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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 7, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 5
+       "Cosway" to "Coucy"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 8, 2010 [EBook #32294]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. When letters are subscripted, they are
+      preceded by an underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were originally printed in
+      superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    COTTINGTON: "He signed the surrender of Oxford in July 1646, and
+      being excepted from the indemnity retired abroad." 'indemnity'
+      amended from 'idemnity'.
+
+    COTTON: "Also, inside the young bolls which had been pierced a
+      similar proliferation or growth of the tissue was set up ..."
+      'proliferation' amended from 'poliferation'.
+
+    COTTON: "Cotton Buying Company, which, constituted originally of
+      twenty to thirty limited cotton-spinning companies ..." 'thirty'
+      amended from 'thrity'.
+
+    COTTON: "Though there are local rivalries there is nothing in
+      competitive division to compare with the northern and southern
+      sections in America ..." 'competitive' amended from 'cempetitive'.
+
+    COTTON: "a good many small manufacturers exist who have little
+      capital and are practically financed by their agents or customers."
+      'financed' amended from 'financied'.
+
+    COTTON MANUFACTURE: "It is calculated by Professor Hasbach that the
+      daily wages of spinners are about 5/10 to 6/10 at Oldham ..."
+      '6/10' amended from '6/'.
+
+    COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY: "Open reeling forms lease, and seven of
+      these are united in one hank by a lease band which retains the
+      divisions." 'lease' amended from 'leas'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME VII, SLICE V
+
+              Cosway to Coucy
+
+
+
+
+Articles in This Slice:
+
+
+  COSWAY, RICHARD                   COTTER
+  COTA DE MAGUAQUE, RODRIGO         COTTESWOLD HILLS
+  CÔTE-D'OR                         COTTET, CHARLES
+  COTES, ROGER                      COTTII REGNUM
+  CÔTES-DU-NORD                     COTTIN, MARIE
+  COTGRAVE, RANDLE                  COTTINGTON, FRANCIS COTTINGTON
+  CÖTHEN                            COTTON (Anglo-Indian administrators)
+  COTMAN, JOHN SELL                 COTTON, CHARLES
+  COTONEASTER                       COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH
+  COTOPAXI                          COTTON, JOHN
+  COTRONE                           COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE
+  COTTA (German publishers)         COTTON
+  COTTA, BERNHARD VON               COTTON MANUFACTURE
+  COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS             COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY
+  COTTABUS                          COTYS
+  COTTBUS                           COUCH, DARIUS NASH
+  COTTENHAM, CHARLES PEPYS          COUCY, LE CHÂTELAIN DE
+
+
+
+
+COSWAY, RICHARD (c. 1742-1821), English miniature painter, was baptized
+in 1742; his father was master of Blundell's school, Tiverton, where
+Cosway was educated, and his uncle mayor of that town. He it was who, in
+conjunction with the boy's godfather, persuaded the father to allow
+Richard to proceed to London before he was twelve years old, to take
+lessons in drawing, and undertook to support him there. On his arrival,
+the youthful artist won the first prize given by the newly founded
+Society of Arts, of the money value of five guineas. He went to Thomas
+Hudson for his earliest instruction, but remained with him only a few
+months, and then attended William Shipley's drawing class, where he
+remained until he began to work on his own account in 1760. He was one
+of the earliest members of the Royal Academy, Associate in 1770 and
+Royal Academician in 1771. His success in miniature painting is said to
+have been started by his clever portrait of Mrs Fitzherbert, which gave
+great satisfaction to the prince of Wales, and brought Cosway his
+earliest great patron. He speedily became one of the most popular
+artists of the day, and his residence at Schomberg House, Pall Mall, was
+a well-known aristocratic rendezvous. In 1791 he removed to Stratford
+Place, where he lived in a state of great magnificence till 1821, when
+after selling most of the treasures he had accumulated he went to reside
+in Edgware Road. He died on the 4th of July 1821, when driving in a
+carriage with his friend Miss Udney. He was buried in Marylebone New
+church.
+
+He married in 1781 Maria Hadfield, who survived him many years, and died
+in Italy in January 1838, in a school for girls which she had founded,
+and which she had attached to an important religious order devoted to
+the cause of female education, known as the Dame Inglesi. She had been
+created a baroness of the Empire on account of her devotion to female
+education by the emperor Francis I. in 1834. Her college still exists,
+and in it are preserved many of the things which had belonged to her and
+her husband.
+
+Cosway had one child who died young. She is the subject of one of his
+most celebrated engravings. He painted miniatures of very many members
+of the royal family, and of the leading persons who formed the court of
+the prince regent. Perhaps his most beautiful work is his miniature of
+Madame du Barry, painted in 1791, when that lady was residing in Bruton
+Street, Berkeley Square. This portrait, together with many other
+splendid works by Cosway, came into the collection of Mr J. Pierpont
+Morgan. There are many miniatures by this artist in the royal collection
+at Windsor Castle, at Belvoir Castle and in other important collections.
+His work is of great charm and of remarkable purity, and he is certainly
+the most brilliant miniature painter of the 18th century.
+
+  For a full account of the artist and his wife, see _Richard Cosway,
+  R.A._, by G. C. Williamson (1905).     (G. C. W.)
+
+
+
+
+COTA DE MAGUAQUE, RODRIGO (d. c. 1498), Spanish poet, who flourished
+towards the end of the 15th century, was born at Toledo. Little is known
+of him save that he was of Jewish origin. The _Coplas de Mingo Revulgo_,
+the _Coplas del Provincial_, and the first act of the _Celestina_ have
+been ascribed to him on insufficient grounds. He is undoubtedly the
+author of the _Dialogo entre el amor y un viejo_, a striking dramatic
+poem first printed in the _Cancionero general_ of 1511, and of a
+burlesque epithalamium written in 1472 or later. He abjured Judaism
+about the year 1497, and is believed to have died shortly afterwards.
+
+  See "Épithalame burlesque," edited by R. Foulché-Delbosc, in the
+  _Revue hispanique_ (Paris, 1894), i. 69-72; A. Bonilla y San Martín,
+  _Anales de la literatura española_ (Madrid, 1904), pp. 164-167.
+
+
+
+
+CÔTE-D'OR, a department of eastern France, formed of the northern region
+of the old province of Burgundy, bounded N. by the department of Aube,
+N.E. by Haute-Marne, E. by Haute-Saône and Jura, S. by Saône-et-Loire,
+and W. by Nièvre and Yonne. Area, 3392 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 357,959. A
+chain of hills named the Plateau de Langres runs from north-east to
+south-west through the centre of the department, separating the basin of
+the Seine from that of the Saône, and forming a connecting-link between
+the Cévennes and the Vosges mountains. Extending southward from Dijon is
+a portion of this range which, on account of the excellence of its
+vineyards, bears the name of Côte-d'Or, whence that of the department.
+The north-west portion of the department is occupied by the calcareous
+and densely-wooded district of Châtillonais, the south-west by spurs of
+the granitic chain of Morvan, while a wide plain traversed by the Saône
+extends over the eastern region. The Châtillonais is watered by the
+Seine, which there takes its rise, and by the Ource, both fed largely by
+the _douix_ or abundant springs characteristic of Burgundy. The Armançon
+and other affluents of the Yonne, and the Arroux, a tributary of the
+Loire, water the south-west.
+
+The climate of Côte-d'Or is temperate and healthy; the rainfall is
+abundant west of the central range, but moderate, and, in places,
+scarce, in the eastern plain. Husbandry flourishes, the wealth of the
+department lying chiefly in its vineyards, especially those of the
+Côte-d'Or, which comprise the three main groups of Beaune, Nuits and
+Dijon, the latter the least renowned of the three. The chief cereals are
+wheat, oats and barley; potatoes, hops, beetroot, rape-seed, colza and a
+small quantity of tobacco are also produced. Sheep and cattle-raising is
+carried on chiefly in the western districts. The department has
+anthracite mines and produces freestone, lime and cement. The
+manufactures include iron, steel, nails, tools, machinery and other iron
+goods, paper, earthenware, tiles and bricks, morocco leather goods,
+biscuits and mustard, and there are flour-mills, distilleries, oil and
+vinegar works and breweries. The imports of the department are
+inconsiderable, coal alone being of any importance; there is an active
+export trade in wine, brandy, cereals and live stock and in manufactured
+goods. The Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway serves the department, its
+main line passing through Dijon. The canal of Burgundy, connecting the
+Saône with the Yonne, has a length of 94 m. in the department, while
+that from the Marne to the Saône has a length of 24 m.
+
+Côte-d'Or is divided into the arrondissements of Dijon, Beaune,
+Châtillon and Semur, with 36 cantons and 717 communes. It forms the
+diocese of the bishop of Dijon, and part of the archiepiscopal province
+of Lyons and of the 8th military region. Dijon is the seat of the
+educational circumscription (_académie_) and court of appeal to which
+the department is assigned. The more noteworthy places are Dijon, the
+capital, Beaune, Châtillon, Semur, Auxonne, Flavigny and Cîteaux, all
+separately treated. St Jean de Losne, at the extremity of the Burgundy
+canal, is famous for its brave and successful resistance in 1636 to an
+immense force of Imperialists. Châteauneuf has a château of the 15th
+century, St Seine-l'Abbaye, a fine Gothic abbey church, and Saulieu, a
+Romanesque abbey church of the 11th century. The château of Bussy
+Rabutin (at Bussy-le-Grand), founded in the 12th century, has an
+interesting collection of pictures made by Roger de Rabutin, comte de
+Bussy, who also rebuilt the château. Montbard, the birthplace of the
+naturalist Buffon, has a keep of the 14th century and other remains of a
+castle of the dukes of Burgundy. The remarkable Renaissance chapel
+(1536) of Pagny-le-Château, belonging to the château destroyed in 1768,
+contains the tomb of Jean de Vienne (d. 1455) and that of Jean de Longwy
+(d. 1460) and Jeanne de Vienne (d. 1472), with alabaster effigies. At
+Fontenay, near Marmagne, a paper-works occupies the buildings of a
+well-preserved Cistercian abbey of the 12th century. At Vertault there
+are remains of a theatre and other buildings marking the site of the
+Gallo-Roman town of Vertilium.
+
+
+
+
+COTES, ROGER (1682-1716), English mathematician and philosopher, was
+born on the 10th of July 1682 at Burbage, Leicestershire, of which place
+his father, the Rev. Robert Cotes, was rector. He was educated at
+Leicester school, and afterward at St Paul's school, London. Proceeding
+to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1699, he obtained a fellowship in
+1705, and in the following year was appointed Plumian professor of
+astronomy and experimental philosophy in the university of Cambridge. He
+took orders in 1713; and the same year, at the request of Dr Richard
+Bentley, he published the second edition of Newton's Principia with an
+original preface. He died on the 5th of June 1716, leaving unfinished a
+series of elaborate researches on optics, and a large amount of
+unpublished manuscript. He contributed two memoirs to the _Philosophical
+Transactions_, one, "Logometria," which discusses the calculation of
+logarithms and certain applications of the infinitesimal calculus, the
+other, a "Description of the great fiery meteor seen on March 6th,
+1716." After his death his papers were collected and published by his
+cousin and successor in the Plumian chair, Dr Robert Smith, under the
+title _Harmonia Mensurarum_ (1722). This work included the "Logometria,"
+the trigonometrical theorem known as "Cotes' Theorem on the Circle" (see
+TRIGONOMETRY), his theorem on harmonic means, subsequently developed by
+Colin Maclaurin, and a discussion of the curves known as "Cotes'
+Spirals," which occur as the path of a particle described under the
+influence of a central force varying inversely as the cube of the
+distance. In 1738 Dr Robert Smith published Cotes' _Hydrostatical and
+Pneumatical Lectures_, a work which was held in great estimation. The
+exceptional genius of Cotes earned encomiums from both his
+contemporaries and successors; Sir Isaac Newton said, "If Mr Cotes had
+lived, we should have known something."
+
+
+
+
+CÔTES-DU-NORD, a maritime department of the north-west of France, formed
+in 1790 from the northern part of the province of Brittany, and bounded
+N. by the English Channel, E. by the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, S.
+by Morbihan, and W. by Finistère. Pop. (1906) 611,506. Area, 2786 sq. m.
+In general conformation, Côtes-du-Nord is an undulating plateau
+including in its more southerly portion three well-marked ranges of
+hills. A granitic chain, the Monts du Méné, starting in the south-east
+of the department runs in a north-westerly direction, forming the
+watershed between the rivers running respectively to the Channel and the
+Atlantic Ocean. Towards its western extremity this chain bifurcates to
+form the Montagnes Noires in the south-west and the Montagne d'Arrée in
+the west of the department. The rivers of the Channel slope are the
+Rance, Arguenon, Gouessan, Gouet, Trieux, Tréguier and Léguer, while the
+Blavet, Meu, Oust and Aulne belong to the southern slope. Off the coast,
+which is steep, rocky and much indented, are the Sept-Iles, Bréhat and
+other small islands. The principal bays are those of St Malo and St
+Brieuc.
+
+The climate is mild and not subject to extremes; in the west it is
+especially humid. Agriculture is more successful on the coast, where
+seaweed can be used as a fertilizer, than in the interior. Cereals are
+largely grown, wheat, oats and buck-wheat being the chief crops.
+Potatoes, flax, mangels, apples, plums, cherries and honey are also
+produced. Pasture and various kinds of forage are abundant, and there is
+a large output of milk and butter. The horses of the department are in
+repute. It produces slate, building-stone, lime and china-clay.
+Flour-mills, saw-mills, sardine factories, tanneries, iron-works,
+manufactories of polish, boat-building yards, and rope-works employ many
+of the inhabitants, and cloth, agricultural implements and nails are
+manufactured. The chief imports are coal, wood and salt. Exports include
+agricultural products (eggs, butter, vegetables, &c.), horses, flax and
+fish. The chief commercial ports are Le Légué and Paimpol; and Paimpol
+also equips a large fleet for the Icelandic fisheries. The coast fishing
+is important and large quantities of sardines are preserved. The
+department is served by the Ouest-État railway; its chief waterway is
+the canal from Nantes to Brest which traverses it for 73 m.
+
+Côtes-du-Nord is divided into the five arrondissements of St Brieuc,
+Dinan, Guingamp, Lannion and Loudéac, which contain 48 cantons and 390
+communes. Bas Breton is spoken in the arrondissements of Guingamp and
+Lannion, and in part of those of Loudéac and St Brieuc. The department
+belongs to the ecclesiastical province, the académie (educational
+division), and the appeal court of Rennes, and in the region of the X.
+army corps. St Brieuc, Dinan, Guingamp, Lamballe, Paimpol and Tréguier,
+the more noteworthy towns, are separately treated. Extensive remains of
+an abbey of the Premonstratensian order, dating chiefly from the 13th
+century, exist at Kerity; and Lehon has remains of a priory, which dates
+from the same period. The department is rich in interesting churches,
+among which those of Ploubezre (12th, 14th and 16th centuries),
+Perros-Guirec (12th century), Plestin-les-Grèves (16th century) and
+Lanleff (12th century) may be mentioned. The church of St Mathurin at
+Moncontour, which is a celebrated place of pilgrimage, contains fine
+stained glass of the 16th century, and the mural paintings of the chapel
+of Kermaria-an-Isquit near Plouha, which belongs to the 13th and 14th
+centuries, are celebrated. Near Lannion (pop. 5336), itself a
+picturesque old town, is the ruined castle of Tonquédec, built in the
+14th century and sometimes known as "the Pierrefonds of Brittany," owing
+to its resemblance to the more famous castle. At Corseul are a temple
+and other Roman remains.
+
+
+
+
+COTGRAVE, RANDLE (?-1634), English lexicographer, came of a Cheshire
+family, and was educated at Cambridge, entering St John's College in
+1587. He became secretary to Lord Burghley, and in 1611 published his
+French-English dictionary (2nd ed., 1632), a work of real historical
+importance in lexicography, and still valuable in spite of such errors
+as were due to contemporary want of exact scholarship.
+
+
+
+
+CÖTHEN, or KÖTHEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Anhalt on the
+Ziethe, at the junction of several railway lines, 42 m. N.W. of Leipzig
+by rail. Pop. (1905) 22,978. It consists of an old and a new town with
+four suburbs. The former palace of the dukes of Anhalt-Cöthen, in the
+old town, has fine gardens and contains collections of pictures and
+coins, the famous ornithological collection of Johann Friedrich Naumann
+(1780-1857), and a library of some 20,000 volumes. Of the churches the
+Lutheran Jakobskirche (called the cathedral), a Gothic building with
+some fine old stained glass, is noteworthy. Besides the usual classical
+and modern schools (Gymnasium and Realschule) Cöthen possesses a
+technical institute, a school of gardening and a school of forestry. The
+industries include iron-founding and the manufacture of agricultural and
+other machinery, malt, beet-root sugar, leather, spirits, &c.; a
+tolerably active trade is carried on in grain, wool, potatoes and
+vegetables. Among others, there is a monument to Sebastian Bach, who was
+music director here from 1717 to 1723.
+
+In the 10th century Cöthen was a Slav settlement, which was captured and
+destroyed by the German king Henry I. in 927. By the 12th century it had
+secured town rights and become a considerable centre of trade in
+agricultural produce. In 1300 it was burned by the margrave of Meissen.
+In 1547 the town was taken from its prince, Wolfgang (a cadet of the
+house of Anhalt), who had joined the league of Schmalkalden, and given
+by the emperor Charles V., with the rest of the prince's possessions, to
+the Spanish general and painter, Felipe Ladron y Guevara (1510-1563),
+from whom it was, however, soon repurchased. Hahnemann, the founder of
+homoeopathy, lived and worked in Cöthen. From 1603 to 1847 Cöthen was
+the capital of the principality, later duchy, of Anhalt-Cöthen.
+
+
+
+
+COTMAN, JOHN SELL (1782-1842), English landscape-painter and etcher, son
+of a well-to-do silk mercer, was born at Norwich on the 16th of May
+1782. He showed a talent for art and was sent to London to study, where
+he became the friend of Turner, T. Girtin and other artists. He first
+exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1800. In 1807 he went back to Norwich
+and joined the Norwich Society of Artists, of which in 1811 he became
+president. In 1825 he was made an associate of the Society of Painters
+in Water-colours; in 1834 he was appointed drawing-master at King's
+College, London; and in 1836 he was elected a member of the Institute of
+British Architects. He died in London on the 24th of July 1842. Cotman's
+work was not considered of much importance in his own day, and his
+pictures only procured small prices; but he now ranks as one of the
+great figures of the Norwich school. He was a fine draughtsman, and a
+remarkable painter both in oil and water-colour. One of his paintings is
+in the National Gallery. His fine architectural etchings, published in a
+series of volumes, the result of tours in Norfolk and Normandy, are
+valuable records of his interest in archaeology. He married early in
+life, and had five children, his sons, Miles Edmund (1810-1858) and
+Joseph John (1814-1878), both becoming landscape-painters of merit; and
+his younger brother Henry's son, Frederic George Cotman (b. 1850), the
+water-colour artist, continued the family reputation.
+
+
+
+
+COTONEASTER, a genus of the rose family (Rosaceae), containing about
+twenty species of shrubs and small trees, natives of Europe, North
+Africa and temperate Asia. C. _vulgaris_ is native on the limestone
+cliffs of the Great Orme in North Wales. Several species are grown in
+shrubberies and borders, or as wall plants, mainly for their clusters of
+bright red or yellow berry-like fruits. Plants are easily raised by
+seeds, cuttings or layers, and grow well in ordinary soil.
+
+
+
+
+COTOPAXI, a mountain of the Andes, in Ecuador, South America, 35 m.
+S.S.E. of Quito, remarkable as the loftiest active volcano in the world.
+The earliest outbursts on record took place in 1532 and 1533; and since
+then the eruptions have been both numerous and destructive. Among the
+most important are those of 1744, 1746, 1766, 1768 and 1803. In 1744 the
+thunderings of the volcano were heard at Honda on the Rio Magdalena,
+about 500 m. distant; in 1768 the quantity of ashes ejected was so great
+that it covered all the lesser vegetation as far as Riobamba; and in
+1803 Humboldt reports that at the port of Guayaquil, 160 m. from the
+crater, he heard the noise day and night like continued discharges of a
+battery. There were considerable outbursts in 1851, 1855, 1856, 1864 and
+1877. In 1802 Humboldt made a vain attempt to scale the cone, and
+pronounced the enterprise impossible; and the failure of Jean Baptiste
+Boussingault in 1831, and the double failure of M. Wagner in 1858,
+seemed to confirm his opinion. In 1872, however, Dr Wilhelm Reiss
+succeeded on the 27th and 28th of November in reaching the top; in the
+May of the following year the same feat was accomplished by Dr A.
+Stübel, and he was followed by T. Wolf in 1877, M. von Thielmann in 1878
+and Edward Whymper in 1880.
+
+Cotopaxi is frequently described as one of the most beautiful mountain
+masses of the world, rivalling the celebrated Fujiyama of Japan in its
+symmetry of outline, but overtopping it by more than 7000 ft. It is more
+than 15,000 ft. higher than Vesuvius, over 7000 ft. higher than
+Teneriffe, and nearly 2000 ft. higher than Popocatepetl. Its slope,
+according to Orton, is 30°, according to Wagner 29°, the north-western
+side being slightly steeper than the south-eastern. The apical angle is
+122° 30'. The snowfall is heavier on the eastern side of the cone which
+is permanently covered, while the western side is usually left bare, a
+phenomenon occasioned by the action of the moist trade winds from the
+Atlantic. Its height according to Whymper is 19,613 ft., and its crater
+is 2300 ft. in diameter from N. to S., 1650 ft. from E. to W., and has
+an approximate depth of 1200 ft. It is bordered by a rim of trachytic
+rock, forming a black coronet above the greyish volcanic dust and sand
+which covers its sides to a great depth. Whymper found snow and ice
+under this sand. On the southern slope, at a height of 15,059 ft., is a
+bare cone of porphyritic andesite called _El Picacho_, "the beak," or
+_Cabeza del Inca_, "the Inca's head," with dark cliffs rising fully 1000
+ft., which according to tradition is the original summit of the volcano
+blown off at the first-known eruption of 1532. The summit of Cotopaxi is
+usually enveloped in clouds; and even in the clearest month of the year
+it is rarely visible for more than eight or ten days. Its eruptions
+produce enormous quantities of pumice, and deep layers of mud, volcanic
+sand and pumice surround it on the plateau. Of the air currents about
+and above Cotopaxi, Wagner says (_Naturw. Reisen im trop. Amerika_, p.
+514): "On the Tacunga Plateau, at a height of 8000 Paris feet, the
+prevailing direction of the wind is meridional, usually from the south
+in the morning, and frequently from the north in the evening; but over
+the summit of Cotopaxi, at a height of 18,000 ft., the north-west wind
+always prevails throughout the day. The gradually-widening volcanic
+cloud continually takes a south-eastern direction over the rim of the
+crater; at a height, however, of about 21,000 ft. it suddenly turns to
+the north-west, and maintains that direction till it reaches a height of
+at least 28,000 ft. There are thus from the foot of the volcano to the
+highest level attained by its smoke-cloud three quite distinct regular
+currents of wind."
+
+
+
+
+COTRONE (anc. _Croto, Crotona_), a seaport and episcopal see on the E.
+coast of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Catanzaro, 37 m. E.N.E. of
+Catanzaro Marina by rail, 143 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town,
+7917; commune, 9545. It has a castle erected by the emperor Charles V.
+and a small harbour, which even in ancient times was not good, but
+important as the only one between Taranto and Reggio. It exports a
+considerable quantity of oranges, olives and liquorice.
+
+
+
+
+COTTA, the name of a family of German publishers, intimately connected
+with the history of German literature. The Cottas were of noble Italian
+descent, and at the time of the Reformation the family was settled in
+Eisenach in Thuringia.
+
+JOHANN GEORG COTTA (1) (1631-1692), the founder of the publishing house
+of J. G. Cotta, married in 1659 the widow of the university bookseller,
+Philipp Braun, in Tübingen, and took over the management of his
+business, thus establishing the firm which was subsequently associated
+with Cotta's name. On his death, in 1692, the undertaking passed to his
+only son, Johann Georg (2); and on his death in 1712, to the latter's
+eldest son, also named Johann Georg (3), while the second son, Johann
+Friedrich (see below), became the distinguished theologian.
+
+Although the eldest son of Johann Georg (3), Christoph Friedrich Cotta
+(1730-1807), established a printing-house to the court at Stuttgart, the
+business languished, and it was reserved to his youngest son, JOHANN
+FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR COTTA VON COTTENDORF (1764-1832), who was born at
+Stuttgart on the 27th of April 1764, to restore the fortunes of the
+firm. He attended the gymnasium of his native place, and was originally
+intended to study theology. He, however, entered the university of
+Tübingen as a student of mathematics and law, and after graduating spent
+a considerable time in Paris, studying French and natural science, and
+mixing with distinguished literary men. After practising as an advocate
+in one of the higher courts, Cotta, in compliance with his father's
+earnest desire, took over the publishing business at Tübingen. He began
+in December 1787, and laboured incessantly to acquire familiarity with
+all the details. The house connexions rapidly extended; and, in 1794,
+the _Allgemeine Zeitung_, of which Schiller was to be editor, was
+planned. Schiller was compelled to withdraw on account of his health;
+but his friendship with Cotta deepened every year, and was a great
+advantage to the poet and his family. Cotta awakened in Schiller so warm
+an attachment that, as Heinrich Döring tells us in his life of Schiller
+(1824), when a bookseller offered him a higher price than Cotta for the
+copyright of _Wallenstein_, the poet firmly declined it, replying "Cotta
+deals honestly with me, and I with him." In 1795 Schiller and Cotta
+founded the _Horen_, a periodical very important to the student of
+German literature. The poet intended, by means of this work, to infuse
+higher ideas into the common lives of men, by giving them a nobler human
+culture, and "to reunite the divided political world under the banner of
+truth and beauty." The _Horen_ brought Goethe and Schiller into intimate
+relations with each other and with Cotta; and Goethe, while regretting
+that he had already promised _Wilhelm Meister_ to another publisher,
+contributed the _Unterhaltung deutscher Ausgewanderten_, the _Roman
+Elegies_ and a paper on Literary Sansculottism. Fichte sent essays from
+the first, and the other brilliant German authors of the time were also
+represented. In 1798 the _Allgemeine Zeitung_ appeared at Tübingen,
+being edited first by Posselt and then by Huber. Soon the editorial
+office of the newspaper was transferred to Stuttgart, in 1803 to Ulm,
+and in 1810 to Augsburg; it is now in Munich. In 1799 Cotta entered on
+his political career, being sent to Paris by the Württemberg estates as
+their representative. Here he made friendships which proved very
+advantageous for the _Allgemeine Zeitung_. In 1801 he paid another visit
+to Paris, also in a political capacity, when he carefully studied
+Napoleon's policy, and treasured up many hints which were useful to him
+in his literary undertakings. He still, however, devoted most of his
+attention to his own business, and, for many years, made all the entries
+into the ledger with his own hand. He relieved the tedium of almost
+ceaseless toil by pleasant intercourse with literary men. With Schiller,
+Huber, and Gottlieb Konrad Pfeffel (1736-1809) he was on terms of the
+warmest friendship; and he was also intimate with Herder, Schelling,
+Fichte, Richter, Voss, Hebel, Tieck, Therese Huber, Matthisson, the
+brothers Humboldt, Johann Müller, Spittler and others, whose works he
+published in whole or in part. In the correspondence of Alexander von
+Humboldt with Varnhagen von Ense we see the familiar relations in which
+the former stood to the Cotta family. In 1795 he published the
+_Politischen Annalen_ and the _Jahrbücher der Baukunde_, and in 1798 the
+_Damenalmanach_, along with some works of less importance. In 1807 he
+issued the _Morgenblatt_, to which Schorn's _Kunstblatt_ and Menzel's
+_Literaturblatt_ were afterwards added. In 1810 he removed to Stuttgart;
+and from that time till his death he was loaded with honours. State
+affairs and an honourable commission from the German booksellers took
+him to the Vienna congress; and in 1815 he was deputy-elect at the
+Württemberg diet. In 1819 he became representative of the nobility; then
+he succeeded to the offices of member of committee and (1824)
+vice-president of the Württemberg second chamber. He was also appointed
+Prussian _Geheimrat_, and knight of the order of the Württemberg crown;
+King William I. of Württemberg having already revived the ancient
+nobility in his family by granting him the patent of Freiherr (Baron)
+Cotta von Cottendorf. Meanwhile such publications as the _Polytechnische
+Journal_, the _Hesperus_, the _Württembergische Jahrbücher_, the
+_Hertha_, the _Ausland_, and the _Inland_ issued from the press. In
+1828-1829 appeared the famous correspondence between Schiller and
+Goethe. Cotta was an unfailing friend of young struggling men of talent.
+In addition to his high standing as a publisher, he was a man of great
+practical energy, which flowed into various fields of activity. He was a
+scientific agriculturist, and promoted many reforms in farming. He was
+the first Württemberg landholder to abolish serfdom on his estates. In
+politics he was throughout his life a moderate liberal. In 1824 he set
+up a steam printing press in Augsburg, and, about the same time, founded
+a literary institute at Munich. In 1825 he started steamboats, for the
+first time, on Lake Constance, and introduced them in the following year
+on the Rhine. In 1828 he was sent to Berlin, on an important commission,
+by Bavaria and Württemberg, and was there rewarded with orders of
+distinction at the hands of the three kings. He died on the 29th of
+December 1832 leaving a son and a daughter as coheirs.
+
+His son, JOHANN GEORG (4), FREIHERR COTTA VON COTTENDORF (1796-1863),
+succeeded to the management of the business on the death of his father,
+and was materially assisted by his sister's husband, Freiherr Hermann
+von Reischach. He greatly extended the connexions of the firm by the
+purchase, in 1839, of the publishing business of G. J. Göschen in
+Leipzig, and in 1845 of that of Vogel in Landshut; while, in 1845,
+"Bible" branches were established at Stuttgart and Munich. He was
+succeeded by his younger son, Karl, and by his nephew (the son of his
+sister), Hermann Albert von Reischach. Under their joint partnership,
+the before-mentioned firms in Leipzig and Landshut, and an artistic
+establishment in Munich passed into other hands, leaving on the death of
+Hermann Albert von Reischach, in 1876, Karl von Cotta the sole
+representative of the firm, until his death in 1888. In 1889 the firm of
+J. G. Cotta passed by purchase into the hands of Adolf and Paul Kröner,
+who took others into partnership. In 1899 the business was converted
+into a limited liability company.
+
+  See Albert Schäffle, _Cotta_ (1895); _Verlags-Katalog der J. G.
+  Cotta'schen Buchhandlung, Nachfolger_ (1900); and Lord Goschen's _Life
+  and Times of G. J. Göschen_ (1903).
+
+JOHANN FRIEDRICH COTTA (1701-1779), the theologian, was born on the 12th
+of March 1701, the son of Johann Georg Cotta (2). After studying
+theology at Tübingen he began his public career as lecturer in Jena
+University. He then travelled in Germany, France and Holland, and, after
+residing several years in London, became professor at Tübingen in 1733.
+In 1736 he removed to the chair of theology in the university of
+Göttingen, which had been instituted as a seat of learning, two years
+before, by George II. of England, in his capacity as elector of Hanover.
+In 1739, however, he returned, as extraordinary professor of theology,
+to his Alma Mater, and, after successively filling the chairs of
+history, poetry and oratory, was appointed ordinary professor of
+theology in 1741. Finally he died, as chancellor of Tübingen University,
+on the 31st of December 1779. His learning was at once wide and
+accurate; his theological views were orthodox, although he did not
+believe in strict verbal inspiration. He was a voluminous writer. His
+chief works are his edition of Johann Gerhard's _Loci Theologici_
+(1762-1777), and the _Kirchenhistorie des Neuen Testaments_ (1768-1773).
+
+
+
+
+COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808-1879), German geologist, was born in a
+forester's lodge near Eisenach, on the 24th of October 1808. He was
+educated at Freiberg and Heidelberg and from 1842 to 1874 he held the
+professorship of geology in the Bergakademie of Freiberg. Botany at
+first attracted him, and he was one of the earliest to use the
+microscope in determining the structure of fossil plants. Later on he
+gave his attention to practical geology, to the study of ore-deposits,
+of rocks and metamorphism; and he was regarded as an excellent teacher.
+His _Rocks classified and described: a Treatise on Lithology_
+(translated by P. H. Lawrence, 1866) was the first comprehensive work on
+the subject issued in the English language, and it gave great impetus to
+the study of rocks in Britain. He died at Freiberg on the 14th of
+September 1879.
+
+  PUBLICATIONS.--_Geognostische Wanderungen_ (1836-1838); _Grundriss der
+  Geognosie und Geologie_ (1846); _Geologische Briefe aus den Alpen_
+  (1850); _Praktische Geologie_ (1852); _Geologische Bilder_ (1852, ed.
+  4, 1861); _Die Gesteinslehre_ (1855, ed. 2, 1862).
+
+
+
+
+COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124-73 B.C.), Roman statesman and orator. In
+92 he defended his uncle P. Rutilius Rufus, who had been unjustly
+accused of extortion in Asia. He was on intimate terms with the tribune
+M. Livius Drusus, who was murdered in 91, and in the same year was an
+unsuccessful candidate for the tribunate. Shortly afterwards he was
+prosecuted under the _lex Varia_, directed against all who had in any
+way supported the Italians against Rome, and, in order to avoid
+condemnation, went into voluntary exile. He did not return till 82,
+during the dictatorship of Sulla. In 75 he was consul, and excited the
+hostility of the optimates by carrying a law that abolished the Sullan
+disqualification of the tribunes from holding higher magistracies;
+another law _de judiciis privatis_, of which nothing is known, was
+abrogated by his brother. In 74 Cotta obtained the province of Gaul, and
+was granted a triumph for some victory of which we possess no details;
+but on the very day before its celebration an old wound broke out, and
+he died suddenly. According to Cicero, P. Sulpicius Rufus and Cotta were
+the best speakers of the young men of their time. Physically incapable
+of rising to passionate heights of oratory, Cotta's successes were
+chiefly due to his searching investigation of facts; he kept strictly to
+the essentials of the case and avoided all irrelevant digressions. His
+style was pure and simple. He is introduced by Cicero as an interlocutor
+in the _De oratore_ and _De natura deorum_ (iii.), as a supporter of the
+principles of the New Academy. The fragments of Sallust contain the
+substance of a speech delivered by Cotta in order to calm the popular
+anger at a deficient corn-supply.
+
+  See Cicero, _De oratore_, iii. 3, _Brutus_, 49, 55, 90, 92; Sallust,
+  _Hist. Frag._; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 37.
+
+His brother, LUCIUS AURELIUS COTTA, when praetor in 70 B.C. brought in a
+law for the reform of the jury lists, by which the judices were to be
+eligible, not from the senators exclusively as limited by Sulla, but
+from senators, equites and _tribuni aerarii_. One-third were to be
+senators, and two-thirds men of equestrian census, one-half of whom must
+have been _tribuni aerarii_, a body as to whose functions there is no
+certain evidence, although in Cicero's time they were reckoned by
+courtesy amongst the equites. In 66 Cotta and L. Manlius Torquatus
+accused the consuls-elect for the following year of bribery in connexion
+with the elections; they were condemned, and Cotta and Torquatus chosen
+in their places. After the suppression of the Catilinarian conspiracy,
+Cotta proposed a public thanksgiving for Cicero's services, and after
+the latter had gone into exile, supported the view that there was no
+need of a law for his recall, since the law of Clodius was legally
+worthless. He subsequently attached himself to Caesar, and it was
+currently reported that Cotta (who was then quindecimvir) intended to
+propose that Caesar should receive the title of king, it being written
+in the books of fate that the Parthians could only be defeated by a
+king. Cotta's intention was not carried out in consequence of the murder
+of Caesar, after which he retired from public life.
+
+  See Cicero, Orelli's _Onomasticon_; Sallust, _Catiline_, 18;
+  Suetonius, _Caesar_, 79; Livy, _Epit._ 97; Vell. Pat. ii. 32; Dio
+  Cassius xxxvi. 44, xxxvii. 1.
+
+
+
+
+COTTABUS (Gr. [Greek: kottabos]), a game of skill for a long time in
+great vogue at ancient Greek drinking parties, especially in the 4th and
+5th centuries B.C. It is frequently alluded to by the classical writers
+of the period, and not seldom depicted on ancient vases. The object of
+the player was to cast a portion of wine left in his drinking cup in
+such a way that, without breaking bulk in its passage through the air,
+it should reach a certain object set up as a mark, and there produce a
+distinct noise by its impact. Both the wine thrown and the noise made
+were called [Greek: latax]. The thrower, in the ordinary form of the
+game, was expected to retain the recumbent position that was usual at
+table, and, in flinging the cottabus, to make use of his right hand
+only. To succeed in the aim no small amount of dexterity was required,
+and unusual ability in the game was rated as high as corresponding
+excellence in throwing the javelin. Not only was the cottabus the
+ordinary accompaniment of the festal assembly, but at least in Sicily a
+special building of a circular form was sometimes erected so that the
+players might be easily arranged round the basin, and follow each other
+in rapid succession. Like all games in which the element of chance found
+a place, it was regarded as more or less ominous of the future success
+of the players, especially in matters of love; and the excitement was
+sometimes further augmented by some object of value being staked on the
+event.
+
+Various modifications of the original principle of the game were
+gradually introduced, but for practical purposes we may reckon two
+varieties, (1) In the [Greek: Kottabos di oxybaphôn] shallow saucers
+([Greek: oxybapha]) were floated in a basin or mixing-bowl filled with
+water; the object was to sink the saucers by throwing the wine into
+them, and the competitor who sank the greatest number was considered
+victorious, and received the prize, which consisted of cakes or
+sweetmeats. (2) [Greek: Kottabos kataktos][1] is not so easy to
+understand, although there is little doubt as to the apparatus. This
+consisted of a [Greek: rhabdos] or bronze rod; a [Greek: plastinx], a
+small disk or basin, resembling a scale-pan; a larger disk ([Greek:
+lekanis]); and (in most cases) a small bronze figure called [Greek:
+manês]. The discovery (by Professor Helbig in 1886) of two sets of
+actual apparatus near Perugia and various representations on vases help
+to elucidate the somewhat obscure accounts of the method of playing the
+game contained in the scholia and certain ancient authors who, it must
+not be forgotten, wrote at a time when the game itself had become
+obsolete, and cannot therefore be looked to for a trustworthy
+description of it.
+
+The first specimen of the apparatus found at Perugia resembles a
+candelabrum on a base, tapering towards the top, with a blunt end, on
+which the small disk (found near the rod), which has a hole near the
+edge and is slightly hollow in the middle, could be balanced. At about a
+third of the height of the rod is a large disk with a hole in the centre
+through which the rod runs; in a socket at the top is a small bronze
+figure, with right arm and right leg uplifted. In the second specimen
+there is no large disk, and the figure is holding up what is apparently
+a rhyton or drinking-horn.
+
+According to Prof. Helbig in _Mittheilungen des deutschen
+archäologischen Instituts_ (Römische Abtheilung i., 1886) three games
+were played with this apparatus. In the first the smaller disk was
+placed on the top of the rod, and the object of the player was to
+dislodge it with a cast of the wine, so that it would fall with a
+clatter on the larger disk below. In the second (as in the third) the
+bronze figure was used; the smaller disk was placed above the figure,
+upon which it fell when hit, and thence on to the larger disk below. In
+the third, there was no smaller disk; the wine was thrown at the figure,
+and fell on to the larger disk underneath. Another supposed variety, in
+which two scales were balanced in such a manner that the weight of the
+liquid cast into either scale caused it to dip down and touch the top of
+an image placed under each, probably had no real existence, but is due
+to a confusion of the [Greek: plastinx] with a scale-pan by reason of
+its shape. The game appears to have been of Sicilian origin, but it
+spread through Greece from Thessaly to Rhodes, and was especially
+fashionable at Athens. Dionysius, Alcaeus, Anacreon, Pindar,
+Bacchylides, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Antiphanes,
+make frequent and familiar allusion to the [Greek: kottabos]; but in the
+writers of the Roman and Alexandrian period such reference as occurs
+shows that the fashion had died out. In Latin literature it is almost
+entirely unknown.
+
+  The most complete treatise on the subject is C. Sartori's _Das
+  Kottabos-Spiel der alten Griechen_ (1893), in which a full
+  bibliography of ancient and modern authorities is given. English
+  readers may be referred to an article by A. Higgins on "Recent
+  Discoveries of the Apparatus used in playing the Game of Kottabos"
+  (_Archaeologia_, li. 1888); see also "Kottabos" in Daremberg and
+  Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, and L. Becq de Fouquières,
+  _Les Jeux des anciens_ (1873).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The epithet [Greek: kataktos] (let down) may refer to
+    the rod, which might be raised or lowered as required; to the lower
+    disk, which might be moved up and down the stem; to the moving up and
+    down of the scales, in the supposed variety of the game mentioned
+    below.
+
+
+
+
+COTTBUS, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the Spree, 72
+m. S.E. of Berlin by the main railway to Görlitz, and at the
+intersection of the lines Halle-Sagan and Grossenhain-Frankfort-on-Oder.
+Pop. (1905) 46,269. It has four Protestant churches, a Roman Catholic
+church and a synagogue. The chief industry of the town is the
+manufacture of cloth, which has flourished here for centuries and now
+employs more than 6000 hands. Wool-spinning, cotton-spinning and the
+manufacture of tobacco, machinery, beer, brandy, &c., are also carried
+on. The town is also a considerable trading centre, and is the seat of a
+chamber of commerce and of a branch of the Imperial Bank (_Reichsbank_).
+In the Stadtwald, close to the town, is a women's hospital for diseases
+of the lungs, a government institution in connexion with the state
+system of insurance against incapacity and old age. At Branitz, a
+neighbouring village, are the magnificent château and park of Prince
+Pückler-Muskau.
+
+At one time Cottbus formed an independent lordship of the Empire, but in
+1462 it passed by the treaty of Guben to Brandenburg. From 1807 to 1813
+it belonged to the kingdom of Saxony.
+
+
+
+
+COTTENHAM, CHARLES CHRISTOPHER PEPYS, 1st EARL OF (1781-1851), lord
+chancellor of England, was born in London on the 29th of April 1781. He
+was the second son of Sir William W. Pepys, a master in chancery, who
+was descended from John Pepys, of Cottenham, Cambridgeshire, a
+great-uncle of Samuel Pepys, the diarist. Educated at Harrow and Trinity
+College, Cambridge, Pepys was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in
+1804. Practising at the chancery bar, his progress was extremely slow,
+and it was not till twenty-two years after his call that he was made a
+king's counsel. He sat in parliament, successively, for Higham Ferrars
+and Malton, was appointed solicitor-general in 1834, and in the same
+year became master of the rolls. On the formation of Lord Melbourne's
+second administration in April 1835, the great seal was for a time in
+commission, but eventually Pepys, who had been one of the commissioners,
+was appointed lord chancellor (January 1836) with the title of Baron
+Cottenham. He held office until the defeat of the ministry in 1841. In
+1846 he again became lord chancellor in Lord John Russell's
+administration. His health, however, had been gradually failing, and he
+resigned in 1850. Shortly before his retirement he had been created
+Viscount Crowhurst and earl of Cottenham. He died at Pietra Santa, in
+the duchy of Lucca, on the 29th of April 1851.
+
+Both as a lawyer and as a judge, Lord Cottenham was remarkable for his
+mastery of the principles of equity. An indifferent speaker, he
+nevertheless adorned the bench by the soundness of his law and the
+excellence of his judgments. As a politician he was somewhat of a
+failure, while his only important contribution to the statute-book was
+the Judgments Act 1838, which amended the law for the relief of
+insolvent debtors.
+
+The title of earl of Cottenham descended in turn to two of the earl's
+sons, Charles Edward (1824-1863), and William John (1825-1881), and then
+to the latter's son, Kenelm Charles Edward (b. 1874).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Campbell, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_ (1869); E.
+  Foss, _The Judges of England_ (1848-1864); E. Manson, _Builders of our
+  Law_ (1904); J. B. Atlay, _The Victorian Chancellors_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+COTTER, COTTAR, or COTTIER, a word derived from the Latin _cota_, a cot
+or cottage, and used to describe a man who occupies a cottage and
+cultivates a small plot of land. This word is often employed to
+translate the _cotarius_ of Domesday Book, a class whose exact status
+has been the subject of some discussion, and is still a matter of doubt.
+According to Domesday the _cotarii_ were comparatively few, numbering
+less than seven thousand, and were scattered unevenly throughout
+England, being principally in the southern counties; they were occupied
+either in cultivating a small plot of land, or in working on the
+holdings of the _villani_. Like the _villani_, among whom they were
+frequently classed, their economic condition may be described as "free
+in relation to every one except their lord."
+
+  See F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_ (Cambridge, 1897); and
+  P. Vinogradoff, _Villainage in England_ (Oxford, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+COTTESWOLD HILLS, or COTSWOLDS, a range of hills in the western midlands
+of England. The greater part lies in Gloucestershire, but the system
+covered by the name also extends into Worcestershire, Warwickshire,
+Oxfordshire, Wiltshire and Somersetshire. It extends on a line from N.E.
+to S.W., forming a part of the great Oolitic belt extending through the
+English midlands. On the west the hills overlook the vales of Evesham,
+Gloucester and Berkeley (valleys of the Worcestershire Avon and the
+Severn), with a bold escarpment broken only by a few abrupt spurs, such
+as Bredon hill, between Tewkesbury and Evesham. On the east they slope
+more gently towards the basins of the upper Thames and the Bristol Avon.
+The watershed lies close to the western line, except where the Stroud
+valley, with the Frome, draining to the Severn, strikes deep into the
+heart of the hills. The principal valleys are those of the Windrush,
+Lech, Coln and Churn, feeders of the Thames, the Thames itself, and the
+Bristol Avon. The last, wherein lie Bath and Bristol, forms the southern
+boundary of the Cotteswolds; the northern is formed by the valleys of
+the Evenlode (draining to the Thames) and the Stour (to the
+Worcestershire Avon), with the low divide between them. The crest-line
+from Bath at the south to Meon Hill at the north measures 57 m. The
+breadth varies from 6 m. in the south to 28 towards the north, and the
+area is some 300 sq. m. The features are those of a pleasant sequestered
+pastoral region, rolling plateaus or wolds and bare uplands alternating
+with deep narrow valleys, well wooded and traversed by shallow, rapid
+streams. The average elevation is about 600 ft., but Cleeve Cloud above
+Cheltenham in the Vale of Gloucester reaches 1134 ft., and Broadway
+Hill, in the north, 1086 ft. These heights command splendid views over
+the rich vales towards the distant hills of Herefordshire and the Forest
+of Dean. The picturesque village of Broadway at the foot of the hill of
+that name is much in favour with artists.
+
+In the soil of the hill country is so much lime that a liberal supply of
+manure is required. With this good crops of barley and oats are
+obtained, and even of wheat, if the soil is mixed with clay. But the
+poorest land of the hill country affords excellent pasturage for sheep,
+the staple commodity of the district; and the sainfoin, which grows
+wild, yields abundantly under cultivation. The Cotteswolds have been
+famous for the breed of sheep named from them since the early part of
+the 15th century, a breed hardy and prolific, with lambs that quickly
+put on fleece, and become hardened to the bracing cold of the hills,
+where vegetation is a month later than in the vales. Improved by
+judicious crossing with the Leicester sheep, the modern Cotteswold has
+attained high perfection of weight, shape, fleece and quality. An
+impulse was given to Cotteswold farming by the chartering in 1845 of the
+Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester.
+
+A number of small market-towns or large villages lie on the outskirts of
+the hills, but in the inner parts of the district villages are few. The
+"capital of the Cotteswolds" is Cirencester, in the east. In the north
+is Chipping Campden, its great Perpendicular church and the picturesque
+houses of its wide street commemorating the wealth of its wool-merchants
+between the 14th and 17th centuries. Near this town, in the parish of
+Weston-sub-Edge, Robert Dover, an attorney, founded the once famous
+Cotteswold games early in the 17th century. Horse-racing and coursing
+were included with every sort of athletic exercise from quoits and
+skittles to wrestling, cudgels and singlestick. The games were
+suppressed by act of parliament in 1851.
+
+  See _Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists' Field Club, passim_;
+  W. H. Hutton, _By Thames and Cotswold_ (London, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+COTTET, CHARLES (1863-   ), French painter, was born at Puy. He studied
+at the École des Beaux-Arts, and under Puvis de Chavannes and Roll. He
+travelled and painted in Egypt, Italy, and on the Lake of Geneva, but he
+made his name with his sombre and gloomy, firmly designed, severe and
+impressive scenes of life on the Brittany coast. His signal success was
+achieved by his painting of the triptych, "_Au pays de la mer_," now at
+the Luxembourg museum. The Lille gallery has his "Burial in Brittany."
+
+
+
+
+COTTII REGNUM, a district in the north of Liguria, including a
+considerable part of the important road which led over the pass (6119
+ft.) of the Alpis Cottia (Mont Genèvre) into Gaul. Whether Hannibal
+crossed the Alps by this route is disputed, but it was certainly in use
+about 100 B.C. (see PUNIC WARS). In 58 B.C. Caesar met with some
+resistance on crossing it, but seems afterwards to have entered into
+friendly relations with Donnus, the king of the district; he must have
+used it frequently, and refers to it as the shortest route. Donnus's son
+Cottius erected the triumphal arch at his capital Segusio, the modern
+Susa, in honour of Augustus. Under Nero, after the death of the last
+Cottius, it became a province under the title of "Alpes Cottiae," being
+governed by a _procurator Augusti_, though it still kept its old name
+also.
+
+
+
+
+COTTIN, MARIE [called SOPHIE] (1770-1807), French novelist, _née_
+Risteau (not Ristaud), was born in Paris in 1770. At seventeen she
+married a Bordeaux banker, who died three years after, when she retired
+to a house in the country at Champlan, where she spent the rest of her
+life. In 1799 she published anonymously her _Claire d'Albe_. _Malvina_
+(1801) was also anonymous; but the success of _Amélie Mansfield_ (1803)
+induced her to reveal her identity. In 1805 appeared _Mathilde_, an
+extravagant crusading story, and in 1806 she produced her last tale, the
+famous _Élisabeth, ou les exilés de Sibérie_, the subject of which was
+treated later with an admirable simplicity by Xavier de Maistre.
+Sainte-Beuve asserted that she committed suicide on account of an
+unfortunate attachment. This story is, however, unauthenticated. She
+died at Champlan (Seine et Oise) on the 25th of April 1807.
+
+  A complete edition of her works, with a notice by A. Petitot, was
+  published, in five volumes, in 1817.
+
+
+
+
+COTTINGTON, FRANCIS COTTINGTON, BARON (1578-1652), English lord
+treasurer and ambassador, was the fourth son of Philip Cottington of
+Godmonston in Somersetshire. According to Hoare, his mother was Jane,
+daughter of Thomas Biflete, but according to Clarendon "a Stafford
+nearly allied to Sir Edward Stafford," through whom he was recommended
+to Sir Charles Cornwallis, ambassador to Spain, becoming a member of his
+suite and acting as English agent on the latter's recall, from 1609 to
+1611. In 1612 he was appointed English consul at Seville. Returning to
+England, he was made a clerk of the council in September 1613. His
+Spanish experience rendered him useful to the king, and his bias in
+favour of Spain was always marked. He seems to have promoted the Spanish
+policy from the first, and pressed on Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador,
+the proposal for the Spanish in opposition to the French marriage for
+Prince Charles. He was a Roman Catholic at least at heart, becoming a
+member of that communion in 1623, returning to Protestantism, and again
+declaring himself a Roman Catholic in 1636, and supporting the cause of
+the Roman Catholics in England. In 1616 he went as ambassador to Spain,
+making in 1618 James's proposal of mediation in the dispute with the
+elector palatine. After his return he was appointed secretary to the
+prince of Wales in October 1622, and was knighted and made a baronet in
+1623. He strongly disapproved of the prince's expedition to Spain, as an
+adventure likely to upset the whole policy of marriage and alliance, but
+was overruled and chosen to accompany him. His opposition greatly
+incensed Buckingham, and still more his perseverance in the Spanish
+policy after the failure of the expedition, and on Charles's accession
+Cottington was through his means dismissed from all his employments and
+forbidden to appear at court. The duke's assassination, however, enabled
+him to return. On the 12th of November 1628 he was made a privy
+councillor, and in March 1629 appointed chancellor of the exchequer. In
+the autumn he was again sent ambassador to Spain; he signed the treaty
+of peace of the 5th of November 1630, and subsequently a secret
+agreement arranging for the partition of Holland between Spain and
+England in return for the restoration of the Palatinate. On the 10th of
+July 1631 he was created Baron Cottington of Hanworth in Middlesex.
