XX X X + ------------------------------- XXXX XXX XXX XX XX X + _e_ _d_ _c_ _b_ _a_ + Where the horsemen The six parts of the property + assemble. placed within one mile.</pre> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book, by +C. Alphonso Smith + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR *** + +***** This file should be named 31277-h.htm or 31277-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/2/7/31277/ + +Produced by Louise Hope, Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/31277-h/images/bottomcorner.gif b/31277-h/images/bottomcorner.gif Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0537224 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-h/images/bottomcorner.gif diff --git a/31277-h/images/bracket.gif b/31277-h/images/bracket.gif Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d69c68 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-h/images/bracket.gif diff --git a/31277-h/images/bracket3.gif b/31277-h/images/bracket3.gif Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9d3c0d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-h/images/bracket3.gif diff --git a/31277-h/images/bracket3_rt.gif b/31277-h/images/bracket3_rt.gif Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fdbaf7b --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-h/images/bracket3_rt.gif diff --git a/31277-h/images/bracket_rt.gif b/31277-h/images/bracket_rt.gif Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c38c83f --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-h/images/bracket_rt.gif diff --git a/31277-h/images/decline.gif b/31277-h/images/decline.gif Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..066902e --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-h/images/decline.gif diff --git a/31277-h/images/decsmall.gif b/31277-h/images/decsmall.gif Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7dcd7f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-h/images/decsmall.gif diff --git a/31277-h/images/dot.gif b/31277-h/images/dot.gif Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8844835 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-h/images/dot.gif diff --git a/31277-h/images/pg109note.png b/31277-h/images/pg109note.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..280ac46 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-h/images/pg109note.png diff --git a/31277-h/images/topcorner.gif b/31277-h/images/topcorner.gif Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a4530e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/31277-h/images/topcorner.gif diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e642fa6 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #31277 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/31277) |