+
+In March 1635 he was appointed master of the court of wards, and his
+exactions in this office were a principal cause of the unpopularity of
+the government. He was also appointed a commissioner for the treasury,
+together with Laud. Between Cottington and the latter there sprang up a
+fierce rivalry. In these personal encounters Cottington had nearly
+always the advantage, for he practised great reserve and possessed great
+powers of self-command, an extraordinary talent for dissembling and a
+fund of humour. Laud completely lacked these qualities, and though
+really possessing much greater influence with Charles, he was often
+embarrassed and sometimes exposed to ridicule by his opponent. The aim
+of Cottington's ambition was the place of lord treasurer, but Laud
+finally triumphed and secured it for his own nominee, Bishop Juxon, when
+Cottington became "no more a leader but meddled with his particular
+duties only."[1] He continued, however, to take a large share in public
+business and served on the committees for foreign, Irish and Scottish
+affairs. In the last, appointed in July 1638, he supported the war, and
+in May 1640, after the dismissal of the Short Parliament, he declared it
+his opinion that at such a crisis the king might levy money without the
+Parliament. His attempts to get funds from the city were unsuccessful,
+and he had recourse instead to a speculation in pepper. He had been
+appointed constable of the Tower, and he now prepared the fortress for a
+siege. In the trial of Strafford in 1641 Cottington denied on oath that
+he had heard him use the incriminating words about "reducing this
+kingdom." When the parliamentary opposition became too strong to be any
+longer defied, Cottington, as one of those who had chiefly incurred
+their hostility, hastened to retire from the administration, giving up
+the court of wards in May 1641 and the chancellorship of the exchequer
+in January 1642. He rejoined the king in 1643, took part in the
+proceedings of the Oxford parliament, and was made lord treasurer on the
+3rd of October 1643. He signed the surrender of Oxford in July 1646, and
+being excepted from the indemnity retired abroad. He joined Prince
+Charles at the Hague in 1648, and became one of his counsellors. In
+1649, together with Hyde, Cottington went on a mission to Spain to
+obtain help for the royal cause, having an interview with Mazarin at
+Paris on the way. They met, however, with an extremely ill reception,
+and Cottington found he had completely lost his popularity at the
+Spanish court, one cause being his shortcomings and waverings in the
+matter of religion. He now announced his intention of remaining in Spain
+and of keeping faithful to Roman Catholicism, and took up his residence
+at Valladolid, where he was maintained by the Jesuits. He died there on
+the 19th of June 1652, his body being subsequently buried in Westminster
+Abbey. He had amassed a large fortune and built two magnificent houses
+at Hanworth and Founthill. Cottington was evidently a man of
+considerable ability, but the foreign policy pursued by him was opposed
+to the national interests and futile in itself. According to Clarendon's
+verdict "he left behind him a greater esteem of his parts than love of
+his person." He married in 1623 Anne, daughter of Sir William Meredith
+and widow of Sir Robert Brett. All his children predeceased him, and his
+title became extinct at his death.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ and
+  authorities there quoted; Clarendon's _Hist. of the Rebellion,
+  passim_, and esp. xiii. 30 (his character), and xii., xiii. (account
+  of the Spanish mission in 1649); Clarendon's _State Papers and Life_;
+  Strafford's _Letters_; Gardiner's _Hist. of England and of the
+  Commonwealth_; Hoare's _Wiltshire_; Laud's _Works_, vols, iii.-vii.;
+  Winwood's _Memorials: A Refutation of a False and Impious Aspersion
+  cast on the late Lord Cottington_; Dart, _Westmonasterium_, i. 181
+  (epitaph and monument).     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Strafford's _Letters_, ii. 52.
+
+
+
+
+COTTON, the name of a well-known family of Anglo-Indian administrators,
+of whom the following are the most notable.
+
+SIR ARTHUR THOMAS COTTON (1803-1899), English engineer, tenth son of
+Henry Calveley Cotton, was born on the 15th of May 1803, and was
+educated at Addiscombe. He entered the Madras engineers in 1819, served
+in the first Burmese war (1824-26), and in 1828 began his life-work on
+the irrigation works of southern India. He constructed works on the
+Cauvery, Coleroon, Godavari and Kistna rivers, making anicuts (dams) on
+the Coleroon (1836-1838) for the irrigation of the Tanjore, Trichinopoly
+and South Arcot districts; and on the Godivari (1847-1852) for the
+irrigation of the Godavari district. He also projected the anicut on the
+Kistna (Krishna), which was carried out by other officers. Before the
+beginning of his work Tanjore and the adjoining districts were
+threatened with ruin from lack of water; on its completion they became
+the richest part of Madras, and Tanjore returned the largest revenue of
+any district in India. He was the founder of the school of Indian
+hydraulic engineering, and carried out much of his work in the face of
+opposition and discouragement from the Madras government; though, in the
+minute of the 15th of May 1858, that government paid an ample tribute to
+the genius of Cotton's "master mind." He was knighted in 1861. Sir
+Arthur Cotton believed in the possibility of constructing a complete
+system of irrigation and navigation canals throughout India, and devoted
+the whole of a long life to the partial realization of this project. He
+died on the 24th of July 1899.
+
+  See Lady Hope, _General Sir Arthur Cotton_ (1900).
+
+SIR HENRY JOHN STEDMAN COTTON (1845-   ), Anglo-Indian administrator,
+son of J. J. Cotton of the Madras Civil Service, was born on the 13th of
+September 1845, and was educated at Magdalen College school and King's
+College, London. He entered the Bengal Civil Service in 1867, and held
+various appointments of increasing importance until he became chief
+secretary to the Bengal government (1891-1896), acting home secretary to
+the government of India (1896), and chief commissioner of Assam
+(1896-1902). He retired in 1902, and soon became known as the leading
+English champion of the Indian nationalists. In 1906 he entered
+parliament as Liberal member for East Nottingham. He was the author of
+_New India_ (1885; revised 1904-1907).
+
+His brother, JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON (1847-   ), was born in India on
+the 17th of July 1847, and was educated at Magdalen College school and
+Trinity College, Oxford. For many years he was editor of the _Academy_;
+he published various works on Indian subjects, and was the English
+editor of the revised edition of the _Imperial Gazetteer of India_
+(1908).
+
+
+
+
+COTTON, CHARLES (1630-1687), English poet, the translator of Montaigne,
+was born at Beresford in Staffordshire on the 28th of April 1630. His
+father, Charles Cotton, was a man of marked ability, and counted among
+his friends Ben Jonson, John Selden, Sir Henry Wotton and Izaak Walton.
+The son was apparently not sent to the university, but he had as tutor
+Ralph Rawson, one of the fellows ejected from Brasenose College, Oxford,
+in 1648. Cotton travelled in France and perhaps in Italy, and at the age
+of twenty-eight he succeeded to an estate greatly encumbered by lawsuits
+during his father's lifetime. The rest of his life was spent chiefly in
+country pursuits, but from his _Voyage to Ireland in Burlesque_ (1670)
+we know that he held a captain's commission and was ordered to that
+country. His friendship with Izaak Walton began about 1655, and the fact
+of this intimacy seems a sufficient answer to the charges sometimes
+brought against Cotton's character, based chiefly on his coarse
+burlesques of Virgil and Lucian. Walton's initials made into a cipher
+with his own were placed over the door of his fishing cottage on the
+Dove; and to the _Compleat Angler_ he added "Instructions how to angle
+for a trout or grayling in a clear stream." He married in 1656 his
+cousin Isabella, who was a sister of Colonel Hutchinson. It was for his
+wife's sister, Miss Stanhope Hutchinson, that he undertook the
+translation of Corneille's _Horace_ (1671). His wife died in 1670 and
+five years later he married the dowager countess of Ardglass; she had a
+jointure of £1500 a year, but it was secured from his extravagance, and
+at his death in 1687 he was insolvent. He was buried in St James's
+church, Piccadilly, on the 16th of February 1687. Cotton's reputation as
+a burlesque writer may account for the neglect with which the rest of
+his poems have been treated. Their excellence was not, however,
+overlooked by good critics. Coleridge praises the purity and
+unaffectedness of his style in _Biographia Literaria_, and Wordsworth
+(_Preface_, 1815) gave a copious quotation from the "Ode to Winter." The
+"Retirement" is printed by Walton in the second part of the _Compleat
+Angler_. His masterpiece in translation, the _Essays of M. de Montaigne_
+(1685-1686, 1693, 1700, &c.), has often been reprinted, and still
+maintains its reputation; his other works include _The Scarronides, or
+Virgil Travestie_ (1664-1670), a gross burlesque of the first and fourth
+books of the Aeneid, which ran through fifteen editions; _Burlesque upon
+Burlesque, ... being some of Lucian's Dialogues newly put into English
+fustian_ (1675); _The Moral Philosophy of the Stoicks_ (1667), from the
+French of Guillaume du Vair; _The History of the Life of the Duke
+d'Espernon_ (1670), from the French of G. Girard; the _Commentaries_
+(1674) of Blaise de Montluc; the _Planter's Manual_ (1675), a practical
+book on arboriculture, in which he was an expert; _The Wonders of the
+Peake_ (1681); the _Compleat Gamester_ and _The Fair one of Tunis_, both
+dated 1674, are also assigned to Cotton.
+
+  William Oldys contributed a life of Cotton to Hawkins's edition (1760)
+  of the _Compleat Angler_. His _Lyrical Poems_ were edited by J. R.
+  Tutin in 1903, from an unsatisfactory edition of 1689. His translation
+  of Montaigne was edited in 1892, and in a more elaborate form in 1902,
+  by W. C. Hazlitt, who omitted or relegated to the notes the passages
+  in which Cotton interpolates his own matter, and supplied his
+  omissions.
+
+
+
+
+COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813-1866), English educationist and
+divine, was born at Chester on the 29th of October 1813. He received his
+education at Westminster school, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. Here
+he joined the Low Church party, and was also the intimate friend of
+several disciples of Thomas Arnold, among whom were C. J. Vaughan and W.
+J. Conybeare. The influence of Arnold determined the character and
+course of his life. He graduated B.A. in 1836, and became an
+assistant-master at Rugby. Here he worked devotedly for fifteen years,
+inspired with Arnold's spirit, and heartily entering into his plans and
+methods. He became master of the fifth form about 1840 and was
+singularly successful with the boys. In 1852 he accepted the appointment
+of headmaster at Marlborough College, then in a state of almost hopeless
+disorganization, and in his six years of rule raised it to a high
+position. In 1858 Cotton was offered the see of Calcutta, which, after
+much hesitation about quitting Marlborough, he accepted. For its
+peculiar duties and responsibilities he was remarkably fitted by the
+simplicity and strength of his character, by his large tolerance, and by
+the experience which he had gained as teacher and ruler at Rugby and
+Marlborough. The government of India had just been transferred from the
+East India Company to the crown, and questions of education were eagerly
+discussed. Cotton gave himself energetically to the work of establishing
+schools for British and Eurasian children, classes which had been
+hitherto much neglected. He did much also to improve the position of the
+chaplains, and was unwearied in missionary visitation. His sudden death
+was widely mourned. On the 6th of October 1866 he had consecrated a
+cemetery at Kushtea on the Ganges, and was crossing a plank leading from
+the bank to the steamer when he slipped and fell into the river. He was
+carried away by the current and never seen again.
+
+  A memoir of his life with selections from his journals and
+  correspondence, edited by his widow, was published in 1871.
+
+
+
+
+COTTON, JOHN (1585-1652), English and American Puritan divine, sometimes
+called "The Patriarch of New England," born in Derby, England, on the
+4th of December 1585. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge,
+graduating B.A. in 1603 and M.A. in 1606, and became a fellow in
+Emmanuel College, Cambridge, then a stronghold of Puritanism, where,
+during the next six years, according to his friend and biographer, Rev.
+Samuel Whiting, he was "head lecturer and dean, and Catechist," and "a
+dilligent tutor to many pupils." In June 1612 he became vicar of the
+parish church of St Botolphs in Boston, Lincolnshire, where he remained
+for twenty-one years and was extremely popular. Becoming more and more a
+Puritan in spirit, he ceased, about 1615, to observe certain ceremonies
+prescribed by the legally authorized ritual, and in 1632 action was
+begun against him in the High Commission Court. He thereupon escaped,
+disguised, to London, lay in concealment there for several months, and,
+having been deeply interested from its beginning in the colonization of
+New England, he eluded the watch set for him at the various English
+ports, and in July 1633 emigrated to the colony of Massachusetts Bay,
+arriving at Boston early in September. On the 10th of October he was
+chosen "teacher" of the First Church of Boston, of which John Wilson
+(1588-1667) was pastor, and here he remained until his death on the 23rd
+of December 1652. In the newer, as in the older Boston, his popularity
+was almost unbounded, and his influence, both in ecclesiastical and in
+civil affairs, was probably greater than that of any other minister in
+theocratic New England. According to the contemporary historian, William
+Hubbard, "Whatever he delivered in the pulpit was soon put into an order
+of court, if of a civil, or set up as a practice in the church, if of an
+ecclesiastical concernment." His influence, too, was generally
+beneficent, though it was never used to further the cause of religious
+freedom, or of democracy, his theory of government being given in an
+oft-quoted passage: "Democracy, I do not conceyve that ever God did
+ordeyne as a fitt government eyther for church or commonwealth.... As
+for Monarchy and aristocracy they are both for them clearly approved,
+and directed in Scripture yet so as (God) referreth the sovereigntie to
+himselfe, and setteth up Theocracy in both, as the best form of
+government." He naturally took an active part in most, if not all, of
+the political and theological controversies of his time, the two
+principal of which were those concerning Antinomianism and the expulsion
+of Roger Williams. In the former his position was somewhat equivocal--he
+first supported and then violently opposed Anne Hutchinson,--in the
+latter he approved Williams's expulsion as "righteous in the eyes of
+God," and subsequently in a pamphlet discussion with Williams,
+particularly in his _Bloudy Tenent, Washed and made White in the Blood
+of the Lamb_ (1647), vigorously opposed religious freedom. He was a man
+of great learning and was a prolific writer. His writings include: _The
+Keyes to the Kingdom of Heaven and the Power thereof_ (1644), _The Way
+of the Churches of Christ in New England_ (1645), and _The Way of
+Congregational Churches Cleared_ (1648), these works constituting an
+invaluable exposition of New England Congregationalism; and _Milk for
+Babes, Drawn out of the Breasts of Both Testaments, Chiefly for the
+Spirituall Nourishment of Boston Babes in either England, but may be of
+like Use for any Children_ (1646), widely used for many years, in New
+England, for the religious instruction of children.
+
+  See the quaint sketch by Cotton Mather, John Cotton's grandson, in
+  _Magnalia_ (London, 1702), and a sketch by Cotton's contemporary and
+  friend, Rev. Samuel Whiting, printed in Alexander Young's _Chronicles
+  of the First Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay from 1623 to
+  1636_ (Boston, 1846); also A. W. McClure's _The Life of John Cotton_
+  (Boston, 1846), a chapter in Arthur B. Ellis's _History of the First
+  Church in Boston_ (Boston, 1881), and a chapter in Williston Walker's
+  _Ten New England Leaders_ (New York, 1901).     (W. WR.)
+
+
+
+
+COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE, Bart. (1571-1631), English antiquary, the
+founder of the Cottonian library, born at Denton in Huntingdonshire on
+the 22nd of January 1571, was a descendant, as he delighted to boast, of
+Robert Bruce. He was educated at Westminster school under William Camden
+the antiquary, and at Jesus College, Cambridge. His antiquarian tastes
+were early displayed in the collection of ancient records, charters and
+other manuscripts, which had been dispersed from the monastic libraries
+in the reign of Henry VIII.; and throughout the whole of his life he was
+an energetic collector of antiquities from all parts of England and the
+continent. His house at Westminster had a garden going down to the river
+and occupied part of the site of the present House of Lords. It was the
+meeting-place in the last years of Elizabeth's reign of the antiquarian
+society founded by Archbishop Parker. In 1600 Cotton visited the north
+of England with Camden in search of Pictish and Roman monuments and
+inscriptions. His reputation as an expert in heraldry led to his being
+asked by Queen Elizabeth to discuss the question of precedence between
+the English ambassador and the envoy of Spain, then in treaty at Calais.
+He drew up an elaborate paper establishing the precedence of the English
+ambassador. On the accession of James I. he was knighted, and in 1608 he
+wrote a _Memorial on Abuses in the Navy_, that resulted in a navy
+commission, of which he was made a member. He also presented to the king
+an historical _Inquiry into the Crown Revenues_, in which he speaks
+freely about the expenses of the royal household, and asserts that
+tonnage and poundage are only to be levied in war time, and to "proceed
+out of good will, not of duty." In this paper he supported the creation
+of the order of baronets, each of whom was to pay the crown £1000; and
+in 1611 he himself received the title.
+
+Cotton helped John Speed in the compilation of his _History of England_
+(1611), and was regarded by contemporaries as the compiler of Camden's
+_History of Elizabeth_. It seems more likely that it was executed by
+Camden, but that Cotton exercised a general supervision, especially with
+regard to the story of Mary queen of Scots. The presentation of his
+mother's history was naturally important to James I., and Cotton himself
+took a keen interest in the matter. He had had the room in Fotheringay
+where Mary was executed transferred to his family seat at Connington.
+Meanwhile he was enlarging his collection of documents. In 1614 Arthur
+Agarde (q.v.) left his papers to him, and Camden's manuscripts came to
+him in 1623. In 1615 Cotton, as the intimate of the earl of Somerset,
+whose innocence he always maintained, was placed in confinement on the
+charge of being implicated in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury; he
+confessed that he had acted as intermediary between Sarmiento, the
+Spanish ambassador, and Somerset, and had altered the dates of
+Somerset's correspondence. He was released after about eight months'
+imprisonment without formal trial, and obtained a pardon on payment of
+£500. His friendship with Gondomar, Spanish ambassador in England from
+1613 to 1621, brought further suspicion, probably undeserved, upon
+Cotton, of unduly favouring the Catholic party. From Charles I. and
+Buckingham Cotton received no favour; his attitude towards the court had
+begun to change, and he became the intimate friend of Sir John Eliot,
+Sir Simonds d'Ewes and John Selden. He had entered parliament in 1604 as
+member for Huntingdon; in 1624 he sat for Old Sarum; in 1625 for
+Thetford; and in 1628 for Castle Rising, Norfolk. In the debate on
+supply in 1625 Cotton provided Eliot with full notes defending the
+action of the opposition in parliament, and in 1628 the leaders of the
+party met at Cotton's house to decide on their policy. In 1626 he gave
+advice before the council against debasing the standard of the coinage;
+and in January 1628 he was again before the council, urging the summons
+of a parliament. His arguments on the latter occasion are contained in
+his tract entitled _The Danger in which the Kingdom now standeth and the
+Remedy_. In October of the next year he was arrested, together with the
+earls of Bedford, Somerset, and Clare, for having circulated, with
+ironical purpose, a tract known as the _Proposition to bridle
+Parliament_, which had been addressed some fifteen years before by Sir
+Robert Dudley to James I., advising him to govern by force; the
+circulation of this by Parliamentarians was regarded as intended to
+insinuate that Charles's government was arbitrary and unconstitutional.
+Cotton denied knowledge of the matter, but the original was discovered
+in his house, and the copies had been put in circulation by a young man
+who lived after him and was said to be his natural son. Cotton was
+himself released the next month; but the proceedings in the star chamber
+continued, and, to his intense vexation, his library was sealed up by
+the king. He died on the 6th of May 1631, and was buried in Connington
+church, Huntingdonshire, where there is a monument to his memory.
+
+  Many of Cotton's pamphlets were widely read in manuscript during his
+  lifetime, but only two of his works were printed, _The Reign of Henry
+  III_. (1627) and _The Danger in which the Kingdom now Standeth_
+  (1628). His son, Sir Thomas (1594-1662), added considerably to the
+  Cottonian library; and Sir John, the fourth baronet, presented it to
+  the nation in 1700. In 1731 the collection, which had in the interval
+  been removed to the Strand, and thence to Ashburnham House, was
+  seriously damaged by fire. In 1753 it was transferred to the British
+  Museum.
+
+  See the article LIBRARIES, and Edwards's _Lives of the Founders of the
+  British Museum_, vol. i. Several of Cotton's papers have been printed
+  under the title _Cottoni Posthuma_; others were published by Thomas
+  Hearne.
+
+
+
+
+COTTON (Fr. _coton_; from Arab, _qutun_), the most important of the
+vegetable fibres of the world, consisting of unicellular hairs which
+occur attached to the seeds of various species of plants of the genus
+_Gossypium_, belonging to the Mallow order (Malvaceae). Each fibre is
+formed by the outgrowth of a single epidermal cell of the testa or outer
+coat of the seed.
+
+_Botany and Cultivation._--The genus _Gossypium_ includes herbs and
+shrubs, which have been cultivated from time immemorial, and are now
+found widely distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions
+of both hemispheres. South America, the West Indies, tropical Africa and
+Southern Asia are the homes of the various members, but the plants have
+been introduced with success into other lands, as is well indicated by
+the fact that although no species of _Gossypium_ is native to the United
+States of America, that country now produces over two-thirds of the
+world's supply of cotton. Under normal conditions in warm climates many
+of the species are perennials, but, in the United States for example,
+climatic conditions necessitate the plants being renewed annually, and
+even in the tropics it is often found advisable to treat them as annuals
+to ensure the production of cotton of the best quality, to facilitate
+cultural operations, and to keep insect and fungoid pests in check.
+
+Microscopic examination of a specimen of mature cotton shows that the
+hairs are flattened and twisted, resembling somewhat in general
+appearance an empty and twisted fire hose. This characteristic is of
+great economic importance, the natural twist facilitating the operation
+of spinning the fibres into thread or yarn. It also distinguishes the
+true cotton from the silk cottons or flosses, the fibres of which have
+no twist, and do not readily spin into thread, and for this reason,
+amongst others, are very considerably less important as textile fibres.
+The chief of these silk cottons is kapok, consisting of the hairs borne
+on the interior of the pods (but not attached to the seeds) of
+_Eriodendron anfractuosum_, the silk cotton tree, a member of the
+Bombacaceae, an order very closely allied to the Malvaceae.
+
+_Classification._--Considerable difficulty is encountered in attempting
+to draw up a botanical classification of the species of _Gossypium_.
+Several are only known in cultivation, and we have but little knowledge
+of the wild parent forms from which they have descended. During the
+periods the cottons have been cultivated, selection, conscious or
+unconscious, has been carried on, resulting in the raising, from the
+same stock probably, in different places, of well-marked forms, which,
+in the absence of the history of their origin, might be regarded as
+different species. Then again, during at least the last four centuries,
+cotton plants have been distributed from one country to another, only to
+render still more difficult any attempt to establish definitely the
+origin of the varieties now grown. Under these circumstances it is not
+surprising to find that those who have paid attention to the botany of
+the cottons differ greatly in the number of species they recognize.
+Linnaeus described five or six species, de Candolle thirteen. Of the two
+Italian botanists who in comparatively recent years have monographed the
+group, Parlatore (_Le Specie dei cotoni_, 1866) recognizes seven
+species, whilst Todaro (_Relazione sulla culta dei cotoni_, 1877-1878)
+describes over fifty species: many of these, however, are of but little
+economic importance, and, in spite of the difficulties mentioned above,
+it is possible for practical purposes to divide the commercially
+important plants into five species, placing these in two groups
+according to the character of the hairs borne on the seeds. Sir G.
+Watt's exhaustive work on _Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the
+World_ (1907) is the latest authority on the subject; and his views on
+some debated points have been incorporated in the following account.
+
+[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
+of Gustav Fischer.
+
+FIG. 1.--Seed-hairs of the Cotton, _Gossypium herbaceum_. A, Part of
+seed-coat with hairs; B_1, insertion and lower part; B_2, middle part;
+and B_3, upper part of a hair.]
+
+A seed of "Sea Island cotton" is covered with long hairs only, which are
+readily pulled off, leaving the comparatively small black seed quite
+clean or with only a slight fuzz at the end, whereas a seed of "Upland"
+or ordinary American cotton bears both long and short hairs; the former
+are fairly easily detached (less easily, however, than in Sea Island
+cotton), whilst the latter adhere very firmly, so that when the long
+hairs are pulled off the seed remains completely covered with a short
+fuzz. This is also the case with the ordinary Indian and African
+cottons. There remains one other important group, the so-called "kidney"
+cottons in which there are only long hairs, and the seed easily comes
+away clean as with "Sea Island," but, instead of each seed being
+separate, the whole group in each of the three compartments of the
+capsule is firmly united together in a more or less kidney-shaped mass.
+Starting with this as the basis of classification, we can construct the
+following key, the remaining principal points of difference being
+indicated in their proper places:--
+
+  i.  Seeds covered with long hairs only, flowers yellow, turning to red.
+
+       A. Seeds separate.
+          Country of origin, Tropical America--(1) _G. barbadense_, L.
+       B. Seeds of each loculus united.
+          Country of origin, S. America--(2) _G. brasiliense_, Macf.
+
+  ii. Seeds covered with long and short hairs.
+
+       A. Flowers yellow or white, turning to red.
+              a. Leaves 3 to 5 lobed, often large. Flowers white.
+                 Country of origin, Mexico--(3) _G. hirsutum_, L.
+              b. Leaves 3 to 5, seldom 7 lobed. Small. Flowers yellow.
+                 Country of origin, India--(4) _G. herbaceum_, L.
+       B. Flowers purple or red. Leaves 3 to 7 lobed.
+            Place of origin, Old World--(5) _G. arboreum_, L.
+
+1. _G. barbadense_, Linn. This plant, known only in cultivation, is
+usually regarded as native to the West Indies. Watt regards it as
+closely allied to _G. vitifolium_, and considers the modern stock a
+hybrid, and probably not indigenous to the West Indies. He classifies
+the modern high-class Sea Island cottons as _G. barbadense_, var.
+_maritima_. Whatever may be its true botanical name it is the plant
+known in commerce as "Sea Island" cotton, owing to its introduction and
+successful cultivation in the Sea Islands and the coastal districts of
+South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. It yields the most valuable of all
+cottons, the hairs being long, fine and silky, and ranging in length
+from 3/8 to 2½ in. By careful selection (the methods of which are
+described below) in the United States, the quality of the product was
+much improved, and on the recent revival of the cotton industry in the
+West Indies American "Sea Island" seed was introduced back again to the
+original home of the species.
+
+Egyptian cotton is usually regarded as being derived from the same
+species. Watt considers many of the Egyptian cottons to be races or
+hybrids of _G. peruvianum_, Cav. Egyptian cotton in length of staple is
+intermediate between average Sea Island and average Upland. It has,
+however, certain characteristics which cause it to be in demand even in
+the United States, where during recent years Egyptian cotton has
+comprised about 80% of all the "foreign" cottons imported. These special
+qualities are its fineness, strength, elasticity and great natural
+twist, which combined enable it to make very fine, strong yarns, suited
+to the manufacture of the better qualities of hosiery, for mixing with
+silk and wool, for making lace, &c. It also mercerizes very well. The
+principal varieties of Egyptian cotton are: _Mitafifi_, the best-known
+and most extensively grown, hardy and but little affected by climatic
+variation. It is usually regarded as the standard Egyptian cotton; the
+lint is yellowish brown, the seeds black and almost smooth, usually with
+a little tuft of short green hairs at the ends. _Abassi_, a variety
+comparatively recently obtained by selection. The lint is pure white,
+very fine and silky, but not so strong as Mitafifi cotton. _Yannovitch_,
+a variety known since about 1897, yields the finest and most silky lint
+of the white Egyptian cottons. _Bamia_, yielding a brown lint, very
+similar to Mitafifi, but slightly less valuable. _Ashmouni_, a variety
+principally cultivated in Upper Egypt. The lint is brown and generally
+resembles Mitafifi but is less valuable.
+
+Other varieties are _Zifiri_, _Hamouli_ and _Gallini_, all of minor
+importance.
+
+2. _G. brasiliense_, Macf. (_G. peruvianum_, Engler), or kidney cotton.
+Amongst the varieties of cotton which are derived from this species
+appear to be Pernambuco, Maranham, Ceara, Aracaty and Maceio cottons.
+The fibre is generally white, somewhat harsh and wiry, and especially
+adapted for mixing with wool. The staple varies in length from 1 to
+about 1½ in.
+
+3. _G. hirsutum_, Linn. Although _G. barbadense_ yields the most
+valuable cotton, _G. hirsutum_ is the most important cotton-yielding
+plant, being the source of American cotton, i.e. Upland, Georgia, New
+Orleans and Texas varieties. The staple varies usually in length between
+¾ and 1¼ in. According to Watt there are many hybrids in American
+cottons between _G. hirsutum_ and _G. mexicanum_.
+
+
+4. _G. herbaceum_, Linn. Levant cotton is derived from this species. The
+majority of the races of cotton cultivated in India are often referred
+to this species, which is closely allied to _G. hirsutum_ and has been
+regarded as identical with it. Amongst the cottons of this source are
+Hinganghat, Tinnevelly, Dharwar, Broach, Amraoti (Oomras or
+Oomrawattee), Kumta, Westerns, Dholera, Verawal, Bengals, Sind and
+Bhaunagar. Watt dissents from this view and classes these Indian cottons
+as _G. obtusifolium_ and _G. Nanking_ with their varieties. The Indian
+cottons are usually of short staple (about ¾ in.), but are probably
+capable of improvement.
+
+5. _G. arboreum_, Linn. This species is often considered as indigenous
+to India, but Dr Engler has pointed out that it is found wild in Upper
+Guinea, Abyssinia, Senegal, etc. It is the "tree cotton" of India and
+Africa, being typically a large shrub or small tree. The fibre is fine
+and silky, of about an inch in length. In India it is known as Nurma or
+Deo cotton, and is usually stated to be employed for making thread for
+the turbans of the priests. Commercially it is of comparatively minor
+importance.
+
+The following table, summarized from the _Handbook to the Imperial
+Institute Cotton Exhibition_, 1905, giving the length of staple and
+value on one date (January 16, 1905), will serve to indicate the
+_comparative_ values of some of the principal commercial cottons. The
+actual value, of course, fluctuates greatly.
+
+                              Length of Staple.  Value
+                                   Inches.       Per lb.
+  Sea Island Cotton--                             s. d.
+    Carolina Sea Island             1.8           1  3
+    Florida   "     "               1.8           1  0
+    Georgia   "     "               1.7             11¼
+    Barbados  "     "               2.0           1  3
+
+  Egyptian Cottons--
+    Yannovitch                      1.5              9¼
+    Abassi                          1.5              8¾
+    Good Brown Egyptian (Mitafifi)  1.2              7½
+
+  American Cotton--
+    Good middling Memphis           1.3              4-2/5
+    Good middling Texas             1.0              4-1/5
+    Good middling Upland            1.0              4
+
+  Indian Cottons--
+    Fine Tinnevelly                 0.8              4¼
+    Fine Bhaunagar                  1.0              3-7/8
+    Fine Amraoti                    1.0              3-7/8
+    Fine Broach                     0.9              3-13/16
+    Fine Bengal                     0.9              3-11/16
+    Fine ginned Sind                0.8              3-11/16
+    Good ginned Kumta               1.0              3½
+
+The close relationship between the length of the staple and the market
+price will be at once apparent.
+
+_Cultivation._--Cotton is very widely cultivated throughout the world,
+being grown on a greater or less scale as a commercial crop in almost
+every country included in the broad belt between latitudes 43° N. and
+33° S., or approximately within the isothermal lines of 60° F.
+
+The cotton plant requires certain conditions for its successful
+cultivation; but, given these, it is very little affected by seasonal
+vicissitudes. Thus, for example, in the United States the worst season
+rarely diminishes the crop by more than about a quarter or one-third;
+such a thing as a "half-crop" is unknown. Various climatic factors may
+cause temporary checks, but the growing and maturing period is
+sufficiently long to allow the plants to overcome these disturbances.
+
+Cotton requires for its development from six to seven months of
+favourable weather. It thrives in a warm atmosphere, even in a very hot
+one, provided that it is moist and that the transpiration is not in
+excess of the supply of water. An idea of the requirements of the plant
+will perhaps be afforded by summarizing the conditions which have been
+found to give the best results in the United States.
+
+During April (when the seed is usually sown) and May frequent light
+showers, which keep the ground sufficiently moist to assist germination
+and the growth of the young plants, are desired. Three to four inches of
+rain per month is the average. The active growing period is from early
+June to about the middle of August. During June and the first fortnight
+in July plenty of sunshine is necessary, accompanied by sufficient rain
+to promote healthy, but not excessive, growth; the normal rainfall in
+the cotton belt for this period is about 4½ in. per month. During the
+second portion of July and the first of August a slightly higher
+rainfall is beneficial, and even heavy rains do little harm, provided
+the subsequent months are dry and warm. The first flowers usually appear
+in June, and the bolls ripen from early in August. Picking takes place
+normally during September and October, and during these months dry
+weather is essential. Flowering and fruiting go on continually, although
+in diminishing degree, until the advent of frost, which kills the
+flowers and young bolls and so puts an end to the production of cotton
+for the season.
+
+In the tropics the essential requirements are very similar, but there
+the dry season checks production in much the same way as do the frosts
+in temperate climates. In either case an adequate but not excessive
+rainfall, increasing from the time of sowing to the period of active
+growth, and then decreasing as the bolls ripen, with a dry picking
+season, combined with sunny days and warm nights, provide the ideal
+conditions for successful cotton cultivation. In regions where climatic
+conditions are favourable, cotton grows more or less successfully on
+almost all kinds of soil; it can be grown on light sandy soils, loams,
+heavy clays and sandy "bottom" lands with varying success. Sandy uplands
+produce a short stalk which bears fairly well. Clay and "bottom" lands
+produce a large, leafy plant, yielding less lint in proportion. The most
+suitable soils are medium grades of loam. The soil should be able to
+maintain very uniform conditions of moisture. Sudden variations in the
+amount of water supplied are injurious: a sandy soil cannot retain
+water; on the other hand a clay soil often maintains too great a supply,
+and rank growth with excess of foliage ensues. The best soil for cotton
+is thus a deep, well-drained loam, able to afford a uniform supply of
+moisture during the growing period. Wind is another important factor, as
+cotton does not do well in localities subject to very high winds; and in
+exposed situations, otherwise favourable, wind belts have at times to be
+provided.
+
+_Cultivation in the United States._--The United States being the most
+important cotton-producing country, the methods of cultivation practised
+there are first described, notes on methods adopted in other countries
+being added only when these differ considerably from American practice.
+
+The culture of cotton must be a clean one. It is not necessarily deep
+culture, and during the growing season the cultivation is preferably
+very shallow. The result is a great destruction of the humus of the
+soil, and great leaching and washing, especially in the light loams of
+the hill country of the United States. The main object, therefore, of
+the American cotton-planter is to prevent erosion. Wherever the planters
+have failed to guard their fields by hillside ploughing and terracing,
+these have been extensively denuded of soil, rendering them barren, and
+devastating other fields lying at a lower level, which are covered by
+the wash. The hillsides have gradually to be terraced with the plough,
+upon almost an exact level. On the better farms this is done with a
+spirit-level or compass from time to time and hillside ditches put in at
+the proper places. In the moist bottom-lands along the rivers it is the
+custom to throw the soil up in high beds with the plough, and then to
+cultivate them deep. This is the more common method of drainage, but it
+is expensive, as it has to be renewed every few years. More intelligent
+planters drain their bottom-lands with underground or open drains. In
+the case of small plantations the difficulties of adjusting a
+right-of-way for outlet ditches have interfered seriously with this
+plan. Many planters question the wisdom of deepbreaking and subsoiling.
+There can be no question that a deep soil is better for the
+cotton-plant; but the expense of obtaining it, the risk of injuring the
+soil through leaching, and the danger of bringing poor soil to the
+surface, have led many planters to oppose this plan. Sandy soils are
+made thereby too dry and leachy, and it is a questionable proceeding to
+turn the heavy clays upon the top. Planters are, as a result, divided in
+opinion as to the wisdom of subsoiling. Nothing definite can be said
+with regard to a rotation of crops upon the cotton plantation. Planters
+appreciate generally the value of broad-leaved and narrow-leaved plants
+and root crops, but there is an absence of exact knowledge, with the
+result that their practices are very varied. It is believed that the
+rotation must differ with every variety of soil, with the result that
+each planter has his own method, and little can be said in general. A
+more careful study of the physical as well as the chemical properties of
+a soil must precede intelligent experimentation in rotation. This
+knowledge is still lacking with regard to most of the cotton soils. The
+only uniform practice is to let the fields "rest" when they have become
+exhausted. Nature then restores them very rapidly. The exhaustion of the
+soil under cotton culture is chiefly due to the loss of humus, and
+nature soon puts this back in the excellent climate of the
+cotton-growing belt. Fields considered utterly used up, and allowed to
+"rest" for years, when cultivated again have produced better crops than
+those which had been under a more or less thoughtful rotation. In spite
+of the clean culture, good crops of cotton have been grown on some soils
+in the south for more than forty successive years. The fibre takes
+almost nothing from the land, and where the seeds are restored to the
+soil in some form, even without other fertilizers, the exhaustion of the
+soil is very slow. If the burning-up of humus and the leaching of the
+soil could be prevented, there is no reason why a cotton soil should not
+produce good crops continuously for an indefinite time. Bedding up land
+previous to planting is almost universal. The bed forms a warm seed-bed
+in the cool weather of early spring, and holds the manure which is
+drilled in usually to better advantage. The plants are generally left 2
+or 3 in. above the middle of the row, which in four-foot rows gives a
+slope of 1 in. to the foot, causing the plough to lean from the plants
+in cultivating, and thus to cut fewer roots. The plants are usually cut
+out with a hoe from 8 to 14 in. apart. It seems to make little
+difference exactly what distance they are, so long as they are not wider
+apart on average land than 1 ft. On rich bottom-land they should be more
+distant. The seed is dropped from a planter, five or six seeds in a
+single line, at regular intervals 10 to 12 in. apart. A narrow deep
+furrow is usually run immediately in advance of the planter, to break up
+the soil under the seed. The only time the hoe is used is to thin out
+the cotton in the row; all the rest of the cultivation is by various
+forms of ploughs and so-called cultivators. The question of deep and
+shallow culture has been much discussed among planters without any
+conclusion applicable to all soils being reached. All grass and weeds
+must be kept down, and the crust must be broken after every rain, but
+these seem to be the only principles upon which all agree. The most
+effective tool against the weeds is a broad sharp "sweep," as it is
+called, which takes everything it meets, while going shallower than most
+ploughs. Harrows and cultivators are used where there are few weeds, and
+the mulching process is the one desired.
+
+The date of cotton-planting varies from March 1 to June 1, according to
+situation. Planting begins early in March in Southern Texas, and the
+first blooms will appear there about May 15. Planting may be done as
+late as April 15 in the Piedmont region of North Carolina, and continue
+as late as the end of May. The first blooms will appear in this region
+about July 15. Picking may begin on July 10 in Southern Texas, and
+continue late into the winter, or until the rare frost kills the plants.
+It may not begin until September 10 in Piedmont, North Carolina. It is a
+peculiarity of the cotton-plant to lose a great many of its blooms and
+bolls. When the weather is not favourable at the fruiting stage, the
+otherwise hardy cotton plant displays its great weakness in this way. It
+sheds its "forms" (as the buds are called), blooms, and even half-grown
+bolls in great numbers. It has frequently been noted that even
+well-fertilized plants upon good soil will mature only 15 or 20% of the
+bolls produced. No means are known so far for preventing this great
+waste. Experts are at an entire loss to form a correct idea of the
+cause, or to apply any effective remedy.
+
+Cotton-picking is at once the most difficult and most expensive
+operation in cotton production. It is paid for at the rate of from 45 to
+50 cents per cwt. of seed cotton. The work is light, and is effectually
+performed by women and even children, as well as men; but it is tedious
+and requires care. The picking season will average 100 days. It is
+difficult to get the hands to work until the cotton is fully opened, and
+it is hard to induce them to pick over 100 lb. a day, though some
+expert hands are found in every cotton plantation who can pick twice as
+much. The loss resulting from careless work is very serious. The cotton
+falls out easily or is dropped. The careless gathering of dead leaves
+and twigs, and the soiling of the cotton by earth or by the natural
+colouring matter from the bolls, injure the quality. It has been
+commonly thought that the production of cotton in the south is limited
+by the amount that can be picked, but this limit is evidently very
+remote. The negro population of the towns and villages of the cotton
+country is usually available for a considerable share in cotton-picking.
+There is in the cotton states a rural population of over 7,000,000, more
+or less occupied in cotton-growing, and capable, at the low average of
+100 lb. a day, of picking daily nearly 500,000 bales. It is evident,
+therefore, that if this number could work through the whole season of
+100 days, they could pick three or four times as much cotton as the
+largest crop ever made. Great efforts have been made to devise
+cotton-picking machines, but, as yet, complete success has not been
+attained. Lowne's machine is useful in specially wide-planted fields and
+when the ground is sufficiently hard.
+
+_Cotton Ginning._--The crop having been picked, it has to be prepared
+for purpose of manufacture. This comprises separating the fibre or lint
+from the seeds, the operation being known as "ginning." When this has
+been accomplished the weight of the crop is reduced to about one-third,
+each 100 lb. of seed cotton as picked yielding after ginning some 33
+lb of lint and 66 lb. of cotton seed. The actual amounts differ with
+different varieties, conditions of cultivation, methods of ginning, &c.;
+a recent estimate in the United States gives 35% of lint for Upland
+cotton and 25% for Sea Island cotton as more accurate.
+
+The separation of lint from seed is accomplished in various ways. The
+most primitive is hand-picking, the fibre being laboriously pulled from
+off each seed, as still practised in parts of Africa. In modern
+commercial cotton production ginning machines are always used. Very
+simple machines are used in some parts of Africa. The simplest cotton
+gin in extensive use is the "churka," used from early times, and still
+largely employed in India and China. It consists essentially of two
+rollers either both of wood, or one of wood and one of iron, geared to
+revolve in contact in opposite directions; the seed cotton is fed to the
+rollers, the lint is drawn through, and the seed being unable to pass
+between the rollers is rejected. With this primitive machine, worked by
+hand, about 5 lb. of lint is the daily output. In the Macarthy roller
+gin, the lint, drawn by a roller covered with leather (preferably walrus
+hide), is drawn between a metal plate called the "doctor" (fixed
+tangentially to the roller and very close to it) and a blade called the
+"beater" or knife, which rapidly moves up and down immediately behind,
+and parallel to, the fixed plate. The lint is held by the roughness of
+the roller, and the blade of the knife or beater readily detaches the
+seed from the lint; the seed falls through a grid, while the lint passes
+over the roller to the other side of the machine. A hand Macarthy roller
+gin worked by two men will clean about 4 to 6 lb. of lint per hour. A
+similar, but larger machine, requiring about 1½ horse-power to run it,
+will turn out 50 to 60 lb. of Egyptian or 60 to 80 lb. of Sea Island
+cleaned cotton per hour. By simple modifications the Macarthy gin can be
+used for all kinds of cotton. Various attempts have been made to
+substitute a comb for the knife or beater, and one of the latest
+productions is the "Universal fibre gin," in which a series of blunt
+combs working horizontally replace the solid beater and so-called knife
+of the Macarthy gin.
+
+Opposed to the various types of roller gins is the "saw gin," invented
+by Eli Whitney, an American, in 1792. This machine, under various
+modifications, is employed for ginning the greater portion of the cotton
+grown in the Southern States of America. It consists essentially of a
+series of circular notched disks, the so-called saws, revolving between
+the interstices of an iron bed upon which the cotton is placed: the
+teeth of the "saws". catch the lint and pull it off from the seeds, then
+a revolving brush removes the detached lint from the saws, and creates
+sufficient draught to carry the lint out of the machine to some
+distance. Saw gins do considerable damage to the fibre, but for
+short-stapled cotton they are largely used, owing to their great
+capacity. The average yield of lint per "saw" in the United States, when
+working under perfect conditions, is about 6 lb. per hour. Some of the
+American ginners are very large indeed, a number (_Bulletin of the
+Bureau of the Census on Cotton Production_) being reported as containing
+on the average 1156 saws with an average production of 4120 bales of
+cotton. Saw gins are not adapted to long-stapled cottons, such as Sea
+Island and Egyptian, which are generally ginned by machines of the
+Macarthy type.
+
+The machine which will gin the largest quantity in the shortest time is
+naturally preferred, unless such injury is occasioned as materially to
+diminish the market value of the cotton. This has sometimes been to the
+extent of 1d. or 2d. per lb. and even more as regards Sea Island and
+other long-stapled cottons. The production, therefore, of the most
+perfect and efficient cotton-cleaning machinery is of importance alike
+to the planter and manufacturer.
+
+_Baling._--The cotton leaves the ginning machine in a very loose
+condition, and has to be compressed into bales for convenience of
+transport. Large baling presses are worked by hydraulic power; the
+operation needs no special description. Bales from different countries
+vary greatly in size, weight and appearance. The American bale has been
+described in a standard American book on cotton as "the clumsiest,
+dirtiest, most expensive and most wasteful package, in which cotton or
+any other commodity of like value is anywhere put up." Suggestions for
+its improvement, which if carried out would (it is estimated) result in
+a monetary saving of £1,000,000 annually, were made by the Lancashire
+Private Cotton Investigation Commission which visited the Southern
+States of America in 1906.
+
+The approximate weights of some of the principal bales on the English
+market are as follows:--
+
+  United States           500 lb.
+  Indian                  400 lb.
+  Egyptian                700 lb.
+  Peruvian                200 lb.
+  Brazilian               200 to 300 lb.
+
+With baling the work of the producer is concluded.
+
+_Cultivation in Egypt._--Climatic conditions in Egypt differ radically
+from those in the United States, the rainfall being so small as to be
+quite insufficient for the needs of the plant, very little rain indeed
+falling in the Nile Delta during the whole growing season of the crop:
+yet Egypt is in order the third cotton-producing country of the world,
+elaborate irrigation works supplying the crop with the requisite water.
+The area devoted to cotton in Egypt is about 1,800,000 acres, and
+nine-tenths of it is in the Nile Delta. The delta soil is typically a
+heavy, black, alluvial clay, very fertile, but difficult to work;
+admixture of sand is beneficial, and the localities where this occurs
+yield the best cotton. Formerly in Egypt the cotton was treated as a
+perennial, but this practice has been generally abandoned, and fresh
+plants are raised from seed each year, as in America; one great
+advantage is that more than one crop can thus be obtained each year. The
+following rotation is frequently adopted. It should be noted that in
+Egypt the year is divided into three seasons--winter, summer and "Nili."
+The two first explain themselves; Nili is the season in which the Nile
+overflows its banks.
+
+  +----------------+---------------+-----------+---------------+
+  |                |    Winter.    |  Summer.  |     Nili.     |
+  |                +---------------+-----------+---------------+
+  | First year     |Clover         |   Cotton  |      ..       |
+  | Second year    |Beans or wheat |     ..    |Corn or fallow |
+  +----------------+---------------+-----------+---------------+
+
+For cotton cultivation the land is ploughed, carefully levelled, and
+then thrown up into ridges about 3 ft. apart. Channels formed at right
+angles to the cultivation ridges provide for the access of water to the
+crop. The seeds, previously soaked, are sown, usually in March, on the
+sides of the ridges, and the land watered. After the seedlings appear,
+thinning is completed in usually three successive hoeings, the plants
+being watered after thinning, and subsequently at intervals of from
+twelve to fifteen days, until about the end of August when picking
+commences. The total amount of water given is approximately equivalent
+to a rainfall of about 35 in. The crop is picked, ginned and baled in
+the usual way, the Macarthy style action roller gins being almost
+exclusively employed.
+
+_Cotton Seed._--The history of no agricultural product contains more of
+interest and instruction for the student of economics than does that of
+cotton seed in the United States. The revolution in its treatment is a
+real romance of industry. Up till 1870 or thereabouts, cotton seed was
+regarded as a positive nuisance upon the American plantation. It was
+left to accumulate in vast heaps about ginhouses, to the annoyance of
+the farmer and the injury of his premises. Cotton seed in those days was
+the object of so much aversion that the planter burned it or threw it
+into running streams, as was most convenient. If the seed were allowed
+to lie about, it rotted, and hogs and other animals, eating it, often
+died. It was very difficult to burn, and when dumped into rivers and
+creeks was carried out by flood water to fill the edges of the flats
+with a decaying and offensive mass of vegetable matter. Although used in
+the early days to a limited extent as a food for milch cows and other
+stock, and to a larger extent as a manure, no systematic efforts were
+made anywhere in the South to manufacture the seed until the later
+'fifties, when the first cotton seed mills were established. It is said
+that there were only seven cotton oil mills in the South in 1860. The
+cotton-growing industry was interrupted by the Civil War, and the
+seed-milling business did not begin again until 1868. After that time
+the number of mills rapidly increased. There were 25 in the South in
+1870, 50 in 1880, 120 in 1890, and about 500 in 1901, about one-third
+being in Texas.
+
+Experience shows that 1000 lb. of seed are produced for every 500 lb
+of cotton brought to market. On the basis, therefore, of a cotton crop
+of 10,000,000 bales of 500 lb. each, there are produced 5,000,000 tons
+of cotton seed. If about 3,000,000 tons only are pressed, there remain
+to be utilized on the farm 2,000,000 tons of cotton seed, which, if
+manufactured, would produce a total of $100,000,000 from cotton seed. In
+contrast with the farmers of the 'sixties, the southern planter of the
+20th century appreciates the value of his cotton seed, and farmers, too
+remote from the mills to get it pressed, now feed to their stock all the
+cotton seed they conveniently can, and use the residue either in compost
+or directly as manure. The average of a large number of analyses of
+Upland cotton seed gives the following figures for its fertilizing
+constituents:--Nitrogen, 3.07%; phosphoric acid, 1.02%; potash, 1.17%;
+besides small amounts of lime, magnesia and other valuable but less
+important ingredients. Sea Island cotton seed is rather more valuable
+than Upland: the corresponding figures for the three principal
+constituents being nitrogen 3.51, phosphoric acid 1.69, potash 1.59%.
+Using average prices paid for nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash when
+bought in large quantities and in good forms, these ingredients, in a
+ton of cotton seed, amount to $9.00 worth of fertilizing material.
+Compared with the commercial fertilizer which the farmer has to buy,
+cotton seed possesses, therefore, a distinct value.
+
+The products of cotton seed have become important elements in the
+national industry of the United States. The main product is the refined
+oil, which is used for a great number of purposes, such as a substitute
+for olive oil, mixed with beef products for preparation of compound
+lard, which is estimated to consume one-third of cotton seed oil
+produced in the States. The poorer grades are employed in the
+manufacture of soap, candles and phonograph records. Miners' lamp oil
+consists of the bleached oil mixed with kerosene. Cotton seed cake or
+meal (the residue after the oil is extracted) is one of the most
+valuable of feeding stuffs, as the following simple comparison between
+it and oats and corn will show:--
+
+
+  +-----------------+----------+--------------+-------+----------­+
+  |                 | Proteins |Carbohydrates |       |Ash or Bone|
+  |Average Analyses.| or Flesh | or Fuel and  | Fats. |  Makers.  |
+  |                 | Formers. |Fat Suppliers.|       |           |
+  +-----------------+----------+--------------+-------+----------­+
+  |Cotton seed meal |   43.26  |     22.31    | 13.45 |    7.02   |
+  |Corn             |   10.5   |     70.0     |  5.5  |    1.02   |
+  |Oats             |   17.0   |     65.0     |  8.0  |    1.2    |
+  +-----------------+----------+--------------+-------+----------­+
+
+Cotton seed meal, though poor in carbohydrates, the fat- and
+energy-supplying ingredients, is exceedingly rich in protein, the nerve-
+and muscle-feeding ingredients. But it still contains a large amount of
+oil, which forms animal fat and heat, and thus makes up for part of its
+deficiency in carbohydrates. The meal, in fact, is so rich in protein
+that it is best utilized as a food for animals when mixed with some
+coarse fodder, thus furnishing a more evenly-balanced ration. In
+comparative valuations of feeding stuffs it has been found that cotton
+seed meal exceeds corn meal by 62%, wheat by 67%, and raw cotton seed by
+26%. Cotton seed meal, in the absence of sufficient stock to consume it,
+is also used extensively as a fertilizer, and for this purpose it is
+worth, determining the price on the same basis as used above for the
+seed, from $19 to $20 per ton. But it has seldom reached this price,
+except in some of the northern states, where it is used for feeding
+purposes. A more rational proceeding would be to feed the meal to
+animals and apply the resulting manure to the soil. When this is done,
+from 80 to 90% of the fertilizing material of the meal is recovered in
+the manure, only 10 to 20% being converted by the animal into meat and
+milk. The profit derived from the 20% thus removed is a very large one.
+These facts indicate that we have here an agricultural product the
+market price of which is still far below its value as compared, on the
+basis of its chemical composition, either with other feeding stuffs or
+with other fertilizers. Though it is probably destined to be used even
+more extensively as a fertilizer before the demand for it as a feeding
+stuff becomes equal to the supply, practically all the cotton seed meal
+of the south will ultimately be used for feeding. One explanation of
+this condition of things is that there is still a large surplus of
+cotton seed which cannot be manufactured by the mills. Another reason is
+found in the absence of cattle in the south to eat it.
+
+With the consideration of cotton seed oil and meal we have not, however,
+exhausted its possibilities. Cotton seed hulls constitute about half the
+weight of the ginned seed. After the seed of Upland cotton has been
+passed through a fine gin, which takes off the short lint or linters
+left upon it by the farmer, it is passed through what is called a
+sheller, consisting of a revolving cylinder, armed with numerous knives,
+which cut the seed in two and force the kernels or meats from the
+shells. The shells and kernels are then separated in a winnowing
+machine. This removal of the shell makes a great difference in the
+oilcake, as the decorticated cake is more nutritious than the
+undecorticated. For a long time these shells or hulls, as they are
+called, were burned at oil mills for fuel, 2½ tons being held equal to a
+cord of wood, and 4-1/3 tons to a ton of coal. The hulls thus burned
+produced an ash containing an average of 9% of phosphoric acid and 24%
+of potash--a very valuable fertilizer in itself, and one eagerly sought
+by growers of tobacco and vegetables. It was not long, however, before
+the stock-feeder in the South found that cotton seed hulls were an
+excellent substitute for hay. They are used on a very large scale in the
+vicinity of oil mills in southern cities like Memphis, New Orleans,
+Houston, and Little Rock, from 500 to 5000 cattle being often collected
+in a single yard for this purpose. No other feed is required, the only
+provision necessary being an adequate supply of water and an occasional
+allowance of salt. Many thousands of cattle are fattened annually in
+this way at remarkably low cost.
+
+Careful attention is now given to the employment of the seed in new
+cotton countries, and oil expression is practised in the West Indies.
+Hull is the principal seat of the industry in Great Britain, and
+enormous quantities of Indian and Egyptian cotton seed are imported and
+worked up.
+
+The following diagram, modified from one by Grimshaw, in accordance
+with the results obtained by the better class of modern mills, gives an
+interesting _résumé_ of the products obtained from a ton of cotton
+seed:--
+
+  _Products from a Ton of Cotton Seed._
+
+                          Cotton seed, 2000 pounds.
+                              +------+------------------------+------
+                              |      |                        |
+                              |   Linters, 23 pounds.         |
+                              |   -------------------         |
+                              |                               |
+           Meats, 1090 pounds.                      Hulls, 888 pounds.
+           --------+-----------+----                +---+------+-----
+                   |           |                    |   |      |
+            Cake, 800 pounds.  |                    |   |      |
+            ---+---------------+                    |   |      |
+               |               |                    |   |      |
+             Meal.             |            Fibre.  |   |    Bran.
+  -----------------------------+          -----+----+   |    --+--
+  (Feeding stuff.  Fertilizer.)|               |        |      |
+  -----------------------------+               |        |      |
+                               |     ----------+--------+------+-------
+            Crude oil, 290 pounds.   (High-grade paper.)|(Cattle food.)
+            -----+-------+--------   -------------------+--------------
+                 |       |                              |
+         Summer Yellow.  |Soap stock.        (Fuel.)    |
+  +--------+------------  +--+--------       ---+-------+-------+
+  |(Winter | Cotton seed     |                  |               |
+  |yellow  |  stearin.)    Soaps.             Ashes.            |
+  +--------+-----------    ------             --+---       -----+-------
+  |                                             |          (Cattle food)
+  |                                             |          with the meal.
+  |    Salad oil.                          Fertilizer.          |
+  +-------------------                                   These together,
+  |  Summer white.                                       a very valuable
+  +-------+-----------                                       manure.
+  |       |
+  | Lard. |
+  +-------+
+  |
+  | Cottolene (with beef stearin, cooking oil).
+  +--------------------------------------------
+  |
+  | Miners' oil.
+  +-------------
+  |
+  | Soap.
+  +------
+
+_Pests and Diseases of the Cotton Plant._
+
+_Insect Pests._--It is common knowledge that when any plant is cultivated
+on a large scale various diseases and pests frequently appear. In some
+cases the pest was already present but of minor importance. As the supply
+of its favourite food plant is increased, conditions of life for the pest
+are improved, and it accordingly multiplies also, possibly becoming a
+serious hindrance to successful cultivation. At other times the pest is
+introduced, and under congenial conditions (and possibly in the absence
+of some other organism which keeps it in check in its native country)
+increases accordingly. Some idea of the enormous damage wrought by the
+collective attacks of individually small and weak animals may be gathered
+from the fact that a conservative estimate places the loss due to insect
+attacks on cotton in the United States at the astounding figure of
+$60,000,000 (£12,000,000) annually. Of this total no less than
+$40,000,000 (£8,000,000) is credited to a small beetle, the cotton boll
+weevil, and to two caterpillars. The best means of combating these
+attacks depends on a knowledge of the life-histories and habits of the
+pests. The following notes deal only with the practical side of the
+question, and as the United States produce some seven-tenths of the
+world's cotton crop attention is especially directed to the principal
+cotton pests of that country. Those of other regions are only referred to
+when sufficiently important to demand separate notice.
+
+The cotton boll weevil (_Anthonomus grandis_), a small grey weevil often
+called the Mexican boll weevil, is the most serious pest of cotton in
+the United States, where the damage done by it in 1907 was estimated at
+about £5,000,000. It steadily increased in destructiveness during the
+preceding eight years. Attention was drawn to it in 1862, when it caused
+the abandonment of cotton cultivation about Monclova in Mexico. About
+1893 it appeared in Texas, and then rapidly spread. It is easily
+transported from place to place in seed-cotton, and for this reason the
+Egyptian government in 1904 prohibited the importation of American
+cotton seed. Not only is the pest carried from place to place, but it
+also migrates, and in 1907 it crossed from Louisiana, where it first
+appeared in 1905, to Mississippi. That the insect is likely to prove
+adaptable is perhaps indicated by the fact that in 1906 it made a
+northward advance of about 60 m. in a season with no obvious special
+features favouring the pest. Its eastern progress was also rapid. "The
+additional territory infested during 1904 aggregates about 15,000,000
+sq. m., representing approximately an area devoted to the culture of
+cotton of 900,000 acres" (_Year-book, U.S. Dept. Agriculture_, 1904). In
+1906 the additional area invaded amounted to 1,500,000 acres (_Ibid._,
+1906).
+
+The adult weevils puncture the young flower-buds and deposit eggs; and
+as the grubs from the eggs develop, the bud drops. They also lay eggs
+later in the year in the young bolls. These do not drop, but as the
+grubs develop the cotton is ruined and the bolls usually become
+discoloured and crack, their contents being rendered useless.
+
+No certain remedy is known for the destruction on a commercial scale of
+the boll weevil, but every effort has been made in the United States to
+check the advance of the insect, to ascertain and encourage its natural
+enemies, and to propagate races of cotton which resist its attacks.
+Special interest attaches to the investigations made by Mr O. F. Cook,
+of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, in Guatemala. The Indians in part of
+Guatemala raise cotton, although the boll weevil is abundant.
+Examination showed that although the weevil attacked the young buds
+these did not drop off, but that a special growth of tissue inside the
+bud frequently killed the grub. Also, inside the young bolls which had
+been pierced a similar proliferation or growth of the tissue was set up,
+which enveloped and killed the pest. Probably by unconscious selection
+of surviving plants through long ages this type has been evolved in
+Guatemala, and experiments have been made to develop weevil-resistant
+races in the United States. Mr Cook also found that the boll weevil was
+attacked, killed and eaten by an ant-like creature, the "kelep."
+Attempts have been made to introduce this into the infested area in
+Texas; but owing to the winter proving fatal to the "kelep" its
+usefulness may be restricted to tropical and subtropical regions.
+
+The cotton boll worm (_Chloridea obsoleta_, also known as _Heliothis
+armiger_) is a caterpillar. The parent moth lays eggs, from which the
+young "worms" hatch out. They bore holes and penetrate into flower-buds
+and young bolls, causing them to drop. Fortunately the "worms" prefer
+maize to cotton, and the inter-planting at proper times of maize, to be
+cut down and destroyed when well infested, is a method commonly employed
+to keep down this pest. Paris green kills it in its young stages before
+it has entered the buds or bolls. The boll worm is most destructive in
+the south-western states, where the damage done is said to vary from 2
+to 60% of the crop. Taking a low average of 4%, the annual loss due to
+the pest is estimated at about £2,500,000, and it occupies second place
+amongst the serious cotton pests of the U.S.A. The boll worm is widely
+spread through the tropical and temperate zones. It may occur in a
+country without being a pest to cotton, e.g. in India it attacks various
+plants but not cotton. It has not yet been reported as a cotton pest in
+the West Indies.
+
+The Egyptian boll worm (_Earias insulana_) is the most important insect
+pest in Egypt and occurs also in other parts of Africa. Indian boll
+worms include the same species, and the closely related _Earias fabia_,
+which also occurs in Egypt.
+
+The cotton worm (_Aletia argillacea_)--also called cotton caterpillar,
+cotton army worm, cotton-leaf worm--is also one stage in the
+life-history of a moth. It is a voracious creature, and unchecked will
+often totally destroy a crop. In former years the annual damage done by
+it in the United States was assessed at £4,000,000 to £6,000,000.
+Dusting with Paris green is, however, an efficient remedy _if promptly
+applied at the outset of the attack_. The annual damage was in 1906
+reduced to £1,000,000 to £2,000,000, and this on a larger area devoted
+to cotton than in the case of the estimate given above. It is the most
+serious pest of cotton in the West Indies. The Egyptian cotton worm is
+_Prodenia littoralis_.
+
+The caterpillars ("cut worms") of various species of _Agrotis_ and other
+moths occur in all parts of the world and attack young cotton. They can
+be killed by spreading about cabbage leaves, &c., poisoned with Paris
+green.
+
+Locusts, green-fly, leaf-bugs, blister mites, and various other pests
+also damage cotton, in a similar way to that in which they injure other
+crops.
+
+The "cotton stainers," various species of _Dysdercus_, are widely
+distributed, occurring for example in America, the West Indies, Africa,
+India, &c. The larvae suck the sap from the young bolls and seeds,
+causing shrivelling and reduction in quantity of fibre. They are called
+"stainers" because their excrement is yellow and stains the fibre; also
+if crushed during the process of ginning they give the cotton a reddish
+coloration. The Egyptian cotton seed bug or cotton stainer belongs to
+another genus, being _Oxycarenus hyalinipennis_. Other species of this
+genus occur on the west coast of Africa. They do considerable damage to
+cotton seed.
+
+_Fungoid Diseases._--"Wilt disease," or "frenching," perhaps the most
+important of the fungoid disease of cotton in the United States, is due
+to _Neocosmospora vasinfecta_. Young plants a few inches high are
+usually attacked; the leaves, beginning with the lower ones, turn
+yellow, and afterwards become brown and drop. The plants remain very
+dwarf and generally unhealthy, or die. The roots also are affected, and
+instead of growing considerably in length, branch repeatedly and give
+rise to little tufts of rootlets. There is no method known of curing
+this disease, and all that can be done is to take every precaution to
+eradicate it, by pulling up and burning diseased plants, isolating the
+infected area by means of trenches, and avoiding growing cotton, or an
+allied plant such as the ochro (_Hibiscus esculentus_), in the field.
+Fortunately the careful work of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and
+of planters such as Mr E. L. Rivers of James Island, South Carolina, has
+resulted in the production of disease-resistant races. In one instance
+Mr Rivers found one healthy plant in a badly affected field. The seed
+was saved and gave rise to a row of plants all of which grew healthily
+in an infected field, whereas 95% of ordinary Sea Island cotton plants
+from seed from a non-infected field planted alongside as a control were
+killed. The resistance was well maintained in succeeding generations,
+and races so raised form a practical means of combating this serious
+disease.
+
+In "Root rot," as the name implies, the roots are attacked, the fungus
+being a species of _Ozonium_, which envelops the roots in a white
+covering of mould or mycelium. The roots are prevented from fulfilling
+their function of taking up water and salts from the soil; the leaves
+accordingly droop, and the whole plant wilts and in bad attacks dies. It
+has yearly proved a more serious danger in Texas and other parts of the
+south-west of the United States, and the damage due to it in Texas
+during 1905 was estimated at about £750,000. No remedy is known for the
+disease, and cotton should not be planted on infected land for at least
+three or four years.
+
+"Boll rot," or "Anthracnose," is a disease which may at times be
+sufficiently serious to destroy from 10 to 50% of the crop. The fungus
+which causes it (_Colletotrichum gossypii_) is closely related to one of
+the fungi attacking sugar-cane in various parts of the world. Small
+red-brown spots appear on the bolls, gradually enlarge, and develop into
+irregular black and grey patches. The damage may be only slight, or the
+entire boll may ripen prematurely and become dry and dead.
+
+Many other diseases occur, but the above are sufficient to indicate some
+of the principal ones in the most important cotton countries of the
+world.
+
+
+_Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection._
+
+In the cotton belt of the United States it would be possible to put a
+still greater acreage under this crop, but the tendency is rather
+towards what is known as "diversified" or mixed farming than to making
+cotton the sole important crop. Cotton, however, is in increasing
+demand, and the problem for the American cotton planter is to obtain a
+better yield of cotton from the same area,--by "better yield" meaning an
+increase not only in quantity but also in quality of lint. This ideal is
+before the cotton grower in all parts of the world, but practical steps
+are not always taken to realize it. Some of the United States planters
+are alert to take advantage of the application of science to industry,
+and in many cases even to render active assistance, and very successful
+results have been attained by the co-operation of the United States
+Department of Agriculture and planters. With the improvement of cotton
+the name of Mr Herbert J. Webber is prominently associated, and a full
+discussion of methods and results will be found in his various papers in
+the _Year-books_ of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The principle on
+which the work is based is that plants have their individualities and
+tend to transmit them to their progeny. Accordingly a selection of
+particular plants to breed from, because they possess certain desirable
+characteristics, is as rational as the selection of particular animals
+for breeding purposes in order to maintain the character of a herd of
+cattle or of a flock of sheep.
+
+Inspection of a field of cotton shows that different plants vary as
+regards productiveness, length, and character of the lint, period of
+ripening, power of resistance to various pests and of withstanding
+drought. A simple method of increasing the yield is that practised with
+success by some growers in the States. Pickers are trained to recognize
+the best plants, "that is, those most productive, earliest in ripening,
+and having the largest, best formed and most numerous bolls." These
+pickers go carefully over the field, usually just before the second
+picking, and gather ripe cotton from the best plants only; this selected
+seed cotton is ginned separately, and the seed used for sowing the next
+year's crop.
+
+A more elaborate method of selection is practised by some of the Sea
+Island cotton planters in the Sea Islands, famous for the quality of
+their cotton. A field is gone over carefully, and perhaps some 50 of the
+best plants selected; a second examination in the field reduces these
+perhaps to one half, and each plant is numbered. The cotton from each is
+collected and kept separately, and at the end of the season carefully
+examined and weighed, and a final selection is then made which reduces
+the number to perhaps five; the cotton from each of these plants is
+ginned separately and the seed preserved for sowing. The simplest
+possible case in which only one plant is finally selected is illustrated
+in the diagram.
+
+  1st. Year       2nd. Year    3rd. Year     4th. Year     5th. Year
+                  +------+     +-------+     +-------+
+   Select (1) --->| 500  | --->|5 Acres| --->|General|
+   Plant          |Plants|     |       |     | Crop  |
+                  +------+     +-------+     +-------+
+                      |
+                      |
+                     \/        +-------+     +-------+     +-------+
+        Select Plant (1) ----->| 500   | --->|5 Acres| --->|General|
+                               | Plants|     |       |     | Crop  |
+                               +-------+     +-------+     +-------+
+                                   |
+                                   |
+                                  \/         +-------+     +-------+
+                     Select Plant (1) ------>| 500   | --->|5 Acres|
+                                             | Plants|     |       |
+                                             +-------+     +-------+
+                                                 |
+                                                 |
+                                                \/         +-------+
+                                   Select Plant (1) ------>| 500   |
+                                                           | Plants|
+                                                           +-------+
+                                                               |
+                                                               |
+                                                              \/
+                                                 Select Plant (1)
+
+  After Webber, _Year-book, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture_, 1902.
+
+  Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection.
+
+From the seeds of the selected plant of the 1st year about 500 plants
+can be raised in the next year. One plant is selected again from these
+500, and the general crop of seed is used to sow about five acres for
+the 3rd year, from which seed is obtained for the general crop in the
+4th year. One special plant is selected each year from the 500 raised
+from the previous season's test plant, and in four years' time the
+progeny of this plant constitutes the "general crop." The practice may
+be modified according to the size of estate by selecting more than one
+plant each year, but the principle remains unaltered. This method is in
+actual use by growers of Sea Island cotton in America and in the islands
+off the coast of S. Carolina; the greatest care is taken to enhance the
+quality of the lint, which has been gradually improved in length,
+fineness and silkiness. Mr Webber, in summing up, says, "When Sea Island
+cotton was first introduced into the United States from the West Indies,
+it was a perennial plant, unsuited to the duration of the season of the
+latitude of the Sea Islands of S. Carolina; but, through the selection
+of seed from early maturing individual plants, the cotton has been
+rendered much earlier, until now it is thoroughly adapted to the
+existing conditions. The fibre has increased in length from about 1¾ to
+2½ in., and the plants have at the same time been increased in
+productiveness. The custom of carefully selecting the seed has grown
+with the industry and may be said to be inseparable from it. It is only
+by such careful and continuous selection that the staple of these
+high-bred strains can be kept up to its present superiority, and if for
+any reason the selection is interrupted there is a general and rapid
+decline in quality."
+
+When selection is being made for several characters at the same time,
+and also in hybridization experiments, where it is important to have
+full records of the characters of individual plants and their progeny,
+"score cards," such as are used in judging stock, with a scale of
+points, are used.
+
+The improvements desired in cotton vary to some degree in different
+countries, according to the present character of the plants, climatic
+conditions, the chief pests, special market requirements, and other
+circumstances. Amongst the more important desiderata are:--
+
+1. Increased Yield.
+
+2. Increase in Length of Lint.--Webber records the case of Stamm
+Egyptian cotton imported into Columbia, in which by simple selection, as
+outlined above, during two years plants were obtained uniformly earlier,
+more productive, and yielding longer and better lint.
+
+3. Uniformity in Length of the Lint.--This is important especially in
+the long-stapled cottons, unevenness leading to waste in manufacture,
+and consequently to a lower price for the cotton.
+
+4. Strength of Fibre.--Long-stapled cottons have been produced in the
+States by crossing Upland and Sea Island cotton. These hybrids produce a
+lint which is long and silky, but often deficient in strength: selection
+for strength amongst the hybrids, with due regard to length, may
+overcome this.
+
+5. Season of Maturing.--Seed should be selected from early and late
+opening bolls, according to requirements. Earliness is especially
+important in countries where the season is short.
+
+6. Adaptation to Soil and Climate.--High-class cottons often do not
+flourish if introduced into a new country. They are adapted to special
+conditions which are lacking in their new surroundings, but a few will
+probably do fairly well the first year, and the seeds from these
+probably rather better the next, and so on, so that in a few years' time
+a strain may be available which is equal or even superior to the
+original one introduced.
+
+7. Resistance to Disease.--The method employed is to select, for seed
+purposes, plants which are resistant to the particular disease. Thus
+sometimes a field of cotton is attacked by some disease, perhaps "wilt,"
+and a comparatively few plants are but very slightly affected. These are
+propagated, and there are instances as described above of very
+successful and commercially important results having been attained.
+Special interest attaches to experiments made in the United States to
+endeavour to raise races of cotton resistant to the boll weevil.
+
+8. Resistance to Weather.--Strong winds and heavy rains do much damage
+to cotton by blowing or beating the lint out of the bolls. In some
+instances a slight difference in the shape, mode of opening, &c., of the
+boll prevents this, and accordingly seed is selected from bolls which
+suffer least under the particular adverse conditions.
+
+Attention has been paid in the West Indies to seed selection, by the
+officers of the imperial Department of Agriculture, with the object of
+retaining for West Indian Sea Island cotton its place as the most
+valuable cotton on the British market.
+
+In India, where conditions are much more diversified and it is more
+difficult to induce the native cultivator to adopt new methods,
+attention has also been directed during recent years to the improvement
+of the existing races. Efforts have been made in the same direction in
+Egypt, West Africa, &c.
+
+
+_The World's Commercial Cotton Crop._
+
+It is impossible to give an exact return of the total amount of cotton
+produced in the world, owing to the fact that in China, India and other
+eastern countries, in Mexico, Brazil, parts of the Russian empire,
+tropical Africa, &c., considerable--in some eases very large--quantities
+of cotton are made up locally into wearing apparel, &c., and escape all
+statistical record. It is estimated that the amount thus used in India
+exclusive of the consumption of mills is equivalent to about 400,000
+bales. Neglecting, however, these quantities, which do not affect the
+world's market, the annual supplies of cotton are approximately as
+follows:--
+
+  +---------------------------+------------------+-----------+
+  |                           |   Approximate    |           |
+  |         Country           |    Production.   |Percentage.|
+  |                           | Bales of 500 lb. |           |
+  |---------------------------+------------------+-----------+
+  | United States of America  |    11,000,000    |   68.75   |
+  | India                     |     3,000,000    |   18.75   |
+  | Egypt                     |     1,000,000    |    6.25   |
+  | All other countries       |     1,000,000    |    6.25   |
+  |                           +------------------+-----------+
+  | Total                     |    16,000,000    |  100.00   |
+  +---------------------------+------------------+-----------+
+
+In 1905 the world's crop closely approximated to 16,000,000 bales,
+whilst in 1904 it was nearly 19,000,000 bales and in 1906 nearly
+20,000,000 bales. The United States produced very nearly seven-tenths of
+the total "visible" cotton crops of the world. This, however, is quite a
+modern development, comparatively speaking. "During the period from 1786
+to 1790 the West Indies furnished about 70% of the British supply, the
+Mediterranean countries 20%, and Brazil 8%; whilst the quantity
+contributed by the United States and India was less than 1% and Egypt
+contributed none. In 1906 the United States contributed 65% of the
+commercial cotton, British India 19%, Egypt 7%, and Russia 3%. Of the
+countries which were prominent in the production of cotton in 1790,
+Brazil and Asiatic Turkey alone remain" (_U.S.A. Bureau of the Census,
+Bulletin No. 76_). The actual figures for the chief countries for
+1904-1906, taken from the same source, are as follows:--
+
+  _The World's Commercial Cotton Crop._ (In 500 lb. Bales.)
+
+  +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+
+  |    Country.     |    1904.   |    1905.   |    1906.   |
+  +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+
+  | United States   | 13,085,000 | 10,340,000 | 13,016,000 |
+  | British India   |  2,843,000 |  2,519,000 |  3,708,000 |
+  | Egypt           |  1,258,000 |  1,181,000 |  1,400,000 |
+  | Russia          |    554,000 |    585,000 |    675,000 |
+  | China           |    468,000 |    415,000 |    418,000 |
+  | Brazil          |    210,000 |    258,000 |    275,000 |
+  | Mexico          |    114,000 |    125,000 |    130,000 |
+  | Peru            |     40,000 |     55,000 |     55,000 |
+  | Turkey          |    100,000 |    107,000 |    107,000 |
+  | Persia          |     45,000 |     47,000 |     47,000 |
+  | Japan           |     16,000 |     15,000 |     11,000 |
+  | Other countries |     70,000 |    100,000 |    100,000 |
+  +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+
+  | Total           | 18,803,000 | 15,747,000 | 19,942,000 |
+  +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+
+
+This title serves to indicate the principal countries contributing to
+the world's supply of cotton. The following notes afford a summary of
+the position of the industry in the more important countries.
+
+_United States of America._--The cultivation of cotton as a staple crop
+in the United States dates from about 1770,[1] although efforts appear
+to have been made in Virginia as far back as 1621. The supplies
+continued to be small up to the end of the century. In 1792 the quantity
+exported from the United States was only equivalent to 275 bales, but
+by the year 1800 it had increased to nearly 36,000 bales. At the close
+of the war in 1815 the revival of trade led to an increased demand, and
+the progress of cotton cultivation in America became rapid and
+continuous, until at length about 85% of the raw material used by
+English manufacturers was derived from this one source. With a capacity
+for the production of cotton almost boundless, the crop which was so
+insignificant when the century began had in 1860 reached the enormous
+extent of 4,824,000 bales. This great source of supply, when apparently
+most abundant and secure, was shortly after suddenly cut off, and
+thousands were for a time deprived of employment and the means of
+subsistence. In this period of destitution the cotton-growing resources
+of every part of the globe were tested to the utmost; and in the
+exhibition of 1862 the representatives of every country from which
+supplies might be expected met to concert measures for obtaining all
+that was wanted without the aid of America. The colonies and
+dependencies of Great Britain, including India, seemed well able to grow
+all the cotton that could be required, whilst numerous other countries
+were ready to afford their co-operation. A powerful stimulus was thus
+given to the growth of cotton in all directions; a degree of activity
+and enterprise never witnessed before was seen in India, Egypt, Turkey,
+Greece, Italy, Africa, the West Indies, Queensland, New South Wales,
+Peru, Brazil, and in short wherever cotton could be produced; and there
+seemed no room to doubt that in a short time there would be abundant
+supplies independently of America. But ten years afterwards, in the
+exhibition of 1872, which was specially devoted to cotton, a few only of
+the _thirty-five_ countries which had sent their samples in 1862 again
+appeared, and these for the most part only to bear witness to
+disappointment and failure. America had re-entered the field of
+competition, and was rapidly gaining ground so as to be able to bid
+defiance to the world. True, the supply from India had been more than
+doubled, the adulteration once so rife had been checked, and the
+improved quality and value of the cotton had been fully acknowledged,
+but still the superiority of the produce of the United States was proved
+beyond all dispute, and American cotton was again king. Slave labour
+disappeared, and under new and more promising auspices a fresh career of
+progress began. With rare combination of facilities and advantages, made
+available with remarkable skill and enterprise, the production of cotton
+in America seems likely for a long series of years to continue to
+increase in magnitude and importance. The total area of the
+cotton-producing region in the States is estimated at 448,000,000 acres,
+of which in 1906 only about one acre in fifteen was devoted to cotton.
+The potentialities of the region are thus enormous.
+
+  +------------------+---------------------------+----------------------+------------+
+  |   States and     |       Upland Cotton.      |  Sea Island Cotton.  |   Total    |
+  |  Territories.    +--------------+------------+-----------+----------+   Value.   |
+  |                  |   Quantity.  |   Value.   | Quantity. |   Value. |            |
+  +------------------+--------------+------------+-----------+----------+------------+
+  |                  |      lb.     |     $      |    lb.    |    $     |     $      |
+  | Alabama          |  603,651,989 | 60,425,564 |     ..    |    ..    | 60,425,564 |
+  | Arkansas         |  450,991,361 | 45,144,235 |     ..    |    ..    | 45,144,235 |
+  | Florida          |   17,876,133 |  1,789,401 | 9,031,896 | 2,587,638|  4,377,039 |
+  | Georgia          |  750,762,910 | 75,151,367 | 9,950,634 | 2,850,857| 78,002,224 |
+  | Indian Territory |  196,648,765 | 19,684,542 |     ..    |    ..    | 19,684,542 |
+  | Kansas           |        9,844 |        985 |     ..    |    ..    |        985 |
+  | Kentucky         |    1,008,290 |    100,930 |     ..    |    ..    |    100,930 |
+  | Louisiana        |  473,222,310 | 47,369,553 |     ..    |    ..    | 47,369,553 |
+  | Mississippi      |  732,755,978 | 73,348,874 |     ..    |    ..    | 73,348,874 |
+  | Missouri         |   26,040,093 |  2,606,613 |     ..    |    ..    |  2,606,613 |
+  | New Mexico       |       74,340 |      7,442 |     ..    |    ..    |      7,442 |
+  | North Carolina   |  276,215,506 | 27,649,172 |     ..    |    ..    | 27,649,172 |
+  | Oklahoma         |  233,396,905 | 23,363,030 |     ..    |    ..    | 23,363,030 |
+  | South Carolina   |  415,386,362 | 41,580,175 | 2,723,859 |   999,656| 42,579,831 |
+  | Tennessee        |  146,569,434 | 14,671,600 |     ..    |    ..    | 14,671,600 |
+  | Texas            |2,001,181,289 |200,318,247 |     ..    |    ..    |200,318,247 |
+  | Virginia         |    6,609,963 |    661,657 |     ..    |    ..    |    661,657 |
+  +------------------+--------------+------------+-----------+----------+------------+
+  | Total--United    |6,332,401,472 |633,873,387 |21,706,389 | 6,438,151|640,311,538 |
+  |    States        | (=12,644,803 |    ..      |  (=43,413 |    ..    |     ..     |
+  |                  |    bales)    |    ..      |    bales) |    ..    |     ..     |
+  +------------------+--------------+------------+-----------+----------+------------+
+
+Cotton is now the second crop of the United States, being surpassed in
+value only by Indian corn (maize). The area devoted to this crop in 1879
+was 14,480,019 acres, and the total commercial crop was 5,755,359
+bales. In 1899 the acreage had increased to 24,275,101 and the crop to
+9,507,786 bales. In 1906 the total area was 28,686,000 acres and the
+crop 13,305,265 bales.
+
+The preceding table gives the quantity, value and character of the crop
+for each of the cotton-growing states in 1906, as reported by the Bureau
+of the Census.
+
+_Mexico._--Cotton is extensively grown in Mexico, and large quantities
+are used for home consumption. The cultivation is of very old standing.
+Cortes in 1519 is said to have received cotton garments as presents from
+the natives of Yucatan, and to have found the Mexicans using cotton
+extensively for clothing. From 1900 to 1905 the crop was about 100,000
+bales per annum; the whole is consumed in local mills, and cotton is
+imported also from the United States.
+
+_Brazil._--The cotton-growing region in Brazil comprises a belt some 200
+m. in width, in the north-eastern portion of the country, and a strip
+along the valley of the San Francisco, where a large amount of the
+present crop is produced. The cotton is known in commerce under the name
+of the place of export, e.g. Maceio, Pernambuco or Pernam, Ceãra, Rio
+Grande, &c. The export fluctuates greatly.
+
+              Bales of 500 lb.    Approx. Value.
+  1901             53,002            £500,000
+  1902            143,963           1,200,000
+  1903            126,896           1,300,000
+  1904             59,413             800,000
+  1905            107,887           1,000,000
+  1906            142,972           1,500,000
+
+The total production in 1906 was estimated at about 275,000 bales, but
+only a portion was available for export, there being an increasing
+consumption in Brazil itself.
+
+_Peru._--Cotton is an important crop in Peru, where it has long been
+cultivated. Most of the crop is grown in the irrigated coastal valleys.
+With more water available, the output could be considerably increased,
+e.g. in the Piura district. "Rough Peruvian," the produce of one of the
+tree cottons, has a special use, as being rather harsh and wiry it is
+well adapted for mixing with wool. Egyptian cotton is also grown. The
+annual export is about 30,000 bales.
+
+_Cotton Production in the British West Indies_: 1905-1906.[2]
+
+  +-------------------------+--------+----------+---------+----------+
+  |                         |        | Yield =  | Average | Value of |
+  |         Island.         |Area in | Bales of |  Price  | Lint and |
+  |                         | Acres. |  500 lb. |in Pence |   Seed.  |
+  |                         |        |          | per lb. |          |
+  +-------------------------+--------+----------+---------+----------+
+  | Barbados.               |  2,000 |    959   |   15.2  | £33,557  |
+  | St Vincent.             |    790 |    330   |   18.0  |  13,557  |
+  | Grenada (mostly _Marie_ |  3,600 |    623   |    5.0  |   8,400  |
+  |   _galante_ cotton).    |        |          |         |          |
+  | St Kitts                |  1,000 |    241   |   15.0  |   8,380  |
+  | Nevis                   |  1,700 |    240   |   13.0  |   8,364  |
+  | Anguilla                |  1,000 |    161   |   15.0  |   5,280  |
+  | Antigua                 |    700 |    200   |   14.2  |   6,522  |
+  | Montserrat              |    770 |    196   |   15.0  |   6,789  |
+  | Virgin Islands          |     40 |     14   |    ..   |     400  |
+  | Jamaica                 |  1,500 |    123   |    ..   |   4,025  |
+  +-------------------------+--------+----------+---------+----------+
+  |          Total          | 12,900 |   3087   |    ..   | £95,274  |
+  +-------------------------+--------+----------+---------+----------+
+
+_British West Indies._--Cotton was cultivated as a minor crop in parts
+of the West Indies as long ago as the 17th century, and at the opening
+of the 18th century the islands supplied about 70% of all the cotton
+used in Great Britain. Greater profits obtained from sugar caused the
+industry to be abandoned, except in the small island of Carriacou. In
+1900 the Imperial Department of Agriculture and private planters began
+experiments with the object of reintroducing the cultivation, owing to
+the decline in value of sugar. The department was actively assisted by
+the British Cotton Growing Association, and the results have been very
+successful, as was shown at an exhibition held in Manchester in 1908. A
+supply of seed of a high grade of Sea Island cotton was obtained from
+Colonel Rivers's estate in the Sea Islands, S. Carolina, and so
+successful has the cultivation been that from some of the islands West
+Indian Sea Island cotton obtains a higher price than the corresponding
+grade of cotton from the Sea Islands themselves.
+
+In 1902 the total area under cotton cultivation in the British West
+Indies was 500 acres. The industry made rapid progress. In 1903 it was
+4000; in 1905-1906 it was 12,900; and for 1906-1907 it was 18,166 acres.
+The table indicates the chief cotton-producing islands, the acreage in
+each, yield, average value per pound and total value of the crop in
+1905-1906.
+
+The whole of this crop was Sea Island cotton, with the exception of the
+"Marie galante" grown in Carriacou. Marie galante is a harsh cotton of
+the Peruvian or Brazilian type. The low yield per acre in this island,
+and also the low value of the lint per lb. compared with the Sea Island
+cotton, is clearly apparent.
+
+In 1906-1907 the acreage was substantially increased in many of the
+islands, e.g. Barbados from 2000 to 5000; St Vincent 790 to 1533; St
+Kitts and Anguilla 1000 to 1500 each; Antigua 700 to 1883. In Jamaica,
+on the other hand, it was reduced from 1500 to 300 acres.
+
+_Spain._--Cotton was formerly grown in southern Spain on an extensive
+scale, and as recently as during the American Civil War a crop of 8000
+to 10,000 bales was obtained. It is considered that with facilities for
+irrigation Andalusia could produce 150,000 bales annually. The former
+industry was abandoned as other crops became more remunerative. The
+government is encouraging recent efforts to re-establish the
+cultivation.
+
+_Malta._--Cotton has long been cultivated in Malta, but the acreage
+diminished from 1750 acres in 1899 to 670 acres in 1906. A considerable
+quantity of the produce is spun and woven locally; e.g. in 1904 the
+export was equivalent to about 120 bales out of a total production of
+330 bales, and in 1905 to 258 out of 333 bales (of 500 lb. each).
+
+_Cyprus_ has a soil and climate suited to cotton, which was formerly
+grown here on a large scale. The rainfall is uncertain and low, however,
+never exceeding 40 in., and on the supply of water by irrigation the
+future of the industry mainly depends. The exports dwindled from 3600
+bales in 1865 to 946 in 1905; great fluctuations occur, the export in
+1904, for example, being only 338 bales. The cotton grown is rather
+short-stapled and goes mainly to Marseilles and Trieste. Some is used
+locally in the manufacture of cloth.
+
+_Egypt._--The position of Egypt as the third cotton-producing country of
+the world has already been pointed out, and the varieties grown and the
+mode of cultivation described. The introduction of the exotic varieties
+dates from the beginning of the 19th century. The industry was actively
+promoted by a Frenchman named Jumel, in the service of Mehemet Ali, from
+1820 onwards with great success. The area under cotton is about
+1,800,000 acres.
+
+  _Cotton Production in Egypt._
+
+  1850             87,200 bales of 500 lb.
+  1865            439,000    "      "
+  1890            798,000    "      "
+  1904          1,258,000    "      "
+  1905          1,250,000    "      "
+  1906          1,400,000    "      "
+
+_The Egyptian Sudan._--Egyptian cotton was cultivated in the Sudan to
+the extent of 21,788 acres in 1906 chiefly on non-irrigated land. The
+exports, however, are small, almost all the crop being used locally. The
+chief difficulties are the supply of water, labour and transport
+facilities. Lord Cromer in his report on the Sudan for 1906 remarks
+that: "There seems to be some reason for thinking that the future--or at
+all events the immediate future--of Sudan agriculture lies more in the
+direction of cultivating wheat and other cereals than in that of
+cultivating cotton."
+
+_West Africa._--Cotton has long been grown in the various countries on
+the west coast of Africa, ginned by hand or by very primitive means,
+spun into yarn, and woven on simple looms into "country cloths"; these
+are often only a few inches wide, so that any large cloths have to be
+made by sewing the narrow strips together. These native cloths are
+exceedingly durable, and many of them are ornamented by using dyed yarns
+and in other ways.
+
+Southern Nigeria (Lagos) and northern Nigeria are the most important
+cotton countries amongst the British possessions on the coast. From the
+former there has been an export trade for many years which fluctuates
+remarkably according to the demand. Northern Nigeria is the seat of a
+very large native cotton industry, to supply the demand for cotton robes
+for the Mahommedan races inhabiting the country. The province of Zaria
+alone is estimated to produce annually 30,000 to 40,000 bales, all of
+which is used locally. Northern Nigeria contributes to the cotton
+exported from Lagos. The country offers a fairly promising field for
+development, especially now that arrangements have been made for
+providing the necessary means of transport by the construction of the
+new railways. The profits obtained from ground-nuts (_Arachis hypogea_)
+in Gambia, gold mining in the Gold Coast, and from products of the oil
+palm (_Elaeis guineensis_) in the palm-oil belt serve to prevent much
+attention being given to cotton in these districts.
+
+  _Exports of Cotton from Lagos._
+
+  1865            868 bales of 500 lb.
+  1869           1785    "      "
+  1900             48    "      "
+  1901             15    "      "
+  1902             25    "      "
+  1903            582    "      "
+  1904           1725    "      "
+  1905           2578    "      "
+
+
+  _Exports of Cotton from British West Africa_, 1904, 1905 and 1906.
+
+  +----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                            |   1904.   |   1905.   |   1906.   |
+  +----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                            |   Bales   |   Bales   |  Bales    |
+  |                            | (500 lb). | (500 lb). | (500 lb). |
+  | Gambia                     |    120    |      5    |      0    |
+  | Sierra Leone               |     56    |    139    |    176    |
+  | Gold Coast                 |    115    |     50    |    186    |
+  | Southern Nigeria and Lagos |   2296    |   2771    |   5392    |
+  | Northern Nigeria           |    574    |    250*   |    712    |
+  |                            +-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |           Total            |   3161    |   3215    |    6466   |
+  +----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    *Approximately.
+
+_Nyasaland (British Central Africa).--_The cultivation of cotton on a
+commercial scale is quite new in Nyasaland, and although general
+conditions of soil and climate appear favourable the question of
+transport is serious and labour is not abundant. The exports were
+equivalent to 2 bales of 500 lb. in 1902-1903, 114 bales in 1903-1904,
+570 bales in 1904-1905, 1553 bales in 1905-1906 and 1052 bales in
+1906-1907. In the lower river lands Egyptian cotton has been the most
+successful, whilst Upland cotton is more suited to the highlands.
+
+_British East Africa and Uganda.--_In these adjoining protectorates wild
+cottons occur, and suitable conditions exist in certain localities.
+Experimental work has been carried on, and in 1904 Uganda exported about
+43 bales of cotton, and British East Africa about 177 bales. In 1906 the
+combined exports had risen to 362 bales, including a little from German
+East Africa. In 1904-1905 there were some 300 acres under cotton in
+British East Africa. Lack of direct transport facilities is a
+difficulty. Some of the native cottons are of fair quality, but Egyptian
+cotton appears likely to be best suited for growing for export.
+
+_India_ is probably the most ancient cotton-growing country. For five
+centuries before the Christian era cotton was largely used in the
+domestic manufactures of India; and the clothing of the inhabitants then
+consisted, as now, chiefly of garments made from this vegetable product.
+More than two thousand years before Europe or England had conceived the
+idea of applying modern industry to the manufacture of cotton, India had
+matured a system of hand-spinning, weaving and dyeing which during that
+vast period received no recorded improvement. The people, though
+remarkable for their intelligence whilst Europe was in a state of
+barbarism, made no approximation to the mechanical operations of modern
+times, nor was the cultivation of cotton either improved or considerably
+extended. Possessing soil, climate and apparently all the requisite
+elements from nature for the production of cotton to an almost boundless
+extent, and of a useful and acceptable quality, India for a long series
+of years did but little towards supplying the manufactures of other
+countries with the raw material which they required. Between the years
+1788 and 1850 numerous attempts were made by the East India Company to
+improve the cultivation and to increase the supply of cotton in India,
+and botanists and American planters were engaged for the purpose. One
+great object of their experiments was to introduce and acclimatize
+exotic cottons. Bourbon, New Orleans, Upland, Georgia, Sea Island,
+Pernambuco, Egyptian, &c., were tried but with little permanent success.
+The results of these and similar attempts led to the conclusion that
+efforts to improve the indigenous cottons were most likely to be
+rewarded with success. Still more recently, however, experiments have
+been made to grow Egyptian cotton in Sind with the help of irrigation.
+Abassi has given the best results, and the experiments have been so
+successful that in 1904-1905 an out-turn of not less than 100,000 bales
+"was prophesied in the course of a few years" (Report of Director, Land
+Records and Agriculture). The average annual production in India
+approximates to 3,000,000 bales. The area under cotton in all British
+India is about 20,000,000 acres, the crop being grown in a very
+primitive manner. The bulk of the cotton is of very short staple, about
+three-quarters of an inch, and is not well suited to the requirements of
+the English spinner, but very large mills specially fitted to deal with
+short-stapled cottons have been erected in India and consume about
+one-half the total crop, the remainder being exported to Germany and
+other European countries, Japan and China. In 1906 the United Kingdom
+took less than 5% of the cotton exported.
+
+  _Cotton Production in British India._[3]
+
+  1859         1,316,800 bales of 500 lb.
+  1904         3,172,800   "       "
+  1905         2,848,800   "       "
+  1906         4,038,400   "       "
+
+About 50% of the cotton produced is consumed in Indian mills and the
+remainder is exported.
+
+_China._--Cotton has not been cultivated in China from such early times
+as in India, and although cotton cloths are mentioned in early writings
+it was not until about A.D. 1300 that the plant was grown on any
+considerable scale. There are no figures obtainable as to the
+production, but it must be very large, considering that the crop
+provides clothing for a large proportion of the population of China.
+During recent years a considerable quantity of cotton has been exported,
+but more than a compensating amount of raw cotton, yarns and textiles,
+is imported. An estimate of the crop puts it at about 1,500,000 bales.
+
+_Korea_ is stated to have originally received its cotton plants from
+China some 500 years ago. Conditions are well adapted to the cultivation
+of the plant, and since the cessation of the Russo-Japanese War the
+Japanese have undertaken the development of the industry. Figures are
+difficult to obtain, but an official report from the Japanese Residency
+General in 1907 estimated the crop at about 214,000 bales, all being
+used locally. In the future Korea may become an important source of
+supply for Japan, especially if, as appears likely, Korea proves suited
+to the cultivation of American cotton.
+
+_Japan_ received cotton from India before China, and the plant is
+extensively grown, especially in West and Middle Japan. The production
+is not sufficient to meet the home demand; during the five years of
+normal trade before the war with Russia Japan imported annually about
+800,000 bales of cotton, chiefly from British India, China and the
+United States, and during the same period exported each year some 2000
+bales, mainly to Korea.
+
+_Dutch East Indies._--In Java and other Dutch possessions in the East
+cotton is cultivated. A considerable amount is used locally, and during
+the six years ending in 1907 the surplus exported ranged from about
+24,000 to 40,000 bales per annum.
+
+_Russia._--Some cotton is produced in European Russia in the southern
+Caucasus, but Turkestan in central Asia is by far the more important
+source of Russian-grown cotton. In this region cotton has been
+cultivated from very early times to supply local demands, and to a minor
+degree for export. Since about 1875 the Russians have fostered the
+industry, introducing American Upland varieties, distributing seed free,
+importing gins, providing instruction, and guaranteeing the purchase of
+the crops. The Trans-Caspian railway has been an important factor;
+almost all the cotton exported passes over this line, and the statistics
+of this trade indicate the progress made. The shipments increased from
+250,978 bales in 1896-1897 to 495,962 bales in 1901-1902--part, however,
+being Persian cotton. The production of cotton in Russia in 1906 was
+estimated at 675,000 bales of 500 lb. each. About one-third of the
+cotton used in Russian mills is grown on Russian territory, the
+remainder coming chiefly from the United States.
+
+_Asia Minor._--Smyrna is the principal centre of cotton cultivation in
+this region. A native variety known as "Terli," and American cotton, are
+grown. The general conditions are favourable. According to the Liverpool
+_Cotton Gazette_, Asiatic Turkey produced in 1906 about 100,000 bales,
+and Persia about 47,000 bales. Cotton was formerly cultivated profitably
+in Palestine.
+
+_Australasia._--The quantity of cotton now produced in Australasia is
+extremely small. Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia possess
+suitable climatic conditions, and in the first-named state the cotton
+has been grown on a commercial scale in past years, the crop in 1897
+being about 450 bales. Considerable interest attaches to the
+"Caravonica" cotton raised in South Australia, which has been
+experimented with in Australia, Ceylon and elsewhere. It is probably a
+hybrid between Sea Island and rough Peruvian cotton, but lacks most of
+the essential features of Sea Island.
+
+In _Fiji_ the cotton exported in the 'sixties and 'seventies was worth
+£93,000 annually; but the cultivation has been practically abandoned. In
+1899 about 60 bales, and in 1900 about 6 bales, were exported. During
+1901-1903 there were no exports of cotton, and in 1904 only 70 bales
+were sent out.
+
+Into the _Society Islands_ Sea Island cotton was introduced about
+1860-1870. Up to the year 1885 there was an average yearly export
+equivalent to about 2140 bales of 500 lb., after which date the export
+practically ceased. The industry has, however, been revived, and in 1906
+over 100 bales, valued at £1052, were exported.     (W. G. F.)
+
+
+MARKETING AND SUPPLY
+
+  Moving the harvest to the ports.
+
+In the days of slave-grown cotton, the American planters, being men of
+wealth farming on a large scale, consigned the bulk of their produce as
+a rule direct to the ports. Now, however, a large proportion of the crop
+is sold to local store-keepers who transfer it to exporting firms in
+neighbouring cities. The cultivators, whether owners of the plantations,
+as is usual in some districts, or tenants, as is customary in others,
+are financed as a rule by commission agents. The decline of "spot" sales
+at the ports, partly but not entirely in consequence of the appearance
+of the small cultivator, has proceeded steadily. Hammond[4] has
+constructed a table from information supplied by the secretaries of the
+cotton exchanges at New York, Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, New Orleans
+and Galveston, showing the sales of "spot" cotton at those ports for the
+twenty-two years between 1874-1875 and 1895-1896, and in all cases an
+absolute decline is evident. The receipts of cotton in the season
+1904-1905 at the leading interior towns and ports of the United States
+are given below.
+
+  _Receipts of Cotton at 28 Interior Towns._
+  (In Thousand Statistical Bales of 500 lb. each.)
+
+  Brenham, Tex.        17  |  Memphis, Tenn.       984
+  Dallas, Tex.         96  |  Nashville, Tenn.      19
+  Shreveport, La.     256  |  Selma, Ala.          126
+  Little Rock, Ark.   219  |  Montgomery, Ala.     211
+  Helena, Ark.         91  |  Eufaula, Ala.         29
+  Vicksburg, Miss.    100  |  Columbus, Ga.         74
+  Columbus, Miss.      57  |  Macon, Ga.            87
+  Natchez, Miss.       76  |  Albany, Ga.           35
+  Atlanta, Ga.        134  |  Houston, Tex.      2,423
+  Rome, Ga.            72  |  Meridian, Miss.      133
+  Augusta, Ga         446  |  Cincinnati, Ohio     167
+  Columbia, S.C.       68  |  Yazoo City, Miss.     65
+  Newberry, S.C.       17  |                      ----
+  Charlotte, N.C.      21  |  Total               6712
+  Raleigh, N. C.       19  |                     -----
+  St Louis, Mo.       672  |  Crop.             13,565
+
+  _Receipts of Cotton at American Ports._
+  (In Thousand Statistical Bales of 500 lb. each.)
+
+   Galveston, Tex.  2,879  |  Boston, Mass.          84
+   New Orleans, La. 2,690  |  Philadelphia, Pa.      14
+   Mobile, Ala.       330  |  Brunswick, Ga.        200
+   Savannah, Ga.    1,877  |  Pensacola, Fla.       187
+   Charleston, S.C.   225  |  Minor Ports           518
+   Wilmington, N.C.   375  |                     ------
+   Norfolk, Va.       820  |    Total            10,295
+   Baltimore, Md.      62  |                     ------
+   New York            34  |    Crop             13,565
+
+Galveston and Savannah have risen considerably in relative importance of
+late years.
+
+
+  Ginning and packing.
+
+Before the Civil War each planter would have his own gin-house. Now,
+however, ginning is a distinct business, and one gin will serve on an
+average about thirty farmers. Moveable gins were tried for a time in
+some places; they were dragged by traction engines from farm to farm,
+like threshing machines in parts of England, but the plan proved
+uneconomical because, among other reasons, farmers were not prepared to
+meet the cost of providing facilities for storing their cotton. In
+addition to the small country ginneries, large modern ginneries have now
+been set up in all the leading Southern market towns. The cotton is
+pressed locally and afterwards "compressed" into a very small compass.
+The bales are usually square, but cylindrical bales are becoming more
+common, though their cost is greater. In the latter, the cotton is
+arranged in the form of a rolled sheet or "lap." Owing to complaints of
+the careless packing of American cotton, attention has been devoted of
+late to the improvement of the square bale.
+
+
+  English ports of entry.
+
+London used to be the chief cotton port of England, but Liverpool had
+assumed undisputed leadership before the 19th century began. Some
+arrivals have been diverted to Manchester since the opening of the
+Manchester ship canal; shipments through the canal from the 1st of
+September to the 30th of August in each year for the decade 1894-1895 to
+1904-1905 are appended--six to eight times as much is still unloaded at
+Liverpool.
+
+A Manchester cotton-importing company was recently formed for increasing
+deliveries direct to Manchester, and establishing a "spot" market there,
+an end to which the Manchester Cotton Association had directed its
+efforts for some time past. The latter association was established at
+the end of 1894, with a membership of 265, in the interests of those
+spinners who desired importations direct to Manchester. The objects of
+the association are officially stated to be: (1) to frame suitable and
+authoritative forms of contract, and to make rules and regulations for
+the proper conduct of the trade; (2) to supervise and facilitate the
+delivery of the importations of cotton at the Manchester docks to the
+various consignees; (3) to provide and maintain trustworthy standards of
+classification; (4) to procure and disseminate useful information on all
+subjects pertaining to the trade; (5) to act in concert with chambers of
+commerce and other bodies throughout the world for mutual protection;
+(6) to establish a market for cotton at Manchester. Spinning members
+preponderate, but almost all the Manchester cotton merchants and cotton
+brokers have also joined the association. The importance of the original
+spinners' representation on the association is shown by the fact that
+they worked over 14,000,000 spindles: in December 1905 the spindles
+represented by members had risen to nearly 20,000,000. Some 73,000 looms
+are also represented. As most of the Lancashire cotton mills lie far
+from Manchester, direct importations to that city do not usually
+dispense with a "handling," and frequently save little or nothing in
+freight rates, though in some cases the economy derived from direct
+importation is considerable. One gain accruing to Lancashire from the
+Canal, however, is that its competition has brought down railway
+rates.
+
+
+  Cotton market methods.
+
+Fundamental alterations have been made in the structure of the leading
+cotton markets, and in methods of buying and selling cotton, in the last
+hundred years. We shall not attempt to trace the changes as they
+appeared in every market of importance, but shall confine our attention
+to one only, and that perhaps the most important of all, namely, the
+market at Liverpool. This selection of one market for detailed
+examination does not rob our sketch of generality, as might at first be
+thought, since broadly the history of the development of one market is
+the history of the development of all, and on the whole the economic
+explanation of the evolution that has taken place may be universalized.
+
+  _Cotton landed at the Port of Manchester since the Canal was opened._
+     (In thousand Bales.)
+  The season is from the 1st of September to the 31st of August each year.
+
+  +-------------------------+---------+----------------------------------+
+  |                         |Jan. 1894|              Season              |
+  |                         |         +------+------+------+------+------+
+  |                         |to Aug.  | 1894-| 1895-| 1896-| 1897-| 1898-|
+  |                         |31, 1894.| 1895.| 1896.| 1897.| 1898.| 1899.|
+  +-------------------------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |American                 |    21   |  32  | 121  | 211  | 245  | 311  |
+  |Egyptian                 |     1.4 |  34  |  68  |  88  |  98  |  84  |
+  |East Indian              |    ..   |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |
+  |West African             |    ..   |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |
+  |                         +---------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |          Total          |     22  |   66 |  189 |  299 |   344|  395 |
+  |                         +---------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |Total American Crop*     |   7,549 | 9,901| 7,157| 8,757|11,199|11,274|
+  |Total Egyptian Crop (in  |         |      |      |      |      |      |
+  |  bales of 7½ cantars)** |     657 |   615|   703|   783|   872|   745|
+  +-------------------------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |                         |                    Season                  |
+  |                         +---------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |                         |  1899-  | 1900-| 1901-| 1902-| 1903-| 1904-|
+  |                         |  1900.  | 1901.| 1902.| 1903.| 1904.| 1905.|
+  +-------------------------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |American                 |   415   | 442  | 421  | 478  | 365  | 552  |
+  |Egyptian                 |   136   | 107  | 125  | 145  | 148  | 183  |
+  |East Indian              |   ..    |  ..  |  ..  |   2.5|   6  |   1.3|
+  |West African             |   ..    |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |  ..  |    .1|
+  |                         +---------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |          Total          |   551   |  549 |  546 | 626  | 519  |  736 |
+  |                         +---------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |Total American Crop*     | 9,436   |10,383|10,680|11,011|13,565|10,727|
+  |Total Egyptian Crop (in  |         |      |      |      |      |      |
+  |  bales of 7½ cantars)** |   868   |   723|   849|   867|   846|   778|
+  --------------------------+---------+------+------+------+------+------+
+     * Commercial crop.
+    ** A cantar is 99.05 lb. avoirdupois.
+
+
+  Evolution of broking.
+
+Originally cotton was imported by the Liverpool dealer as an agent for
+American firms or at his own risk, and then sold by private treaty,
+auction, or through brokers, to Manchester dealers, who retailed it to
+the spinners. This statement is, of course, only roughly correct. Some
+Manchester dealers imported themselves, and some spinners bought direct
+from Liverpool importers, but the rule was the arrangement first
+described. Early in the 19th century it became customary for Manchester
+dealers and Liverpool importers to carry on business with one another
+through representatives known as "buying" and "selling" brokers. About
+this time the broker of cotton only began to specialize from the ranks
+of the brokers who dealt in all kinds of colonial produce. Previously
+there had not been enough business done in cotton to make it worth any
+person's while to devote himself to the buying and selling on commission
+of cotton only. The evolution of the distinct business of cotton broking
+is readily comprehensible when we remind ourselves that the
+requirements, as regards raw material, of all spinners are much alike
+generally, and that no spinner could afford to pay an expert to devote
+himself entirely to purchasing cotton for his mill.
+
+So far change had been gradual, but the success of the Manchester and
+Liverpool railway undermined beyond repair the old system of doing
+business. Spinners could easily run over to Liverpool and buy their
+cotton from the large stocks displayed at that port. Before the railway
+was opened some spinners had been in the habit of making their purchases
+of raw material in Liverpool, but the great inconveniences of the
+journey, combined with less easy terms for payment than were usual in
+Manchester, prevented any great numbers from departing from the beaten
+track. Cotton dealers up to this time had regularly financed the
+spinners, who were frequently men of little capital, by allowing long
+credit, and had even employed them to spin on commission. As men of
+substance increased among the ranks of the spinners, the Manchester
+cotton dealers found it impossible to retard a movement set on foot by
+the prospects of such appreciable advantages. Ultimately many of the old
+Manchester cotton dealers became brokers for their old customers. In
+1875 there were said to be upwards of 100 cotton dealers in Manchester,
+but from that time onward their members steadily declined. It is
+interesting to observe that a later development of transport between
+Manchester and Liverpool, namely, the Manchester Ship Canal, has drawn
+back into Manchester a part of the cotton market which was attracted
+from Manchester into Liverpool by the famous improvement in transport
+opened to the public three-quarters of a century ago.
+
+The centralization of the cotton market in Liverpool fixed firmly the
+system of buying through brokers, for the Liverpool importer, or his
+broker, was in no sense a professional adviser to the spinners,
+informally pledged to advance the latter's interests, as the old
+Manchester dealers had been. The system was rendered comparatively
+inexpensive by the drop in commissions from 1 to ½% which had followed
+the adoption of selling by sample. This custom of buying and selling
+through brokers continued unshaken until the laying of the Atlantic
+cable tempted selling brokers occasionally, and even some buying
+brokers, to buy direct from American factors by telegraph and thus
+transform themselves into quasi-importers. The temptation was made the
+more difficult to resist by the development of "future" dealings. When
+the agents of the spinners, that is, the buying brokers, by becoming
+principals in some transactions, had acquired interests diametrically
+opposed to those of their customers, the consequent feeling of distrust
+among spinners gave birth to the Cotton Buying Company, which,
+constituted originally of twenty to thirty limited cotton-spinning
+companies, represents to-day nearly 6,000,000 spindles distributed among
+nearly one hundred firms. Its object was to squeeze out some middlemen
+and economize for its members on brokerage. This company, it is said,
+helped to attract the brokers back to the spinners, and an informal
+understanding was arrived at that the buying broker should not figure
+both as agent and principal in the same transaction.
+
+
+  Cotton-Clearing house, Cotton Bank and periodic settlement of
+    "differences."
+
+By 1876 "forward" operations had become so vast and complicated that a
+cotton-clearing house had to be established to deal with the confusing
+networks of debits and credits created by them. Its principle was
+exactly that of the clearing houses used by the railways and the banks,
+the cancellation of indebtedness and discharge simply of balances. The
+final settlement of a "future" contract involved usually a crowd of
+persons, and the passage of large sums of money backwards and forwards,
+so that the amount of cash required for circulation on the exchange
+became unreasonably excessive and an annoying waste of time was
+entailed. The cotton-clearing house substituted book-keeping for the
+bulk of these payments. The establishment of the Cotton Bank naturally
+followed. Now debts are discharged in the first instance by vouchers.
+Dealers pass their debit and credit vouchers into the Cotton Bank and
+pay or receive the balances which they owe or are entitled to. In order
+to protect dealers against the losses due to the insolvency of those
+with whom they have had transactions, weekly settlements on the exchange
+have been made compulsory; between brokers and their clients they are
+also usual. At the settlement, every member of the exchange receives the
+"differences" owing to him and pays those which he has incurred. Thus if
+a person holds futures for 10,000 bales which stood at 5.20 on the last
+settlement day and now stand at 5.30, and in the course of the previous
+week has sold 5000 bales of "futures" at 5.10, he receives 10,000 ×
+(10/100)d. on his old holding, and has to pay 5000 × (20/100)d. on his
+sales, and therefore on balance neither receives nor pays. Differences
+may be very large sums. The unit of a "future" being 100 bales, an
+alteration in the price of cotton of .01d. causes a difference on each
+unit of £2. Periodic settlements are obviously periodic tests of the
+solvency of dealers. If the test of the settlement were not frequently
+applied, speculators who were unfortunate would be tempted to plunge
+deeper until finally some became insolvent for large sums. As it is, the
+speculator who has incurred losses beyond his means tends to be
+discovered before his creditors are heavily involved. Settlement days
+fall on Thursday, and the closing prices on the preceding Monday are
+taken as the basis of the settlement. From all differences interest at
+5% is deducted for the time between settlement day and the tenth day of
+the second month on which the "future" elapses, since settlement terms
+mean that money is paid in instalments before it is actually due. To the
+admission of periodic settlements there was for a time vehement
+opposition on the ground that the door would be opened to gambling on
+"differences." Hence at first, in 1882, they were used only by a section
+of the market constituted of members who had voluntarily agreed to do
+business with one another upon these terms alone. By 1884, however, the
+advantages of "settlement terms" became so evident that they were
+adopted by the Cotton Association, at first for fortnightly periods,
+with the saving clause originally that they should not be compulsory.
+
+
+  Origin of Liverpool Cotton Association.
+
+As soon as the clearing house was set up it became evident that
+"futures" were an impossibility away from it. At the same time "futures"
+were becoming an increasing necessity to importers, because through
+"futures" alone could they hedge on their purchases of cotton, or buy
+when the market seemed favourable, and they were not prepared to assume
+heavy risks. Now from the clearing house importers were rigorously
+excluded, and on invoking the aid of "futures," therefore, they were
+penalized to the extent of double broker's commission, one commission
+being charged on the sale of the "futures" and one on their purchase
+back. The importers, therefore, found it necessary to establish a club
+of their own, the Liverpool Cotton Exchange, which they as rigorously
+guarded against brokers. The split in the market so caused was so
+damaging to both parties that a satisfactory arrangement was eventually
+agreed upon, and both institutions were absorbed in the Liverpool Cotton
+Association.
+
+
+  Publication of information relating to demand and supply.
+
+A condition of specialist dealers working to the public service is that
+they should not act in the dark. They must watch demand, be able to form
+reasonable anticipations of its movements, and at the same time know
+the existing stocks of cotton, the sales taking place from day to day,
+and the best forecasts of the coming supplies. A man accustomed to
+devote the whole of his time to the study of demand and supply in
+relation to cotton, after some years of experience, will be qualified
+ordinarily to form fairly accurate judgments of the prices to be
+expected. His success depends upon his ability to interpret rightly the
+facts and intangible signs with which he is brought in contact. The
+information at the disposal of dealers has steadily enlarged in volume
+and improved in trustworthiness, though some of it is not yet invariably
+above suspicion, and the time elapsing between an event and the
+knowledge of it becoming common property has been reduced to a fraction
+of what it used to be, in consequence chiefly of the telegraph and
+cables. All sales that take place on the Exchange must be returned.
+Estimates are published of the area under cotton cultivation, and
+conditions of the American crop are issued by the American agricultural
+bureau at the beginning of the months of June, July, August, September
+and October of each year. To represent the standard of perfect
+healthiness and exemption from injury due to insects, or drought, or any
+other causes, one hundred is taken. The estimates for 1901 to 1905 are
+given, to illustrate their variations:--
+
+  +-------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------+
+  | Year. | June 1st.| July 1st.| Aug. 1st.| Sept. 1st.| Oct. 1st.|
+  +-------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------+
+  | 1901  |   81.5   |   81.1   |   77.2   |    71.4   |   61.4   |
+  | 1902  |   95.1   |   84.7   |   81.9   |    64.0   |   58.3   |
+  | 1903  |   74.1   |   77.1   |   79.7   |    81.2   |   65.1   |
+  | 1904  |   83     |   88     |   91.6   |    84.1   |   75.8   |
+  | 1905  |   77.2   |   77     |   74.9   |    72.1   |   71.2   |
+  +-------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------+
+
+These estimates are the averages of separate estimates which are
+published for the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia,
+Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee.
+The official figures are supplemented from time to time by numerous
+private forecasts, for instance those in "Neild's circular." Ellison, in
+his work on the cotton trade of Great Britain, traces in detail the
+increase in the volume of information collected and made public. At the
+close of the 18th century there was a tacit understanding among brokers
+to supply one another with information. There were no printed circulars,
+except the monthly prices current of all kinds of produce, but brokers
+used to send particulars of business done to their customers in letters.
+These letters were the origin of circulars. Messrs Ewart and Rutson
+pioneered in 1805 by issuing a weekly account of the sales and imports
+of cotton, and three years later three such circulars were on the
+market, though Hope's alone was confined to cotton. For the first
+associated circular of any importance, the market had to wait until
+1832. The issue of this circular by subscribing firms, on the basis of
+particulars collected by brokers appointed at a weekly meeting, gave
+rise in 1841 to the Cotton Brokers' Association, to which the
+development of the market by the systematizing of procedure is largely
+due. The rest of the tale may be told in Mr Ellison's own words:--
+
+  "Down to 1864 the leading firms continued to issue weekly market
+  reports, but in that year the association commenced the publication of
+  an associated circular. This was followed in the same year by the
+  _Daily Table_ of sales and imports, which in 1874 was succeeded by the
+  present more complete _Daily Circular_. To these publications were at
+  various times added the annual report, issued in December, the
+  American crop report, issued in September, and the daily advices by
+  cable from America, issued every morning."[5]
+
+
+  Futures.
+
+We shall now enter upon a detailed analysis of "forward" operations. The
+term "futures" is used broadly and narrowly: broadly it is a generic
+term denoting "futures" in the narrow sense, and also "options" and
+"straddles"; narrowly it implies merely contracts for future delivery at
+a price fixed in the present. Again we must distinguish between the
+"future" contracts for the delivery of a particular kind of cotton,
+which may be entered into by spinners and their brokers, and are real
+purchases in the sense that the spinners want delivery of the cotton
+referred to, and the "futures," which always relate to the same grade
+of cotton, and are drawn up according to certain forms and circulate on
+the exchange as media for the shifting of risks connected with purchase
+and sale. The latter are not "real" purchases in the sense given to that
+term above, but fictitious because delivery of the cotton is not
+desired. It will no doubt aid the understanding of the functions of the
+latter if some explanation is offered of the needs met by the former,
+which are sometimes known technically as "deferred deliveries."
+
+
+  The spinner's risks.
+
+When a spinner is required to quote prices of yarn for delivery in the
+future he is fixed on the horns of a dilemma. If he does not at once buy
+cotton, but quotes on the assumption that price will remain steady, he
+may be involved in serious loss through his estimate being mistaken. If
+he determines to buy cotton at once, others who risk more, and trust
+their judgment of the future, may secure the contract. On first thoughts
+it would seem desirable that all spinners should buy cotton outright to
+cover their contracts, but on second thoughts the social disadvantage of
+their doing so becomes apparent. Much buying might take place when
+stocks were scanty, with the result that prices would be needlessly
+forced up; and when stocks were plentiful demand might be weak and
+prices, therefore, be unduly depressed. It is evident that the buying of
+cotton on the principles suggested would be calculated to cause great
+unsteadiness of prices, especially as cotton is not continuously
+forthcoming, but is produced periodically in harvests. Demands for yarn
+cannot be expected to come always at the most favourable time socially
+for the distribution of the cotton. One way out of the difficulty is
+that the spinner should exercise his judgment and buy his raw material
+at what seems to him the most suitable times. But to this course there
+are three objections. The first is that spinners would be performing the
+two functions of industrial management and cotton buying (together with
+others perhaps), and that in consequence the best industrial men would
+not necessarily be able to maintain their position in the trade because
+as buyers of cotton they might be unfortunate. The second is that
+spinners being required to give attention to two distinct classes of
+problems would be less likely as a body to become complete masters of
+either. The third, which is not distinct in principle from the two
+preceding, is that such limited speculation in cotton buying on the part
+of spinners worried with other matters would not be likely to steady the
+cotton market in any high degree. It may be assumed as desirable that
+the demand for cotton should be so spread as to keep its price as steady
+as possible--"steadiness" will be defined more exactly later--and that
+to this end it is essential that specialists should devote themselves to
+the task of spreading it. Such specialists have appeared in the cotton
+brokers and dealers who make their living out of bearing the risks
+connected with anticipating demand and supply in relation to cotton.
+To-day a spinner who is asked to quote for deliveries of yarn for, say,
+the next six months, may obtain from a broker quotations for deliveries
+of the cotton that he needs, in quantities as he needs it, for the next
+six months, and upon these quotations he may base his own for yarn. If a
+spinner is pressed by a shipper to make quotations with refusal for two
+or three days to give time for business to be settled by cable, it is
+evidently not impossible for the spinner to shift the risk involved by
+getting in turn from his broker refusal quotations for cotton. But
+spinners do not try always to take the safest course.
+
+
+  Method of distributing risks.
+
+Now it is evident that brokers in turn require some means of passing on
+the risks that they are bearing, or some portion of them from one to
+another, or of sharing them with other market experts, as they find
+themselves overburdened, and as their judgment of the situation changes.
+The means have been provided in the "futures" which circulate on the
+Cotton Exchange. The risks of anticipating are carried by those who
+create or hold "futures" without a hedge. In order to facilitate
+business, "futures" are all drawn in the same unit (100 bales), and are
+all based on the same class of cotton, namely Upland cotton of middling
+grade of "no staple" (i.e. with a fibre of about ¾ in.) and of the worst
+growth. American cotton, we may remind the reader, is graded into a
+number of classes, both on the Liverpool and New York Exchanges, and an
+attempt is made in each market to keep the grades as fixed as possible.
+But what, it may be inquired, is the value of "futures" relating to
+"middling" cotton to a broker whose contracts with spinners are not in
+"middling" cotton? The answer is that though the ratios between the
+prices of the various grades alter, the prices of all of them move
+generally together, and that the "futures" of the Exchange at least
+provide a hedge against the latter movements. Other things being equal,
+the broker would be better off if he could hedge with equal ease against
+all his risks. But other things are not equal: the market would be more
+confusing and quotations would be complicated if "futures" were in use
+for all grades.
+
+
+  Characteristics of "futures."
+
+We may now examine the exchange "futures" in minuter detail. They are
+quoted as a rule for about ten months ahead. Thus in January the futures
+quoted will be January (technically termed "current," "present month" or
+"near month," "futures"), January-February, February-March, March-April,
+April-May, May-June, June-July, July-August, and perhaps two or three
+more. Each group, it will be observed, except "current futures,"
+culminates in two defined months. The rule is that on the first of the
+two months the seller of "futures" may, and before the last day of the
+second month must, deliver cotton against them, or, what comes to the
+same thing, buy back the "futures" on the basis of the price of "spot"
+cotton of middling grade. Various grades of cotton are tenderable
+against "futures": if this were not so "futures" would be in danger of
+defeating their object, because the price of the grade upon which they
+were founded would probably at times be thrown widely out of relation to
+the general level of prices in the cotton market. The lowest grade
+tenderable used to be "low middling," but since October 1901 "good
+ordinary" has also been accepted. Arbitrators report on deliveries and
+award allowances on those of grades above "middling" and deductions of
+price from those below. A sample is taken from each bale and the "points
+on or off" are fixed for each bale separately. If either party is
+dissatisfied with the award, he may appeal to an appeals committee on
+paying £3:3:0: which is refunded to him by the other party if the appeal
+be upheld. The detailed arrangements described above are those of the
+Liverpool market. The great bulk of "futures," however, are bought back
+and not delivered against.
+
+
+  Quotations.
+
+Beneath are the official Liverpool quotations of "futures," as they
+appeared on the morning of the 19th of April 1906:--
+
+_American Deliveries, any port, basis of middling, good ordinary clause
+(the fractions are given in 100ths of a penny)._
+
+  +------------+-----------+---------------------------+---------+
+  |            |Yesterday's|   To-day's Early Sales.   |  Values |
+  |            |   Close.  |                           |  12.15. |
+  +------------+-----------+---------------------------+---------+
+  | April      |   6.05    |                           |  6.03   |
+  | April-May  |   6.05    |                           |  6.03   |
+  | May-June   |   6.05    | 6.06, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3 |  6.03   |
+  | June-July  |   6.05    | 6.05, 2,* 3               |  6.03   |
+  | July-August|   6.04    | 6.05, 4, 3, 2             |  6.03   |
+  | Aug.-Sept. |   5.98    | 5.99, 8, 6                |  5.97   |
+  | Sept.-Oct. |   5.34    | 5.85, 4                   |  5.84   |
+  | Oct.-Nov.  |   5.76    | 5.77, 6                   |  5.76   |
+  | Nov.-Dec.  |   5.75    | 5.75, 4*                  |  5.75   |
+  | Dec.-Jan.  |   5.74    | 5.75*                     |  5.75   |
+  | Jan.-Feb.  |   5.75    | 5.75*                     |  5.75   |
+  +============+===========+===========================+=========+
+  |            |            Late Business.             | Closing |
+  |            |                                       | Values. |
+  +------------+---------------------------------------+---------+
+  | April      |  6.03*                                |  5.98   |
+  | April-May  |  6.03                                 |  5.98   |
+  | May-June   |  6.03, 4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 0               |  5.99   |
+  | June-July  |  6.04, 3, 2                           |  5.99   |
+  | July-Aug.  |  6.03, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0,* 1, 2,* 1, 0    |         |
+  |            |    5.99, 6.0,* 5.99, 6.0, 5.99, 8     |  5.98   |
+  | Aug.-Sept. |  5.98,* 6, 5, 4, 5                    |  5.92   |
+  | Sept.-Oct. |  5.84, 2*                             |  5.78   |
+  | Oct.-Nov.  |  5.76,* 5,* 4, 3, 4, 3,* 2, 1, 0      |  5.70   |
+  | Nov.-Dec.  |  5.70*                                |  5.69   |
+  | Dec.-Jan.  |  5.72, 1, 2*                          |  5.69   |
+  | Jan.-Feb.  |                                       |  5.69   |
+  +------------+---------------------------------------+---------+
+    * Transactions of 100 bales only.
+
+
+  _Egyptian Deliveries, fully good fair (in 64ths of a penny)._
+
+  +----------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------+
+  |          |Yesterday's|   Business   |   To-day's   |Closing |
+  |          |  Close.   | before Noon. |   Business   |Values. |
+  |          |           |              |  Afternoon.  |        |
+  +----------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------+
+  | April    |   10-11   |      ..      |      ..      | 10-1   |
+  | May      |   10-12   |9-62, 3, 10-0 |    10-2*     | 10-1   |
+  |          |           |9-63, 2, 10-0 |              |        |
+  | June     |   10-11   |      ..      |      ..      | 10-0   |
+  | July     |   10-9    |9-60, 1, 0*   |9-63,* 10-0,* |  9-62  |
+  |          |           |              |   9-63, 2    |        |
+  | Aug.     |   10-0    |      ..      |      ..      |  9-54  |
+  | Sept.    |    9-58   |      ..      |      ..      |  9-48  |
+  | Oct.     |    9-24   |      ..      |      ..      |  9-18  |
+  | Nov.     |    8-58   |8-52,* 0, 49  |      ..      |  8-52  |
+  | Dec.     |    8-50   |8-39*         |      ..      |  8-42  |
+  | Jan.     |    8-44   |8-36          |      ..      |  8-35  |
+  +----------+-----------+--------------+--------------+--------+
+    * Transactions of 100 bales only.
+
+
+Egyptian futures, it will be observed, run out in single months. As the
+cost of dealing in "futures" is only one shilling on each transaction
+for a member of the Cotton Exchange (the outsider is charged in addition
+a commission by his broker), it is not surprising that the transactions
+taking place in "futures" number legion.
+
+The methods of dealing in cotton are very intricate, and it is necessary
+here to interpolate an explanation of the relations between the prices
+paid by spinners for cotton and the quoted "spot" prices. We begin by
+giving the official quotations of "spot," and statement of business
+done, published on the morning of the 19th of April 1906.
+
+                             _Quotations._
+
+              G.O.    L.M.   Mid.  G.M.  F.G.M.   M.F.
+  American    5.87    6.05   6.21  6.41  6.49     6.71
+
+                     Mid Fair.    Fair.   Gd. Fair.
+
+  Pernam              5.95        6.35     6.61
+  Ceara               6.02        6.40     6.62
+  Paraiba             5.94        6.32     6.56
+  Maceio              5.96n       6.34n    6.56n
+
+                   Fair.    Gd. Fair.   F.G.F.   Good.     Fine.
+
+  Egyptian br'n    8-7/8    9-7/8      10-1/4    11        11-5/8
+      "    Upper    --      9-3/16      9-5/8     9-7/8n   10n
+
+                Gd. Fr.   F.G.F.      Gd.      G.F.      Fine.   S'fine.
+
+  M. G. Broach.    ..       ..      5-7/16    5-19/32   5-3/4      ..
+  Bhownuggar    4-9/16n  4-11/16n   4-13/16n  4-15/16n  5-1/16n    ..
+  No. 1 Comra   4-9/16n  4-11/16n   4-13/16n  4-15/16n  5-1/16n    ..
+  Bengal        3-25/32  3-29/32    4-1/32    4-5/32    4-5/16     4¼
+  Tinnevelly    5¼       5-7/16     5-9/16      ..        ..       ..
+
+  _Cotton Ships arrived._
+  Boston: Canadian S. Hamburg: Iceland S.
+
+  +-----------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
+  |                 |     Sales.     |   Speculation  | Imports includ-|
+  |                 |                |   and Export.  | ing Hull, &c.  |
+  |                 +-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
+  |                 |       |Previous|       |Previous|       | Week's |
+  |                 |To-day.|  this  |To-day.|  this  |To-day.| Total. |
+  |                 |       |  Week. |       |  Week. |       |        |
+  +-----------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
+  |American         |  6330 | 18,050 |  500  |  1500  |17,665 | 53,684 |
+  |Pernam, &c.      |   150 |    200 |   ..  |   ..   |   ..  |   ..   |
+  |Paraiba, &c.     |   460 |    130 |   ..  |   ..   |   ..  |      2 |
+  |Ceara and Arac'ty|   ..  |     30 |   ..  |   ..   |   ..  |   ..   |
+  |Egyptian         |   500 |   1200 |   ..  |   ..   |   321 |  7,983 |
+  |Peruvian         |   460 |    350 |   ..  |   ..   |    32 |     32 |
+  |W. I. and African|    50 |     20 |   ..  |   ..   |   ..  |   ..   |
+  |Surat            |   ..  |   ..   |   ..  |   ..   | 3,664 |  3,829 |
+  |Madras           |    50 |     20 |   ..  |   ..   |   ..  |   ..   |
+  |Bengal           |   ..  |   ..   |   ..  |   ..   |   608 |    608 |
+  |Sundries         |   ..  |   ..   |   ..  |   ..   |   ..  |   ..   |
+  +-----------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
+  |      Total      |  8000 | 20,000 |  500  |  1500  | 2,290 | 66,138 |
+  |                 |       |  8,000 |       |   500  |       |        |
+  |                 |       +--------+       +--------+       |        |
+  |Since Wednesday  |       | 28,000 |       |  2000  |       |        |
+  +-----------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+--------+
+
+
+  "Points on or off."
+
+Purchases for "speculation" remain in the market and therefore figure
+again in the sales. These official prices are sometimes prices actually
+paid, and sometimes prices settled by a committee according to their
+notions of the prices that would have been realized at the close of the
+market had business been done. The work of the committee is by no means
+simple, as frequently very few transactions take place in the kinds of
+cotton of which quotations are given. As regards "middling" American,
+the committee fixes "spot" by allowing so many "points on or off"
+present month futures. The variations of the gaps between "spot" and
+"present month futures" are somewhat mysterious, a matter to which we
+shall recur. "Spot" quotations, the reader will now understand, are
+partly nominal, and must therefore be taken as affording a general idea
+only of movements in the prices of cotton. While quoted "spot" remained
+low, the prices paid by most spinners for the special kinds of cotton
+that they needed might rise. When the spinner has informed the dealer
+exactly what quality of cotton he needs, the dealer quotes so many
+"points on or off" the "future" quotations prevailing in Liverpool at
+the time of the purchase, which refer to Upland cotton of "middling
+grade," of "no staple" and of the worst growth. Then, according as the
+spinner wants immediate delivery or delivery in some future month, he
+pays the price of current "futures," or of "futures" of the month in
+which he requires delivery, plus or minus the "points on or off"
+previously fixed.
+
+The considerations which determine the "points on or off" charged to the
+spinner may be taken roughly as three:--
+
+1. The grade, i.e. the colour, cleanliness, &c., of the cotton. These
+are of importance to the spinner owing to the necessity of his cleaning
+machinery being adapted to the condition of the cotton. The lower the
+grade the more elaborate and expensive is the machinery required to
+clean it, and consequently a spinner is willing to pay a certain amount
+extra for high grade cotton in order to save expenditure on preparatory
+machinery.
+
+2. The length of the staple. This determines to a large extent the
+fineness of the yarn which can be spun. Only the very lowest counts can
+be spun from cotton with "no staple," that is, with a fibre of about
+three-quarters of an inch. The longer the staple above the minimum the
+higher the counts that can be spun.
+
+3. The growth. The best American cotton (Sea Island and Florida cotton
+are always considered quite apart) is grown in the Mississippi valley,
+the next best in Texas, and the poorest on the Uplands (i.e. in Georgia
+and Alabama). Considerations of growth determine to a great extent the
+hardness or softness, and strength or weakness, of the fibre, and thus,
+indirectly, whether the cotton is suitable for warp or weft.
+
+Some spinners cover their yarn contracts merely by buying "futures," but
+the cover thus provided is frequently most inadequate owing to
+variations in the "points on or off" for the particular cotton that they
+want. For example, after the size of 1904-1905 crops became known, and
+the Americans attempted to hold back cotton, the "points on" for many
+qualities rose considerably owing to artificial scarcity, though the
+price of cotton, as indicated by "spot," remained low. There is a
+tendency for cautious spinners in England to run no risks and fix the
+prices of their yarn in accordance with quotations for actual cotton of
+specified qualities made by their brokers.
+
+
+  "Options" and "straddles."
+
+We now return to exchange "future" transactions regarded as a genus. In
+addition to "futures" proper there are "options" and "straddles."
+Options are single ("puts" or "calls") or double (that is, alternative
+"puts" or "calls"). The "put" is a right to sell cotton within some
+specified time in the future at a price fixed in the present, which need
+not, of course, be exercised. The "call" is similar, but relates to
+buying. It will be evident that the "put" is a hedge against prices
+falling, and the "call" a hedge against their rising. The basis of
+"options" is the same as that of ordinary "futures," i.e. middling
+American cotton of "no staple," &c. Whether the purchaser of an option
+gains or loses depends upon the price that he has paid in relation to
+the gain, if any, that he makes out of his power. The price of options
+of course varies: that of double options is always highest, but they are
+little used. A "straddle" is a speculation on the difference between the
+prices of nearer and more distant futures, which varies from time to
+time, or on the difference between the prices of different kinds of
+cotton. An example will make the nature of the straddle clear. Suppose a
+dealer buys April-May "futures" at 4d. a lb. and sells the same quantity
+of May-June "futures" at 4-10/64d. a lb. Then, whether prices rise or
+fall as a whole, he gains if the difference between the two prices
+becomes less than 10/64d., but if it becomes more, he loses. On the
+other hand, had the dealer bought May-June at 4-10/64d. and sold
+April-May at 4d. he would have gained in the event of the difference
+increasing, and lost in the event of its decreasing.
+
+
+  Measures of steadiness in prices.
+
+A question which has met with a good deal of attention is whether the
+speculation, which has been encouraged by the various arrangements made
+for facilitating operations in "futures," has steadied or unsteadied
+prices. Before we are prepared to answer this question we must be
+furnished with a precise conception of what is meant by "steadiness" in
+prices. It is sometimes assumed that this is measured perfectly by the
+standard deviation,[6] which is obtained by taking the squares of the
+differences between the average and the individual prices, summing them
+and extracting the square root. But obviously the information given by
+the standard deviation is limited: the frequency of movement cannot be
+inferred from it; two series might have quite different average
+oscillations and yet the same standard deviation; and the range of
+movement, or spread of the variations from the average price (though
+allowed for in the standard deviation more than in the average error),
+is hidden. Now frequency of movement, average daily price variation, and
+range of price movements are matters of fundamental importance to the
+public. Hence for practical purposes we require several kinds of
+measurement of price movements, and it is impossible to weigh exactly
+the one against the other in respect of importance. Observe that an
+increase of the frequency of movement, or even of the average daily
+movement, is not necessarily objectionable, since changes are less
+harassing when they take place by small increments than when they are
+brought about by a few big variations. The difference between the
+highest and lowest price, we may observe, is a very imperfect indication
+of the range of movement (though, taken in conjunction with the standard
+deviation, it is the best at our disposal), because either of the
+extreme prices might be accidental and quite out of relation to all
+others. An investigator must be on his guard against using quotations of
+this kind. There is also a difficulty about the frequency of movement,
+because as a rule many movements take place in one day the total over a
+period sufficiently lengthy to yield general results is enormous, and
+many are unrecorded. In one day, for instance, when the net drop was 33
+points and the range of variation 59 points (namely, 8.45 to 7.86), 150
+price fluctuations were recorded. However, the count of frequency of
+movement from daily closing prices would probably afford a roughly
+satisfactory comparative measurement in markets in which prices
+sometimes remain the same for a day or two together. The points just
+noted apply also to the average fluctuation and the standard deviation,
+but it is probable in these cases that daily or even weekly quotations
+would be sufficient to yield the information sought for with sufficient
+exactness for purposes of comparison.
+
+
+  Effect of speculation on steadiness of prices.
+
+Now, supposing dealing to be confined to experts, what effects upon the
+course of prices would one expect from the specialism of the cotton
+market and improved facilities for dealing, on the assumption that
+dealers were governed wholly in their actions by the course of prices
+and never tried to manipulate them? The frequency of movement ought to
+increase because the market would become more sensitive, but, other
+things being equal, the range of movement ought to diminish, and
+ultimately the average daily movement also, though at first the latter
+might not fall appreciably if, indeed, it did not rise, owing to the
+increased frequency of movement. These results would prove beneficial to
+the community. May we infer deductively that they have been attained
+because of the increase of speculative transactions? By no means, and
+for two reasons. In the first place, the public speculates to a large
+extent on the cotton exchange, and its speculation (taken as a whole) is
+sheer gambling. But, it may be replied, the outsiders, being as a whole
+completely ignorant of the forces at work, so that they cannot form
+rational anticipations, cannot have any effect either way: by the law of
+chance their influences would neutralize one another. This would be so
+if people acted independently and without guidance, but actually they
+are sometimes misled by published advice and movements in the market
+intended to deceive them, and, even when they are not, they watch each
+other's attitudes and tend to act as a crowd. The mass becomes unduly
+sanguine or weakly surrenders to panic. Hence the law of error does not
+apply, and speculation by the public may unsteady prices. Again, dealers
+sometimes try to create corners and form powerful syndicates for that
+purpose: the dealing syndicate of late years has become a force to be
+reckoned with. Many large-scale operations are entered into, not because
+prices are relatively high or low, but to make them high or low for
+ulterior purposes; i.e. the market is deliberately "bulled or beared."
+In consequence of this tampering with the market no certainty can be
+felt about the effect even of expert dealing.
+
+
+  Movement of prices.
+
+What, then, we may profitably inquire next, has actually happened to
+price movements generally as the market has developed? This question can
+readily be answered as regards the past forty years or so, for which
+material has been collected, but the reader must bear in mind that if
+improvement can be traced it cannot logically be attributed
+unhesitatingly to the perfecting of the machinery of speculation,
+whereby a larger use has been made of "futures," since many other
+economic changes have taken place concomitantly and they may have
+wrought the major effect. The world may be steadying and steeling its
+nerves. Now, turning to the actual effects, we discover somewhat
+remarkable facts. Expressed both absolutely and as percentages of the
+price averaged from the 1st of October to the 31st of July, the range of
+movement, standard deviation, and mean weekly movement calculated
+between the times mentioned above (October 1st to July 31st), after
+diminishing significantly for some years after the later 'sixties, have
+risen appreciably on the whole of late years. The figures in the table
+below are from the _Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, June
+1906: quotations for August and September were omitted to avoid the
+transition movements between the price levels of two crops.
+
+In this table measurements of price movements stated both absolutely and
+as percentages of price levels are given, because authorities have
+expressed doubts as to whether the former or the latter might be
+expected to remain constant, other things being equal, when price rose.
+On the one hand, it is argued that speculators are affected only by the
+absolute variations in price, while on the other hand it is contended
+that a movement of one "point," say, is less influential when the price
+is about 8d. than when it is about 4d. In response to the first view it
+might be argued that if speculators are influenced only by the
+differences for which they become liable, a "point" movement would have
+a somewhat slighter effect on their action, other things being equal,
+when price was high, because, supplies being relatively short, each of
+them would tend to be engaged in a smaller volume of transactions
+measured in quantity of cotton, than when supplies were larger. But the
+point need not be discussed further here, since both percentage and
+absolute indices of unsteadiness have risen of late years. The
+explanation of this change in the direction of indices of steadiness
+cannot be proved to consist in any peculiarity in the supplies of recent
+years. But the dealing syndicate has probably been of late more common
+and more powerful--that is, the syndicate which exists to make profits
+out of manipulating the market--and the public has probably been
+speculating increasingly. It is plausible, then, to suppose that the
+dealing syndicate primarily, and the speculations of the public
+secondarily (secondarily, because in all likelihood the effect of its
+operation would be much less in magnitude), may account for the change.
+
+  Table calculated from Weekly Prices between the 1st of October and the
+  31st of July in each Year.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------+
+  |                                                              | Expressed as Per-  |
+  |                                                              | centage of Average |
+  |                                                              |(1 Oct. to 31 July) |
+  |                                                              |   Weekly Prices.   |
+  +---------+---------+---------+---------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |         |         |         |         |Range of|Stan- | Mean |Range |Stan- | Mean |
+  |  Year.  | Average |  Lowest | Highest |  Move- |dard  |Weekly|  of  |dard  |Weekly|
+  |         |  Price. |  Price. |  Price. |  ment. |Devia-|Move- |Move- |Devia-|Move- |
+  |         |         |         |         |        |tion. | ment.|ment. |tion. | ment.|
+  +---------+---------+---------+---------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |         |    d.   |    d.   |    d.   |   d.   |  d.  |  d.  |   d. |   d. |  d.  |
+  |1867-1868| 9-5/8   | 7-3/8   |12-7/8   | 5½     | 1.74 | 0.31 | 57.1 | 18.1 | 3.22 |
+  |1868-1869|11½      |10½      |12-5/8   | 2-1/8  | 0.58 | 0.19 | 18.5 |  5.0 | 1.65 |
+  |1869-1870|11-1/8   | 7¾      |12-3/8   | 4-5/8  | 0.92 | 0.23 | 41.6 |  8.3 | 2.07 |
+  |1870-1871| 8-1/8   | 7-3/16  | 9-3/16  | 2      | 0.65 | 0.17 | 24.6 |  8.0 | 2.09 |
+  |1871-1872|10-7/8   | 9-3/8   |11½      | 2-1/8  | 0.75 | 0.15 | 19.5 |  6.9 | 1.38 |
+  |1872-1873| 9¾      | 8¾      |10-5/16  | 1-9/16 | 0.53 | 0.10 | 16.9 |  5.7 | 1.08 |
+  |1873-1874| 8-5/16  | 7¾      | 9-1/8   | 1-3/8  | 0.32 | 0.10 | 16.5 |  3.9 | 1.20 |
+  |1874-1875| 7-11/16 | 6-15/16 | 8       | 1-1/16 | 0.26 | 0.07 | 13.8 |  3.4 | 0.89 |
+  |1875-1876| 6½      | 5-7/8   | 7-1/8   | 1¼     | 0.37 | 0.08 | 19.2 |  5.7 | 1.23 |
+  |1876-1877| 6-5/16  | 5-7/8   | 7       | 1-1/8  | 0.33 | 0.11 | 17.8 |  5.2 | 1.74 |
+  |1877-1878| 6¾      | 5-7/8   | 6-9/16  | 1-11/16| 0.21 | 0.07 | 11.0 |  3.4 | 1.12 |
+  |1878-1879| 6       | 4-15/16 | 7-3/28  | 2¼     | 0.67 | 0.13 | 37.5 | 11.2 | 2.17 |
+  |1879-1880| 7       | 6-10/16 | 7-3/8   | 1¾     | 0.24 | 0.12 | 10.7 |  3.4 | 1.71 |
+  |1880-1881| 6-5/16  | 5¾      | 6-13/16 | 1-1/16 | 0.34 | 0.08 | 16.8 |  5.4 | 1.27 |
+  |1881-1882| 6-5/8   | 6-3/8   | 7-1/16  |  11/16 | 0.15 | 0.07 | 10.4 |  2.3 | 1.06 |
+  |1882-1883| 5-13/16 | 5-7/16  | 6-5/8    |1-3/16 | 0.31 | 0.07 | 20.4 |  5.3 | 1.20 |
+  |1883-1884| 6-1/16  | 5¾      | 6-7/16  |  11/16 | 0.20 | 0.08 | 11.3 |  3.3 | 1.32 |
+  |1884-1885| 5-13/16 | 5-7/16  | 6-1/8   |  11/16 | 0.19 | 0.07 | 11.8 |  3.3 | 1.20 |
+  |1885-1886| 5-1/8   | 4¾      | 5-8/16  |  ¾     | 0.18 | 0.07 | 14.5 |  3.5 | 1.35 |
+  |1886-1887| 5-7/16  | 5-1/8   | 6       |   7/8  | 0.28 | 0.05 | 16.1 |  5.2 | 0.92 |
+  |1887-1888| 5½      | 5-3/16  | 5-11/16 |  ½     | 0.14 | 0.05 |  9.1 |  2.5 | 0.91 |
+  |1888-1889| 5¾      | 5-5/16  | 6-3/16  |   7/8  | 0.23 | 0.06 | 15.0 |  4.0 | 1.04 |
+  |1889-1890| 6-1/8   | 5-9/16  | 6-11/16 |   1/8  | 0.34 | 0.08 | 18.4 |  5.5 | 1.31 |
+  |1890-1891| 5       | 4-3/8   | 5¾      | 1-3/8  | 0.36 | 0.06 | 27.5 |  7.2 | 1.20 |
+  |1891-1892| 4-1/8   | 3-6/16  | 4-15/16 | 1-3/8  | 0.36 | 0.07 | 33.3 |  8.7 | 1.70 |
+  |1892-1893| 4¾      | 4-1/8   | 5-15/16 | 1-3/16 | 0.37 | 0.09 | 25.0 |  7.8 | 1.89 |
+  |1893-1894| 4¼      | 3-29/32 | 4-11/16 |  25/32 | 0.22 | 0.04 | 18.4 |  5.2 | 0.94 |
+  |1894-1895| 3-3/8   | 2-31/32 | 3-7/8   |  9/32  | 0.30 | 0.06 | 26.9 |  8.9 | 1.79 |
+  |1895-1896| 4-3/8   | 3¾      | 4-27/32 |  3/32  | 0.28 | 0.07 | 25.0 |  6.4 | 1.60 |
+  |1896-1897| 4-3/16  | 3-25/32 | 4-11/16 |  29/32 | 0.22 | 0.07 | 21.6 |  5.2 | 1.67 |
+  |1897-1898| 3-13/32 | 3-3/16  | 3-13/16 |  5/8   | 0.18 | 0.05 | 18.5 |  5.3 | 1.47 |
+  |1898-1899| 3-9/32  | 3       | 3-15/32 |  15/32 | 0.15 | 0.04 | 14.3 |  4.6 | 1.22 |
+  |1899-1900| 4-15/16 | 3-29/32 | 6-1/16  |  25/32 | 0.63 | 0.12 | 43.6 | 12.8 | 2.48 |
+  |1900-1901| 5-1/8   | 4-5/16  | 6½      | 2-3/16 | 0.53 | 0.13 | 42.7 | 10.3 | 2.54 |
+  |1901-1902| 4¾      | 4-9/32  | 5-11/32 | 1-1/16 | 0.24 | 0.09 | 22.4 |  5.0 | 1.89 |
+  |1902-1903| 5.35    | 4.42    | 7.12    | 2.70   | 0.78 | 0.13 | 50.5 | 14.6 | 2.43 |
+  |1903-1904| 7.04    | 5.78    | 8.92    | 3.14   | 0.91 | 0.33 | 44.4 | 12.9 | 4.83 |
+  |1904-1905| 4.86    | 3.63    | 6.01    | 2.38   | 0.71 | 0.15 | 48.9 | 14.6 | 3.09 |
+  +---------+---------+---------+---------+--------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+
+  Price movements in different markets.
+
+"Futures" are not used in all markets--for instance, they are not to be
+found at Bremen; and in those in which they are used they play parts of
+different prominence--at Havre, for instance, the transactions in
+"futures" are of incomparably less relative importance than they are at
+Liverpool. But it is futile to seek the effect of much dealing in
+"futures" in the differences between price movements in the various
+markets, because (1) demand expresses itself in different ways--in
+Germany, for example, spinners buy to hold large stocks--and (2) the
+markets are in telegraphic communication, so that their price movements
+are kept parallel. Mr Hooker has shown with reference to the wheat
+market how close is the correlation between prices in different
+places,[7] and the same has been observed of the cotton market, though
+the correlations have not been worked out.[8] It is worthy of note that
+Liverpool "futures" are largely used for hedging by continental cotton
+dealers.
+
+  +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
+  |                |     |Jan.-|Feb.-|Mar.-|Apr.-|May-|June-|July-|Aug.-|Sep.-|Oct.-|Nov.-|Dec.|
+  |                |Spot.|Feb. |Mar. |Apr. |May. |Jun.|July |Aug. |Sep. |Oct. |Nov. |Dec. |Jan.|
+  +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
+  |Nov. 18th, 1895 | 4.34| 27  | 28  | 28½ | 29½ | 31 | 32  |  3  | ..  | ..  | ..  | 27  | 27 |
+  |Jan. 18th, 1899 | 3.8 |  6½ |  6½ |  7½ |  8½ |  9½| 10½ |  1½ | 12  | 12½ | ..  | ..  |  6½|
+  |Sept. 14th, 1899| 3.36| 24½ | 25  | 25½ | 26  | 27 | ..  | ..  | 30  | 28  | 26½ | 25  | 24½|
+  +----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
+
+
+  Differences between the prices of near and distant "futures."
+
+Conceivably some indication of the working of "futures" might be gleaned
+from observation of the relations of near and distant "futures" to one
+another and of both to "spot." The complete explanation of changes in
+these relations is still a mystery.[9] Probably an infinitude of subtle
+influences came into play, and among these there seems reason to include
+the intentional and unintentional "bulling" or "bearing" of the market.
+Some examples of the diverse relations to be found, even when all the
+"futures" fall in the same crop year, may be quoted here--quotations
+running into the new crop year are obviously affected by anticipations
+of the new crop.
+
+As we pass from the "future" of the month in which the quotation is made
+to the most distant "future" it will be observed that in the first and
+second cases price rises continuously, in the second case even passing
+"spot," whereas in the third case it falls first and then rises.
+Instances might be given of its falling unintermittently. It seems a
+plausible conjecture that if "futures" were "bulling" the market in the
+first case, they were at least "bulling" it less in the second case
+_ceteris paribus_, and probably "bearing" it in the last case. A closer
+examination will reveal further that the magnitude of these gaps varies
+a great deal; and if the "futures" do "bear" and "bull," as has been
+supposed, they probably influence these magnitudes. It might be thought
+that the "futures" of different months, being substitutes in proportion
+to their temporal proximity to one another, should vary together
+exactly; but it would seem to be a sufficient reply that as they are not
+perfect substitutes they are in some slight degree independent
+variables. The "spot" market might be judged generally as too high, in
+view of crops and the probable normal demand of the year, but it might
+not therefore drop immediately, owing partly to the pressure of demand
+that must be satisfied instantaneously. "Current futures" would be
+affected more than "spot" by this impression as to the relation of
+"spot" to a conceived normal price for the year, and they might
+therefore be expected to drop more than "spot" when this impression was
+at all widely entertained. But the fall of "current futures" would be
+checked by the demands that must be satisfied in the near future.
+Probably the prices of the more distant "futures" are determined in a
+higher degree by far-reaching imagination than the prices of nearer
+futures. This explains what has been called above the unintentional
+"bearing" of "spot" by "futures." And it is immediately evident that the
+deliberate "bear" works by selling "futures," and that the effect of his
+sales is propagated to "spot." These statements are equally true of
+"bulling." The influence of expectations of the new crop on "futures"
+running into the new crop is plain on inspection; but owing to the gap
+between the two crop years it would be astonishing if "futures" against
+which cotton from a new crop could be delivered were not appreciably
+independent of "spot" at the time of their quotation. However, it is
+noticeable that they are still so closely bound up with "futures"
+culminating in the old crop year that the daily movements of the former
+are closely correlated with those of the latter. Concluding cautiously,
+we may admit the probability of the relations between near and distant
+"futures" and "spot" (even in respect of "futures" running out in the
+same crop year) indicating sometimes at least the intentional or
+unintentional "bulling" or "bearing" or "spot" by "futures." But nothing
+has yet been proved from these facts as to the effect "futures" are
+having upon the steadiness of prices. In the case of any crop year, if
+the relations which are suggested as indicating the "bulling" work of
+"futures" usually corresponded with "spot" prices being below the normal
+price of the crop year, or of what was left of the crop year, while the
+relations which are suggested to indicate the "bearing" work of
+"futures" on the whole corresponded with a relatively abnormal height of
+"spot," it would be a legitimate inference that "futures" were tending
+to smooth prices. However, it is made clear as the result of an
+elaborate examination that the generality of these correspondences
+cannot be affirmed.[10] The outcome of the whole matter is that the
+investigator is still baffled in his attempt to discover what effect the
+use of "futures" is having upon prices to-day. The sole piece of
+evidence, from which probable conclusions may be drawn, is that three
+separate measurements of price fluctuations over some forty years reveal
+a growing unsteadiness of late, whether they be expressed absolutely or
+as percentages of price.
+
+
+  Recent attempts to open up new cotton-fields.
+
+The uneasiness caused by the excessive dependence of Great Britain upon
+the United States for cotton, coupled with the belief that shortages of
+supply are more frequent than they ought to be, and the fear that
+diminishing returns may operate in America, occasioned the formation in
+England of the British Cotton Growing Association on the 12th of June
+1902. The proportions of England's supplies drawn from different fields
+is indicated in the table below.
+
+British dependence on American supplies is greater even than that of the
+continent of Europe, for Russia possesses some internal supplies, and
+more Indian cotton is used in continental countries than in England.
+
+  _Average Quantities of Raw Cotton imported Annually into the United
+  Kingdom from the following Countries in the Periods 1896-1900 and
+  1901-1904._
+
+  +----------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+
+  |                Country                 |  1896-1900. | 1901-1904.  |
+  |                                        | Million lb. | Million lb. |
+  +----------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+
+  | United States                          |   1436      |  1424       |
+  | Brazil                                 |     13.8    |    31.5     |
+  | Peru                                   |      8.5    |     8.6     |
+  | Chile (including the Pacific coast of  |       .8    |     2.2     |
+  |   Patagonia)                           |             |             |
+  | Venezuela and Republic of Colombia     |       .5    |      .5     |
+  | British West Indies and British Guiana |       .3    |      .6     |
+  | Turkey (European and Asiatic)          |       .5    |     1.1     |
+  | Egypt                                  |    295.7    |   314.4     |
+  | British possessions in the East Indies |     40.7    |    61.9     |
+  | Australasia                            |       .035  |      .041   |
+  | All other countries                    |      2.3    |     3.8     |
+  |                                        +-------------+-------------+
+  |                     Total              |   1800      |  1849       |
+  |                                        +-------------+-------------+
+  |                  Re-exported           |    223      |   260       |
+  +----------------------------------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+The annual average shipments from Bombay to the European continent and
+to Great Britain in 1900-1904 were as follows:--
+
+  To the continent         600 bales of 3½ cwt.
+  To Great Britain          50   "    "     "
+
+At the end of the 18th century the bulk of British cotton was obtained
+from the West Indies. Approximately the supplies were as follows in
+million lb.:--
+
+  British West Indies                   6.6
+  French and Spanish settlements        6
+  Dutch settlements                     1.7
+  Portuguese  "                         2.5
+  East Indies "                          .1
+  Smyrna or Turkey                      5.7
+
+The British Cotton Growing Association works under the sanction of a
+royal charter and has met with valuable official support. Financial
+assistance and assurances as to sales and prices have been given
+liberally by the association where they are needed; ginning and buying
+centres have been established; experts have been engaged to distribute
+seed and afford instruction; and some land has been acquired for working
+under the direct management of the association. The governments of some
+colonies have aided the efforts of the association. Professor Wyndham
+Dunstan of the Imperial Institute, on a reference from the government,
+made favourable reports as to the possibilities of extending cotton
+cultivation. The results may be seen in the approximate estimates below
+of cotton grown more or less directly under the auspices of the
+association.
+
+  _Bales of 400 lb._
+
+  +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                   |  1903.  |  1904.  |    1905.  |   1906.   |
+  +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+
+  | Gambia            |     50  |    100  |      300  |      ..   |
+  | Sierra Leone      |     50  |    100  |      200  |      250  |
+  | Gold Coast        |     50  |    150  |      200  |      250  |
+  | Lagos             |    500  |  2,000  |    3,200  |    6,300  |
+  | Nigeria           |    100  |    200  |      650  |    1,200  |
+  |                   |  -----  |  -----  |    -----  |    -----  |
+  | West Africa       |    750  |  2,550  |    4,550  |    8,000  |
+  | West Indies       |  1,000  |  2,000  |    4,000  |    6,000  |
+  | East Africa       |    150  |    850  |    2,000  |    3,500  |
+  | Sind              |    ..   |    ..   |      500  |    2,000  |
+  | Sundries          |    ..   |    100  |      250  |      500  |
+  +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+
+  |         Total     |  1,900  |  5,500  |   11,300  |   20,000  |
+  +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+
+  | Approximate value |£29,000  |£75,000  | £150,000  | £270,000  |
+  +-------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+
+
+In the West Indies results are most favourable, both as regards quantity
+and quality of the crops. West Indian grown cotton has realized even
+higher prices than American grown Sea Island. In West Africa also
+prospects appear encouraging. In Sierra Leone little success has been
+met with, but on the Gold Coast some cotton better than middling
+American has been grown, and the association has concluded an agreement
+with the government for an extension of its work. In Lagos crops
+increased rapidly. The cotton is almost entirely grown by natives in
+small patches round their villages, and generally it has sold for about
+the same price as middling American, though some of it realized as much
+as 25 to 30 "points on." The quality in greatest demand in England, it
+should be observed, is worth about ¼d. to ½d. per lb. above middling
+American. In Southern Nigeria the association has met with only slight
+success; in Northern Nigeria, a working arrangement was entered into
+with the Niger Company, and a small ginning establishment was set to
+work in February 1906. In British Central Africa, the results on the
+whole have not been satisfactory. Though planters who confined their
+efforts to the lower lying grounds--of which there is a fairly large
+tract--succeeded, all the cotton planted on the highlands proved more or
+less a failure. In Uganda the association took no steps, but activity in
+cotton-growing is not unknown, and some good cotton is being produced.
+Arrangements were concluded with the British South Africa Company for
+the formation of a small syndicate for working in Rhodesia.
+
+The general movement for the extension of cotton cultivation was
+welcomed by the International Congress of representatives of master
+cotton spinners and manufacturers' associations at the meeting at Zürich
+in May 1904. It placed on record "its cordial appreciation of the
+efforts of those governments and institutions which have already
+supported cotton-growing in their respective colonies." England is
+pre-eminent but not alone in the matter. Germany and France, and in a
+less degree Belgium, Portugal and Italy, have taken some steps. Russia,
+too, is developing her internal supplies.
+
+The advantages that might accrue from the wider distribution of
+cotton-growing are mainly fourfold, (1) Greater elasticity of supply
+might be caused. It is probably easier to extend the area under cotton
+rapidly when crops are raised from many places in proximity to other
+crops than when the mass of the cotton is obtained from a few highly
+specialized districts. Possibly the advantages of specialism might be
+retained and yet the elasticity of supply be enhanced. (2) Greater
+stability of crops in proportion to area cultivated is hoped for. The
+eggs are now too much in one basket, and local disease, or bad weather,
+or some other misfortune, may diminish by serious percentages the
+supplies anticipated. Were there numerous important centres, the bad
+fortune of one would be more adequately offset by the good fortune of
+another. (3) Desirable variations in the raw material might conceivably
+eventuate from the introduction of cotton to spots in the globe where
+its growth was previously unknown or little regarded. The results of the
+enterprise of Mehemet Ali and Jumel in Egypt prove such an idea to be
+not altogether fanciful, and warn us also against hastily arguing that
+the plan is too artificial to succeed on a large scale. Without the
+active intervention of a strong body of interested parties it is
+sometimes unlikely that new industries will be undertaken even in places
+well suited for them. (4) Lastly, the countries to which cotton-growing
+is carried should gain in prosperity.
+
+
+  The Cotton Supply Association.
+
+The general difficulties in the way of the British Cotton Growing
+Association are many and will be sufficiently evident. Lessons of value
+may be learnt from the fate of similar work undertaken by the Cotton
+Supply Association, which was instituted in April 1857. According to its
+fifth report, it originated "in the prospective fears of a portion of
+the trade that some dire calamity must inevitably, sooner or later,
+overtake the cotton manufacture of Lancashire, whose vast superstructure
+had so long rested upon the treacherous foundation of restricted slave
+labour as the main source of supply for its raw material."[11] Its
+methods were stated to be: "To afford information to every country
+capable of producing cotton, both by the diffusion of printed directions
+for its cultivation, and sending competent teachers of cotton planting
+and cleaning, and by direct communication with Christian missionaries
+whose aid and co-operation it solicits; to supply, gratuitously, in the
+first instance, the best seeds to natives in every part of the world who
+are willing to receive them; to give prizes for the extended cultivation
+of cotton; and to lend gins and improved machines for cleaning and
+preparing cotton." Though the association brought about an extension and
+improvement of the Indian crop, in which result it was enormously
+assisted by the high prices consequent upon the American Civil War, it
+sank after a few years into obscurity, and soon passed out of existence
+altogether, while the effects of its work dwindled finally into
+insignificance. Much the same had been the ultimate outcome of the
+spasmodic attempt of the British government to bring about the
+introduction of cotton to new districts, after it had been pressed to
+take some action a few years prior to the formation of the Cotton Supply
+Association. A Mr Clegg, who afterwards interested himself keenly in the
+activities of the Cotton Supply Association reported that in the course
+of a tour in 1855 through the Eastern countries bordering on the
+Mediterranean he had found none of the gins presented by the British
+government at work or workable.
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY.--On the question of cotton supplies, as treated in this
+article, the reader may be referred to _Brook's Cotton, its Uses, &c._;
+Dabney's _Cotton Plant_ (Department of Agriculture of the United
+States); Foaden's _Cotton Culture in Egypt_; Dunstan's _Report on Cotton
+Cultivation_ for the British government; Oppel's _Die Baumwolle_;
+Leconte's _Le Coton_; publications of the British Cotton Growing
+Association; _Report_ of the Lancashire Commission on the possibility of
+extending cotton cultivation in the Southern States of North America;
+Watt's _Lancashire and the Cotton Famine_; publications of the old
+Cotton Supply Association (many will be found in the Manchester public
+library in the volume marked "677 I. C. ii."), including their weekly
+paper, _The Cotton Supply Reporter_; Hammond's _Cotton Culture and
+Trade_. On methods of marketing to certain portions of the above must be
+added: Ellison's _Cotton Trade of Great Britain_; Chapman's _Lancashire
+Cotton Industry_ (ch. vii.); articles by Chapman and Knoop in the
+_Economic Journal_ (December, 1904) and the _Journal of the Royal
+Statistical Society_ (April, 1906); Emery's _Speculation on Stock and
+Produce Exchanges of the United States_ (small portions of which relate
+to cotton). Many statistics will be found in the works mentioned, and
+these may be supplemented from the trade publications of different
+countries. Many valuable figures of cotton imports, &c., in early years
+will be found in Baines' _History of the Cotton Trade_. Recent
+statistics bearing upon cotton are collected annually in the two
+publications, Shepperson's _Cotton Facts_ and Jones's _Handbook for
+Daily Cable Records of Cotton Crop Statistics_. For current information
+the following may be added: Nield's, Ellison's and Tattersall's
+circulars; _Cotton_ (the publication of the Manchester Cotton
+Association); and daily reports and articles in the local press. Price
+curves are published by Messrs Turner, Routledge & Co.     (S. J. C.)
+
+
+COTTON GOODS AND YARN
+
+The two great sections of the cotton industry are _yarn_ and _cloth_,
+and in Great Britain the production of both of these is mainly in South
+Lancashire, though the area extends to parts of Cheshire, Yorkshire and
+Derbyshire, and there is a Scottish branch, besides certain isolated
+ventures in other parts of the country. Though there are local rivalries
+there is nothing in competitive division to compare with the northern
+and southern sections in America, and the British industry is, for its
+size, more homogeneous than most of the European industries. Both
+operatives and employers are highly organized and both parties are able
+to make articulate contribution to the solution of the various problems
+connected with the trade.
+
+_Cotton Yarn._--The yarn trade is mainly in the hands of limited
+companies, and a private firm is looked upon as something of a survival
+from the past. The two great centres of production are Oldham, in which
+American cotton is chiefly, though not exclusively, spun, and Bolton,
+which spins the finer counts from Egyptian or Sea Island cotton.
+Spinning mills are established, however, in most of the large Lancashire
+towns as well as in some parts of Cheshire and in Yorkshire, where there
+is a considerable industry in doubling yarns. The centre of trade is the
+Manchester Royal Exchange, and though some companies or firms prefer to
+do business by means of their own salaried salesmen, managers or
+directors, most of the yarn is sold by agents. Frequently a single agent
+has the consignment of the whole of a company's yarn, but many spinners,
+especially those whose business connexion is not perfectly assured,
+prefer to have more outlets than can be explored by an individual. At
+times of bad trade even those who usually depend on their own resources
+seek the aid of experienced agents, who sometimes find a grievance if
+their services are rejected when trade improves and sales are made
+easily.
+
+Yarn is sold upon various terms, but a regular custom in the home trade
+is for the spinner to allow 4% discount, for payment in 14 days, of
+which 2½ goes to the buyer, who is commonly a manufacturer, and 1½ to
+the agent for sale and guaranteeing the account. In selling yarn for
+export it is usual to allow the buyer only 1½% for payment in 14 days,
+or in some cases the discount is at the rate of 5% per annum for 3
+months, which is equivalent to 1¼%.
+
+The great bulk of the yarn spun in Great Britain ranges between
+comparatively narrow limits of count, and such staples as 32^s to 36^s
+twist and 36^s to 46^s weft in American, 50^s to 60^s twist and 42^s to
+62^s weft in Egyptian, make up a large part of the total. It is
+nevertheless the experience of yarn salesmen that Lancashire produces an
+increasingly large amount of specialities that indicate a continued
+differentiation in trade. The tendency to spin finer counts has been to
+some extent counteracted by the development of the flannelette trade,
+for which heavy wefts are used, and there has been again a tendency
+lately to use "condensor" or waste wefts, which has worked to the
+disadvantage of the spinners of the regular coarse counts spun at Royton
+and elsewhere. The demand for cloths which require careful handling and
+regularity in weaving has helped to develop the supply of ring yarns
+which will stand the strain of the loom better than mule twists. A great
+amount of doubled and trebled yarn is now sold, though it does not
+appear that recent expansions have added much to doubling spindles, and
+considerable developments continue in the use of dyed and mercerized
+yarns.
+
+Yarns are sold according to their "actual" counts, though when they are
+woven into cloth they frequently attain nominal or brevet rank. There
+has been a long-continued discussion, which between buyer and seller
+sometimes degenerates into a dispute, on the subject of moisture in
+yarns, and the difficulty is not confined to the Lancashire industry.
+The amount permissible, according to the recommendation of the
+Manchester Chamber of Commerce, is 8%, but while it may be assumed that
+yarns at the time of their sale rarely contain less than this, they
+frequently contain a good deal more. It is a matter of experience that
+cotton yarns which when spun contain only a small percentage of moisture
+will absorb up to about 8% when they are exposed to what may be rather
+vaguely described as natural conditions. The exigencies of competition
+prompted the discovery that if yarn were sold by weight fresh from the
+spindle its comparative dryness made such early sale less profitable
+than if it were allowed to "condition." Between loss and delay the
+spinner found an obvious alternative in damping the yarn artificially.
+As it was often clearly to the advantage of the buyer that he should
+receive immediate delivery he did not object to water in moderation, but
+art soon began to run a little ahead of nature. The essentially
+dishonest practice of deluging yarn with water, which has sometimes even
+degenerated into the use of weighting materials deleterious to weaving,
+has been recognized as a great nuisance, but while various attempts have
+been made to protect the buyer the question seems to have pretty well
+settled itself on the principles which commonly rule the sales of
+commodities between those who intend to do business continuously. The
+spinner who persists in over-weighting his yarn finds it difficult to
+obtain "repeat" orders.
+
+A remarkable point in the Lancashire yarn trade is the looseness of the
+contracts between spinner and manufacturer. Doubtless some kind of sale
+note or acknowledgment usually passes between them, but in the home
+trade at least it is quite usual to leave the question of delivery an
+open one. It would not be correct to say that this system or want of
+system is satisfactory, but the trade manages to rub along very well
+with it, although inconveniences and disagreements sometimes arise when
+prices have advanced or declined considerably. Thus when prices have
+advanced the manufacturer may find it difficult to obtain delivery of
+the yarn that he had bought at low rates, for some spinners have a
+curious, indefensible preference for delivering their higher-priced
+orders; and, on the other hand, when prices have fallen the manufacturer
+sometimes ceases to take delivery of the high-priced yarn and actually
+purchases afresh for his needs. Yet positive repudiation is very rare
+though compromises are not uncommon, and a good many illogical
+arrangements are made that imply forbearance and amity. Litigation in
+the yarn trade is very unusual, and Lancashire traders generally have
+only vague notions of the bearing of law upon their transactions, and a
+wholesome dread of the experience that would lead to better knowledge.
+
+  The average yearly values of the exports of cotton, yarn and cloth
+  from Great Britain for the decades 1881-1890 and 1891-1900
+  respectively, are given by Professor Chapman in his _Cotton Industry
+  and Trade_, in million pounds:--
+
+                      1881-1890.      1891-1900.
+    Cloth                £60.4           £57.3
+    Yarn                  12.3             9.3
+                         -----           -----
+              Total      £72.7           £66.6
+
+  During the earlier decade the prices of cotton were comparatively
+  high.
+
+  The whole of the cloth exports represent, of course, a corresponding
+  home trade in yarns. The following table, taken from the _Manchester
+  Guardian_, gives in thousands of lb. the amounts of cotton yarns
+  exported from Great Britain during 1903, 1904 and 1905 respectively,
+  according to the Board of Trade returns, together with the average
+  value per lb. for each of the countries:--
+
+    +-----------------------------+--------------+---------------+--------------+
+    |                             |     1903.    |     1904.     |     1905.    |
+    |                             +-------+------+-------+-------+-------+------+
+    |                             |       |Price |       | Price |       | Price|
+    |                             |  lb.* | per  |  lb.* |  per  |  lb.* |  per |
+    |                             |       | lb.  |       |  lb.  |       | lb.  |
+    +-----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------+------+
+    |                             |       |  d.  |       |   d.  |       |  d.  |
+    | Russia                      |    814| 30.22|    713|  30.71|    557| 30.66|
+    | Sweden                      |  1,526| 11.00|  1,486|  12.55|  1,512| 11.12|
+    | Norway                      |  1,656|  9.54|  1,511|  11.05|  1,606|  9.73|
+    | Denmark                     |  2,429|  8.91|  2,368|  10.18|  2,860|  9.51|
+    | Germany                     | 27,239| 16.05| 40,295|    .27| 39,513| 16.38|
+    | Netherlands                 | 29,591|  9.10| 29,384|  10.48| 37,341|  8.93|
+    | Belgium                     |  3,970| 15.89|  5,864|  16.50|  7,205| 16.12|
+    | France                      |  3,974| 17.59|  3,084|  20.01|  3,518| 22.64|
+    | Italy                       |    204| 21.78|    174|  24.70|    204| 22.21|
+    | Austria-Hungary             |  2,662| 11.60|  3,329|  14.36|  3,066| 13.36|
+    | Rumania                     |  4,608|  8.55|  5,072|  10.13|  7,856|  9.73|
+    | Turkey                      | 12,966|  8.93| 14,253|  10.05| 17,389|  9.37|
+    | Egypt                       |  4,590|  8.66|  4,381|   9.83|  4,382|  8.59|
+    | China (including Hong-Kong) |  4,660|  9.45|  2,457|  10.24|  8,441|  8.70|
+    | Japan                       |  1,406| 12.98|    681|  11.46|  4,071| 13.99|
+    | British India--             |       |      |       |       |       |      |
+    |   Bombay                    |  6,286| 10.80|  8,145|  11.88| 13,112| 10.86|
+    |   Madras                    |  6,683| 11.07|  8,288|  12.48| 10,930| 11.91|
+    |   Bengal                    |  6,777| 11.04|  6,596|  12.82| 11,068| 11.20|
+    |   Burma                     |  5,611| 12.17|  3,388|  12.39|  4,211| 12.31|
+    | Straits Settlements         |  1,945| 10.81|  1,137|  11.57|  2,149| 10.71|
+    | Ceylon                      |     33| 11.92|     44|  16.51|     42| 13.55|
+    | Other countries             | 21,129| 12.39| 21,252|  13.28| 23,970| 12.43|
+    |                             +-------+------+-------+-------+-------+------+
+    |        Total and average    |150,758| 11.79|163,901|  13.11|205,001| 12.08|
+    +-----------------------------+-------+------+-------+-------+-------+------+
+      * 000 omitted.
+
+  It should be understood, however, that in some cases the Board of
+  Trade figures represent only an approximation to the ultimate
+  distribution, as the exports are sometimes assigned to the
+  intermediate country, and in particular it is understood that a
+  considerable part of the yarn sent to the Netherlands is destined for
+  Germany or Austria. The large business done in yarns with the
+  continent of Europe is in some respects an extension of the British
+  home trade, though certain countries have their own specialities. A
+  considerable business is done with European countries in doubled yarns
+  and in fine counts of Egyptian, including "gassed" yarns, which are
+  also sent intermittently to Japan. "Extra hard" yarns are sent to
+  Rumania and other Near Eastern markets, and Russia, as the average
+  price indicates, buys sparingly of very fine yarns. The trade with the
+  Far East, which, though not very large for any one market, is
+  important in the aggregate, is a good deal specialized, and since the
+  development of Indian and Japanese cotton mills some of the trade in
+  the coarser counts has been lost. The various Indian markets take
+  largely of 40^s mule twist and in various proportions of 30^s mule,
+  water twists, two-folds grey and bleached, fine Egyptian counts and
+  dyed yarns. China also takes 40^s mule, water twists and two-folds.
+  The general export of yarn varies according to influences such as
+  tariff charges, spinning and manufacturing development in the
+  importing countries and the price of cotton. A particular effect of
+  high-priced piece-goods is seen in various Eastern countries that are
+  still partly dependent on an indigenous hand-loom industry. The big
+  price of imported cloths throws the native consumer to some extent
+  upon the local goods, and so stimulates the imports of yarn. It
+  appears that as the native industries decline the weaving section
+  persists longer than the spinning section.
+
+_Cotton Goods._--Cotton goods are of an infinite variety, and the titles
+that experience or fancy have evoked are even more numerous than the
+kinds. Descriptions of the following fabrics, which are not of course
+invariably made of cotton, will be found in separate articles: BAIZE,
+BANDANA, BOMBAZINE, BROCADE, CALICO, CAMBRIC, CANVAS, CHINTZ, CORDUROY,
+CRAPE, CRETONNE, DENIM, DIMITY, DRILL, DUCK, FLANNELETTE, FUSTIAN,
+GAUZE, GINGHAM, LONGCLOTH, MOLESKIN, MULL, MUSLIN, NANKEEN, PRINT, REP,
+TICKING, TWILL, VELVETEEN. The following are notes on other varieties.
+
+_Grey cloth_ is a comprehensive term that includes unbleached cotton
+cloth generally. It may be a nice question whether "yellow" would not
+have been the more nearly correct description. A very large proportion
+of the Lancashire export trade is in grey goods and a smaller yet
+considerable proportion of the home trade.
+
+_Shirting_, which has long since ceased to refer exclusively to shirt
+cloths, includes a large proportion of Lancashire manufacture. Grey and
+white shirtings are exported to all the principal Eastern markets and
+also to Near Eastern, European, South American, &c. markets. Certain
+staple kinds, such as 39 in. 37½ yd. 8¼ lb. 16 x 15 (threads to the ¼
+in.), largely exported to China and India, are made in various
+localities and by many manufacturers. The length quoted is to some
+extent a conventional term, as the pieces in many cases actually measure
+considerably more. The export shirting trade is done mainly on "repeat"
+orders for well-known "chops" or marks. These trade marks are sometimes
+the property of the manufacturer, but more commonly of the exporter.
+Generally the China markets use rather better qualities than the Indian
+markets. The principal China market for shirtings and other staple goods
+is Shanghai, which holds a large stock and distributes to minor markets.
+A considerable trade is also done through Hong-Kong and other Far
+Eastern ports. The principal Indian markets are Calcutta, Bombay,
+Karachi and Madras.
+
+_Shirt-cloth_ is the term more commonly applied to what is actually used
+in the manufacture of shirts, and it may be used for either plain or
+fancy goods.
+
+_Sheeting_ has two meanings in the cotton trade: (1) the ordinary bed
+sheeting, usually a stout cloth of anything from 45 in. to 120 in. wide
+(the extremes being used on the one hand for children's cots or ship
+bunks and on the other for old-fashioned four-posters), which may be
+either plain or twilled, bleached, unbleached or half-bleached; (2) a
+grey calico, heavier than a shirting, sent largely to China and other
+markets, usually 36 in. by 40 yd. and weighing about 12 lb. American
+sheetings compete with Lancashire goods in the China market. The _Cabot_
+is a kind of heavy sheeting, and for the Levant markets the name as a
+trade mark is said to be the exclusive property of an American firm,
+although the general class is known by the name and supplied by other
+firms.
+
+_Mexican_ is a plain, heavy grey calico, sometimes heavily sized. The
+origin of the word is doubtful, and it seems to be an arbitrary term.
+Mexicans are exported to various markets and also used in the home
+trade. For export the dimensions are commonly 32 or 36 in. by 24 yd.,
+and a usual count is 18 x 18. In the Mexican the yarns were originally
+of nearly the same weight and number of threads to the ¼ in., an
+arrangement which gave the cloth an even appearance, thus differing from
+the "pin-head" or medium makes. Now, however, Mexicans are often made
+with lighter wefts, though the name is usually applied to the better
+class of cloths of the particular character. _Punjum_ is a Mexican,
+generally 36 yd. in length, sent mainly to the South African market.
+
+_T Cloth_ is a plain grey calico, similar in kind to the Mexican and
+exported to the same markets. There is no absolute distinction between
+the two cloths, but the T cloth is generally lower in quality than the
+Mexican. The name seems to have been originally an arbitrary
+identification or trade mark.
+
+_Domestic_, a name originally used in the sense of "home-made," is
+applied especially to home-made cotton goods in the United States. In
+Great Britain it is employed rather loosely, but commonly to describe
+the kind of cloth which if exported would be called a Mexican. It may be
+either bleached or unbleached.
+
+_Medium_ is a plain calico, grey or bleached, of medium weight, used
+principally in the home and colonial trade. The word is sometimes
+particularly applied to cloths with a comparatively heavy weft, the
+distinction being made between the even "Mexican make" and the
+"pin-head" or "medium-make."
+
+_Raising-cloths_ are of various kinds and may be merely mediums with a
+heavy weft, or "condensor" weft made from waste yarns. The essence of
+the raising-cloth is a weft that will provide plenty of nap and yet have
+sufficient fibre to maintain the strength of the web.
+
+_Wigan_ is a name derived from the town Wigan and seems to have been
+originally applied to a stiff canvas-like cloth used for lining skirts.
+Now it is commonly applied to medium or heavy makes of calico.
+
+_Double-warp_, as its name implies, is a cloth with a twofold warp. It
+is usually a strong serviceable material and may be either twilled or
+plain. Sheetings for home trade are often double-warp, and double-warp
+twills and Wigans were and are used for the old-fashioned type of men's
+night-shirts.
+
+_Croydon_, which seems to be an arbitrary trade name, is a heavy,
+bleached, plain calico, usually stiff and glossy in finish. It used to
+be sold largely in the Irish trade as well as in the English home trade,
+but it has been supplanted a good deal by softer finishes.
+
+_Printing-cloth_ is a term with a general significance, but it is also
+particularly applied to a class of plain cloths in which a very large
+trade is done both for home trade and export. The chief place in
+Lancashire for the manufacture of printing-cloths is Burnley, and in the
+United States, Fall River. The Burnley cloths range in width from 29 in.
+to 40 in., and are usually about 120 yd. in length. The warp is commonly
+from 36^s to 44^s, the weft from 36^s to 54^s, and the threads from 13 ×
+13 to 20 × 20 to the ¼ in. Cheshire printers, which are made at Hyde,
+Stockport, Glossop and elsewhere, are commonly 34 in. to 36 in. wide,
+the warp is from 32^s to 36^s, the weft 32^s to 40^s, and the counts 16
+× 16 to 19 × 22.
+
+_Jacconet_ is understood to be the corruption of an Indian name, and the
+first jacconets were probably of Indian origin. They now make one of the
+principal staple trades of Lancashire with India. The jacconet is a
+plain cloth, lighter than a shirting and heavier than a mull. When
+bleached it is usually put into a firm and glossy finish. A _nainsook_
+is a jacconet bleached and finished soft. It also goes largely to India.
+
+_Dhootie_ is a name taken from a Hindu word of similar sound and
+referred originally to the loin-cloth worn by Hindus. It is a light,
+narrow cloth made with a coloured border which is often so elaborate as
+to require a dobby loom for its manufacture. The finer kinds, made from
+Egyptian yarns, are called mull-dhooties. The dhootie is one of the
+principal staples for India and is exported both white and grey.
+
+_Scarf_ is a kind of dhootie made usually with a taped or corded border.
+
+_Madapolam_ or _Madapollam_ is a name derived from a suburb of Narsapur
+in the Madras presidency where the cloth was first made. It is now
+exported grey or white to India and other countries. In weight it is
+lighter than a shirting, and it is usually ornamented with a distinctive
+coloured heading.
+
+_Baft_, probably of Persian derivation, and originally a fine cloth, is
+now a coarse and cheap cloth exported especially to Africa.
+
+
+_Sarong_, the Malay word for a garment wrapped round the lower part of
+the body and used by both men and women, is now applied to plain or
+printed cloths exported to the Indian or Eastern Archipelago for this
+purpose.
+
+_Jean_, said to be derived from Genoa where a kind of fustian with this
+title was made, is a kind of twilled cloth. The cloth is woven "one end
+up and two ends down," and as there are more picks of weft per inch than
+ends of warp the diagonal lines pass from selvage to selvage at an angle
+of less than 45 degrees. The weft surface is the face or wearing surface
+of the cloth. Jeans are exported to China and other markets, and are
+also used in the home trade. _Jeanette_ is the converse of jean, being a
+twill of "two ends up to one down"; the diagonal passes from selvage to
+selvage at a greater angle than 45 degrees and the warp makes the
+wearing surface.
+
+_Oxford_ is a plain-woven cloth usually with a coloured pattern, and is
+used for shirts and dresses. The name is comparatively modern, and is,
+no doubt, arbitrarily selected.
+
+_Harvard_ is a twilled cloth similar to the Oxford.
+
+_Regatta_ is a stout, coloured shirt cloth similar in make to a
+jeanette. It was originally made in blue and white stripes and was used
+largely and is still used for men's shirts.
+
+Fancy cotton goods are of great variety, and many of them have trade
+names that are used temporarily or occasionally. Apart from the large
+class of brocaded cloths made in Jacquard looms there are innumerable
+simpler kinds, including stripes and checks of various descriptions,
+such as Swiss, Cord, Satin, Doriah stripes, &c. _Mercerized cloths_ are
+of many kinds, as the mercerizing process can be applied to almost
+anything. _Lace_ and _lace curtains_ are made largely at Nottingham.
+Various light goods are made in Scotland, such as _book muslin_, a fine
+light muslin with an elastic finish, so called from being folded in
+book-form.
+
+Among the fancy cloths made in cotton may be mentioned: _matting_, which
+includes various kinds with some similarity in appearance to a matting
+texture; _matelassé_, which is in some degree an imitation of French
+dress goods of that name; _piqué_, also of French origin, woven in
+stripes in relief, which cross the width of the piece, and usually
+finished stiff; _Bedford cord_, a cheaper variety of piqué in which the
+stripes run the length of the piece; _oatmeal cloth_, which has an
+irregular surface suggesting the grain of oatmeal, commonly dyed cream
+colour; _crimp cloth_, in which a puckered effect is obtained by uneven
+shrinkage; _grenadine_, said to be derived from Granada, a light dress
+material originally made of silk or silk and wool; _brilliant_, a dress
+material, usually with a small raised pattern; _leno_, possibly a
+corrupt form of the French _linon_ or lawn, a kind of fancy gauze used
+for veils curtains, &c.; _lappet_, a light material with a figure or
+pattern produced on the surface of the cloth by needles placed in a
+sliding frame; _lustre_, a light dress material with a lustrous face
+sometimes made with a cotton warp and woolen weft; _zephyr_, a light,
+coloured dress material usually in small patterns; _bobbin-net_, a
+machine-made fabric, originally an imitation of lace made with bobbins
+on a pillow.
+
+Some fancy cloths have descriptive names such as _herringbone stripe_,
+and there are many arbitrary trade names, such as _Yosemite stripe_,
+which may prevail and become the designation of a regular class or die
+after a few seasons.
+
+Cotton linings include _silesia_, originally a linen cloth made in
+Silesia and now usually a twilled cotton cloth which is dyed various
+colours; _Italian cloth_, a kind of jean or sateen produced originally
+in Italy. Various cotton cloths are imitations of other textures and
+have modified names which indicate their superficial character,
+frequently produced by finishing processes. Among these are _sateen_,
+which, dyed or printed, is largely used for dresses, linings,
+upholstery, &c.; _linenette_, dyed and finished to imitate coloured
+linen in the north of Ireland and elsewhere; _hollandette_, usually
+unbleached or half-bleached and finished to imitate linen holland; and
+_interlining_, a coarse, plain white calico used as padding for linen
+collars.
+
+  +------------------------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
+  |                              |     1903.     |     1904.     |     1905.     |
+  |                              +---------+-----+---------+-----+---------+-----+
+  |           Country.           |         |Price|Thousands|Price|Thousands|Price|
+  |                              |Thousands| per |Thousands| per |Thousands| per |
+  |                              |of Yards.|Yard.|of Yards.|Yard.|of Yards.|Yard.|
+  +------------------------------+---------+-----+---------+-----+---------+-----+
+  | Germany                      |   60,650| 3.77|   60,129| 4.02|   65,842| 3.98|
+  | Netherlands                  |   47,570| 3.57|   46,187| 3.68|   56,639| 3.47|
+  | Belgium                      |   52,199| 4.34|   56,237| 4.42|   67,509| 4.41|
+  | France                       |   17,552| 4.61|   17,759| 4.39|   14,875| 4.65|
+  | Portugal, Azores and Madeira |   32,824| 2.70|   29,440| 2.92|   29,867| 3.03|
+  | Italy                        |    6,363| 5.07|    7,904| 5.19|    8,746| 5.31|
+  | Austria-Hungary              |    2,405| 3.44|    2,102| 3.40|    1,905| 3.60|
+  | Greece                       |   40,973| 2.64|   32,658| 3.11|   28,190| 3.20|
+  | Turkey                       |  305,611| 2.45|  379,557| 2.53|  376,209| 2.53|
+  | Egypt                        |  229,704| 2.41|  283,521| 2.57|  272,737| 2.53|
+  | Algeria                      |      709| 2.74|      438| 2.71|      455| 2.63|
+  | Morocco                      |   52,368| 2.28|   51,262| 2.44|   44,407| 2.44|
+  | Foreign West Africa          |   64,589| 2.92|   55,131| 3.12|   69,163| 3.08|
+  | Persia                       |   34,859| 2.46|   33,119| 2.67|   38,647| 2.59|
+  | Dutch East Indies            |  156,905| 2.45|  185,196| 2.72|  226,586| 2.57|
+  | Philippine Islands           |   25,558| 2.59|   25,969| 2.86|   42,876| 2.66|
+  | China, including Hong-Kong   |  477,691| 2.83|  548,974| 3.34|  799,732| 3.06|
+  | Japan                        |   67,315| 3.08|   42,373| 3.34|  128,725| 2.99|
+  | United States of America     |   72,360| 6.80|   52,391| 7.18|   65,563| 7.40|
+  | Foreign West Indies          |   86,349| 2.08|   98,797| 2.21|   80,679| 2.24|
+  | Mexico                       |   19,327| 3.10|   21,679| 3.42|   21,028| 3.31|
+  | Central America              |   40,879| 1.97|   53,018| 2.21|   49,523| 2.29|
+  | Colombia and Panama          |   44,299| 2.25|   44,648| 2.54|   31,798| 2.41|
+  | Venezuela                    |   52,330| 1.87|   52,934| 2.07|   32,717| 2.11|
+  | Peru                         |   28,962| 2.66|   32,430| 2.85|   39,035| 2.78|
+  | Chile                        |   84,118| 2.50|   80,836| 2.57|   96,996| 2.62|
+  | Brazil                       |  152,402| 2.64|  134,841| 2.89|  131,504| 2.50|
+  | Uruguay                      |   44,062| 2.79|   35,670| 2.85|   56,770| 2.95|
+  | Argentine Republic           |  151,003| 2.91|  186,022| 3.04|  159,115| 3.24|
+  | Gibraltar                    |   11,961| 2.39|   10,578| 2.47|    3,960| 2.73|
+  | Malta                        |    4,065| 3.11|    3,659| 3.45|    4,006| 3.31|
+  | British W. Africa            |   69,795| 3.27|   69,308| 3.43|   74,392| 3.40|
+  |    "    S.   "               |   61,778| 3.61|   29,670| 4.03|   50,592| 3.69|
+  | British India--              |         |     |         |     |         |     |
+  |   Bombay                     |  678,684| 2.07|  818,261| 2.23|  908,619| 2.24|
+  |   Madras                     |  132,825| 2.48|  141,675| 2.63|  131,145| 2.62|
+  |   Bengal                     |1,122,004| 1.97|1,215,607| 2.18|1,280,314| 2.18|
+  |   Burma                      |   64,654| 2.84|   79,765| 3.10|   72,528| 3.13|
+  | Straits Settlements*         |  112,006| 2.61|  100,230| 2.84|  121,690| 2.71|
+  | Ceylon                       |   17,395| 2.75|   19,336| 2.95|   24,991| 2.94|
+  | Australia                    |  106,000| 3.83|  128,247| 4.01|  136,481| 3.85|
+  | New Zealand                  |   38,499| 3.58|   33,538| 3.81|   32,315| 3.63|
+  | Canada                       |   47,439| 4.15|   49,903| 4.25|   45,189| 4.47|
+  | British West India Islands,  |         |     |         |     |         |     |
+  |   Bahamas and British Guiana |   49,614| 2.49|   43,487| 2.61|   47,173| 2.21|
+  | Other countries              |  188,662| 2.84|  197,339| 3.14|  226,971| 3.03|
+  +------------------------------+---------+-----+---------+-----+---------+-----+
+  |            Total             |5,157,316| 2.57|5,591,822| 2.75|6,198,200| 2.74|
+  +------------------------------+---------+-----+---------+-----+---------+-----+
+    * Including Federated Malay States.
+
+Various cotton imitations share the name of the original, such as lawn,
+batiste, serge, huckaback, galloon, and a large number of names are of
+obvious derivation and use, such as umbrella cloth, apron cloth, sail
+cloth, book-binding cloth, shroud cloth, butter cloth, mosquito
+netting, handkerchief, blanket, towelling, bagging.
+
+Among the miscellaneous cloths made or made partly of cotton may be
+mentioned: _waste cloths_, made from waste yarns and usually coarse in
+texture; _khaki cloth_, made largely for military clothing in cotton as
+well as in woollen; _cottonade_, a name given to various coarse low
+cloths in the United States and elsewhere; _lasting_, which seems to be
+an abbreviation of "lasting cloth," a stiff, durable texture used in
+making shoes, &c.; _bolting cloth_, used in bolting or sifting;
+_brattice cloth_, a stout, tarred cloth made of cotton or wool and used
+for bratticing or lining the sides of shafts in mines; _sponge cloths_,
+used for cleaning machinery; _shoddy_ and _mungo_, which though mainly
+woollen have frequently a cotton admixture; and _splits_, either plain
+or fancy, usually of low quality, which include any cloth woven two or
+three in the breadth of the loom and "split" into the necessary width.
+Cotton is used too for many miscellaneous purposes, including the
+manufacture of lamp wicks and even of billiard balls.
+
+_British Cotton Cloth Exports._--The main lines of the Lancashire export
+trade in cotton goods are indicated in the Board of Trade returns. The
+table on p. 278 compiled from them is taken from the _Manchester
+Guardian_. It gives in thousands of yards the quantities of cotton goods
+exported from Great Britain during 1903, 1904 and 1905 respectively,
+together with average value per yard for each of the countries.
+
+The following table gives, approximately, in thousands of yards the
+quantities exported of the four main divisions of cotton cloths:--
+
+  +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                     |   1903.   |   1904.   |   1905.   |
+  |                     +-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                     | Thousands | Thousands | Thousands |
+  |                     | of Yards. | of Yards. | of Yards. |
+  |---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  | Grey or unbleached  | 1,880,321 | 2,033,895 | 2,336,018 |
+  | Bleached            | 1,326,255 | 1,528,165 | 1,710,742 |
+  | Printed             | 1,027,925 | 1,036,901 | 1,053,900 |
+  | Dyed and coloured   |   922,735 |   993,009 | 1,097,540 |
+  +---------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+In the case of cloth, too, the Board of Trade returns must not be taken
+as an absolute record of imports to the particular countries, as the
+ultimate recipient is not always determined. The development of the
+Eastern trade has been one of the most remarkable features of the cotton
+trade in the 19th century. Professor Chapman writes in his _Cotton
+Industry and Trade_: "In 1820 Europe received about half the cotton
+fabrics which were sent abroad, while the United States received nearly
+one-tenth and eastern Asia little more than one-twentieth. By 1880
+Europe was taking less than one-twelfth, the United States less than
+one-fiftieth, and eastern Asia more than a half."
+
+Naturally a trade tends to find out the most direct means of
+distribution, and Manchester merchants are now generally in direct
+connexion with native dealers in India. Bombay was the pioneer in the
+custom, followed now by Calcutta and Karachi, by which deliveries of
+goods from British merchants remained under the control of the banks
+until the native dealers took them up. Manchester business with India,
+China, &c., is done under various conditions, however, and a good many
+firms have branches abroad. The regular "indent" by which most of the
+Manchester Eastern business is conducted now implies a definite offer
+for shipment from the dealer abroad, either direct or through the
+exporter's agents, and commonly includes freight and insurance. The term
+"commission agent" is now discredited, and buying done by Manchester
+houses on simple commission terms is unusual though not unknown. This
+has been so since the famous law case of _Williamson_ v. _Barbour_ in
+1877, when it was established that whatever might be the custom of the
+trade a commission agent was not entitled to make a profit over his
+commission on the various processes, such as handling and packing, which
+are a necessary part of the exporter's work. A good deal of business is
+done, however, for South America and other markets in which the goods
+are bought for delivery in the Manchester warehouse, all charges for
+packing, &c., and carriage being extra.
+
+Transactions with distant markets are now done almost entirely by cable,
+and a remarkable development of the telegraphic code has enabled
+merchants to pack a good deal into a brief message. A cable sent to
+India in the evening may bring a reply next morning, and in these days
+of rapid cotton fluctuations mail advices are confined mainly to general
+discussion, hypothetical inquiry, advice, admonition and complaint. Some
+Manchester export business is done through London, Glasgow, and
+continental towns, of which Hamburg is the principal. Glasgow buys
+largely of yarns and cloth, some considerable part of which is dyed or
+printed, for India and elsewhere, and has an indigenous manufacture and
+trade in fine goods such as book-muslins and lappets, a somewhat
+delicate department of manufacture which necessitates a slower running
+of machinery than is usual in Lancashire.
+
+Besides the indent business there is, of course, purely merchant
+business by Manchester exporters, who buy on their own initiative at
+what they consider to be opportune times or on recommendations from
+their houses or correspondents abroad. In the Indian trade, especially
+in the Calcutta trade, a large proportion of the total amount is done by
+a few houses who buy in this way, and there is some difference of
+opinion as to whether the method, which had fallen out of fashion, may
+not further develop. It is more speculative than the indent business,
+but the dealing with large quantities which it involves gives the
+opportunity to buy very cheaply. A good many firms venture occasionally
+to buy in anticipation of their customers' needs, especially when they
+expect a rising market. During the great trade "boom" of 1905 there was
+a good deal of buying by exporters in advance of their indents because
+manufacturers continued to contract engagements which threatened to
+exclude dilatory buyers. On the whole, however, what may be called the
+speculative centre of gravity of Great Britain's export business in
+cotton goods is not in Manchester but abroad.
+
+The terms on which business is conducted are various even in a single
+market, and it is sometimes a reproach that British firms are
+old-fashioned in their reluctance to give credit. The so-called
+enterprising methods of some German traders are, however, condemned by
+many experienced English traders, and it is said that in China, for
+instance, the seeming successes of the newcomers are delusive. The
+Tientsin developments of German business on credit terms are said to
+have proved unsatisfactory, and heavy losses were suffered in Hong-Kong
+some years ago by merchants who endeavoured to initiate a bolder system
+of trading. The very common complaint of British consuls that British
+firms neglect to send out travellers may have some foundation, but a
+commercial house naturally follows the line of least resistance to the
+development of its trade, and cannot be expected to work remote and
+barren ground when better opportunities are near at hand. On the whole
+it appears that the British cotton trade continues to increase to a
+satisfactory degree in fancy and special goods, which require for their
+production a comparatively high degree of technical skill, and are more
+lucrative than some of the simpler products in which competitors have
+been most formidable. Various finishing processes, and particularly the
+mercerizing of yarn and cloth, have increased the possibilities in
+cotton materials, and while staples still form the bulk of our foreign
+trade, it seems that as the stress of competition in these grows acute,
+more and more of our energy may be transferred to the production of
+goods which appeal to a growing taste or fancy.
+
+_British Home Trade._--The home trade in cotton cloths is a great and
+important section, but it is not comparable in volume to the export
+trade. It involves more numerous and more elaborate processes, and the
+qualities for home use are generally finer and more costly than those
+for export. Of course by far the larger part of the yarn spun in
+Lancashire is woven in Lancashire, but of the cotton cloth woven in
+Lancashire it is roughly estimated that about 20% is used in Great
+Britain. Not only is the average of quality better, but the variety of
+kinds and designs is greater in the home trade than in the export trade.
+A good home trade connexion is considered an extremely valuable asset,
+and as the trade is highly differentiated the profits are usually good.
+Some manufacturers devote themselves exclusively to the home trade, and
+some exclusively to foreign trade, but there is a large class with what
+may be called a margin of alternation, which serves to redress the
+balance as business in one or other of the sections is good or bad.
+
+Certain kinds of light goods made for India and other Eastern markets
+are not used in the home trade, and the typical Eastern staples are not
+generally used in their particular "sizings," but with these exceptions
+and various specialities almost every kind of cotton cloth is used to
+some extent in Great Britain. Grey calicoes for home use, except the
+lowest kinds, are comparatively pure, and of late years the heavy
+fillings which used to be common in bleached goods have become
+discredited. The housewife long persisted in deceiving herself by
+purchasing filled calicoes, and the movement in favour of purer goods
+owes a good deal, strangely enough, to the increase in the making-up
+trade and the consequent inconveniences to workers of sewing machines,
+whose needles were constantly broken by hard filled calicoes.
+
+This development of the making-up trade has become an important element
+in the home trade, and it has greatly reduced the retail sale of
+piece-goods. The purchase of ready-made shirts, underclothing, &c.,
+corresponds to a change in the habits of the people. The factories which
+have been erected in the north of Ireland, on the outskirts of London
+and elsewhere turn out millions of garments that would, under the old
+conditions, have been made at home. It is not necessary here to balance
+the advantages and disadvantages of the two systems, and it must not be
+supposed that made-up cotton garments are necessarily cheap and
+inefficient.
+
+The chief distributing centre of cotton made-up goods is London, though
+a considerable trade is done through wholesale houses in Manchester and
+elsewhere. Large warehouses in the city of London carry on the trade and
+frequently supply Lancashire with her own goods. Of course the partial
+loss of the piece-goods trade by the shops is not a loss in aggregate
+trade, as they are the ultimate distributors of the made-up garments,
+which are probably at least as profitable to retail as calico or
+flannelette sold in lengths.
+
+The normal course of home trade piece-goods is from manufacturer to
+bleacher, dyer, printer or finisher, either on account of a merchant to
+whom the goods are sold or on the manufacturer's own account. By far the
+majority of Lancashire manufacturers sell their goods as they come from
+the loom, or, as it is called, in the "grey state," but an increasing
+number now cultivate the trade in finished goods. Usually the
+manufacturer sells either directly or through an agent to a merchant who
+sells again to the shopkeeper, but the last twenty or thirty years have
+seen a considerable development of more direct dealing. Some
+manufacturers now go to the shopkeeper, and this has made it difficult
+for the merchant with a limited capital and therefore a limited
+assortment to survive. The great general houses such as Rylands's,
+Philips's and Watt's in Manchester, and Cook's and Pawson's in London,
+some of which are manufacturers to a minor degree, continue to flourish
+because under one roof they can supply all that the draper requires, and
+so enable him to economize in the time spent in buying and to save
+himself the trouble of attending to many accounts. Some general
+merchants, indeed, supply what are practically "tied houses," which give
+all their trade in return for pecuniary assistance or special terms.
+
+The tendency to eliminate the middleman has not only brought a good many
+manufacturers into direct relation with the shopkeeper, but in some
+exceptional cases the manufacturer, adopting some system of broadcast
+advertisement and postal delivery, has dealt with the consumer.
+Naturally, the merchant resents any developments which exclude him, and
+some mild forms of boycott have occasionally been instituted. In the
+United States there has been an arduous struggle over this question, and
+combinations of merchants have sometimes compelled favourable terms. In
+England, though the merchant has maintained a great part of the trade
+with shopkeepers, the developing trade with makers of shirts,
+underclothing, &c., is mainly done by the manufacturers directly, and
+perhaps the simplification of relations by direct dealing in the cotton
+trade has now reached a point of fairly stable compromise. The tendency
+to direct trading is naturally controlled by the exigencies of capital.
+Those manufacturers who act as merchants aim to retain the merchant
+profit and must employ a merchant capital in stocks. There has been a
+tendency, indeed, to make the manufacturer the stock-keeper, and some
+merchants do little more than pass on the goods a stage after taking
+toll. The great improvement in trade during 1905 and 1906 checked this
+tendency, and probably the manufacturing extensions owed something to
+the capital set free by the reductions of stocks.
+
+It must be noted, however, that while most of the spinning concerns are
+worked by limited companies or individuals with a considerable capital,
+a good many small manufacturers exist who have little capital and are
+practically financed by their agents or customers. This is so in both
+the export and home trades.
+
+The home trade merchant or merchant-manufacturer works largely through
+agents and travellers, and though railway facilities continue to
+improve, some shopkeepers rarely visit their markets. The difficulty
+that is naturally experienced by a traveller in finding sufficient
+support on a sparsely populated "ground" has brought into vogue the
+traveller on commission who represents several firms. The traveller with
+salary and allowances for expenses survives, but the quickening induced
+by an interest in the amount of sales has caused many firms to adopt the
+principle of commission, which may, however, be an addition to a minimum
+salary. Of course, such travellers are not peculiar to the cotton trade,
+but cotton goods in various forms are an important factor in the home
+trade.
+
+The profits of manufacturers, merchants and shopkeepers are commonly
+very much less on the lower classes of cotton goods than on the higher
+ones. Thus while there may be a difference of 1d. per yd. between the
+qualities on a manufacturer's list, the difference in cost may not be
+more than a farthing; and, again, while the shopkeeper sometimes pays
+2½d. or even 2-5/8d. per yd. for a calico to retail at 2¾d., his next
+selling price may be 3¾d. for one which costs him only 2¾d. or 3d. per
+yd. It appears, therefore, that if the poorer classes of the community
+have the discretion to avoid the lowest qualities they may obtain very
+good value in serviceable goods. In the matter of profits, however,
+there is a good deal of irregularity.
+
+_The Manchester Royal Exchange._--There are not many cotton mills or
+weaving sheds in Manchester, which is, however, the great distributive
+centre, and its Exchange is the meeting-place of most classes of buyers
+and sellers in the cotton trade and various trades allied to it. As
+buyers of finished goods for London and the country do not attend it,
+certain departments of the home trade are hardly represented, but
+practically all the spinners and manufacturers and all the export
+merchants of any importance are subscribers. Transactions between
+spinners and manufacturers are largely effected on Tuesdays and Fridays,
+the old "market days," when the manufacturing towns are well
+represented, but a large amount of business is transacted every day.
+Besides the persons immediately concerned in the cotton trade and
+connected with allied trades, a large number of members find it
+convenient to use this great meeting-place as a means of approach to a
+body of responsible persons. Thus not only bleachers, carriers, chemical
+manufacturers, mill furnishers and accountants find their way there, but
+also tanners, timber merchants, stockbrokers and even wine merchants.
+Since the Ship Canal made Manchester into a cotton port there has been a
+steady development of the raw cotton trade in Manchester, and many
+cotton brokers and merchants have Manchester offices or pay regular
+visits from Liverpool.
+
+The various expansions and developments have made it difficult to
+maintain the ratio between accommodation and requirements, and although
+overcrowding is troublesome only during some three or four hours a week,
+at "high 'Change" on market days, various complaints and suggestions
+provoked in 1906 an appeal from the chairman of directors to the
+Manchester corporation. This took the form of a suggestion that the
+Exchange should be worked as a municipal institution on a new site, and
+though such a development met with opposition it was apparent that
+Manchester must presently have a new or an enlarged Exchange. The
+present building is, however, the largest of the kind in the world, and
+the history of the various exchanges coincides with the expansion of the
+Lancashire industry.
+
+According to semi-official records "the first building in the nature of
+an Exchange" was erected in 1729 by Sir Oswald Mosley, and though
+designed for "chapmen to meet and transact their business" it appears
+that, as to-day, encroachments were made by other traders until cotton
+manufacturers and merchants preferred to do their business in the
+street. In 1792 the building was demolished, and for a period of some
+eighteen years there was nothing of the kind. In 1809 the new Exchange
+was opened, and terms of membership were fixed at two guineas for those
+within 5 m. of the building and one guinea for those outside this
+radius. In the following year plans for enlargement were submitted to
+the shareholders, and various extensions followed, particularly in 1830
+and 1847. The present building was opened partly in 1871 and partly in
+1874. The area of the great room is 4405 sq. yds. The subscription was
+raised on the 1st of January 1906 from three guineas to four guineas for
+new members, but the number of members continues to increase and early
+in 1906 amounted to 8786.
+
+Of course in this great mart a large variety of types is to be found and
+the members fall into some kind of rough grouping. Export buyers,
+attended by salesmen, are commonly more or less stationary and
+prominent; Burnley manufacturers abound in one locality and spinners of
+Egyptian yarns in another. The importance of the Exchange as a
+bargaining centre is fairly maintained, though buyers are assiduously
+cultivated in their own offices, and the telephone has done a good deal
+to abbreviate negotiation. As to the amount of business transacted on
+the Exchange there is no record. The market reporters make some attempt
+to materialize the current gossip, and doubtless catch well enough the
+great movements in the ebb and flow of demand, but the sum of countless
+obscure transactions cannot be estimated. Some few years ago an attempt
+was made to mark more clearly the course of business in Manchester, and
+a scheme was prepared for the recording of daily transactions. This
+could only have been a somewhat rough affair, but its originator
+maintained reasonably that it would be of interest if some indication of
+the daily movements could be obtained. For some time a memorandum of the
+total of daily sales reported was posted on 'Change, but the
+indifference of traders, together with the distrust that makes any
+innovation difficult, caused the scheme to be abandoned.
+
+It would be difficult in any attempt to estimate the volume of British
+home trade to distinguish what may be called the effective movements of
+goods. There is a considerable amount of re-selling both in yarn and
+cloth, and, though the bulk of cotton goods finds the way through
+regular and normal channels to the consumer, these channels are not
+always direct. A good many transactions on the Manchester Exchange are
+intermediate, without fulfilling any useful function, and could be
+accomplished by the principals if they were brought together. Agents, of
+whom there are many, sometimes occupy a precarious position, but they
+are protected in some degree by law as well as by the custom of the
+trade and the point of honour. Points of honour in the Manchester
+business may seem to be arbitrarily selected, but they are an important
+part of the scheme. An immense amount of business is done without any
+apparent check against repudiation. It is, of course, the verbal bargain
+that binds, and large transactions are commonly completed without
+witnesses, though before the contract or memorandum of sale passes the
+fluctuations of the market may have made the bargain, to one side or the
+other, a very bad one.     (A. N. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] It is related that in the year 1784 William Rathbone, an American
+    merchant resident in Liverpool, received from one of his
+    correspondents in the southern states a consignment of eight bags of
+    cotton, which on its arrival in Liverpool was seized by the
+    custom-house officers, on the allegation that it could not have been
+    grown in the United States, and that it was liable to seizure under
+    the Shipping Acts, as not being imported in a vessel belonging to the
+    country of its growth. When afterwards released, it lay for many
+    months unsold, in consequence of the spinners doubting whether it
+    could be profitably worked up.
+
+  [2] Taken with some modifications from the _Agricultural News_ (1907),
+    vi. p. 38.
+
+  [3] Cotton Production 1906, _U.S.A. Bureau of the Census_, Bulletin
+    No. 76.
+
+  [4] _Cotton Culture and the Cotton Trade_, p. 298.
+
+  [5] _The Cotton Trade of Great Britain_, by Thomas Ellison, p. 186.
+
+  [6] See article on "Dealings in Futures in the Cotton Market," in the
+    _Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, vol. lxix, p. 325.
+
+  [7] Journal of the Statistical Society, 1906.
+
+  [8] See paper in the Journal of the Statistical Society for June 1906.
+
+  [9] Attempts to explain them were made in an article in the _Economic
+    Journal_ in December 1904, and in the paper already referred to read
+    to the Royal Statistical Society.
+
+  [10] See the paper already mentioned in the _Journal of the Royal
+    Statistical Society_ for June 1906, where the several points noticed
+    briefly above are fully discussed.
+
+  [11] The Association published a weekly paper known as The Cotton
+    Supply Reporter.
+
+
+
+
+COTTON MANUFACTURE. The antiquity of the cotton industry has hitherto
+proved unfathomable, as can readily be understood from the difficulty of
+proving a universal negative, especially from such scanty material as we
+possess of remote ages. That in the 5th century B.C. cotton fabrics were
+unknown or quite uncommon in Europe may be inferred from Herodotus'
+mention of the cotton clothing of the Indians. Ultimately the cotton
+industry was imported into Europe, and by the middle of the 13th century
+we find it flourishing in Spain. In the New World it would seem to have
+originated spontaneously, since on the discovery of America the wearing
+apparel in use included cotton fabrics. After the collapse of Spanish
+prosperity before the Moors in the 14th century the Netherlands assumed
+a leadership in this branch of the textile industries as they did also
+in other branches. It has been surmised that the cotton manufacture was
+carried from the Netherlands to England by refugees during the Spanish
+persecution of the second half of the 16th century; but no absolute
+proof of this statement has been forthcoming, and although workers in
+cotton may have been among the Flemish weavers who fled to England about
+that time, and some of whom are said to have settled in and about
+Manchester, it is quite conceivable that cotton fabrics were made on an
+insignificant scale in England years before, and there is some evidence
+to show that the industry was not noticeable till many years later. If
+England did derive her cotton manufacture from the Netherlands she was
+unwillingly compelled to repay the loan with interest more than two
+hundred years later when the machine industry was conveyed to the
+continent through the ingenuity of Liévin Bauwens, despite the
+precautions taken to preserve it for the British Isles. About the same
+time English colonists transported it to the United States. Since, as
+transformed in England, the cotton industry, particularly spinning, has
+spread throughout the civilized and semi-civilized world, though its
+most important seat still remains the land of its greatest development.
+
+
+  Early history in England.
+
+As early as the 13th century cotton-wool was used in England for
+candle-wicks.[1] The importation of the cotton from the Levant in the
+16th century is mentioned by Hakluyt,[2] and according to Macpherson it
+was brought over from Antwerp in 1560. Reference to the manufacture of
+cottons in England long before the second half of the 16th century are
+numerous, but the "cottons" spoken of were not cottons proper as Defoe
+would seem to have mistakenly imagined. Thus, for example, there is a
+passage by William Camden (writing in 1590) quoted below, in which
+Manchester cottons are specifically described as woollens, and there is
+a notice in the act of 33 Henry VIII. (c. xv.) of the Manchester linen
+and woollen industries, and of cottons--which are clearly woollens since
+their "dressyng and frisyng" is noted, and the latter process, which
+consists in raising and curling the nap, was not applicable to cotton
+textiles. John Leland, after his visit to Manchester about 1538, used
+these words--"Bolton-upon-Moore market standeth most by cottons; divers
+villages in the Moores about Bolton do make cottons." Leland, it is
+true, might conceivably be referring to manufactures from the vegetable
+fibre, but it is exceedingly unlikely, since the term "cottons" would
+seem to have been current with a perfectly definite meaning. The goods
+were probably an English imitation in wool of continental cotton
+fustians--which would explain the name. Again we may quote from the act
+of 5 and 6 Edward VI., "all the cottons called _Manchester_, Lancashire
+and Cheshire _cottons_, full wrought to the sale, shall be in length
+twenty-two yards and contain in breadth three-quarters of a yard in the
+water and shall weigh thirty pounds in the piece at least"; and from the
+act 8 Elizabeth c. xi., "every of the said cottons being sufficiently
+milled or thicked, clean scoured, well-wrought and full-dried, shall
+weigh 21 lb. at the least."[3] These are evidently the weights of woollen
+goods: further, it may be observed that milling is not applicable to
+cotton goods. The earliest reference to a cotton manufacture in England
+which may reasonably be regarded as pointing to the fabrication of
+textiles from cotton proper, is in the will of James Billston (a not
+un-English name), who is described as a "cotton manufacturer," proved at
+Chester in 1578.[4] It may plausibly be contended that James Billston
+was a worker in the vegetable fibre, since otherwise "manufacturer of
+cottons" would have been a more natural designation. But the proof of
+the will of one cotton manufacturer establishes very little.
+
+The next earliest known reference to the cotton industry proper occurs
+in a petition to the earl of Salisbury, made presumably in 1610, asking
+for the continuance of a grant for reforming frauds committed in the
+manufacture of "bambazine cotton such as groweth in the land of Persia
+being no kind of wool."[5] But a far more valuable piece of evidence,
+discovered by W. H. Price, is a petition of "Merchants and citizens of
+London that use buying and selling of fustians made in England, as of
+the makers of the same fustians."[6] Its probable date is 1621, and it
+contains the following important passages:--
+
+  "About twenty years past, divers people in this kingdom, but chiefly
+  in the county of Lancaster, have found out the trade of making of
+  other fustians, made of a kind of bombast or down, being a fruit of
+  the earth growing upon little shrubs or bushes, brought into this
+  kingdom by the Turkey merchants, from Smyrna, Cyprus, Acra and Sydon,
+  but commonly called cotton wool; and also of linen yarn most part
+  brought out of Scotland, and othersome made in England, and no part of
+  the same fustians of any wool at all, for which said bombast and yarn
+  imported, his majesty has a great yearly sum of money for the custom
+  and subsidy thereof.
+
+  "There is at the least 40 thousand pieces of fustian of this kind
+  yearly made in England, the subsidy to his majesty of the materials
+  for making of every piece coming to between 8d. and 10d. the piece;
+  and thousands of poor people set on working of these fustians.
+
+  "The right honourable duke of Lennox in 11 of Jacobus 1613 procured a
+  patent from his majesty, of alnager of new draperies for 60 years,
+  upon pretence that wool was converted into other sorts of commodities
+  to the loss of customs and subsidies for wool transported beyond seas;
+  and therein is inserted into his patent, searching and sealing; and
+  subsidy for 80 several stuffs; and among the rest these fustians or
+  other stuffs of this kind of cotton wool, and subsidy and a fee for
+  the same, and forfeiture of 20s. for putting any to sale unsealed, the
+  moiety of the same forfeiture to the said duke, and power thereby
+  given to the duke or his deputies, to enter any man's house to search
+  for any such stuffs, and seize them till the forfeiture be paid; and
+  if any resist such search, to forfeit £10 and power thereby given to
+  the lord treasurer or chancellor of the exchequer, to make new
+  ordinances or grant commissions for the aid of the duke and his
+  officers in execution of their office."
+
+Here the date of the appearance of the cotton industry on an appreciable
+scale--it is questionable whether any importance should be attached to
+the expression "found out"--is given by those who would be speaking of
+facts within the memory of themselves or their friends as "about twenty
+years past" from 1621, and the annual output of the industry in 1621 is
+mentioned. Moreover, it is established by this document that for a time
+at least the cotton manufacture was "regulated" like the other textile
+trades. The date assigned by the petitioners for the first attraction of
+attention by the English cotton industry may be supported on negative
+grounds.
+
+Baines assures us that William Camden, who wrote in 1590, devoted not a
+sentence to the cotton industry, though Manchester figures among his
+descriptions: "This town," he says, "excels the towns immediately around
+it in handsomeness, populousness, woollen manufacture, market place,
+church and college; but did much more excel them in the last age, as
+well by the glory of its woollen cloths (_laneorum pannorum honore_),
+which they call Manchester cottons, as by the privilege of sanctuary,
+which the authority of parliament under Henry VIII. transferred to
+Chester."[7] It is significant too that in the Elizabethan poor law of
+1601 (43 Elizabeth), neither cotton-wool nor yarn is included among the
+fabrics to be provided by the overseers to set the poor to work upon;
+though, of course, it might be argued that so short-stapled a fibre
+needed for its working, when machinery was rough, a skill in the
+operative which would be above that of the average person unable to find
+employment. However, a proposal was made in 1626 to employ the poor in
+the spinning of cotton and weaving wool.[8]
+
+Prior to Mr Price's discovery of the petition mentioned above, the
+earliest known notice of the existence in England of a cotton industry
+of any magnitude was the oft-quoted passage from Lewes Roberts's
+_Treasure of Traffic_ (1641), which runs: "The town of Manchester, in
+Lancashire, must be also herein remembered, and worthily for their
+encouragement commended, who buy the yarne of the Irish in great
+quantity, and weaving it, return the same again into Ireland to sell:
+Neither doth their industry rest here, for they buy cotton-wool in
+London that comes first from Cyprus and Smyrna, and at home work the
+same, and perfect it into fustians, vermillions, dimities and other such
+stuffs, and then return it to London, where the same is vented and sold,
+and not seldom sent into foreign parts."[9]
+
+Despite Lewes Roberts's flattering reference, the trade of Manchester
+about that time consisted chiefly in woollen frizes, fustians,
+sackcloths, mingled stuffs, caps, inkles, tapes, points, &c., according
+to "A Description of the Towns of Manchester and Salford," 1650,[10] and
+woollens for a long time held the first place. But before another
+century had run its course cottons proper had pushed into the first
+rank, though the woollen industry continued to be of unquestionable
+importance. In 1727 Daniel Defoe could write, "the grand manufacture
+which has so much raised this town is that of cotton in all its
+varieties,"[11] and he did not mean the woollen "cottons," as he made
+plain by other references to the industry in the same connexion; but it
+was not until some fifty years later that the ousting of the woollen
+industry from what is now peculiarly the cotton district became
+unmistakable.[12] As a rule the woollen weavers were driven farther and
+farther east--Bury lay just outside the cotton area when Defoe
+wrote--and finally many of them settled in the West Riding. Edwin
+Butterworth even tells of woollen weavers who migrated from Oldham to
+the distant town of Bradford in Wiltshire because of the decline of
+their trade before the victorious cotton industry. Much the same fate
+was being shared by the linen industry in Lancashire, which was forced
+out of the county westwards and northwards. The explanation of the three
+centralizations, namely of the woollen industry, the cotton industry and
+the linen industry, is not far to seek. The popularity of the fabrics
+produced by the rising cotton industry enabled it to pay high wages,
+which, indeed, were essential to bring about its expansion. This a
+priori diagnosis is supported by contemporary analysis: thus "the rapid
+progress of that business (cotton spinning) and the higher wages which
+it afford, have so far distressed the makers of worsted goods in that
+county (Lancashire), that they have found themselves obliged to offer
+their few remaining spinners larger premiums than the state of their
+trade would allow."[13] The best operatives of Lancashire were attracted
+sooner or later to assist the triumphs of art over the vegetable wool.
+At the same time the scattered woollen and linen workers of Lancashire
+were suffering from the competition of rivals enjoying elsewhere the
+economies of some centralization, and the demand for woollen and linen
+warps in the cotton industry ceased after the introduction of
+Arkwright's water-twist. When the factory became common the economies of
+centralization (which arise from the wide range of specialism laid open
+to a large local industry) increased; moreover they were reinforced by
+the diminution of social friction and the intensification of business
+sensitiveness which marked the development of the 19th century. Once
+begun, the centralizing movement proceeded naturally with accelerating
+speed. The contrast beneath is an instructive statistical comment:--
+
+  _Distribution of Cotton Operatives in 1838 and 1898-1899 (from Returns
+  of Factory Inspectors)._
+
+  +--------------------------+--------------+---------------+
+  |                          |    1838.     |   1898-1899.  |
+  +--------------------------+--------------+---------------+
+  | Cheshire                 |    36,400    |     34,300    |
+  | Cumberland               |     2,000    |        700    |
+  | Derbyshire               |    10,500    |     10,500    |
+  | Lancashire               |   152,200    |    398,100    |
+  | Nottinghamshire          |     1,500    |      1,600    |
+  | Staffordshire            |     2,000    |      2,300    |
+  | Yorkshire                |    12,400    |     35,200    |
+  |                          +--------------+---------------+
+  |   England and Wales[14]  |   219,100    |    496,200    |
+  |   Scotland               |    35,600    |     29,000    |
+  |   Ireland                |     4,600    |        800    |
+  |                          +--------------+---------------+
+  |   United Kingdom         |   259,300    |    526,000    |
+  +--------------------------+--------------+---------------+
+
+The distribution of the industry has varied greatly in the two periods.
+If it had remained constant Lancashire would only have contained 300,000
+operatives in 1899, instead of the actual 400,000. Scotland, on the
+other hand, only contained 30,000 instead of 70,000, and in Ireland the
+numbers were one-tenth of what they should have been. The percentage of
+operatives in Lancashire in 1838 was 58.5, but this increased to 75.7 in
+1898.
+
+
+  Lancashire advantages.
+
+Why, we may naturally inquire, did not the cotton industry localize in
+the West Riding or Cheshire and the woollen industry maintain its
+position in Lancashire? Accident no doubt partly explains why the cotton
+industry is carried on where it is in the various parts of the globe,
+but apart from accident, as regards Lancashire, it is sufficient answer
+to point to the peculiarly suitable congeries of conditions to be found
+there. There is firstly the climate, which for the purpose of cotton
+spinning is unsurpassed elsewhere, and which became of the first order
+of importance when fine spinning was developed. In the Lancashire
+atmosphere in certain districts just about the right humidity is
+contained on a great number of days for spinning to be done with the
+least degree of difficulty. Some dampness is essential to make the
+fibres cling, but excessive moisture is a disadvantage. Over the county
+of Lancashire the prevailing west wind carries comparatively continuous
+currents of humidified air. These currents vary in temperature according
+to their elevation. Hot and cold layers mix when they reach the hills,
+and the mixture of the two is nearer to the saturation point than either
+of its components. The degree of moisture is measured by the ratio of
+the actual amount of moisture to the moisture of the saturation point
+for that particular temperature. Owing to the sudden elevation the air
+is rarefied, its temperature being thereby lowered, and in consequence
+condensation tends to be produced. In several places in England and
+abroad, where there is a scarcity of moisture, artificial humidifiers
+have been tried, but no cheap and satisfactory one has hitherto been
+discovered. To the advantages of the Lancashire climate for cotton
+spinning must be added--especially as regards the early days of the
+cotton industry--its disadvantages for other callings. The
+unpleasantness of the weather renders an indoor occupation desirable,
+and the scanty sunshine, combined with the unfruitful nature of much of
+the soil, prevents the absorption of the population in agricultural
+pursuits. In later years the port of Liverpool and the presence of coal
+supplemented the attractions which were holding the cotton industry in
+Lancashire. All the raw material must come from abroad, and an enormous
+proportion of English cotton products figures as exports. The proximity
+of Liverpool has aided materially in making the cotton industry a great
+exporting industry.
+
+
+  Early system of manufacture and organisation.
+
+Before the localization of the separate parts of the industry can be
+treated the differentiation of the industry must be described. We pass
+then, at this stage, to consider the manufacture in its earliest form
+and the lines of its development. First, and somewhat incidentally, we
+notice the early connexion between the conduct of the cotton
+manufacture, when it was a domestic industry in its primitive form, and
+the performance of agricultural operations. A few short extracts will
+place before us all the evidence that it is here needful to adduce.
+First Radcliffe, an eye-witness, writing of the period about 1770, says
+"the land in our township (Mellor) was occupied by between fifty and
+sixty farmers ... and out of these fifty or sixty farmers there were
+only six or seven who raised their rents directly from the produce of
+their farms, all the rest got their rent partly in some branch of trade,
+such as spinning and weaving woollen, linen or cotton. The cottagers
+were employed entirely in this matter, except for a few weeks in the
+harvest."[15] Next we may cite Edwin Butterworth who, though not an
+eyewitness (he was not born till 1812), proved himself by his researches
+to be a careful and trustworthy investigator. In the parish of Oldham,
+he recorded, there were "a number of master (cotton-linen fustian)[16]
+manufacturers, as well as many weavers who worked for manufacturers, and
+at the same time were holders of land or farmers.... The number of
+fustian farmers who were cottagers working for manufacturers, without
+holding land, were few; but there were a considerable number of weavers
+who worked on their own account, and held at the same time small pieces
+of land."[17] Other passages might be quoted, but these two will
+suffice. Weaving was not exactly a by-employment of farm labourers, but
+many weavers made agriculture a by-employment to some extent, (a) by
+working small parcels of land, which varied from the size of allotments
+to farms of a very few acres, and (b) by lending aid in gathering in the
+harvest when their other work enabled them to do so. The association of
+manufacturing and weaving survived beyond the first quarter of the 19th
+century. Of the weavers in many districts and "more especially in
+Lancashire" we read in the report of the committee on emigration, "it
+appears that persons of this description for many years past, have been
+occupiers of small farms of a few acres, which they have held at high
+rents, and combining the business of the hand-loom weaver with that of a
+working farmer have assisted to raise the rent of their land from the
+profits of their loom."[18] One of the first lines of specialism to
+appear was the severing of the connexion described above, and the
+concentration of the weavers in hamlets and towns. Finer fabrics and
+more complicated fabrics were introduced, and the weaver soon learnt
+that such rough work as farming unfitted his hands for the delicate
+tasks required of them. Again, really to prosper a weaver found it
+necessary to perfect himself by close application. The days of the rough
+fabrics that anybody could make with moderate success were closing in.
+As a consequence the dispersion of the weavers becomes less and less.
+They no longer wanted allotments or farms; and their looms having become
+more complicated, the mechanic proved himself a convenient neighbour.
+Finding spinners too was an easier task in the hamlet or town than in
+the remote country parts. But there is no reason to suppose that
+agriculture and the processes of the domestic cotton manufacturer had
+ever been universally twin callings. There never was a time, probably,
+when weavers who did nothing but weave were not a significant
+proportion, if not the major part, of the class of weavers. All again
+were not independent and all were not employees. Some were simply
+journeymen in small domestic workshops; others were engaged by fustian
+masters or Manchester merchants and paid by the piece for what they made
+out of material supplied them; others again bought their warps and
+cotton and sold to the merchants their fabrics, which were their own
+property. The last class was swept away soon after the industry became
+large, when by the organization of men of capital consumers and
+producers were more and more kept in touch. In early days most weavers
+owned their looms, the great part of which they had frequently
+constructed themselves: later, however, a large number hired looms, and
+it was as usual in certain quarters for lodgings to be let with a loom
+as it is to-day for them to be provided with a piano. When it became
+customary for weavers to undertake a variety of work, the masters
+usually provided reeds (which had to vary in fineness with the fineness
+of the warp), healds, and other changeable parts, and sometimes they
+employed the gaiters to fit the new work in the looms.
+
+Until the success of the water-frame, cotton could not be spun
+economically of sufficient strength and fineness for warps, and the
+warps were therefore invariably made of either linen or wool. Some were
+manufactured locally, others were imported from Germany, Ireland and
+Scotland. The weaver prepared them for his loom by the system of
+peg-warping,[19] but after the introduction of the warping-mill he
+received them as a rule all ready for insertion into the loom from the
+Manchester merchant or local fustian master.
+
+  "It did not pay the individual weaver to keep a warping-mill for
+  occasional use only, and frequently the contracted space of his
+  workroom precluded even the possibility of his doing so. The invention
+  of the warping-mill necessitated specialism in warping, and it was
+  essential that warping should be done to order, since at that time,
+  the state of the industrial world being what it was, no person could
+  ordinarily have been found to adventure capital in producing warps
+  ready made in anticipation of demand for the great variety of fabrics
+  which was even then produced. Moreover, had the weaver himself placed
+  the orders for his warps, any occasional delay in the execution of his
+  commissions might have stopped his work entirely until the warps were
+  ready; for warps cannot be delivered partially, like weft, in
+  quantities sufficient for each day's work. To ensure continuous
+  working in the industry, therefore, it was almost inevitable that the
+  merchant should himself prepare the warps for such fabrics as he
+  required, or possibly have them prepared. To the system of the
+  merchant delegating the preparation of warps there was less objection
+  than to the system of the weaver doing so, since the merchant, dealing
+  in large quantities, was more likely to get pressing orders completed
+  to time. Further, the merchant knew first what kind of warps would be
+  needed. The first solution, however, that of the merchant undertaking
+  the warping himself, was the surer, and there was no doubt as to its
+  being the one destined for selection in a period when a tendency to
+  centralize organization, responsibility and all that could be easily
+  centralized, was steadily gaining in strength."[20]
+
+Guest says the system by which the weaver was supplied with warps and
+other material was substituted for the purchase of warps and cotton-wool
+by the weaver about 1740. No doubt the change was very gradual,
+especially as Aikin mentions the use of warping-mills in the 17th
+century. The weaver as a rule received his weft material in the form of
+cotton-wool and was required to arrange himself for its cleaning and
+spinning. According to Aikin,[21] dealers tried the experiment of giving
+out weft instead of cotton-wool, but "the custom grew into disuse as
+there was no detecting the knavery of the spinners till a piece came in
+woven." As it was impossible to unwrap the yarn and test it throughout
+its length, defects were hidden until it came to be used, and the
+complaints of weavers were not conclusive as to the inferiority of the
+yarn, since their own bad workmanship might have had something to do
+with its having proved unsatisfactory. It was therefore found best to
+saddle the weaver with full responsibility for both the spinning and
+weaving. Women and children cleaned, carded and spun the cotton-wool in
+their homes. The cotton had to be more thoroughly cleaned after its
+arrival in this country. The ordinary process of cleaning was known as
+"willowing," because the cotton was beaten with willow switches after it
+had been laid out on a tight hammock of cords. The cotton used for fine
+spinning was also carefully washed; and even when it was not washed it
+was soaked with water and partially dried so that the fibres might be
+made to cling together.[22] Most of the weaving was done by men, and
+until the invention of the fly-shuttle they cast the shuttle from hand
+to hand in the manner of their remotest ancestors. For the making of the
+broader fabrics two weavers were required when the width was greater
+than the easy stretch of a man's arms. Sometimes cloths were woven wide
+and then split into two or more: hence the term "splits." This became a
+common practice when the hand-loom workers were groaning under the
+pressure of competition from the power-loom.
+
+
+  The invention of machinery.
+
+We now reach the era of the great inventions. In order to ensure
+clearness it will be desirable to consider separately the branches of
+spinning and weaving: to pass from the one to the other, and follow the
+chronological order, might cause confusion. First emphasis must be laid
+upon the point that it was not mechanical change alone which constituted
+the industrial revolution. No doubt small hand-looms factories would have
+become the rule, and more and more control over production would have
+devolved upon the factory master, and the work to be done would have been
+increasingly assigned by merchants, had the steam-engine remained but the
+dream of Watt, and semi-automatic machinery not been invented. The spirit
+of the times was centralizing management before any mechanical changes of
+a revolutionizing character had been devised. Loom-shops, in which
+several journeymen were employed, were not uncommon: thus "in the latter
+part of the last (18th) and the beginning of the present (19th) century,"
+says Butterworth, describing the state of affairs in Oldham and the
+neighbourhood, "a large number of weavers ... possessed spacious
+loom-shops, where they not only employed many journeymen weavers, but a
+considerable proportion of apprentice children." It is true that both the
+fly-shuttle and drop-box had been invented by that time, but the loom was
+still worked by human power. Specialism, however, was on the increase,
+the capitalist was assuming more control, and the operative was being
+transformed more and more into the mere executive agent. Further, as
+creative of enterprise, an atmosphere of freedom and a general economic
+restlessness, consequent upon the reaction against mercantilism, were
+noticeable. Great changes, no doubt, would soon have swept over
+Lancashire had a new source of power and big factories not been rendered
+essential by inventions in spinning.
+
+
+  Spinning and preparatory machinery.
+
+The chief inventors were Lewis Paul and John Wyatt, James Hargreaves and
+Samuel Crompton. The two first originated the principle of spinning by
+rollers. Their patent was taken out in 1738, but no good came of it
+immediately, though many trials were made and moderately large sums of
+money were lost. Ultimately Richard Arkwright brought forward the same
+plan improved:[23] his first patent was dated 1769. Over the real
+authorship of the fundamental idea there has been much controversy, and
+it has not been absolutely proved that the second inventor, whether
+Thomas Highs, Arkwright or John Kay (a clockmaker of Warrington who
+assisted Arkwright to construct his machine and is said by some to have
+told him of an invention by Highs), did not hit upon the device afresh
+in ignorance of the work already done. Even as between Paul and Wyatt it
+is not easy to award due measure of praise. Probably the invention, as a
+working machine, resulted from real collaboration, each having an
+appreciable share in it. Robert Cole, in his paper to the British
+Association in 1858 (reprinted as an appendix to the 1st ed. of French's
+_Life of Crompton_), championed the claims of Paul, but Mantoux, in his
+_La Révolution industrielle au XVIII^e siècle_, after studying the
+Wyatt MSS., inclines to attribute to Wyatt a far more important
+position, though he dissents from the view of Baines, who ascribes
+little or nothing to Paul.
+
+Arkwright's prospects of financial success were much greater than those
+of his predecessors, because, first, there was more need in his time of
+mechanical aids, and secondly, he was highly talented as a business man.
+In 1775 he followed up his patent of 1769 with another relating to
+machinery for carding, drawing and roving. The latter patent was widely
+infringed, and Arkwright was compelled to institute nine actions in 1781
+to defend his rights. An association of Lancashire spinners was formed
+to defend them, and by the one that came to trial the patent was set
+aside on the ground of obscurity in the specifications. Arkwright again
+attempted to recover his patent rights in 1785, after the first patent
+had been in abeyance for two years. Before making this further trial of
+the courts he had thought of proceeding by petition to parliament, and
+had actually drawn up his "case," which he was ultimately dissuaded from
+presenting. In it he prayed not only that the decision of 1781 should be
+set aside, but that both patents should be continued to him for the
+unexpired period of the second patent, i.e. until 1789. In his "case"
+(i.e. the petition mentioned above) Arkwright stated that he had sold to
+numbers of adventurers residing in the different counties of Derby,
+Leicester, Nottingham, Worcester, Stafford, York, Hertford and
+Lancaster, many of his patent machines, and continued: "Upon a moderate
+computation, the money expended in consequence of such grants (before
+1782) amounted to at least £60,000. Mr Arkwright and his partners also
+expended in large buildings in Derbyshire and elsewhere upwards of
+£30,000, and Mr Arkwright also erected a very large and extensive
+building in Manchester at the expense of upwards of £4000. Thus a
+business had been formed which already (he calculated) employed upwards
+of five thousand persons, and a capital on the whole of not less than
+£200,000."[24] It is impossible to discover exactly the rights of the
+matter. Certainly Arkwright had been intentionally obscure in his
+specifications, as he admitted, and for his defence, namely that it was
+to preserve the secret for his countrymen, there was only his word. He
+may have hoped to keep the secret for himself; and as to the originality
+of both inventions there were grave doubts. But Arkwright has received
+little sympathy, because his claims were regarded as grasping in view of
+the large fortune which he had already won. He began work with his first
+partners at Nottingham (when power was derived from horses) and started
+at Cromford in 1771 (where the force of water was used). Soon he was
+involved in numerous undertakings, and he remained active till his death
+in 1792. He had met throughout with a good deal of opposition, which
+possibly to a man of his temperament was stimulating. Even in the matter
+of getting protective legislation reframed to give scope to the
+application of the water-frame, a powerful section of Lancashire
+employers worked against him. This protective legislation must here be
+shortly reviewed.
+
+In 1700 an act had been passed (11 & 12 William III. c. 10) prohibiting
+the importation of the printed calicoes of India, Persia and China. In
+1721 the act 7 George I. c. 7 prohibited the use of any "printed,
+painted, stained or dyed calico," excepting only calicoes dyed all blue
+and muslins, neckcloths and fustians. This act was modified by the act 9
+George II. c. 4 (allowing British calicoes with linen warps). Thus the
+matter stood as regards prints when Arkwright had demonstrated that
+stout cotton warps could be spun in England, and at the same time the
+officers of excise insisted upon exacting a tax of 6d. from the plain
+all-cottons instead of the 3d. paid by the cotton-linens, on the ground
+that the former were calicoes. Arkwright's plea, however, was admitted,
+and by the act 14 George II. c. 72 the still operative part of the act
+of 1721 was set aside, and the manufacture, use, and wear of cottons
+printed and stained, &c., was permitted subject to the payment of a duty
+of 3d. per sq. yd. (the same as the excise on cotton-linens) provided
+they were stamped "British manufactory." The duty was varied from time
+to time until its repeal in 1832.
+
+Some more powerful force than that of man or horse was soon needed to
+work the heavy water-frames. Hence Arkwright placed his second mill on a
+water-course, fitting it with a water-wheel, and until the steam-engine
+became economical most of the new twist mills were built on
+water-courses. On rare occasions the old fire-engines seem to have been
+tried.
+
+  The following passage quoted from a note in Barnes's _History_
+  illustrates the pressing need of the early mills: "On the river
+  Irwell, from the first mill near Bacup, to Prestolee, near Bolton,
+  there is about 900 ft. of fall available from mills, 800 of which is
+  occupied. On this river and its branches it is computed that there are
+  no less than three hundred mills. A project is in course of execution
+  to increase the water-power of the district, already so great and so
+  much concentrated, and to equalize the force of the stream by forming
+  eighteen reservoirs on the hills, to be filled in times of flood, and
+  to yield their supplies in the drought of summer. These reservoirs,
+  according to the plan, would cover 270 acres of ground, and contain
+  241,300,000 cub. ft. of water, which would give a power equal to 6600
+  horses. The cost is estimated at £59,000. One reservoir has been
+  completed, another is in course of formation, and it is probable that
+  the whole design will be carried into effect."[25]
+
+As early as 1788 there were 143 water-mills in the cotton industry of
+the United Kingdom, which were distributed as follows among the counties
+which had more than one.[26]
+
+  Lancashire         41      Flintshire        3
+  Derbyshire         22      Berkshire         2
+  Nottinghamshire    17      Lanarkshire       4
+  Yorkshire          11      Renfrewshire      4
+  Cheshire            8      Perthshire        3
+  Staffordshire       7      Midlothian        2
+  Westmorland         5      Isle of Man       1
+
+The need of water to drive Arkwright's machinery, and its value for
+working other machinery, caused a strong decentralizing tendency to show
+itself in the cotton industry at this time, but more particularly in the
+twist-spinning branch. Ultimately the steam-engine (first used in the
+cotton industry in 1785) drew all branches of the industry into the
+towns, where the advantages of their juxtaposition--i.e. the external
+economies of centralization--could be enjoyed. Out of the crowding of
+the mills in one locality sprang the business specialism which has
+continued up to the present day. Here it will not be out of place to
+notice the appearance of the new power, electricity, in the cotton
+industry, the extension of which may involve striking economic changes.
+The first electric-driven spinning-mill in Lancashire, that of the
+"Acme" Spinning Company at Pendlebury, the work of which is confined to
+the ring-frame, was opened in 1905. Power is obtained from the stations
+of the Lancashire Power Company at Outwood near Radcliffe, some 5 m.
+distant.
+
+The chief principle of the water-frame was the drawing out of the yarn to
+the required degree of tenuity by sets of gripping rollers revolving at
+different speeds. This principle is still applied universally. Twist was
+given by a "flyer" revolving round the bobbin upon which the yarn was
+being wound; the spinning so effected was known as throstle-spinning. The
+plan is still common in the subsidiary processes of the cotton industry,
+but for spinning itself the ring-frame, which appears to have been
+invented simultaneously in England and the United States (the first
+American patent is dated 1828), is rapidly supplanting the
+throstle-frame,[27] though the "ooziness" of mule yarn has not yet been
+successfully imitated by ring-frame yarn. The great invention relating to
+weft-spinning was the jenny, introduced by James Hargreaves probably
+about 1764, and first tried in a factory four years later.[28] Hargreaves
+unfortunately was unable to maintain his patent, because he had sold
+jennies before applying for protection. Crompton's mule, which combined
+the principles of the rollers and the jenny, was perfected about 1779.
+Both jennies and mules were known as "wheels," because they were worked
+in part by the turning of a wheel. As they could be set in motion without
+using much power, being light when of moderate size, for a long time
+they were worked entirely by hand or partially with the aid of horses or
+water. The first jenny- and mule-factories were small for this reason,
+and also because skill in the operative was a matter of fundamental
+importance,[29] as it was not in twist-spinning on the water-frame. The
+size of the typical weft-spinning mill suddenly increased after the scope
+for the application of power was enlarged by the use of the self-actor
+mule, invented in 1825 by Richard Roberts, of the firm of Sharp, Roberts
+& Co., machinists, of Manchester. In 1830 Roberts improved his invention
+and brought out the complete self-actor. Self-actors had been put forward
+by others besides Roberts--for instance by William Strutt, F.R.S. (son of
+Arkwright's partner), before 1790; William Kelly, formerly of Lanark
+mills, in 1792; William Eaton of Wiln in Derbyshire; Peter Ewart of
+Manchester; de Jongh of Warrington; Buchanan, of Catrine works, Scotland;
+Knowles of Manchester; and Dr Brewster of America[30]--but none had
+succeeded. And Roberts's machines did not immediately win popularity. For
+a long time the winding done by them was defective, and they suffered
+from other imperfections. Broadly speaking, until the American Civil War
+the number of hand-mules in use remained high. It was for the fine
+"counts" in particular that many employers preferred them.[31] About the
+end of the 'sixties, however, and in the early 'seventies, great
+improvements were effected in machinery, partly under the stimulus of a
+desire to elevate its fitness for dealing with short-staple cotton, and
+it became evident that hand-mules were doomed. Here we may suitably refer
+to the scutching machine for opening and cleaning cotton, invented by Mr
+Snodgrass of Glasgow in 1797, and introduced by Kennedy[32] to Manchester
+in 1808 or 1809; the cylinder carder invented by Lewis Paul and improved
+by Arkwright; and the lap-machine first constructed by Arkwright's son.
+
+
+  Weaving machinery.
+
+We now transfer our attention to that accumulation of improvements in
+manufacturing (as weaving is technically termed) which, taken in
+conjunction with the inventions already described, presaged the large
+factory system which covers Lancashire to-day. Gradually, for many
+years, the loom had been gathering complexities, though no fundamental
+alteration was introduced into its structure until 1738, when John Kay
+of Bury excited the wrath of his fellow-weavers by designing and
+employing the device of the fly-shuttle. For some unfathomable
+reason--for the opposition of the weavers hardly explains it, though
+they expressed their views forcibly and acted upon them violently--this
+invention was not much applied in the cotton industry until about a
+quarter of a century after its appearance. The plan was merely to
+substitute for human hands hammers at the ends of a lengthened lathe
+along which the shuttle ran, the hammers being set in motion by the
+jerking of a stick (the picking peg) to which they were attached by
+strings. The output of a weaver was enormously increased in consequence.
+In 1760 John Kay's son Robert added the drop-box, by the use of which
+many different kinds of weft could be worked into the same fabric
+without difficulty. It was in fact a partitioned lift, any partition of
+which could be brought to a level with the lathe and made for the time
+continuous with it. The drop-box usefully supplemented the "draw-boy,"
+or "draught-boy," which provided for the raising of warps in groups, and
+thereby enabled figured goods to be produced. The "draw-boy" had been
+well known in the industry for a long time; in 1687 a Joseph Mason
+patented an invention for avoiding the expense of an assistant to work
+it,[33] but there is no evidence to show that his invention was of
+practical value. Looms with "draw-boys" affixed, which could sometimes
+be worked by the weavers themselves, later became common under the name
+of harness-looms, which have since been supplanted by Jacquard looms,
+wherein the pattern is picked out mechanically.
+
+The principle of the fly-shuttle was a first step towards the complete
+mechanizing of the action required for working a loom. The second step
+was the power-loom, the initial effort to design which was created by
+the tardiness of weaving as contrasted with the rapidity of spinning by
+power. After the general adoption of the jenny, supplies of yarn outran
+the productive powers of the agencies that existed for converting them
+into fabrics, and as a consequence, it would seem, some yarn was
+directed into exports which might have been utilized for the manufacture
+of cloth for export had the loom been more productive. The agitation for
+the export tax on yarn at the end of the 18th, and in the first years of
+the 19th century, is therefore comprehensible, but there was no
+foundation for some of the allegations by which it was supported. For a
+large proportion of the exported yarn, fabrics could not have been
+substituted, since the former was required to feed the hand-looms in
+continental homes and domestic workshops, against much of the product of
+which there was no chance of competing. The hand-loom was securely
+linked to the home of the peasant, and though he would buy yarn to feed
+his loom he would not buy cloth and break it up.[34]
+
+Cartwright's loom was not the first design adapted for weaving by power.
+A highly rudimentary and perfectly futile self-actor weaving machine,
+which would have been adapted for power-working had it been capable of
+working at all, had been invented by a M. de Gennes: a description of
+it, extracted from the _Journal de sçavans_, appeared in the
+_Philosophical Transactions_ for July and August 1678, and again in the
+_Gentleman's Magazine_ in 1751 (vol. xxi. pp. 391-392). It consisted of
+mechanical hands, as it were, that shot in and out of the warp and
+exchanged the shuttle.[35] Another idea, which however proved fruitful,
+was that of grinding the shuttle through the warps by the agency of
+cog-wheels working at each end upon teeth affixed to the upper side of
+the shuttle. Though shuttles could not in this fashion be set in rapid
+movement, the machine turned out to be economical for the production of
+ribbons and tapes, because many pieces could be woven by it at once.
+These contrivances were known as swivel-looms, and in 1724 Stukeley in
+his _Itinerarium curiosum_ wrote that the people of Manchester have
+"looms that work twenty-four laces at a time, which was stolen from the
+Dutch." Ogden says also that they were set up in imitation of Dutch
+machines by Dutch mechanics invited over for the purpose. Another
+interesting passage relating to the swivel-looms will be found in the
+rules of the Manchester small-ware weavers dated 1756, where the
+complaint is made that the masters have acquired by the employment of
+"engine or Dutch looms such large and opulent fortunes as hath enabled
+them to vie with some of the best gentlemen of the country," and it is
+alleged that these machines, which wove twelve or fourteen pieces at
+once, "were in use in Manchester thirty years ago."[36] One
+power-factory at least was devoted to them as early as 1760, namely that
+of a Mr Gartside at Manchester, where water-power was applied, but the
+enterprise failed.[37] Cartwright's invention was probably perfected in
+its first form about 1787, but many corrections, improvements and
+additions had to be effected before it became an unqualified success.
+Cartwright's original idea was elaborated by numerous followers, and
+supplementary ideas were needed to make the system complete. Of the
+latter the most important were those due to William Radcliffe, and an
+ingenious mechanic who worked with him, Thomas Johnson, which were
+patented in 1803 and 1804. They related to the dressing of the warp
+before it was placed in the loom, and for the mechanical taking up of
+the cloth and drawing forward of the warp, so that the loom had not to
+be stopped for the cloth to be moved on and the warp brought within play
+of the shuttle to be sized. Looms fitted with the latter of these
+devices were known as "dandy" looms. The looms that followed need not be
+described here, nor need we concern ourselves with the degree in which
+some were imitations of others. It is of interest to note, however, in
+view of recent developments, that one of Cartwright's patents included a
+warp-stop motion, though it was never tried practically so far as the
+writer is aware. Looms with warp-stop motions are now common in the
+United States, as are also automatic looms, but both are still the
+exception in Lancashire for reasons that will be sketched later.
+
+Power-looms won their way only very gradually. Cartwright and others
+lost fortunes in trying to make them pay, but the former was compensated
+by a grant of £10,000 from government. In 1813 there were 2400 only in
+the whole of the United Kingdom; in 1820 there were 14,000, beside some
+240,000 hand-looms; in 1829, 55,500; in 1833, 100,000; and in 1870,
+440,700.[38] To-day there are about 700,000 in the cotton industry. The
+beginning, and the final consequences, of the competitive pressure of
+the power-looms may be read in the reports of official inquiries and in
+Rowbotham's diary.[39] It was upon the fine work that the hand-loom
+weavers retained their last hold. In 1829 John Kennedy wrote in his
+paper to the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society on "The Rise
+and Progress of the Cotton Trade," "It is found ... that one person
+cannot attend upon more than two power-looms, and it is still
+problematical [even in 1829, observe] whether the saving of labour
+counterbalances the expense of power and machinery and the disadvantage
+of being obliged to keep an establishment of power-looms constantly at
+work." It was not easy to obtain a sufficiency of good hands for the
+power-looms, because the operatives, who had acquired their habits under
+the domestic system, hated factory life. This, in conjunction with the
+ease with which the art of coarse weaving could be acquired and the
+cheapness of rough looms, helps to explain the wretched straits into
+which the hand-loom weavers were driven.
+
+[Sidenote: Growth.]
+
+Improvements in machinery, which ultimately affected every process from
+cleaning the cotton to finishing the fabric, and the application of
+water and steam-power, so lowered the cost of production as to render
+Lancashire the cotton factory of the world. Figures are quoted in the
+table to show the rate of growth in different periods of England's
+imports and exports as regards the raw material and products of this
+industry. It is important to remember when reading the last 6 columns
+that the value of money was the same in 1831-1835, 1851-1855 and
+1876-1880: the sums of Sauerbeck's index numbers for these periods were
+454, 451 and 444 respectively. In the last two periods there were
+considerable depressions in prices. If prices had remained constant, in
+the periods 1891-1895 and 1896-1900 the figures of exports would have
+been £90 millions and £91 millions respectively. The growth in trade has
+been partly occasioned by the enormous increase in the volume of cotton
+goods consumed all over the world, which in turn has been due to (1) the
+growth of population, (2) the increase in productive efficiency and
+well-being, and (3) the substitution of cotton fabrics for woollen and
+linen fabrics. The rate of growth between the periods 1771-1781 and
+1781-1791 (which is not shown in the above table) was particularly
+remarkable, and reached as high a figure (when measured by importations
+of weight of cotton) as 320%.
+
+  +---------+-------------+-------------+-----------------------------+---------------------------+
+  |         |             |             |  Exports of  Cotton Yarns   |Imports of Cotton Yarns and|
+  |         |             |             |and Manufactures, Million £. |  Manufactures, Million £  |
+  |         | Imports of  | Raw Cotton  |                             |                           |
+  |  Year.  | Raw Cotton, |re-exported, +------+-------------+--------+------+-------------+------+
+  |         | Million lb. | Million lb. |      |             |        |      |Manufactures.|      |
+  |         |             |             |Yarns.|Manufactures.| Total. |Yarns.| (excluding  |Total.|
+  |         |             |             |      |             |        |      |    Lace.)   |      |
+  +---------+-------------+-------------+------+-------------+--------+------+-------------+------+
+  |1700-1705|      1.17   |      ..     |  ..  |     ..      |   ..   |  ..  |      ..     |  ..  |
+  |1771-1775|      4.76   |      ..     |  ..  |     ..      |   ..   |  ..  |      ..     |  ..  |
+  |1785-1789|      ..     |      ..     |  ..  |     ..      |  1.07* |  ..  |      ..     |  ..  |
+  |1791-1795|     26.00   |      ..     |  ..  |     ..      |  2.09* |  ..  |      ..     |  ..  |
+  |1816-1820|    139.00   |     10.00   |  2.5 |    13.8     | 16.30  |  ..  |      ..     |  ..  |
+  |1831-1835|    313.00   |     23.00   |  4.8 |    14.2     | 19.00  |  ..  |      ..     |  ..  |
+  |1851-1855|    872.00   |    124.00   |  6.8 |    24.9     | 31.70  |  ..  |      ..     |  ..  |
+  |1876-1880|   1456.00   |    180.00   | 12.4 |    56.1     | 68.30  |  ..  |     2.29    | 2.29 |
+  |1891-1895|   1746.00   |    217.00   |  9.7 |    56.6     | 66.30  | .42  |     2.78    | 3.20 |
+  |1896-1900|   1798.00   |    223.00   |  8.9 |    58.2     | 67.10  | .26  |     4.27    | 4.53 |
+  |1901-1905|   1920.00   |    265.00   |  8.4 |    70.7     | 79.10  | .22  |     5.10    | 5.32 |
+  +---------+-------------+-------------+------+-------------+--------+------+-------------+------+
+    * Official values.
+
+
+  Differentiation and Integration.
+
+Nothing is more interesting in the cotton industry than the processes of
+differentiation and integration that have taken place from time to time.
+Weaving and spinning had been to a large extent united in the industry
+in its earliest form, in that both were frequently conducted beneath the
+same roof. With mechanical improvements in spinning, that branch of the
+industry became a separate business, and a substantial section of it was
+brought under the factory régime. Weaving continued to be performed in
+cottages or in hand-loom sheds where no spinning at all was attempted.
+Cartwright's invention carried weaving back to spinning, because both
+operations then needed power, and the trouble of marketing yarn was
+largely spared by the reunion. Mr W. R. Grey stated in 1833 to the
+committee of the House of Commons on manufactures, commerce and
+shipping, that he knew of no single person then building a spinning mill
+who was not attaching to it a power-loom factory. Some years later the
+weaving-shed split away from spinning, partly no doubt because of the
+economies of industrial specialism, partly because of commercial
+developments, to be described later, which rendered dissociation less
+hazardous than it had been, and partly because, in consequence of these
+developments, much manufacturing (as weaving is termed) was constituted
+a business strikingly dissimilar from spinning. The manufacturer runs
+more risks in laying by stocks than the spinner, because of the greater
+variety of his product and the more frequent changes that it undergoes.
+The former, therefore, must devote more time than the latter to keeping
+his order book and the productive power of his shed in close
+correspondence. The minute care of this kind that must be exercised in
+some classes of businesses explains why the small manufacturer still
+holds his own while the small spinner has been crushed out. It also
+explains to some extent the prevalence of joint-stock companies in
+spinning, and their comparative rarity in manufacturing. Here we should
+notice, perhaps, that the only combination of importance in the cotton
+industry proper (apart from calico-printing, bleaching, &c., and the
+manufacture of sewing-cotton) is the Fine Cotton Spinners and Doublers
+Association, founded in 1898, which is practically coextensive with fine
+spinning and doubling.
+
+
+  Localization of branches of the industry.
+
+The specialism of the two main branches of the industry has been
+followed by the specialism of sub-branches and by the localization of
+specialized parts. Of the localization of certain sections of the cotton
+industry the late Mr Elijah Helm, who spoke with the authority of great
+local knowledge, has written as follows:--
+
+  "Spinning is largely concentrated in south Lancashire and in the
+  adjoining borderland of north Cheshire. But even within this area
+  there is further allocation. The finer and the very finest yarns are
+  spun in the neighbourhood of Bolton, and in or near Manchester, much
+  of this being used for the manufacture of sewing-thread; whilst other
+  descriptions, employed almost entirely for weaving, are produced in
+  Oldham and other towns. The weaving branches of the industry are
+  chiefly conducted in the northern half of Lancashire--most of it in
+  very large boroughs, as Blackburn, Burnley and Preston. Here, again,
+  there is a differentiation. Preston and Chorley produce the finer and
+  lighter fabrics; Blackburn, Darwen and Accrington, shirtings, dhooties
+  and other goods extensively shipped to India; whilst Nelson and Colne
+  make cloths woven from dyed yarn, and Bolton is distinguished for fine
+  quiltings and fancy cotton dress goods. These demarcations are not
+  absolutely observed, but they are sufficiently clear to give to each
+  town in the area covered by the cotton industry a distinctive place in
+  its general organization."[40]
+
+The present local distribution of the cotton industry, as far as it is
+displayed statistically, is revealed in the table beneath, based upon
+the figures of spindles and looms given by Worrall and those of
+operatives in the census returns of 1901.
+
+  _Distribution of Cotton Operatives in Lancashire and the Vicinity
+  according to the Census Returns of 1901, together with the Number
+  of Spindles and Looms according to Worrall._
+
+  +------------------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+
+  |                        |   No. of    |      No.     |   No. of    |
+  |                        | Operatives. | Spindles (in |   Looms.    |
+  |                        |             |  Thousands). |             |
+  +------------------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+
+  | Blackburn              |    41,400   |     1,325    |   75,300    |
+  | Bolton                 |    29,800   |     5,035    |   20,100    |
+  | Oldham                 |    29,500   |    11,603    |   18,500    |
+  | Burnley                |    27,900   |       687    |   79,300    |
+  | Manchester and Salford |    27,200   |     2,666    |   24,200*   |
+  | Preston                |    25,000   |     2,036    |   57,900    |
+  | Rochdale               |    14,800   |     2,168    |   25,100    |
+  | Darwen                 |    12,500   |       336    |   28,700    |
+  | Nelson                 |    12,400   |        23    |   39,000    |
+  | Glossop**              |             |       968    |   15,400    |
+  | Bury                   |    10,700   |       818    |   22,200    |
+  | Stockport              |     9,700   |     1,803    |    8,700    |
+  | Ashton-under-Lyne      |     8,600   |     1,839    |   11,500    |
+  | Accrington             |     8,300   |       417    |   36,400    |
+  | Colne                  |     7,300   |       140*** |   20,500    |
+  | Heywood                |     7,300   |       869    |    6,400    |
+  | Stalybridge            |     7,100   |     1,106    |    7,100    |
+  | Todmorden              |     6,900   |       261    |   15,800    |
+  | Rawtenstall            |     6,600   |       356    |    8,800    |
+  | Hyde                   |     6,500   |       553    |    7,900    |
+  | Chadderton             |     6,400   |     ..       |     ..      |
+  | Haslingden             |     6,100   |       148    |   12,000    |
+  | Bacup                  |     5,900   |       315    |    9,300    |
+  | Chorley                |     5,900   |       547    |   17,900    |
+  | Farnworth, near Bolton |     5,700   |       738    |   10,600    |
+  | Leigh                  |     5,000   |     1,667    |    5,900    |
+  | Great Harwood          |     4,900   |        72    |   12,400    |
+  | Middleton              |     4,900   |       511    |    2,500    |
+  | Radcliffe              |     4,800   |       157    |    8,900    |
+  +------------------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+
+      * Manchester only.
+     ** The number of operatives in places in Derbyshire is not separately
+           specified.
+    *** Includes Foulridge with Colne.
+
+Local markets have steadily lost in importance, partly owing to railway
+development, and it is now almost entirely in Manchester, on the
+Exchange, that dealing in yarns and fabrics takes place, and
+arrangements are made for export. The old Manchester Exchange, built in
+1729, was taken down in 1792. A new Exchange, reared on a contiguous
+site, was opened in 1809, the first stone having been laid in 1806. The
+present building was erected in 1869. The great bulk of the exports of
+cotton goods proceeds from Liverpool, though London used to be the
+leading port, and Liverpool is still the chief English market for raw
+cotton, though now from one-sixth to one-eighth of English cotton
+supplies come up the Manchester Ship Canal.
+
+
+  Modern organization.
+
+To understand the present organization of the cotton industry the reader
+must begin by mentally separating the commercial from the industrial
+functions. By the industrial functions are meant the arrangements of
+factors in production--choosing the most suitable machinery and hands,
+combining them in the most economical system, adapting the material used
+to this system, and keeping its working at the highest attainable level.
+The commercial functions consist in business which is not industrial.
+Analysis will show that there are, broadly speaking, two classes of
+commercial functions, namely (1) arranging for purchases and sales, and
+(2) the bearing of risks. The character of the former is apparent; it
+consists, as regards yarn, in discovering for each manufacturer which
+spinner makes the yarn which is best adapted to his requirements at the
+lowest cost, and in finding the most suitable customers for spinners.
+Risk-bearing is a commercial function of another kind. Every business
+that involves anticipation involves commercial risks. Thus the spinner
+who sells "forward" yarn, trusting that the price of cotton will not
+rise, is taking commercial risks, and so is the spinner who produces for
+stock, trusting that the class of yarn that he is making will continue
+in demand. These two instances will suffice to indicate what is meant by
+the carrying of commercial risks. To make the rest of our argument clear
+it will be well to write down formulae. Let A and B represent
+respectively the industrial operations of spinning and manufacturing.
+Let a and [alpha] represent respectively the commercial operations
+implied by the separate existence of A, that is, the buying of cotton
+and the selling of yarn; and let b and [Greek: beta] stand for the
+commercial operations associated with manufacturing, that is, the buying
+of yarn on the one hand, and the finding of customers and arranging for
+their purchases on the other hand. Then, A and B being distinct
+businesses, it is obvious that a range of schemes is possible of which
+the extremes may be roughly represented as follows:--
+
+  1. (aA[alpha]), (bB[beta])
+  2. (a), (A), ([alpha]b), (B), ([beta]),
+
+where the brackets signify independent businesses. In case 1 each
+spinning business would be engaged with three problems, namely, (i.)
+buying material at the most favourable time, (ii.) producing at the
+lowest cost, and (iii.) finding buyers and selling at the highest price,
+including the arranging for the performance of the most remunerative
+work. But in case 2 the spinner would confine his attention to purely
+industrial matters, while the problem of finding cotton and arranging
+for the bearing of the risks as to future prices would rest with other
+persons, and the business of bringing spinner and manufacturer together
+and taking such risks as may be involved in ordering or disposing of
+yarn would be the function of yet others. In case 2 the commercial
+functions may be said to have differentiated completely from the main
+body of the industry. We need hardly give illustrations of the
+intermediate arrangements that formally lie between cases 1 and 2. A may
+retain commercial risks but find customers through intermediaries; in
+such an event there would be only partial differentiation of the
+commercial functions. The reader must be reminded also that for the sake
+of simplicity in the formulae we have overlooked different classes of A
+and of B, omitted bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing, and drawn
+no distinction between the various classes of commercial work covered by
+one letter, for instance, selling in the home market and selling abroad.
+
+It may help the reader to appreciate the organic growth of the cotton
+industry if we now run over the main lines of its evolution. Originally
+the industrial units were held together in one homogeneous commercial
+setting. The Manchester merchants bought cotton and warps, put them out
+to the weavers, and arranged for the finishing of the cloth and then for
+its sale, so far as they had not been acting on orders already received.
+There were variations of this system--for instance, in early years
+weavers sometimes bought their own yarns and cotton and sold their
+cloth--but just before the industrial revolution the arrangement
+sketched above was the most usual. Adverting to our formula, the
+Manchester merchants, we observe, performed functions a (in conjunction
+with importers), b (as regarded warps), and [beta]. Weft the weaver had
+to get spun by his family or outsiders. So, broadly speaking, there was
+one single commercial setting. After the appearance of the factory, the
+commercial work as between the water-twist mills, the mule-spinning
+businesses and the manufacturers, so far as the businesses were
+distinct, appears to have been done by the several producing firms
+concerned. It was not at once that ([alpha]b) began to differentiate,
+[beta] was already a separate business in the hands of Manchester
+merchants and the foreign houses who had established themselves in
+Manchester to direct the export trade. At the present time an advanced
+stage of commercial specialism has been reached. From the risks
+connected with the buying of cotton the spinner may if he please escape
+entirely.[41] Selling work is now done usually through intermediaries,
+but there is no one uniform rule as to the carrying of the commercial
+risks involved. This appears to be now to some extent a matter of
+arrangement between the persons concerned, but ultimately no doubt the
+risks will have to be borne by those most qualified by experience to
+bear them, namely, the commercial specialists. In no other trade in
+England, and in no other cotton industry abroad, has commercial
+specialism been carried so far as in the cotton trade of Lancashire. It
+is partly in consequence of the difference in this respect between the
+cotton industry in Lancashire and abroad that the separation of spinning
+from weaving is far more common in England than elsewhere. Elsewhere
+producers are deterred from specializing processes further in distinct
+businesses by the fear of the worries of buying and selling as between
+them.
+
+The explanation of differences in respect of the degree of commercial
+specialism in different places and industries can be formulated only
+very generally. Time is required for the differentiation and
+localization to take place. The English cotton trade had not advanced
+very far in the "'thirties," if we are to judge from the evidence given
+to commissions and parliamentary committees. The general conditions
+under which commercial specialism evolves may be taken to be a
+moderately limited range of products which do not present many
+varieties, and the qualities of which can be judged generally on
+inspection. In such circumstances private markets need not be built up,
+as they must be, for instance, for a new brand of soap which claims some
+subtle superiority to all others. Soaps under present conditions must be
+marketed by their producers. Broadly stated, if there be little
+competition as to substitutes, though there may be much as to price in
+relation to quality, commercial functions may specialize. On the whole
+this is the case in the cotton industry; in so far as it is not and
+firms produce specialities, they undertake much of the marketing work
+themselves.
+
+The advantages of commercial specialism are numerous. Firstly it allows
+of differentiation of industrial processes, and this, of necessity, is
+accompanied by increasing returns. When weaving dissociates from
+spinning, both the number of looms in each business and the number of
+spindles in each business tend to increase; more division of labour is
+therefore secured, and lower costs of production are reached, and there
+is a further gain because producers concentrate their attention upon a
+smaller range of work. Again when producers are freed entirely, or to
+some extent, from commercial worries, they can attain a higher level of
+efficiency at the industrial task of mill organization, and a more
+perfect accommodation of capacity to function will be brought about. If
+the business unit is (aA[alpha]), a particular person may retain his
+place in the market by reason of his excellence at the work a or
+[alpha], though as works organizer (i.e. at the performances of function
+A) he may be incompetent. The heads of businesses will succeed according
+to their average capacities at the three tasks a, A and [alpha], and
+there is no guarantee, therefore, that any one of these tasks will be
+performed with the highest attainable efficiency in our present somewhat
+immobile economic system. But if the three functions are separated there
+is more certainty of a person's success in the performance of each
+determining his continued discharge of it. The problems that arise when
+specialized markets become very highly developed are dealt with in the
+article COTTON: MARKETING AND SUPPLY.
+
+
+    Operatives in various processes.
+
+  The distribution of cotton operatives among the chief centres has
+  already been shown, but their distribution between processes has yet
+  to be considered, and the proportions of different ages and sexes from
+  time to time, together with the total. With such statistical material
+  as is available relating to supplies of labour we may set forth also
+  the official returns made of the quantity of machinery at work from
+  time to time. It hardly need be pointed out that the ratio of
+  machinery to operatives roughly measures the efficiency of labour,
+  other things being equal.
+
+
+    _Machinery in the United Kingdom (in Thousands)._
+
+    +--------+-----------+-----------+--------+
+    | Years. | Spinning  | Doubling  | Power- |
+    |        | Spindles. | Spindles. | Looms. |
+    +--------+-----------+-----------+--------+
+    |  1874  |  37,516   |   4366    |   463  |
+    |  1878  |  39,528   |   4679    |   515  |
+    |  1885  |  40,120   |   4228    |   561  |
+    |  1890  |  40,512   |   3993    |   616  |
+    |  1903  |  43,905   |   3952    |   684  |
+    +--------+-----------+-----------+--------+
+
+
+  _Operatives employed in the Cotton Industry (in Thousands). (From the
+  Census Returns.*)_ (The figures in italics relate to Married and
+  Widowed Women.)
+
+  +----------------------------------------+--------------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+
+  |                                        |           1901.          |         1891.         |         1881.         |
+  |                                        +-------------+------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                                        |             |  England   |           |  England  |           |  England  |
+  |                                        | Lancashire  | and Wales  |Lancashire.| and Wales |Lancashire.| and Wales |
+  +----------------------------------------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+  |                                        |  M.  |  F.  |  M.  |  F. | M.  |  F. | M.  |  F. | M.  |  F. | M.  |  F. |
+  |Cotton, card and blowing-room processes | 11.4 | 28.7 | 13.8 | 34.0| ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  |
+  |                                        | 10.1 |      |12.2  |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+  |Cotton spinning processes               | 49.5 | 19.6 | 64.1 | 28.6| ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  |
+  |                                        |  4.3 |      |  6.0 |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+  |Cotton weaving, warping, &c.            | 57.6 |113.5 | 66.1 |130.8| ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  |
+  |                                        | 13.0 |      | 15.8 |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+  |Cotton winding, warping, &c.            | 14.8 | 38.6 | 18.3 | 48.9| ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  | ..  |
+  |                                        | 38.1 |      | 44.4 |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+  |                                        +------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----------+
+  |                      Total             |133.3 | 265.9|162.3 |320.7|178.2|281.8|213.2|332.8|150.7|249.8|185.4|302.4|
+  |                                        +------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+  |Cotton workers in other processes or    | 29.0 |  6.7 | 34.5 | 9.4 | ..  |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. |
+  |   undefined                            |  1.8 |      |      | 2.3 |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+  |Tape, manufacturer dealer               |  ..  |  ..  | ..   | ..  |  .47|  .25|  .9 |  1.5|  .4 |  .24|  .7 | 1.2 |
+  |Thread, manufacturer dealer             |  ..  |  ..  | ..   | ..  |  .2 |  .9 |  .6 |  2.1|  .1 |  .9 |  .5 | 1.7 |
+  |Fustian, manufacturer dealer            |   .6 |  1.2 |  2.1 | 2.6 | 1.1 | 2.9 | 3.2 |  5.0| 1.7 | 3.5 | 3.0 | 5.2 |
+  |                                        |   .55|      |      | 1.0 |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+  |Cotton, calico, warehouseman, dealer    |  ..  |  ..  | ..   | ..  |  .. |  .. |  .. |  .. | 2.5 |  .3 | 3.2 |  .38|
+  +----------------------------------------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    * Census classifications have been altered twice in the period covered by this table.
+
+  In Scotland there are less than 15,000 cotton operatives distributed
+  as follows:--
+
+                                          In Thousands.
+
+    Card and blowing-room processes             .4
+    Spinning-room processes                    2.1
+    Winding, warping, &c.                      2.7
+    Weaving, warping, &c.                      6.8
+    Workers in other processes or undefined    2.8
+                                              ----
+                              Total           14.8
+
+
+    _Operatives employed in Cotton Factories in the United Kingdom and
+    Percentages of each Class. (From Returns of Factory Inspectors.)_
+
+    +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    |                       |  1835.|  1838.|  1847.|  1850.|  1856.|  1862.|  1867.|
+    +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    | Male and Female under |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+    |   13, or half-timers. |  13.2 |  45.7 |   5.8 |   4.6 |   6.5 |   8.8 |  10.4 |
+    | Male, 13 to 18        |  12.5 |  16.6 |  11.8 |  11.2 |  10.3 |   9.1 |   8.6 |
+    | Male, over 18         |  26.4 |  24.9 |  27.1 |  28.7 |  27.4 |  26.4 |  26.0 |
+    | Female, over 13       |  47.9 |  53.8 |  55.3 |  55.5 |  55.8 |  55.7 |  55.0 |
+    +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    |   Total number of     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+    |     Cotton Operatives |218,000|259,500|316,400|331,000|379,300|451,600|401,100|
+    +=======================+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+
+    |                       |  1870.|  1874.|  1878.|  1885.|  1890.|  1895.|  1901.|
+    +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    | Male and Female under |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+    |   13, or half-timers. |   9.6 |  14.0 |  12.8 |   9.9 |   9.1 |   5.8 |   4.1 |
+    | Male, 13 to 18        |   8.5 |   8.0 |   7.2 |   7.9 |   8.2 |   7.9 |   7.0 |
+    | Male, over 18         |  26.0 |  24.1 |  25.3 |  26.4 |  26.9 |  27.6 |  27.8 |
+    | Female, over 13       |  55.9 |  53.9 |  54.7 |  55.8 |  55.8 |  58.7 |  61.1 |
+    +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    |   Total number of     |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+    |     Cotton Operatives |450,100|479,600|483,000|504,100|528,800|538,900|513,000|
+    +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+
+    _Number of Operatives (in Thousands) engaged in Spinning,
+    Manufacturing and Subsidiary Processes (excluding Lace-making, but
+    including the Fustian Manufacture). (From Census Returns.)_
+
+    +------+------------------------+------------------------+------------------------+
+    |      |         Males.         |        Females.        |   Males and Females.   |
+    +------+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+
+    |      |Under|      |Over | All |Under|      |Over | All |Under|      |Over | All |
+    |      |  15.|15-20.| 20. |Ages.| 15. |15-20.| 20. |Ages.|  15.|15-20.| 20. |Ages.|
+    +------+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+
+    | 1881 |  29 |  39  | 121 | 189 |  40 |  81  | 189 | 310 |  69 |  120 | 310 | 500 |
+    | 1891 |  36 |  45  | 137 | 218 |  50 |  94  | 197 | 341 |  86 |  139 | 334 | 560 |
+    | 1901 |  24 |  36  | 139 | 199 |  36 |  92  | 207 | 335 |  60 |  128 | 346 | 535 |
+    +------+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+
+
+
+  The fact that the branches of work covered by the figures are not
+  identical explains discrepancies between this and the previous table.
+
+
+    _Number of Operatives engaged in the Cotton Industry (Processes
+    being distinguished and Ages and Sex). (From Special Returns made by
+    Factory Inspectors.)_
+
+    +------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+----------+
+    |            |   Males in Thousands.   |  Females in Thousands.   |          |
+    |            +-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+--------+ Total in |
+    |            | Half- |  Under  |18 and | Half- |  Under  | 18 and |Thousands.|
+    |            |timers.|   18.   | over. |timers.|   18.   |  over. |          |
+    +------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+--------+----------+
+    |            |       |         |Spinning and Preparatory Processes|          |
+    |1896        |  5.58 |  22.24  | 71.44 |  4.40 |  30.12  |  78.96 |    212   |
+    |1898-1899*  |  5.42 |  21.57  | 71.37 |  3.86 |  30.44  |  77.64 |    210   |
+    |1901        |  4.98 |  21.10  | 68.98 |  3.10 |  30.98  |  81.68 |    211   |
+    |            |       |         |Weaving and Preparatory Processes |          |
+    |1896        |  7.54 |  18.79  | 75.81 | 11.87 |  49.19  | 151.34 |    315   |
+    |1898-1899*  |  6.21 |  17.29  | 72.74 | 10.38 |  48.38  | 150.99 |    306   |
+    |1901        |  4.72 |  14.86  | 73.81 |   8.0 |  45.66  | 155.03 |    302   |
+    +------------+-------+---------+-------+-------+---------+--------+----------+
+       * Average for 1898 and 1899.
+
+  The figures in this table are not quite complete except for 1901; the
+  relations between the changes shown for each class should nevertheless
+  be accurately represented.
+
+
+    _Index Numbers of Money, Wages and Prices._
+
+    +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+
+    |                   |1840.|1855.|1860.|1866.|1870.|1874.|1877.|1880.|1883.|1886.|1891.| 1902.|
+    +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+
+    |Cotton operatives. |  50 |  54 |  64 |  74 |  74 |  90 |  90 |  85 |  90 |  93 | 100 |105   |
+    |Average wages for  |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |
+    |  eight trades     |  61 |  61 |  73 |  81 |  83 |  97 |  94 |  89 |  92 |  90 | 100 |108.7*|
+    |Sauerbeck's        |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |
+    |  index number     | 103 |  73 |  99 | 102 |  96 | 102 |  94 |  88 |  82 |  69 |  72 | 69   |
+    |Average price of   |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |      |
+    |  wheat per quarter| 66/4| 40/3| 53/3|49/11|46/11| 55/9| 56/9| 44/4| 41/7| 31/-| 37/-|28/1  |
+    +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+
+      * Average for a slightly different group.
+
+
+    _Weekly Wages in the Manchester and District Cotton Trade._
+
+    +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |                    |1834.|1836.|1839.|1841.|1849.|1850.|1859.|1860.|1870.|1877.|1882.|1883.|1886.|
+    +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |                    |s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|s. d.|
+    |Spinners' average   |23 4 |23 11|22 1 |22 0 |21 7 |20 5 |24 1 |23 2 |27 8 |34 4 |31 6 |32 4 |35 7 |
+    |Big piecers' average|11 0 | 9 3 | 8 6 | 8 8 | 8 6 |13 0 |10 0 |10 0 |11 0 |12 4 |16 0 |16 0 |13 7 |
+    |Weavers' average    |11 0 |10 2 | 9 6 | 9 6 |10 6 |10 3 |11 2 |10 8 |12 2 |15 1 |15 6 |15 0 |13 3 |
+    +--------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+  The most noticeable features of these tables are the decrease in the
+  proportion of children employed and the steady increase in the number
+  of operatives as a whole until recent years. The contraction of the
+  body of operatives of late years seems to have occurred primarily
+  among children and young persons (where the first check would
+  naturally be looked for), and secondarily among adult males. If
+  allowance be made for the smaller value of children as compared with
+  adults, and the census results be taken, it is not evident that there
+  has been any diminution in the amount of labour-power; and if the
+  factory inspectors' returns be accepted, the falling off in the number
+  of operatives cannot be proved to have taken place in either of the
+  chief branches of the industry at so rapid a rate as to have
+  occasioned the enforced dismissal of any hands. An industry which was
+  not recruited at all would have dwindled at a greater rate. At least
+  it may be inferred from these figures, when taken in conjunction with
+  the large increase in spindles and looms, that the output per head has
+  considerably advanced in spite of the rise in the average quality of
+  both yarns and fabrics produced. This rise in the value per unit of
+  the output accounts to some extent for the fact that wages have not
+  been adversely affected of late.
+
+
+    Wages and piece-rate lists.
+
+  Mr A. L. Bowley has calculated index numbers of wages for the leading
+  trades, including the manufacture of cotton. Those for the cotton
+  industry are given below, together with averages for cotton and wool
+  workers, the building trades, mining, workers in iron, sailors,
+  compositors and agriculturists (England), the numbers in each class
+  being allowed for in the average. Side by side with these figures,
+  Sauerbeck's index numbers of general wholesale prices are given,
+  together with the average prices of wheat per quarter.
+
+  It must be remembered that the figures given above for cotton workers
+  and average wages for eight trades do not measure the differences
+  between each, but only the differences between the movements of each.
+  Actual average money wages in the cotton industry have probably been
+  approximately those stated in the second table beneath, but as these
+  figures are culled from various sources they must not be taken to
+  indicate fluctuations.[42]
+
+  The wage of fine spinners exceeds the average wage of spinners by
+  percentages varying from about 25 to 35. In the above figures the
+  earnings of three classes of spinners are averaged.
+
+  The highest wages are earned by mule-spinners (who are all males);
+  their assistants, known as piecers, are badly paid. Persons can easily
+  be found, however, to work as piecers, because they hope ultimately to
+  become "minders," i.e. mule-spinners in charge of mules. The division
+  of the total wage paid on a pair of mules between the minder and the
+  piecers is largely the result of the policy of the spinners' trade
+  union. Almost without exception in Lancashire one minder takes charge
+  of a pair of mules with two or three assistants according to the
+  amount of work to be done. Among the weavers there is no rule as to
+  the number of assistants to full weavers (who are both male and
+  female), or as to the number of looms managed by a weaver, but the
+  proportion of assistants is much less than in the spinning branches,
+  perhaps because of the inferior strength of the weavers' unions. For
+  the calculation of wages piece-rate lists are universally employed as
+  regards the payment of full weavers and spinners; some piecers get a
+  definite share of the total wage thus assigned to a pair of mules,
+  while others are paid a fixed weekly amount. Many ring-spinners are
+  now paid also by piece-rate lists, and all other operatives are almost
+  universally so paid, except, as a rule, the hands in the blowing-room
+  and on the carding-machines. Spinning and weaving lists are most
+  complicated; allowances are made in them for most incidents beyond the
+  operatives' control, by which the amount of the wage might be
+  affected. Still, however, they could not cover all circumstances, and
+  much is left to the manner of their application and private
+  arrangement. They should be regarded as giving the basis, rather than
+  as actually settling, the wage in all cases. The history of lists
+  stretches back to the first quarter of the 19th century as regards
+  spinners, and to about the middle of the century generally as regards
+  weavers, though a weaving list agreed to by eleven masters was drawn
+  up as early as 1834. There are still many different district lists in
+  use, but the favourite spinning lists are those of Oldham and Bolton,
+  and the weaving list most generally employed is that known as the
+  "Uniform List," which is a compromise between the lists of Blackburn,
+  Preston and Burnley. Under the "Particulars Clause," first included in
+  a Factory Act in 1891 and given extended application in 1895, the
+  particulars required for the calculation of wages must be rendered by
+  the employer. As in spinning there used to be doubts about the
+  quantity of work done, the "indicator," which measures the length of
+  yarn spun, is coming into general use under pressure from the
+  operatives. We ought to observe here that the Oldham Spinning list
+  differs from all others in that its basis is an agreed normal
+  time-wage for different kinds of work on which piece-rates are
+  reckoned. But in effect understandings as to the level of normal
+  time-wages are the real basis everywhere. If the average wages in a
+  particular mill are lower than elsewhere for reasons not connected
+  with the quality of labour (e.g. because of antiquated machinery or
+  the low quality of the cotton used), the men demand "allowances" to
+  raise their wages to the normal level. Advances and reductions are
+  made on the lists, and under the Brooklands Agreement, entered into by
+  masters and men in the cotton spinning industry in 1893, advances and
+  reductions in future must not exceed 5% or succeed one another by a
+  shorter period than twelve months. The changes as a rule now are 5% or
+  2½%. In all branches of the cotton industry it is usual for a
+  conference to take place between the interested parties before a
+  strike breaks out, on the demand of one or other for an advance or
+  reduction.
+
+
+    Trade Unions.
+
+  Organization among the workers in the cotton industry is remarkably
+  thorough. Almost all spinners are members of trade unions, and though
+  the weavers are not so strongly united, the bulk of them are
+  organized. The piecers are admitted as members of piecers'
+  associations, connected with the spinners' associations and controlled
+  by them. Attempts to form independent piecers' unions have failed.
+  Weavers' assistants are included in the weavers' unions, which may be
+  joined in different classes, the benefits connected with which vary
+  with the amounts paid. One subscription only, however, is imposed by
+  each branch spinners' association, but in all branches it is not the
+  same, though every branch pays the same per member to the
+  amalgamation. All the trade unions of the chief workers in the cotton
+  industry are federated in the four societies: (1) the Amalgamated
+  Association of Operative Cotton Spinners (created in 1853 and reformed
+  in 1870), (2) the Northern Counties Amalgamated Association of Weavers
+  (founded 1884), (3) the Amalgamated Association of Card and
+  Blowing-room Operatives (established 1886), and (4) the Amalgamated
+  Association of Power-loom Overlookers (founded 1884). These were not,
+  however, the first attempts at federation, and the term "federation"
+  must not be taken in any strict sense. The distribution of power
+  between the central authority and the local Societies varies, but in
+  some cases, for instance among the spinners, the local societies
+  approximate as closely to the status of mere branches, as to that of
+  independent units federated for limited objects. We ought also to
+  mention the societies of warp-dressers and warpers, tape-sizers and
+  cloth-workers and warehousemen. There is no one federation of all
+  cotton-workers, but the United Textile Factory Workers has been
+  periodically called into being to press the matter of factory
+  legislation, and international textile congresses are occasionally
+  held by the operatives of different countries.
+
+  As to employers, four extensive associations include almost all the
+  organization among them, two concerned chiefly with spinning and two
+  with weaving. The former two are the Federation of Master Cotton
+  Spinners' Associations with local associations and including
+  21,000,000 spindles, and the Bolton Master Cotton Spinners'
+  Association with 7,000,000 spindles; the latter two are the North and
+  North-East Lancashire Spinners' and Manufacturers' Association,
+  covering about 3,000,000 spindles in addition to a large section of
+  the looms of Lancashire, and the United Cotton Manufacturers'
+  Association.[43]
+
+
+    Factory Acts.
+
+  Factory legislation began in the cotton industry, and in no industry
+  is it now more developed. The first acts were those of 1802 and 1819,
+  both of which applied only to cotton-mills, and the former of which
+  related only to parish apprentices. The first really important measure
+  was that of 1833, which curtailed the abuse of child-labour, enforced
+  some education and provided for factory inspectors, of whom there were
+  at first only four. The next act of importance, that of 1844, was
+  chiefly remarkable for its inclusion of all women among young persons.
+  The proportion of women, young persons and children engaged in the
+  cotton industry is so high, that most regulations affecting them, e.g.
+  those relating to the hours of labour, must practically be extended to
+  all cotton operatives. This act killed night work for "young persons,"
+  and children were not allowed to work at night. The year 1847 saw the
+  introduction of what was known as the Ten Hours Act--after the 1st of
+  May 1848 the hours of young persons (women included) and children were
+  not to exceed ten a day and fifty-eight a week. A further limitation
+  of hours to 56½ a week was secured in 1874, and this was cut down by
+  another hour (the concession of the 12 o'clock Saturday) in 1901.
+  "Young persons" now includes all who are not half-timers and have not
+  attained the age of eighteen, and all women. The rules as regards the
+  employment of children, which have steadily improved, are at present
+  as follows. No child under twelve may be employed. On attaining the
+  age of thirteen the child may become a full-timer if he has obtained
+  the prescribed educational certificate (i.e. fifth standard attainment
+  or three hundred attendances each year for five consecutive years).
+  Failing this he must wait till he is fourteen before he can be
+  employed full time. Half-timers may be employed either (a) on
+  alternate days, which must not be the same days in two successive
+  weeks, or (b) in morning and afternoon sets. In the case of
+  arrangement (a), the child when at work may be employed during the
+  same period as a young person or woman, which in Lancashire is almost
+  universally from 6 to 6 with two hours for meals.[44] In the case of
+  arrangement (b), which is the system generally adopted in Lancashire,
+  a half-timer in the morning set works from 6 to 12.30, with half an
+  hour for breakfast, and in the afternoon from 1.30 to 6 except on
+  Saturdays, when the hours are from 6 till 11.30 for a manufacturing
+  operative, or till 12 for other work, for instance, cleaning. The
+  child must not work two consecutive weeks in the same set (that is, in
+  mornings or afternoons), nor on two successive Saturdays, nor on
+  Saturday at all if during any other day of the same week the period of
+  employment has exceeded 5½ hours (i.e. a child in the morning set does
+  not work on the Saturday). Other important features of factory
+  legislation relate to the fencing of dangerous machinery and its
+  cleaning when in motion (the regulations being strictest in the case
+  of children and most lax in the case of male adults), and conditions
+  of health, including the amount of steaming allowed, which was first
+  regulated by the Cotton Cloth Factories Act of 1889.
+
+
+The Cotton Industry outside England.
+
+A brief survey will now be made of the cotton industry in parts of the
+globe other than the British Isles, and as a prelude the following broad
+estimates of the numbers of spindles and looms in the chief national
+seats of the cotton industry may be put forward.[45] The table is
+further supplemented by other figures[46] for the number of spindles at
+different times in the United Kingdom, the United States and the
+continent; and finally we may add the figures of cotton consumed.
+
+The different average fineness of counts spun in different places must
+be borne in mind when the consumption of each district at the same time
+is being considered, but the relations between the amounts consumed in
+the contrasted districts in the two periods would not be affected much
+by this difference.
+
+  +-----------------+--------------+----------+-------------+
+  |                 | Estimated    | Million  |  Thousand   |
+  |                 | Population   | Spinning | Power-Looms |
+  |                 | in 1902.     | Spindles | about 1906. |
+  |                 | In Millions. | in 1909. |             |
+  +-----------------+--------------+----------+-------------+
+  | United Kingdom. |   42         |   53.5   |     700     |
+  | United States   |   79         |   27.8   |     550     |
+  | Germany         |   58         |    9.8   |     215     |
+  | France          |   39         |    6.8   |     110     |
+  | Russia          |  139         |    7.8   |     150     |
+  | India           |  294(1901)   |    5.8   |      45     |
+  | Austria         |   26.7       |    4.2   |      80     |
+  | Spain           |   18.6(1900) |    1.9   |      69     |
+  | Italy           |   33         |    4.0   |     100     |
+  | Switzerland     |    3.4       |    1.5   |      30     |
+  | Japan           |   46         |    1.7   |      ..     |
+  | Belgium         |   ..         |    1.2   |      ..     |
+  +-----------------+--------------+----------+-------------+
+
+
+  _Cotton Spindles (including Doubling Spindles) in Millions._
+
+  +--------+---------+---------+--------+----------+--------+
+  |        | United  |         | United |  Other   |        |
+  |        | Kingdom.| Europe. | States.|Countries.| Total. |
+  +--------+---------+---------+--------+----------+--------+
+  |  1870  |  37.7   |    13   |   7.1  |    ..    |   57.8 |
+  |  1880  |  44.5   |    21   |  10.6  |     2    |   78.1 |
+  |  1890  |  44.5   |    26   |  14.2  |     4    |   88.7 |
+  |  1900  |  46.2   |    32   |  19    |     7    |  104.2 |
+  |  1903  |  47.9   |    33   |  22.2  |     7.5  |  110.6 |
+  +--------+---------+---------+--------+----------+--------+
+
+
+  _Average Annual Consumption of Cotton in the Period 1831-1835._
+
+                                 Millions of lb.
+  United Kingdom                      295
+  Continent of Europe                 143
+  United States                        79
+
+
+  _Average Annual Consumption of Cotton in the Period 1900-1905._
+
+                                 Millions of lb.
+  United Kingdom                     1634
+  Continent of Europe                2486
+  United States                      1995
+
+Roughly the consumption of cotton per spindle in the three areas to-day
+is, in lb., 35 for the United Kingdom, 70 for the continent, and 95 for
+the United States.
+
+Before the cotton industry in other countries is described it will be
+necessary to explain how it could have developed there on a large scale
+at all. Of course this growth is to be accounted for very largely by the
+natural protection of cost of transport aided by tariffs. But it would
+be a mistake for Englishmen to imagine that all foreign cotton mills are
+the product of a forcing culture, and that if the favourable conditions
+created by import duties were removed they would totally disappear. No
+doubt some of the growth is artificial, but much is natural and would
+have taken place under universal free trade conditions. Much of it,
+indeed, would have appeared in these circumstances even were cost of
+production a negligible quantity, difficult though it may be at first to
+reconcile this statement with certain ordinary conceptions of the
+operations of the law of increasing returns. Lancashire secured an
+immense lead at the beginning of the 19th century, and if the cost of
+production may be represented as varying inversely as the magnitude of
+the industry, every addition to her success increased her advantages.
+How could the small industry, with a high cost of production because it
+was small, compete with Lancashire? The answer is to be found in the
+peculiar conditions governing international trade and a closer analysis
+of "increasing returns." "Increasing returns" in any place are a
+function of two variables, (1) the magnitude of the world market under
+conditions of world commerce, and (2) the magnitude of the industry in
+the spot in question. The economies connected with the first variable,
+which in such an industry as the cotton industry are enormous, and
+govern ultimately the limits of business specialism, are shared by every
+national section of the industry whether it be great or small. If Haiti
+started a cotton factory she might import all her specialized
+machinery--the specialism involved in producing which is dependent upon
+the exportation of some of it--and restrict narrowly the work undertaken
+by her one factory. The cotton goods outside this range she would still
+import, and if her specialized product were in excess of local demand
+she could export some of it, if she were favourably placed in respect of
+cost of carriage, for cost of production in Haiti would not be
+impossibly high, since machinery and the general system of production
+would be quite up to date though labour might be highly inefficient. Of
+course, the country with a large industry enjoys high local economies,
+and it might be thought that these alone would be a menace to the
+stability of the small industry, because if the industry in the favoured
+locality increased these would increase also and the small industry
+would be undersold. The answer to this difficulty is that foreign trade
+depends upon ratios between ratios, that is, upon the ratios between the
+costs of production of all the products of each country in relation to
+similar ratios for other countries. Relatively, therefore, diminishing
+returns operate in every country. In every country there must come a
+time, the utility of commodities being taken into account, when a unit
+of labour and capital provides less utility when applied to the creation
+of cotton goods, say, than when applied to producing something else for
+home consumption or for export in exchange for commodities wanted at
+home. It becomes apparent, therefore, that cotton industries of widely
+varying sizes dispersed throughout the world can settle into relations
+of perfectly stable equilibrium, as that term is understood by the
+economist. Slow changes, of course, in their relative volumes might be
+looked for with changes in a mutable world, but very sudden collapses
+would be impossible unless the general course of human affairs were
+revolutionized.
+
+_The United States._--The machine-cotton industry was carried to North
+America almost as soon as it evolved in England. Models of Arkwright's
+machines were smuggled across the Atlantic in 1786--Arkwright's first
+mill had not been started in England until 1769--and these with a jenny
+and stock-card were publicly exhibited. From these models a great mass
+of machinery was soon constructed. The first mill was erected in 1788
+(that of the Beverly Association), the second appeared in 1790, the
+third five years later, and in 1798 Samuel Slater started with some of
+his wife's relatives the first mill in which the principle of the
+water-frame was carried throughout. It is said that it was not until
+1814 that power-loom manufacturing was commenced, but in England success
+with the power-loom was long delayed. As early as 1831, however, there
+were in the United States--mainly in the New England states--800
+factories, a million and a quarter spindles, 33,500 looms and 62,200
+operatives. At this time the annual consumption of cotton was about
+77,000,000 lb. as compared with some 300,000,000 lb. in England at the
+same date, and 2,000,000,000 approximately in the United States at the
+present time.[47] Writing in 1840, James Montgomery said that, in
+respect of cost of production, the American industry was 19% behind that
+of England apart from the cost of raw material, which was then a good
+deal less to the Americans. In 1878, when there was much interest in the
+question of British efficiency in the cotton industry because the
+passage of the Factory Act of 1874 had cut down the working hours, the
+_Economist_ contrasted the result of twenty-five years' growth in
+England and America:--
+
+  "In 1853 the average English production per weaver of 8¼ lb. shirting
+  was 825 yds. per week of sixty hours. In 1878 the working hours had
+  fallen to fifty-seven, and the production had risen to 975 yds. An
+  increased production of 23% is thus due to improvement in the
+  processes of manufacture. In 1865 there were 24,151 persons employed
+  in Massachusetts in the production of cotton goods, and they produced
+  175,000,000 yds. In 1875 the operatives numbered 60,176, and their
+  product was 874,000,000 yds. The operatives had increased 150% and
+  their products had increased 500%. The increase of production due to
+  improved methods was thus in England 23%, and in Massachusetts 100%. I
+  do not, of course, suppose that the American manufacturer is in
+  advance of his English rival to the extent of this difference, for I
+  presume that he started upon the career of improvement from a lower
+  platform. But a progress so greatly more rapid than ours will be
+  admitted to cast much light on the change which has occurred in our
+  relative positions."
+
+The contrast no doubt was not perfect, as indeed it could not be in
+view of the varieties of product and their changes, but it proves at any
+rate that Americans were making vast strides in industrial efficiency
+even before the period when American methods and American enterprise
+were monopolizing in a wonderful degree the attention of the business
+world.[48] About a dozen years later the low real cost of production of
+simple fabrics in the United States was universally admitted, and also
+that American manufacturers were making more use of machinery than their
+European rivals. In a typical weaving shed in Massachusetts, for
+instance, of which particulars were published, twenty women "tended" as
+many as eight looms apiece, forty-three managed seven, two hundred and
+thirty-two managed six, and only eleven had five only.[49] Since then,
+moreover, advance has been rapid, and the sudden development of the
+South has astonished the business community of other centres of the
+cotton industry.
+
+Before the lines of development in America are specifically dealt with,
+and particularly the industrial phenomena in the South, a few words must
+be said of the general extension of the industry. The consumption of
+cotton in the United States in million lb. was about 75 in 1830, 390 in
+1860, 1100 in 1890 and nearly 2000 on an average of the five crop years
+from 1900-1901 to 1904-1905: active spindles advanced from 1,250,000 in
+1830 to 10,653,000 in 1880 and about 21,250,000 in 1905. Looms which
+numbered 33,500 in 1830 had reached 226,000 in 1880 and nearly 550,000
+in 1905. At the same time population, it must be remembered, was growing
+at a phenomenal rate: from 31.4 millions in 1860 it had passed to 38.6,
+50.2, 62.6 and 76.3 at the succeeding decennial censuses, the decennial
+rates of increase being in order 22.5, 30, 25 and 20.5 as compared with
+8.5, 10.5, 8 and 9 as shown by the corresponding censuses in the United
+Kingdom. Protection was of course contributory to the growth of the
+American cotton industry. It may be remarked incidentally that the New
+World, including the West Indies and the Chinese empire, take the bulk
+of American exports, which for so large an industry are inconsiderable.
+The imports have always been well in excess of the exports. The
+encouragement of home industries by tariffs was definitely aimed at
+after the war with England during the Napoleonic struggles, and although
+a sensible reduction of duties was experienced after 1845 the reaction
+to protection that followed the Civil War was never significantly
+departed from except by the single act of 1883. In 1790 the duties on
+cotton goods were 7½% _ad valorem_, and they rose gradually until they
+reached 25% in 1816. Slight reductions some seventeen years later were
+followed in the early 'forties by a tariff of 30%. Diminutions were
+succeeded by oscillations, though at no point was a low level touched.
+Severe charges were imposed in 1890, and after some relaxation in 1894
+the policy of restrictiveness was restored in 1897. According to the
+calculations made by the English Board of Trade in 1903[50] no fabrics
+were admitted at a charge equivalent to less than 68% _ad valorem_, and
+no yarns were admitted at a charge lower than 45% _ad valorem_. Cotton
+thread is subjected to a rate equivalent to 375%[51]
+
+The character of the growth of the cotton industry in the United States,
+as revealed by recent census returns, is peculiarly interesting:--
+
+  +------------------------+--------------------------------------+-----------------------------+
+  |                        |               Thousands              |     Percentage Increase     |
+  |                        +--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
+  |                        |  1880. |  1890.  | 1900.   |  1905.  |1880-1890|1890-1900|1900-1905|
+  +------------------------+--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
+  | Active Spindles        |  10,653|   14,188|   19,008|   23,156|  33.8   |  34     |  21.8   |
+  | Looms                  |     226|      325|      451|      541|  43.90  |  38.7   |  20     |
+  | lb. cotton consumed    | 750,344|1,117,946|1,814,003|1,875,075|  48.99  |  62.3   |   3.3   |
+  | Wages                  | $42,041|  $66,025|  $85,126|  $94,378|  57     |  28.9   |  10.9   |
+  | Capital                |$208,280| $354,021| $460,843| $605,100|  70     |  30.2   |  31.3   |
+  | Employees not officers |        |         |         |         |         |         |         |
+  |   and clerks           |   174.7|    218.9|    297.9|    310.5|  25.3   |  36.1   |   4.2   |
+  +------------------------+--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
+
+Cotton small wares are included in the totals for 1880 and 1890, but
+excluded from those for 1900 and 1905. We must observe further that
+"capital" is a vague term. Recent events in the United States afford a
+valuable empirical indication of the effect that improved machinery
+actually has upon wages. The new automatic looms caused a saving of
+labour per unit of product which recalled the complete subversion at the
+industrial revolution of the proportions in which the several factors in
+production were organized. Displacement of labour and falling wages
+might not unreasonably have been looked for temporarily, but wages stuck
+at their old level or rose. The rise was caused by numerous converging
+forces which brought their united weight to bear. First, prices so fell
+as the result of the new machinery that the increased volume of
+commodities which the market could absorb more than counterbalanced, it
+would seem, the labour-saving of the new machinery, the cotton industry
+being taken as a whole. It must be remembered that to increase the
+output from the subsidiary processes where labour had not been saved
+more hands had to be drafted in. Thus, a contraction of the body of
+weavers was accompanied by an expansion of the body of cotton
+operatives. Again weavers' wages were naturally raised in a special
+degree because automatic machinery called for quick, trustworthy and
+intelligent hands, endowed with versatility, especially in the days when
+the machinery was still in the semi-experimental stage. The American
+employer tries to save in labour but not to save in wages, if a
+generalization may be ventured. The good workman gets high pay, but he
+is kept at tasks requiring his powers and is not suffered to waste his
+time doing the work of unskilled and boy labour. There is, certainly, in
+the American labour problem no serious grievance on the question of
+wages. If there is any abuse it consists in excessively fierce work. Mr.
+T. M. Young, who visited the American cotton districts in 1904 with an
+informal commission of Lancashire spinners and manufacturers, did not
+think that the cause of the high wages--allowance being made for the
+purchasing power of money, they are above those of England, though
+cotton operatives in England are well paid relatively--was the
+superiority of the American cotton worker; neither did the
+representatives of the English cotton operatives who accompanied the
+Moseley Commission. As often as not "the cotton operative in the United
+States is a French Canadian, a German, an Italian, a Hungarian, an
+Albanian, a Portuguese, a Russian, a Greek, or an Armenian." It is the
+extensive "exploitation" of machinery seemingly, together with the speed
+of work, which keep wages high, combined with the horizontal and
+vertical mobility of American labour, which prevents it from
+accumulating in pools, and causes streams of the best hands to be
+flowing continuously to other callings and places, and no insignificant
+proportion to climb the social ladder. The remainder naturally profit,
+for a local or trade congestion of labour is avoided, and the voluminous
+recruiting of enterprise by the intensified competition among employers
+keeps the demand for labour high.
+
+One noticeable point in the table quoted above is that until recently
+cotton consumed increased much faster than the number of spindles. This
+might be explained in a variety of ways. Average counts remaining
+constant, the average speed of the spindle might have risen; or the
+latter remaining constant, counts might have been getting finer. Speeds
+have certainly gone up a good deal of late on some counts. And it is
+quite likely, too, that concentration on the manufacture of coarse goods
+for export, with stout warps to keep down the breakages and raise the
+output per loom, may be reckoned as one cause.
+
+Despite the recent sensational growth in the South, the New England
+States still remain the most prominent seat of the American cotton
+industry. They contained in 1905 about 14 million spindles as compared
+with 7.7 millions in the South and West, and their relative possession
+of looms approaches, though it does not quite reach, the same
+proportion. The leading States in the South in order of importance are
+South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama, and in the North,
+first Massachusetts with an enormous lead, then, in order, Rhode Island,
+New Hampshire, Connecticut, Maine, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey.
+The bulk of the cotton industry in the North is contained within a small
+area. A circle around Providence, Rhode Island, of 30 m. radius
+includes, according to the twelfth census, nearly 7¼ million
+spindles,--there were only 58,500 spindles in this area in 1809. Of the
+chief towns Fall River stood first in 1900 in value output, and was
+followed in order by Philadelphia, New Bedford, Lowell, Manchester and
+Pawtucket. The climate of Fall River is very similar to that of English
+spinning districts. Its population in 1900 was 105,000, and of these
+only 14,600 were of American parentage. Of the remainder, 16,700 were
+English, 17,800 Irish, 29,600 French Canadians and about 5000
+Portuguese. Among the rest of foreign parentage, Armenians, Russians and
+Italians are numerous. But Massachusetts is famous for the number of
+immigrants it attracts. It is almost incredible, but nevertheless a fact
+according to a recent statistical report, that in 1903 as many as 91% of
+the cotton operatives of the State were of foreign descent--chiefly
+French Canadian and Irish. In 1902 there were nearly 90 mills at Fall
+River with 3,000,000 spindles and 16,000 looms. The spindles amount to
+about one-third of all in Massachusetts, but Fall River's share of the
+looms of the State is not large. The spindles exceed in number those
+possessed by any State except of course the one in which it is placed.
+In comparison with a great spinning town in England, nevertheless, Fall
+River does not appeal strongly to the English imagination. It has little
+over a quarter of the spindles of Oldham, or three-fifths of those of
+Bolton,--among English towns it would stand third, i.e. between Bolton
+and Manchester and Salford, which, in spite of the movement of spinning
+to the hills, still holds in England a leading place. The whole of
+Massachusetts, it is of interest to observe, has fewer spindles than
+Oldham, and only about half those of Oldham and Bolton together.
+Originally it was the river which attracted the mills to Fall River, and
+as the water-power available was almost inexhaustible, it was possible
+for the mills to congregate together and for a town to grow up. In
+England, when much of the industry was dependent for power upon water,
+decentralization was entailed, for the thin streams of Lancashire could
+not support more than two or three mills at most in proximity. Hence in
+England, after Watt's steam-engine had succeeded, the economies of
+centralization led eventually to the desertion of the mills on the
+water-courses. But at Fall River the perfecting of the application of
+steam-power merely involved its use to supplement the water-power on the
+old site. The presence of water-power explains half the success of New
+England. In the six States 35% of all the power used is derived from
+water, and in the cotton-manufacturing of these States water provides
+32.6% of the power. For industrial purposes generally the river most
+exploited is the Merrimac, upon which stand the leading cotton towns of
+Lowell, Lawrence and Manchester. Hitherto little has been done in the
+way of using water to generate electric power.[52]
+
+The two most striking features of the American industry to-day are the
+introduction of the automatic looms, already briefly referred to, and
+the development of the South. The Northrop Loom Company has spent a
+fortune in pushing its loom on to the market. It has not hesitated to
+share risks, and it has run one "advertisement" mill at least, namely
+that at Burlington, Vermont, with 55,000 spindles and nearly 1300 looms.
+In this mill the labour-saving is shown by the following figures, the
+looms being of two sizes, 32 in. and 44 in. Of the former, 3 weavers run
+18 each, 39 tend 16 each, only a few odd weavers tend less than 16, and
+learners even are at work on 8 to 11 each; on the latter, of 29 weavers
+17 mind 16 looms each and 12 mind 12 (on stripped fabrics).[53] Of
+course a high level of efficiency would be expected in this show mill.
+That American employers have readily been converted to a belief in the
+economy of the new machinery we are not astonished to learn in view of
+the American temperament, the intensity of competition among business
+leaders, and the prevailing spirit of adventure. Thousands of workable
+old looms have been scrapped, and probably at the present time there are
+100,000 automatic looms running in the United States. No other country
+can point to a rate of substitution which approaches that in the United
+States. The causes, apart from the temperamental and social to which
+reference has already been made, are probably (1) that there is
+disagreement as to the present economy of automatic looms on many
+fabrics,[54] (2) that Americans aim at frequency of renewal of plant,
+and avoid making their machinery so durable as to prove ultimately,
+perhaps, a handicapping inheritance, and (3) that a greater bulk of
+American work is appropriate for the new looms than of English or
+continental work. But automatic machinery is being used increasingly in
+Lancashire.[55] And the operatives ultimately benefit. It is the
+half-developed machine, to which labour must actually be linked as an
+essential part, which is responsible for monotonous work and creates the
+dislike of mechanical aids.
+
+Now we turn to the recent development of the Southern States. Never has
+an industry grown faster than that of the two Carolinas, Georgia and
+Alabama. Some of the earliest experiments with the machine industry were
+conducted in South Carolina, but from that time till the end of the 19th
+century nobody imagined the possibility of a great Southern expansion.
+In 1880 the South contained less than half a million spindles--i.e.
+about as many as Hyde, Middleton or Chorley, and one-twenty-third of the
+numbers in Oldham. Twenty years later they had increased twelvefold and
+the Southern States, in respect of the number of spindles, had taken
+precedence of Bolton. To-day probably about eight and a half millions
+might be counted. In addition there are some two hundred thousand looms,
+or nearly as many as in the three leading cotton-weaving towns of
+England--Burnley, Blackburn and Preston. The rapid oncoming of the South
+may also be traced by its consumption of cotton--which as an index,
+however, is not perfect. This on an annual average was, in thousand
+bales, 164, 269, 453, 717 and 1233 in each of the periods 1876-1880,
+1881-1885, 1886-1889, 1891-1895 and 1895-1900 successively. The
+consumption since then, as compared with that of the Northern States,
+Great Britain and the European continent, has been as follows. It must
+be remembered that the consumption per spindle varies greatly from place
+to place.
+
+  _Consumption of Cotton in Thousand Bales of about 500 lb. each._
+
+  +-----------+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+
+  |           | Southern | Northern | Total   |  Great   |         |
+  |           |  States. |  States. | United  | Britain. | Europe. |
+  |           |          |          | States. |          |         |
+  +-----------+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+
+  | 1900-1901 |   1583   |   1963   |  3546   |   3269   |  4576   |
+  | 1901-1902 |   2017   |   2066   |  4083   |   3253   |  4836   |
+  | 1902-1903 |   1958   |   1866   |  3824   |   3185   |  5148   |
+  | 1903-1904 |   1889   |   2046   |  3935   |   3017   |  5148   |
+  | 1904-1905 |   2270   |   2292   |  4562   |   3620   |  5148   |
+  +-----------+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+
+
+The densest distribution of mills in the South is along the line of the
+Southern railroad, in the district known as the Piedmont. Of this group
+Charlotte in North Carolina is the natural centre: roughly, half the
+spindles and half the looms in the Southern States would be included
+within a circle around Charlotte of a radius of about 100 m. Of the
+remainder a large proportion is scattered over a wide area.
+
+Much interest has been excited by this newly created Lancashire of a new
+type, and much speculation as to the causes that account for it has been
+elicited. An informal commission of Lancashire spinners and
+manufacturers crossed the Atlantic to make inquiries in 1902 and
+investigations have been undertaken by other persons[56], and much has
+been written on the subject. A general explanation can now be framed
+without much difficulty, as in all probability most of the relevant
+facts have been brought to light. First and foremost the general
+development of the cotton industry in the United States must be
+emphasized. The industry was unquestionably foredoomed to expansion at
+this time, and the only question was where the expansion should take
+place. It was plain that the growth might be so great as to present the
+appearance of a new industry created with new labour rather than an
+extension of an old industry. It was not altogether surprising,
+therefore, that the exploitation of a new field of labour was thought
+of. The labour market of the North was comparatively exhausted; in less
+developed parts of the country larger supplies of intrinsically good
+labour might be looked for at lower wages. Skill was not a matter of
+much moment, because in the North it would have been necessary to
+incorporate much labour without previous experience in the industry, the
+work was intended to be of the rough kind upon which manual skill is
+least important, and it was intended to repose reliance for economy upon
+machinery in the main. The choice of new fields meant at the outset the
+sacrifice of some of the economies of localization, but so large an
+expansion was looked for that projectors did not despair of creating
+fresh industrial localization of sufficient magnitude to produce such
+economies as are derived from it, which, it must be observed, are
+inconsiderable in America, and have declined relatively with falling
+cost of transport and the adoption, as regards machinery, of the
+principle of interchangeable parts. And at any rate a new local industry
+would have a slight advantage in supplying markets in proximity to it.
+
+These were the main general considerations, and the scale was turned in
+favour of the new locality (a) by the advantage of nearer supplies of
+cotton, and (b) by the known presence of much half-occupied white labour
+in the vicinity of otherwise suitable sites close to the cotton-fields.
+It must be borne in mind that the whole calculation had not to be reared
+merely upon an intangible theoretical basis. Cotton mills already
+existed in the South, and comparisons of costs of production, as things
+were then, afforded some groundwork for judgment.
+
+As regards the first of the two special advantages mentioned above, the
+saving in the cost of carriage of the raw material is not commonly held
+to be high. Transport to the cotton ports is so well organized and
+sea-carriage is so cheap that Lancashire's distance from the source of
+her raw material is not a very appreciable handicap. A good deal of the
+cotton that must be used in some of the Southern mills cannot be
+supplied locally because it is not grown in the neighbourhood, and the
+requirements of these mills are met by transport arrangements which at
+present cost a sum not altogether out of relation to similar costs in
+the New England States and Lancashire. The percentages of freight
+charges on raw material in 1900 were $2.18 in Georgia, $1.59 in North
+Carolina, $1.17 in South Carolina, and the amazingly low figure of $1.20
+in Massachusetts, but of course some part of the explanation is the
+somewhat higher quality of cotton on an average that is worked up in
+Massachusetts. For some years, however, the saving in labour has been a
+most important economy. Large supplies of half-occupied white labour
+existed in the Southern States among the families of small farmers who
+flocked South after the Civil War, and in the districts of the decayed
+hand industry in the mountains of Kentucky and North Carolina. For small
+money wages much of this labour could be attracted to the mills. Negroes
+do not work in the mills; the reason is said to be partly their own
+disinclination and partly that they are not very efficient at factory
+work. As outside labourers, however, they have afforded important aid at
+a very trifling cost, but the expense of outside labour to a mill is
+never an item of much weight. The halcyon days to employers, when keen
+workers could be had for low wages, are now said to be past. The demand
+for labour was considerable, and as time went on additional supplies
+could be enticed only with the offer of better pay. In 1904 it was
+reported that some mills were unable to get fully to work for want of
+hands even at the improved rates. Again the Southern operatives have
+been visited by emissaries from the operatives of the New England
+States, which explains partly the present aspect of the wages question.
+Mr Pidgin, in his official report to the Massachusetts Bureau of Labour
+Statistics, questions whether a saving in wages can be expected to
+continue, and points out that though wages have been low the average
+efficiency of the operatives has not been high. Some, indeed, were sent
+to gain experience in Northern mills in the hopes that on their return
+they would spread the tradition of working at high pressure. Mr Pidgin
+is at some pains to measure labour efficiency in the South and North as
+far as it is possible to do so, but no simple sets of figures will prove
+very much. The value of the product per operative in 1900 was $1200 in
+Massachusetts, $1010 in Georgia, $937 in North Carolina and $984 in
+South Carolina, but the value of the product per operative depends as
+much upon the fixed capital charge per operative as upon the latter's
+efficiency. And the amount of machinery used per head is higher in the
+South than in the North. The percentage of operatives to machinery in
+Massachusetts being expressed as 100, that of Georgia was 53, that of
+North Carolina 43 and that of South Carolina 55 in 1900. These figures
+must be borne in mind when the average numbers employed in a mill in
+different States are being considered: in 1900 the averages were 565 for
+Massachusetts, 273 for Georgia, 171 for North Carolina and 378 for South
+Carolina. Measured by quantity of machinery the sizes of mills would
+stand in quite different relations. Hours of work in the South are bound
+to fall and the abuse of child labour, which had unquestionably crept
+in, may be expected to discontinue entirely. The factory conditions of
+children are better now than they were, but in some places they are
+still very bad. In Georgia no children under twelve are employed, but
+infants without fathers may begin work at ten years of age, and
+according to Mr Pidgin's report, "it certainly seemed as though the
+intention was honoured more in the breach than in the observance, or
+that there must be many widows in the neighbourhood of the cotton
+mills." In North and South Carolina the employment of children under
+twelve is illegal, but in these States also conditions are recognized
+under which it is possible to employ them earlier. According to figures
+relating to 1900 the dependence on child labour in the Southern States
+is very striking. The proportions engaged at different ages in the three
+chief cotton-manufacturing Southern States and Massachusetts are as
+follows:
+
+  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  |                  |   Men,    |  Women,   | Children  |
+  |                  | 16 Years  | 16 Years  | under 16. |
+  |                  | and over. | and over. |           |
+  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+  | Massachusetts    |   48.98   |   44.59   |    6.43   |
+  | Georgia          |   39.98   |   35.52   |   24.50   |
+  | North Carolina   |   42.22   |   34.23   |   23.55   |
+  | South Carolina   |   44.43   |   28.72   |   26.85   |
+  +------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+It might be said that children are more useful when the work is rough,
+but this argument can hardly be regarded as accounting altogether for
+the great discrepancy as between Massachusetts and the South. The work
+is much rougher in the South: in 1900 the counts spun respectively in
+Massachusetts, Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina were 25.10,
+14.37, 18.83, and 19.04, and on the showing of the American census of
+1900 spinning was getting finer over the last decade of the 19th
+century.
+
+As contributory to the influences already recorded as accounting for
+Southern success it has been hinted that in the North employers have
+been less ready to welcome the new machinery, though in comparison with
+European rivals they would seem at first to have acted rashly. However
+this may be, the South enjoyed the important advantage that its industry
+began just after a great technical advance had been made. When Northern
+mill-owners were anxiously deliberating about the destruction of good
+machinery merely because it was antiquated in design, the fortunate
+Southern mill-proprietor was getting to work with appliances up to date
+in every particular. It will be easier to balance comparative advantages
+as between North and South when undertakers in the newer district are
+confronted by problems concerning replacements and alterations. The
+rapidity of Southern growth need not astonish those who have watched the
+operations by which new mills are frequently set up in Lancashire and
+remember that the American business man is more daring than his British
+cousin. Company promotion in the great financial centres, payment for
+machinery and other plant in shares, or partially in shares, a general
+diffusion of risks and pledging of credit, would explain even more rapid
+growth of industries of even greater magnitude.
+
+
+  Character of the American Industry.
+
+Broad generalizations are difficult to frame, hard to establish and
+liable to be misleading; some generalizations relating to the features
+of the American cotton industry taken as a whole the author is tempted
+to venture nevertheless. The characteristics of labour have already been
+incidentally commented upon. We have also noticed that the bulk of the
+work done is of a rough and simple character. In spite of American
+nationalism and the prevalence of protective sentiments it is said that
+there is still a prejudice in the United States against home-made fine
+cotton goods.[57] "The product of the American system is a cloth which
+is, on the whole, distinctly inferior in appearance, 'feel' and finish
+to that produced by the Lancashire system. To equal a Lancashire cloth
+in these respects an American cloth must not only be made of better
+cotton, but must contain more of it--perhaps 5% more. To this rule of
+inferiority there are, it is needless to say, exceptions, notably some
+of the American drills made for the China market. But the American home
+market, which absorbs nearly the whole of the product of American looms,
+is less exacting in these matters than the markets in which Lancashire
+cloths are sold."[58] It follows that the average counts spun in the
+United States are lower than in England, though they have been rising
+somewhat. Another feature of American spinning as compared with English
+is the high proportion of ring-frames to mules. In New England between
+1890 and 1900 mule-spindles advanced by 100,000 and ring-spindles by
+nearly 2,000,000: in the South mule-spindles increased only from 108,500
+to 180,500, while to the ring-frames 2,700,000 were added. To the
+general rule Rhode Island is the sole exception; here mule-spindles have
+increased and ring-spindles decreased; but in Rhode Island much of the
+fine spinning--for instance that for hosiery--is congregated.[59] One
+explanation of the preponderance of ring-spinning is to be found in the
+character of American fabrics. Again most of the operatives are not of a
+kind likely to acquire great excellence at mule-spinning. To the
+Americans we largely owe the ring-frame, because their encouragement
+helped it through the difficult period when its defects were serious,
+though it appears to have been discovered independently in both
+countries.
+
+American organization display intense specialism, but of a type
+different from that in England, where businesses are specialized by
+processes; in America they are specialized by products but hardly at all
+by processes. Independent spinning, independent manufacturing,
+independent bleaching, dyeing and finishing are the significant features
+of English industry to the bird's-eye view; in the United States the
+typical firm will spin, make up its own yarn, and perhaps complete its
+fabrics for the market; but the mills, it must be remembered, are
+intensely specialized as to the range of their product, so that the
+statement that American mills are less specialized than English mills
+must be received with caution. For some reasons we should expect to
+find the American method applied even in England for fabrics of the
+highest qualities, because in their case the adaptation of the yarn to
+the fabric, and finishing to the fabric, are of great importance, and
+actually where the American plan is followed in England the explanation
+is frequently the speciality of the product which is associated with the
+particular firm producing it. When a firm manufactures a speciality of
+this kind it cannot always trust bought yarn, or the finishing applied
+to fabrics in the ton. But for other reasons specialized processes might
+be looked for where qualities were highest, as by specialism alone can
+the greatest excellence be attained. The final selection of method
+depends upon the relative importance for high qualities in the finished
+product of the connectedness of processes and the perfection of parts;
+and to these considerations must be added cost of transport between the
+works devoted to distinct processes, and the development of the
+commercial functions by which specialized process businesses are kept
+functioning as a whole. Probably it is the high development of British
+industry on the commercial side which chiefly explains the arrangements
+found in England. Attention should also be directed to the huge
+magnitude of American businesses. This is partly a consequence of
+American ambition in business, and partly a consequence of the
+undeveloped commercial ligaments by which producing businesses are
+brought into union. American producers in both North and South are too
+widely scattered for one town, like Manchester in the English cotton
+district, to be visited frequently by them for the purpose of making
+purchases and effecting sales. Even if the Americans did possess a
+convenient commercial centre, the high cost of transport between works
+distributed over a very wide area would prevent much specialism of
+businesses by processes from appearing. Writing capital letters for
+industrial processes and small letters and Greek letters for commercial
+functions, the possible arrangements in the cotton industry may be
+represented broadly as follows, brackets indicating the scope of
+businesses:[60]
+
+    I. (a, A, B, C, d).
+   II. (a)(A, B, C)(d).
+  III. (aA[alpha])(bB[beta])(cC[gamma]).
+   IV. (a)(A)([alpha], b)(B)([beta], c)(C)([gamma]).
+
+The American industry approximates to the first type, while the English
+approximates rather to the last. Differences in respect of specialism by
+range of product are not shown in the formulae.
+
+  _Other Parts of America._--Little need be said of the cotton industry
+  in other parts of the New World. In Canada in 1909 there were,
+  approximately, 855,000 Spindles, and in Mexico in 1906, where the
+  first factory was established in 1834, 450,000 Spindles. In Brazil
+  also there is an appreciable number of spindles, distributed (in 1895)
+  among 134 factories, which are located chiefly in Rio de Janeiro and
+  Minas Geraes, and are run for the most part by turbines and
+  water-wheels.
+
+  _Germany._--In Germany the cotton industry is by no means so intensely
+  localized as in England, but three large districts may be
+  distinguished:--
+
+  1. The north-west district, which consists of the Rhine Province and
+  Westphalia and contained 1¾ million spindles in 1901.
+
+  2. The country north of the mountain ranges of northern Bohemia
+  comprises the middle district, which contained 2½ million spindles in
+  1901. In Saxony the industry has been carried on for four centuries.
+
+  3. Alsace, Baden, Württemberg and Bavarian Swabia make up the
+  south-west district, to which some 3½ million spindles were assigned.
+  It is in close proximity to the cotton districts of east France,
+  Switzerland and Vorarlberg.
+
+  According to Oppel (1902) the German spinning industry is chiefly
+  localized in--
+
+    Prussia with 2020 thousand spindles
+    Saxony    "  1870     "       "
+    Alsace    "  1600     "       "
+    Bavaria   "  1390     "       "
+
+  The spindles of Württemberg, which stands next, do not much exceed
+  half a million. Only sixteen places in Germany (shown in tabular form
+  on p. 169) contained as many as 100,000 spindles in 1901.
+
+    +------------------+-------------+---------------+-------------+
+    |                  | Spindles in |               | Spindles in |
+    |                  |  Thousands. |               |  Thousands. |
+    +------------------+-------------+---------------+-------------+
+    | Mülhausen        |     471     | Chemnitz      |     195     |
+    | Augsburg         |     373     | Gebweiler     |     187     |
+    | Gronau           |     274     | Leipzig       |     182     |
+    | Werdau           |     249     | Crimmitzschau |     168     |
+    | Rheydt           |     248     | Logelbach     |     141     |
+    | München-Gladbach |     216     | Bocholt       |     128     |
+    | Rheine           |     198     | Bamberg       |     125     |
+    | Hof              |     196     | Bayreuth      |     100     |
+    +------------------+-------------+---------------+-------------+
+
+  The history of the hand industry in Germany runs back some centuries.
+  At the time when it flourished in the Netherlands we may be sure that
+  it was prosecuted to some extent farther north and east. The start
+  with the machine industry was not long delayed after its economies
+  had been learnt in England. It was fostered by protection against the
+  cheap products of Lancashire, and in the course of time stimulated by
+  every step taken towards the economic unity of the German States which
+  broke down local barriers and therefore enlarged the German market.
+  Duties upon cotton goods, however, were not immoderately high until
+  the measure of 1879, the policy of which was carried to a further
+  stage in 1885. Slight reactions were brought about in 1888 and 1891,
+  largely by the complaints, not only of the consumers of finished
+  goods, but also of manufacturers whose costs of production were kept
+  up by the high prices of home-spun yarns and the tax on imported
+  substitutes. According to the investigations made by the Board of
+  Trade, the general ad valorem impact of German duties on British goods
+  stood somewhat as follows in 1902:--
+
+  _Statement showing the Average Incidence_ (ad valorem) _of the Import
+  Duties levied by Germany on British Cotton Goods._
+
+    +-------------------------+-----------------+--------------+--------------+
+    |                         |Average Value of |              | Approximate  |
+    |                         |Exports from the | Rate of Duty |  Equivalent  |
+    |                         |United Kingdom to|  estimated   | Rate of Duty |
+    |                         | all Countries   | Equivalent.  | _ad valorem_.|
+    |                         |    in 1902.     |              |              |
+    +-------------------------+-----------------+--------------+--------------+
+    |Cotton manufactures--    |                 |              |   Per Cent.  |
+    |  Piece goods, unbleached|  2.01d. per yd. |0.87d. per yd.|      43      |
+    |    "     "    bleached  |  2.46d.    "    |1.09d.    "   |      44      |
+    |    "     "    printed   |  2.68d.    "    |1.31d.    "   |      49      |
+    |    "     "    dyed, &c. |  3.46d.    "    |1.31d.    "   |      38      |
+    |Cotton thread for sewing | 26.89d. per lb. |3.81d. per lb.|      15      |
+    |Cotton yarn--            |                 |              |              |
+    |  Grey                   | 10.49d.    "    |0.98d.    "   |       9      |
+    |  Bleached or dyed       | 11.23d.    "    |1.63d.    "   |      15      |
+    +-------------------------+-----------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+  The duties are not prohibitive--they are much less than those of the
+  United States at the same time--but they are heavy on the classes of
+  goods which come into competition with home-made goods. The general
+  principle of the tariff is to treat easiest commodities which are made
+  with least success at home, or are in the highest degree raw material
+  for a home manufacture. Therefore yarns are not taxed very heavily,
+  and of these the finest counts escape with slight discouragement.
+
+  In the cotton industry, as well as in numerous other industries of
+  Germany, almost feverish activity was shown after the Franco-German
+  War. Previously great advance had been made, but it was not until the
+  last quarter of the 19th century that Germany forced herself into the
+  first rank. As measured by the annual consumption of cotton the German
+  industry increased as follows:--
+
+    _Metric Tons of Cotton per Annum._
+
+                         (In Thousands.)
+    1836-1840                    9
+    1856-1860                   46
+    1876-1880                  124
+    1886-1890                  201
+    1899-1903                  324
+
+  It must be remembered that the spindles and looms of Alsace and
+  Lorraine were reckoned as German after the war: they amounted in 1895
+  to one and a half million spindles and nearly forty thousand looms.
+
+  In the 'seventies there was no dispute as to England's substantial
+  lead in respect of efficiency. Alexander Redgrave, the chief factory
+  inspector, made inquiries on the continent both in 1873, when
+  Lancashire was anxious as to the comparative cost of production abroad
+  because of the short-time bill then before parliament, and previously,
+  and reported most unfavourably upon the state of the industry in
+  Germany. Hours were long, the skill of the hands was inferior, speeds
+  were low and time was wasted. In several important respects his views
+  were corroborated by M. Taine in his _Notes on England_, and by the
+  evidence adduced before the German commission upon the cotton and
+  linen industries in 1878. A marked contrast is noticeable between the
+  sketches drawn of this period and the careful picture presented by
+  Professor Schulze-Gaevernitz of the early "'nineties," but even in the
+  latter the advantage of England is represented as substantial in every
+  essential respect. The gap which existed has narrowed, but it is
+  still unmistakable. To give one example, according to Dr Huber's
+  figures there were in Saxony at the end of the 19th century 106
+  spindles to an operative and about as many weavers as looms, whereas
+  in England there were about twice as many spindles to an operative and
+  twice as many looms as persons engaged in weaving sheds.[61] As
+  regards manufacturing, the character of the product may partly explain
+  the difference, but it will not entirely. The reader need hardly be
+  warned that the comparison drawn is exceedingly rough. German cotton
+  operatives taken all round are certainly less efficient than English
+  labour of the same kind. The reason is partly that the proportion of
+  the German workpeople who have been for long specialized to the
+  industry, and look forward to continuing in it all their lives, is not
+  high. Complaint is constantly made of the number of vacancies created
+  in the mills each year by operatives leaving, and of the impossibility
+  of filling them with experienced hands. Many of the vacancies are
+  caused by the return of workpeople to the country parts. Sometimes the
+  mills are in the country, or within easy reach of it, and labour is
+  obtained from the unoccupied members of peasants' families. In these
+  cases the factories do not always succeed in attracting the most
+  capable people, and work in the factory is not infrequently looked
+  upon as a makeshift to supplement a family's earnings. Among
+  Lancashire operatives far more pride of occupation may be met with. In
+  many of the industrial parts of Germany English conditions are
+  evolving, but they are not generally the rule. An American consul may
+  be taken to report to his own country without prejudice as to the
+  rival merits of German and English conditions: one such wrote in
+  1901:--"The task of educating labour up to a high degree of efficiency
+  is difficult, and many generations are necessary to achieve that
+  result. The English cotton spinners have attained such a degree of
+  skill and intelligence that, for the most part, no supervision is
+  necessary. In Germany the presence of a technical overseer is
+  indispensable. Another advantage which England enjoys is the cheap
+  price of machinery. Germany imports the major part of her machinery
+  from England, and German wholesale dealers in these machines have not
+  been able, by placing large orders, to overcome the difference caused
+  by freight and tariff." Wages reflect the efficiencies of countries,
+  not of course perfectly, but in some degree. They are much higher in
+  Lancashire than in Germany, as is made evident by an article from the
+  pen of Professor Hasbach in _Schmollers Jahrbuch_ (vol. ii., 1903).
+  The author tries to show that Germany is not so far behind England
+  industrially as is generally believed, and the contrast drawn by him,
+  greatly to the advantage of Lancashire, is not likely to exaggerate
+  the superiority of English conditions. It is calculated by Professor
+  Hasbach that the daily wages of spinners are about 5/10 to 6/10 at
+  Oldham, 6/6 at Bolton and 5/6 in Stalybridge and neighbouring places.
+  With these he compares the 3.70 to 3.80 marks paid in the Rhine
+  Province and Leipzig, and the 3 to 3.15 marks paid in the Vogtland,
+  Bavaria and Alsace, and mentions an exceptionally high wage of 4-2/3
+  marks, which was earned by an operative who worked a new and long
+  doubling mule. The wage paid to the big piecer in England, Dr Hasbach
+  goes on to show, is not much greater than that received by a good
+  assistant in Germany. This comparison as it stands will probably give
+  some readers an idea that English advantages are greater than they
+  actually are, because it may be overlooked that the great difference
+  between wages in the case of English and German spinners is not
+  repeated among the piecers. Taking a spinner and his first assistant
+  as the unit, we should have a joint average daily wage of about 8/6 in
+  England and 6/6 in Germany. In the case of weavers, comparison of wages
+  is more difficult to draw, but the advantage of England would seem to
+  be but little less. However, in instituting a comparison between two
+  countries, as regards the relative efficiency of labour in some
+  industries, we should do well to remind ourselves that efficiency is a
+  somewhat transitory thing, dependent upon education and experience as
+  much as upon aptitude. In respect of the capacity of labour for the
+  task required in the cotton industry, we could not (writing in 1907)
+  make the statement that England leads significantly with the assurance
+  with which we can assert her superiority in respect of present
+  attainments. The cotton industry has not been prosecuted on a large
+  scale in Germany so long as in England, and the Germans have not,
+  therefore, had the same opportunity for developing their latent
+  powers. But the thoughtfulness and carefulness of the German workman
+  are beyond dispute, and these qualities will procure for him a leading
+  place where work is not mechanical. Already in the cotton industry it
+  is said that the operatives are displaying quite striking powers of
+  undertaking a wide range of work and changing easily from one pattern
+  to another. Hence German firms feel little hesitation in taking small
+  orders on special designs; they do not experience any great difficulty
+  in getting their factors accommodated to produce the required
+  articles.
+
+  Apart from the efficiency of labour, reasons exist for the lower real
+  cost of production in England in the organization of the industry. The
+  German industry is not only less localized, but, as we might perhaps
+  infer from that circumstance, less specialized. A German factory will
+  turn out scores of patterns where an English firm will confine itself
+  to a few specialities. Time is wasted in accommodating machinery to
+  changes and in accustoming the hands to new work. The German producer
+  suffers from the undeveloped state of the market. In England
+  specialized markets with specialized dealers have greatly assisted
+  producers both in their buying and selling. A German manufacturer may
+  have to find his customers as the English manufacturer need not; at
+  least, so Professor Schulze-Gaevernitz has assured us, and conditions
+  have not been wholly transformed since he made his careful analysis.
+  He wrote:--"But especially disadvantageous is the decentralization in
+  respect to the sale. Here also the German manufacturer stands under
+  the same disadvantages with which the English had to struggle in the
+  'thirties. The German manufacturer still seeks his customers through
+  travellers and agents, and in many instances through retail sellers,
+  whose financial standing is often questionable, whose necessity for
+  credit is always certain. Hence the complaints about the bad
+  conditions of payment in Germany which crop up continually in the
+  _enquête_. The manufacturers had to wait three, four or six months,
+  and even twelve months and longer for payment. In reality there
+  existed 'termless terms,' a 'complete anarchy in the method of
+  payment.' ... The manufacturer cannot be at the same time commission
+  agent, banker, merchant and retail dealer; he needs sound customers
+  capable of paying. He fares best if the sale is concentrated in one
+  market, and 'change' prices simplify the struggle between buyer and
+  seller. The search for customers, foreign as well as home, and the
+  bearing of all possible risks of disposal, are in any case difficult
+  enough to necessitate the whole strength of a man. The wholesale
+  merchant alone is in a position to pay the manufacturer in cash or on
+  sure, short terms. But especially where export is in question is the
+  dispersal of sales an extreme impediment. The manufacturer cannot
+  follow the fashions in Australia and South America; the foreign buyer
+  cannot travel from mill to mill."
+
+  It is the want of commercial development in Germany which accounts for
+  the more frequent combination of weaving and spinning there than in
+  England. But in Germany to-day economic enterprise is flourishing, and
+  commercial development may confidently be looked for together with
+  advance in other directions. It is not many years since the typical
+  German cotton factory was comparatively primitive; now mills can be
+  exhibited which might have been erected recently in Oldham. Between
+  the early 'eighties and the 'nineties the expansion of the German
+  industry was enormous--the imports of cotton-wool rose by nearly
+  70%--yet the number of spinning-mills was actually reduced from 6750
+  to 2450, while the number of weaving-sheds fell from 56,200 to 32,750.
+  At the same time the factories devoted to mixed goods declined from
+  25,200 to less than 16,350. From these figures we may gather how
+  rapidly the average size of mills and weaving-sheds enlarged in the
+  period. One cause, no doubt, was that improved economies in the new
+  businesses forced antiquated factories to shut down and make way for
+  still newer erections. There were recently about twice as many persons
+  engaged in weaving as in spinning, but the largest numbers of
+  all--slightly in excess of those in weaving-sheds--were the persons
+  occupied in the manufacture of cotton-lace, trimmings, &c. As we might
+  imagine, Germany's exports of cotton goods are not high. Including
+  yarns they amounted to £13.7 million per annum in 1899-1903. In order
+  of value their largest exports are (1) coloured goods, (2) hosiery,
+  (3) lace and embroidery, (4) yarns, and (5) trimmings, &c.
+
+  _France._--Into the industrial conditions of the two leading rivals of
+  England we have entered in some detail; the state of affairs in the
+  rest of the world must be dealt with more briefly. Of France more
+  ought to be said than we can find place for, though in respect of the
+  magnitude of her cotton industry, as measured by the quantity of
+  spindles, she stands now not fourth, but fifth, Russia taking
+  precedence. But the work of the French is incomparably superior to
+  anything that is turned out from Russia. France suffered a severe blow
+  when the industry of Alsace and Lorraine was lost to Germany, but the
+  inexhaustible originality of French _design_ will always secure for
+  her goods a place in the first rank. As regards _artistic_ results
+  France leads, but the real cost of her spinning and weaving cannot
+  approach in lowness that of Lancashire. After costly strikes the
+  French workmen have succeeded in shortening their hours to ten and a
+  half a day; and here it may be remarked that the International
+  Association of Textile Operatives tends to equate continental
+  industrial conditions to those of England. The French industry has
+  been fostered by tariffs. When the Board of Trade calculation was
+  made, French tariffs were found to bear upon British cotton goods with
+  about the same severity as those of Germany, except that the former
+  treated more hardly yarns and cotton thread for sewing. French
+  protectionism has kept down her exports; such as they are the majority
+  proceed now to her colonies. Normandy, the north and east, in order,
+  are the chief seats of the industry. In Normandy the leading city is
+  Rouen, and Darnétal, Maromme, Sotteville, Havre, Yvetot, Dieppe,
+  Évreux, Gisors, Falaise and Flers are important places. The north
+  contains the important towns of Lille, Tourcoing, Roubaix, St
+  Quentin, Amiens and Hellemmes. The Vosges is the chief district of the
+  east, and the leading towns are Epinal, St Dié, Remiremont, Senones,
+  Val d'Ajol, Cornimont and La Bresse. The following towns which are not
+  included in any of the districts mentioned above are also
+  noteworthy:--Troyes, Nantes, Cholet, Laval, Tarare, Roanne, Thizy and
+  Villefranche upon the Saône. Cotton arrives at Havre and Marseilles;
+  at the latter chiefly the product of Egypt and the East. Havre used to
+  be the most important cotton port in continental Europe, but to-day
+  more spindles are fed from Bremen than from Havre. France's
+  consumption of cotton annually in the period 1899-1903 was 215,000
+  metric tons.
+
+  _Russia._--Power-spinning was carried into Russia by Ludwig Knoop, who
+  had learnt the trade in Manchester, and to his efforts its early
+  success was due. The growth, largely the result of very heavy
+  protectionism--according to the Board of Trade report, from 50 to more
+  than 100% more severe than that of Germany,--has been rapid, as the
+  following table bears witness:--
+
+    _Average yearly Importation of Cotton wool and Yarn into Russia._
+
+    +-----------+----------------+----------------+
+    |           | Raw Cotton in  | Cotton Yarn in |
+    |           | thousand tons. | thousand tons. |
+    +-----------+----------------+----------------+
+    | 1824-1826 |        .9      |       5.4      |
+    | 1836-1838 |       4.6      |      10.1      |
+    | 1842-1844 |       8.4      |       9.5      |
+    | 1848-1850 |      21.4      |       4.5      |
+    | 1889-1891 |     117.4      |       3.4      |
+    | 1899-1903 |     180.0      |       2.9      |
+    +-----------+----------------+----------------+
+
+
+    _Table showing approximately the Growth of Spindles and Looms in
+    Russia._
+
+    +---------+---------------+----------------+
+    |         |   Spindles.   |     Looms.     |
+    +---------+---------------+----------------+
+    |  1857   |   1,000,000   |                |
+    |  1877   |               |     55,000     |
+    |  1887   |   4,000,000   |     85,000     |
+    |  1900   |   6,000,000   |    146,000     |
+    |  1909   |   7,800,000   |                |
+    +---------+---------------+----------------+
+
+
+  The chief districts were the following in 1900:--
+
+    +---------------+------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+    |  Government.  | Factories. |      Spindles   |      Looms      |
+    |               |            | (in thousands). | (in thousands). |
+    +---------------+------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+    | Moscow        |     56     |      1295       |       33        |
+    | Vladimir      |     67     |      1224       |       42        |
+    | Piotrkov      |     25     |       745       |       20        |
+    | St Petersburg |     24     |      1074       |       11        |
+    | Jaroslaw      |      4     |       347       |        2        |
+    | Kostroma      |     25     |       274       |       20        |
+    | Tver          |      6     |       348       |        9        |
+    | Esthonia      |      1     |       440       |        2        |
+    | Ryazan        |      4     |       146       |        3        |
+    | Elsewhere     |     15     |       198       |        4        |
+    |               +------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+    |        Total  |    227     |      6091       |      146        |
+    +---------------+------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+
+  Fine spinning has been attempted only recently. Generally speaking
+  70's used to be the upper limit, but now counts up to 140's are tried,
+  though the bulk of the output is coarse yarn. The inefficiency of the
+  labour was made abundantly plain by Dr Schulze-Gaevernitz in his
+  economic study of Russia, and conditions have not greatly altered for
+  the better since. Roughly, 170,000 operatives worked 6,000,000
+  spindles in 1900, which means 35 spindles per head as compared with
+  more than 100 in Saxony and more than 200 in England. In weaving the
+  ratio of operatives to machinery worked out at about one loom to each
+  weaver, which is comparatively much less unfavourable to Russia. The
+  proportion in Saxony is about the same, but in England the average
+  approaches two looms to a weaver. The speed of machinery cannot be
+  compared, and we must remember that the above contrasts are rough
+  only, and made without regard to differences of product. Russia is
+  encouraging the growth of cotton at home. It is of very inferior
+  quality, but 100,000 tons from the provinces of central Asia and
+  Trans-Caucasia were used in 1900: her imports in the same year were
+  about 170,000 tons.
+
+  _Switzerland._--Swiss spindles advanced until the early "'seventies,"
+  but a decline followed. Details are:--
+
+    1830                      400,000
+    1850                      950,000
+    1876                    1,854,000
+    1883                    1,809,000
+    1898                    1,704,000
+    1909 (estimated)        1,500,000
+
+  The falling off is occasioned mainly by (a) the developing
+  industrialism of the rest of Europe, notably Germany, and (b) the
+  diminishing importance of the natural advantage of water-power with
+  the improvement of steam-engines. Swiss yarns have been kept out of
+  continental markets in the interests of home spinning. Now fancy
+  cotton goods, laces and trimmings are the leading specialities of the
+  Swiss textile workers. About half the Swiss spindles are in the canton
+  of Zürich, between a quarter and a third in Glarus, about the same in
+  St Gall and 9% in Aargau. Figures show that the average size of the
+  Swiss mill is small. The average spindles to a mill were 22,000, and
+  very few mills held more than 50,000 spindles. Some 9000 of the
+  power-looms are in Zürich, some 4500 in Glarus and 4000 in St Gall.
+  Wald in the south-east of the canton of Zürich is an important centre
+  of the muslin manufacture.
+
+  _Austria._--Austria contains about 4,200,000 spindles and more yarn is
+  consumed than it produces, as on balance there is an excess of imports
+  of yarn. Bohemia, lower Austria, Tirol and Vorarlberg account for the
+  mass of Austrian spinning. The following details relating to these
+  districts recently are of interest:--
+
+    +-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                       |        |           |  Average  |
+    |                       | Mills. | Spindles. |  spindles |
+    |                       |        |           | to a mill.|
+    +-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+
+    | Bohemia               |   82   | 1,870,000 |   22,800  |
+    | Lower Austria         |   23   |   460,000 |   20,000  |
+    | Tirol and Vorarlberg  |   20   |   435,000 |   21,700  |
+    +-----------------------+--------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  Reichenberg and the surrounding district is the chief manufacturing
+  place: here are more than 80,000 looms, nearly a half of which are
+  hand-looms.
+
+  _Italy._--Recent industrial growth in Italy is remarkable: statistics
+  of spindles since 1870 are as follows, but the percentage of error is
+  probably high:--
+
+    1870               500,000
+    1888               900,000
+    1898             2,100,000
+    1909             4,000,000
+
+  The distribution of spindles is roughly as follows:--
+
+    Lombardy         1,850,000
+    Piedmont         1,000,000
+    Venetia            550,000
+    Campania           250,000
+    Liguria            250,000
+    Tuscany            100,000
+
+  The distribution of spindles and power-looms in the chief
+  manufacturing towns in Italy is shown in the following table:--
+
+    +-------------+--------------++-------------+--------------+
+    |             |   Spindles.  ||             |   Spindles.  |
+    | Turin       |   470,000    || Genoa       |   210,000    |
+    | Bergamo     |   450,000    || Salerno     |   150,000    |
+    | Como        |   250,000    || Brescia     |   310,000    |
+    | Milan       |   660,000    || Naples      |   100,000    |
+    | Novara      |   410,000    || Udine       |   240,000    |
+    +-------------+--------------++-------------+--------------+
+    |             | Power-Looms. ||             | Power-Looms. |
+    | Milan       |    40,000    || Pisa        |     2,500    |
+    | Turin       |    22,000    || Como        |     6,000    |
+    | Novara      |    13,000    || Bergamo     |    13,000    |
+    | Genoa       |     6,000    || Udine       |     3,500    |
+    +-------------+--------------++-------------+--------------+
+
+  The district between Milan and Lago Maggiore contains numerous
+  villages devoted to the cotton industry. Many of the factories in the
+  province of Bergamo are situated in the Valle Seriana, which is
+  endowed with abundant water-power. In this district coarse and medium
+  yarns and grey cloth are the chief products. In the province of Milan
+  there are several small towns, notably Gallarate, Busto Arsizio and
+  Monza, in which the manufacture of coloured and fancy goods is
+  extensively carried on. The finest spinning in Italy is done in Turin.
+  The coarsest spinning is done in Venetia.
+
+  _The Netherlands._--In 1805 the cotton industry was reintroduced into
+  the Netherlands from England in its factory form. Seventeen mules
+  bearing 16,000 spindles are said to have been smuggled across the
+  channel, while forty Englishmen were enticed over to work them, in
+  spite of English legal prohibitions. Liévin Bauwens was the prime
+  mover of the achievement. Expansion rapidly followed, and in 1892
+  Belgian spindles numbered nearly a million. Since then a decline has
+  set in. Ghent, with about 600,000 spindles, is the only really
+  important place: no other place has as many as 50,000. Holland
+  possesses about 417,000 spindles: the leading district is Twente and
+  the leading town Enschede; Twente contains also about 20,000
+  power-looms. Rotterdam is the chief cotton port; Amsterdam, always a
+  far-away second, has lost place still further of late.
+
+  _Spain and Portugal._--The greatness of Spain in the cotton industry
+  lies buried in the remote past, but of late she has awakened somewhat,
+  with the result that her spindles now number about 1,853,000.
+  Catalonia is the chief province where the industry is carried on, and
+  Barcelona surpasses all other centres. Portugal possesses nearly half
+  a million spindles (the bulk in Lisbon and Oporto), many of which have
+  appeared since 1894.
+
+  _The Rest of Europe_.--Of Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Greece and
+  Macedonia no special mention need be made, nor of other parts where
+  the cotton industry may just exist. It may be mentioned here that
+  among the scattered rural populations of many parts of the continent,
+  even in such advanced countries as France and Germany, hand-looms are
+  still to be found in large numbers.
+
+  _India_.--The hand-cotton-industry has been carried on in India since
+  the earliest times, and for many years English fabrics were protected
+  against the all-cottons of India. Soon after the introduction of
+  spinning by rollers, English all-cottons began to rival the Indian in
+  quality as well as in cost. A large export trade to India has grown
+  up, but Indian hand-loom weavers still ply their craft. In 1851
+  power-spinning was started, and by 1876 there were in India 1,000,000
+  spindles. Since then they have nearly reached six millions and
+  importations of yarn have been significantly affected. The growth of
+  Indian power-spinning, which is almost entirely of the ring variety,
+  was attributed by some to the depreciation of the rupee after 1873,
+  but the fall in the value of the rupee was stopped in 1893 and the
+  competition continued. The real explanation, no doubt, is that at the
+  cost of Indian labour it is found cheaper to import machinery and coal
+  than to export or cease to grow cotton and import yarn. This was the
+  conclusion of the majority report of the committee of the Manchester
+  Chamber of Commerce, which made an inquiry into Bombay and Lancashire
+  spinning in 1888. Besides, as regards Indian exports to China, the
+  remission in 1875 of the 3% export duty on yarns must be borne in
+  mind. The efficiency of labour in India is only a small fraction of
+  that of Lancashire operatives. Recently complaint has been made that
+  Indian mills are being run inhumanely long hours with the same set of
+  labour, and that child-labour is being abused, both legally and
+  illegally--legally as regards children over fourteen who are classed
+  as adults. The working of heavy hours began with the electric lighting
+  of the mills; previously all shut down at sunset largely because of
+  the cost of illumination. The outcry which has been raised is,
+  perhaps, sufficient guarantee that the worst evils will be remedied.
+  Indian spinning, it must be remembered, is still very coarse as a
+  rule, though some fine work is attempted and the average of counts
+  spun is rising. Though there are about a ninth as many spindles in
+  India as in the United Kingdom, there are only about one-fifteenth as
+  many power-looms, 46,400 in all, to which figure they rose between
+  1891 and 1904 from 24,700. The reason for the paucity of power-looms
+  is probably two-fold, (1) the low cost of production of Lancashire
+  weavers, and (2) the habit of hand-loom weaving which is fixed in the
+  Indian people. A rapid increase of power-looms is, however,
+  observable. The hand-loom industry is gigantic, particularly in the
+  Madras Presidency and the Central Provinces; in the latter district
+  alone there were estimated to be 150,000 hand-looms in 1883. The
+  following details relating to the Indian cotton industry are supplied
+  officially:--
+
+    _Cotton Mills in India, including Mills in Native States and French
+      India_.
+
+    +-----------------------------------+------------+------------+
+    |               Mills.              | 1897-1898. | 1903-1904. |
+    +-----------------------------------+------------+------------+
+    |Mills (number)                     |      164   |      204   |
+    |Capital (thousand £s)              |      648   |    1,067   |
+    |Looms (number)                     |   36,946   |   46,421   |
+    |Spindles (thousands)               |    4,219   |    5,213   |
+    |Persons employed (daily average)   |  148,753   |  186,271   |
+    |Yarn produced:--                   |            |            |
+    |  Counts (1 to 20 thousand lb.)    |  400,384   |  474,509   |
+    |  Counts (above "    "     ")      |   62,212   |  104,250   |
+    |                                   +------------+------------+
+    |                     Total lb.     |  462,596   |  578,759   |
+    |                                   +------------+------------+
+    |Yarn produced:--                   |            |            |
+    |  Bombay (thousand lb.)            |  324,649   |  414,932   |
+    |  Bengal   "       "               |   44,807   |   46,487   |
+    |  Madras   "       "               |   32,516   |   28,714   |
+    |  United Provinces (including      |            |            |
+    |    Ajmere-Merwara)(thousand lb.)  |   26,747   |   29,930   |
+    |  Central Provinces (thousand lb.) |   18,334   |   24,549   |
+    |  Punjab      "         "      "   |    6,607   |   11,578   |
+    |  Elsewhere   "         "      "   |    8,936   |   22,569   |
+    |                                   +------------+------------+
+    |                     Total lb.     |  462,596   |  578,759   |
+    |                                   +------------+------------+
+    |Woven Goods:--                     |            |            |
+    |  Grey (thousand lb.)              |   83,136   |  111,494   |
+    |  Others    "    "                 |    8,152   |   26,550   |
+    |                                   +------------+------------+
+    |                     Total lb.     |   91,288   |  138,044   |
+    +-----------------------------------+------------+------------+
+
+  _China_.--In China spinning has not met with the same success as
+  India, and power-manufacturing has not yet obtained a sure footing.
+  The ingrained conservatism of the Chinese temperament is no doubt a
+  leading cause. Of the spindles in China--about 600,000 in all--from a
+  half to three-fifths are in Shanghai. The following details relating
+  to the inception of the power-industry are quoted from a Diplomatic
+  and Consular Report of 1905:--
+
+  "The initial experiment on modern lines was made in 1891, when a
+  semi-official Chinese syndicate started at Shanghai--the Chinese
+  Cotton Cloth Mill and the Chinese Cotton Spinning Company. Its
+  originators claimed for themselves a quasi-monopoly, and prohibited
+  outsiders who were not prepared to pay a fixed royalty for the
+  privilege from engaging in similar undertakings. Although certain
+  Chinese accepted this onerous condition, foreigners resented it as an
+  undue interference with their treaty rights, and it was only when
+  Japan, in 1895, after her war with China, inserted in the treaty of
+  Shimonoseki an article providing for the freedom of Japanese subjects
+  to engage in all kinds of manufacturing industries in the open ports
+  of China, and permitting them to import machinery for such purposes,
+  that outsiders were afforded an opportunity of exploiting the rich
+  field for commercial development thereby thrown open. Accordingly, so
+  soon as the Japanese treaty came into force no time was lost in
+  turning this particular clause to account, and the erection of no less
+  than 11 mills--Chinese and foreign--was taken in hand. At that time
+  the pioneer mill, which was burnt to the ground in October 1893, but
+  subsequently rebuilt, and other Chinese-owned mills were together
+  working some 120,000 spindles and 850 looms."
+
+  By 1905 the mills increased to 17, the spindles to 620,000 and the
+  looms to 2250, but there is little inclination to expansion. Yarns for
+  the hand-looms are obtained primarily from India and secondarily from
+  Japan. The following are the recent figures relating to imported
+  yarns:--
+
+     _In million_ lb
+
+    +--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    |              | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. |
+    +--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    |              |  lb.  |  lb.  |  lb.  |  lb.  |  lb.  |  lb.  |
+    | British      |   9.1 |   7.8 |   4.1 |   7.0 |   4.3 |   2.2 |
+    | Indian       | 186.7 | 254.2 | 131.5 | 228.9 | 251.6 | 250.8 |
+    | Japanese     |  64.7 | 104.0 |  62.9 |  66.4 |  69.7 | 110.9 |
+    | Hong-Kong    |       |       |       |    .7 |    .8 |   1.2 |
+    | Tongkinese   |       |       |       |       |       |    .01|
+    |              +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+    |    Total     | 260.5 | 366.0 | 198.5 | 303.0 | 326.4 | 365.1 |
+    +--------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
+
+  _Japan._--If in China the factory cotton industry reveals no prospects
+  as yet of a great future, the same cannot be said of Japan.
+
+  The chief centres of spinning with their outputs in value of yarn for
+  a year at the beginning of the 20th century are stated beneath:
+
+    +------------+------------++------------+------------+
+    |            | Thousands. ||            | Thousands. |
+    +------------+------------++------------+------------+
+    |            |    £  s.   ||            |     £ s.   |
+    | Osaka      |   1226.5   || Nara       |    111.5   |
+    | Hyogo      |    495.5   || Hiroshima  |     91.3   |
+    | Okayama    |    374.4   || Kyoto      |     82.2   |
+    | Miye       |    238.1   || Wakayama   |     79.2   |
+    | Tokyo      |    227.9   || Ehime      |     70.5   |
+    | Aichi      |    224.3   || Kajawa     |     36.4   |
+    | Fukuoka    |    168.1   ||            |            |
+    +------------+------------++------------+------------+
+
+
+  The following table gives other valuable information:--
+
+    +---------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+---------+-------+------------+------------+
+    |         |          | Average   |  Quantity |           | Average  | Average  |         |       | Average    |  Average   |
+    |         |  Gross   |  Number   |   of Raw  |   Total   |  Number  | Number   | Annual  | Daily |  Daily     |   Daily    |
+    |  Year   |  Amount  |    of     |    and    | Production| of Male  |of Female | Working |Working|   Wage     |  Wage of   |
+    |         |of Capital| Spindles  |  Ginned   | of Cotton |Operatives|Operatives|  Days.  | Hours.|  of Male   |   Female   |
+    |         | invested.|used daily.|  Cotton   |   Yarn.   |  daily   |  daily   |         |       |Operatives. |Operatives. |
+    |         |          |           | demanded. |           | employed.| employed.|         |       |            |            |
+    +---------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+---------+-------+------------+------------+
+    |         |Thousand £| Thousands.|Million lb.|Million lb.|          |          |         |       |            |            |
+    |1892-1894|   1123   |     420   |   112.9   |    97.9   |   6,916  |  21,695  |   290   |   22  |4d. to 4¼d. | 2d. to 2¼d.|
+    |1900-1902|   3569   |    1209   |   335.3   |   288.0   |  13,373  |  50,271  |   312   |   19  |       7½d. | 4½d. to 5d.|
+    |  1903   |   3441   |    1290   |   375.5   |   322.7   |  13,160  |  57,166  |   308   |   20  |7½d. to 8d. | 4½d. to 5d.|
+    |  1904   |   3470   |    1306   |   332.1   |   285.9   |  10,967  |  52,115  |   309   |   20  |        8d. |         5d.|
+    +---------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+----------+---------+-------+------------+------------+
+
+  With amazing adaptability the Japanese have assumed the methods of
+  Western civilization as a whole. But hand-weaving more than holds its
+  own, and power-weaving has as yet met with little success. The custom
+  already mentioned as a cause of the continued triumph of the hand-loom
+  in India and China is strong also in Japan, and the economy of the
+  factory system is greater relatively in spinning than in
+  manufacturing. In Japan it is ring-spinning which prevails: 95% of the
+  spindles are on ring-frames. Ring-spinning entails less skill on the
+  part of the operative, and ring-yarn is quite satisfactory for the
+  sort of fabrics used most largely in the Far East. The counts produced
+  are low as a rule. Generally mills run day and night with double
+  shifts, and the system seems to pay, though night-work is found to be
+  less economical than day-work there as elsewhere. More operatives are
+  placed on a given quantity of machinery in Japan than in
+  Lancashire--possibly more "labour" as well as more operatives, because
+  labour as well as operatives may be cheaper. On the same work the
+  output per spindle per hour is less in Japan than in England, even
+  when day-shifts only are taken into account. Japanese work has been
+  severely criticized, but the recency of the introduction of the cotton
+  industry must not be forgotten.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature relating to the cotton industry is
+  enormous. The most complete bibliographies will be found in Chapman's
+  _Lancashire Cotton Industry_ (where short descriptions of the several
+  works included, which relate only to the United Kingdom, are given);
+  Hammond's _Cotton Culture and Trade_; and Oppel's _Die Baumwolle_. The
+  list of books set forth here must be select only.
+
+  The development of the English industry can be traced through the
+  following:--Aikin, _A Description of the Country from Thirty to Forty
+  Miles round Manchester_ (1795); Andrew, _Fifty Years' Cotton Trade_
+  (1887); Baines, _History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain_
+  (1835); Banks, _A Short Sketch of the Cotton Trade of Preston for the
+  last Sixty-Seven Years_ (1888); Butterworth, _Historical Sketches of
+  Oldham_ (1847 or 1848); Butterworth, _An Historical Account of the
+  Towns of Ashton-under-Lyne, Stalybridge and Dukinfield_ (1842);
+  Chapman, _The Lancashire Cotton Industry_ (1904); Cleland,
+  _Description of the City of Glasgow_ (1840); _A Complete History of
+  the Cotton Trade, &c._, by a person concerned in trade (1823);
+  Ellison, _The Cotton Trade of Great Britain including a History of the
+  Liverpool Cotton Market and of the Liverpool Cotton Brokers'
+  Association_ (1886); Léon Faucher, _Études sur Angleterre_ (1845);
+  French, _The Life and Times of Samuel Crompton_ (1859); Guest, _A
+  Compendious History of the Cotton-manufacture, with a Disproval of the
+  Claim of Sir Richard Arkwright to the Invention of its Ingenious
+  Machinery_ (1823); Guest, _The British Cotton Manufacture and a Reply
+  to the Article on Spinning Machinery, contained in a recent Number of
+  the Edinburgh Review_ (1828); Helm, _Chapters in the History of the
+  Manchester Chamber of Commerce_ (1902); Kennedy, _Miscellaneous Papers
+  on Subjects connected with the Manufactures of Lancashire_ (1849);
+  Ogden, _A Description of Manchester ... with a Succinct History of its
+  former original Manufactories, and their Gradual Advancement to the
+  Present State of Perfection at which they are arrived, by a Native of
+  the Town_ (1783); Radcliffe, _Origin of the New System of Manufacture,
+  commonly called "Power-Loom Weaving" and the Purposes for which this
+  System was invented and brought into use, fully explained in a
+  Narrative concerning William Radcliffe's Struggles through Life to
+  remove the Cause which has brought this Country to its Present Crisis_
+  (1828); Rees' _Cyclopaedia_, articles on Cotton (1808), Spinning
+  (1816) and Weaving (1818); Ure, _The Cotton Manufacture of Great
+  Britain, investigated and illustrated, with an Introductory View of
+  its Comparative State in Foreign Countries_ (2 vols.); Ure, _The
+  Philosophy of Manufacture; or An Exposition of the Scientific, Moral
+  and Commercial Economy of the Factory System of Great Britain_ (1835);
+  Watts, _Facts of the Cotton Famine_ (1866); Wheeler, _Manchester: its
+  Political, Social and Commercial History, Ancient and Modern_ (1836).
+
+  In addition there are many short papers in the Manchester public
+  library. Much valuable information may be obtained from parliamentary
+  papers; a list of relevant ones is printed as an appendix to Chapman's
+  _Lancashire Cotton Industry_, but it is too lengthy to repeat here.
+  The most important are the reports relating to the hand-loom weavers,
+  those on the employment of children in factories (of which a list will
+  be found in Hutching and Harrison's _History of the Factory
+  Legislation_), and the state of trade and the annual reports of the
+  factory inspectors. On labour questions there is a list of authorities
+  in Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_ and also of parliamentary
+  papers containing useful material. Printed copies of the "Wages Lists"
+  are issued by the trade unions. The Factory Acts are dealt with in
+  Hutchins and Harrison's _History_, mentioned above, as well as the
+  literature relating to them; while the handbooks by Redgrave and by
+  Abraham and Davies are specially useful.
+
+  On the industry abroad the following are the fullest
+  authorities:--Besso, _The Cotton Industry in Switzerland, Vorarlberg
+  and Italy_ (1910) (a report made as a Gartside Scholar of the
+  University of Manchester); Chapman's _Cotton Industry and Trade_
+  (1905); Hammond, _The Cotton Industry_; Hasbach's article, "Zur
+  Characteristik der englischen Industrie," in _Schmollers Jahrbuch_,
+  vol. ii. (1903); Leconte, _Le Coton_; Lochmüller, _Zur Entwicklung der
+  Baumwollindustrie in Deutschland_ (1906); Montgomery, _The Cotton
+  Manufacture of the United States of America contrasted and compared
+  with that of Great Britain_ (1840); Oppel, _Die Baumwolle_ (1902);
+  Schulze-Gaevernitz, _Der Grossbetrieb: ein wirtschaftlicher und
+  socialer Fortschritt: eine Studie auf dem Gebiete der
+  Baumwollindustrie_ (1892; translated as _The Cotton Trade in England
+  and on the Continent_); T. M. Young, _American Cotton Industry_
+  (1902); Uttley, _Cotton Spinning and Manufacturing in the United
+  States of North America_ (1905; a report of a tour as Gartside scholar
+  of the university of Manchester); and the Gartside reports on the
+  cotton industries of France and Germany by Forrester and Dehn
+  respectively. Information will also be found in Diplomatic and
+  Consular Reports, and fragments may be gathered from other books such
+  as G. Drage's _Russian Affairs_, Dyer's _Dai Nippon_, and Huber's
+  _Deutschland als Industriestaat_. Japan has published since 1901 a
+  very full financial and economical annual, and the British government
+  issues annually a good statistical abstract for India. The American
+  census contains much detailed information, and there are, in addition
+  to the statistics issued by the Federal government, those of
+  Massachusetts, the Bureau of Statistics of which has also reported the
+  results of an investigation into the industry in the Southern states.
+  Among official matter the semi-official Bombay and Lancashire cotton
+  spinning inquiry of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce may be
+  included. The census of production of the United Kingdom must be
+  mentioned, and the reports of the International Congresses of Cotton
+  Spinners and Manufacturers. As to labour, see the reports of the
+  International Textile Congresses.
+
+  The periodical literature is of good quality and much of it is filed
+  in the Patent Office library. We may notice particularly the _Cotton
+  Factory Times_; _Textile Journal_; _Textile Manufacturer_; _Textile
+  Mercury_; _Textile Recorder_; _Textile World Record_ (American); _Der
+  Leipzige Monatsschrift für Textilindustrie_; and the French _Textile
+  Journal_. Shepperson's _Cotton Facts_ is an annual which relates
+  chiefly, though not entirely, to raw cotton, as does also _Cotton_,
+  the periodical of the Manchester Cotton Association. For technical
+  works we may refer here to the well-known treatises of Brooks, Guest,
+  Marsden, Nasmith and Walmsley, and to Johannsen's ponderous
+  two-volumed _Handbuch der Baumwollspinnerei, Rohweissweberei und
+  Fabrikanlagen_.     (S. J. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See the extract from the books of Bolton Abbey, given by Baines
+    (p. 96) and dated 1298.
+
+  [2] Vol. ii. p. 206; Baines, pp. 96-97.
+
+  [3] Baines, pp. 93 and 94.
+
+  [4] Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, vol. ii.
+
+  [5] _State Papers, Domestic_, lix. 5. See W. H. Price, _Quar. Jour.
+    Econ._, vol. xx.
+
+  [6] London Guildhall Library, vol. Beta, _Petitions and Parliamentary
+    Matters_ (1620-1621), No. 16 (old No. 25).
+
+  [7] The act referred to is 33 Henry VIII. c. xv., already mentioned.
+
+  [8] Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_ (1903),
+    vol. ii. p. 623.
+
+  [9] Original edition, pp. 32, 33.
+
+  [10] Aikin's _Description of the Country from Thirty to Forty Miles
+    round Manchester_, p. 154.
+
+  [11] _Tour_, vol. iii. p. 219.
+
+  [12] For instance Radcliffe p. 61. Ogden (author of _A Description of
+    Manchester_, &c., published in 1783), if Aikin's "accurate and
+    well-informed enquirer" by Ogden, says that the period of rapid
+    extension of the cotton industry began about 1770. See also
+    Butterworth's _History of Oldham_ and the passage quoted below in the
+    text.
+
+  [13] Account of Society for Promotion of Industry in Lindsey (1789),
+    Brit. Mus. 103, L. 56. Quoted from Cunningham's _English Industry and
+    Commerce_, vol. ii. p. 452, n. ed., 1892.
+
+  [14] In 1838 the only other county with more than 1000 was Gloucester
+    with 1500. 217,000 of the 219,100 operatives in England and Wales
+    were employed in the counties enumerated. Of the 2000 operatives
+    whose location is not given, about 1000 worked in Flintshire.
+
+  [15] W. Radcliffe's _Origin of the New System of Manufacturing_, p. 59.
+
+  [16] The term "fustian" had originally been used to designate certain
+    woollen or worsted goods made at Norwich and in Scotland. A reference
+    to Norwich fustians of as early a date as the 14th century is quoted
+    by Baines.
+
+  [17] E. Butterworth's _History of Oldham_, p. 101.
+
+  [18] _Parliamentary Reports, &c._ (1826-1827), v. p. 5. See for even
+    later examples Gardner's evidence to the committee on hand-loom
+    weavers in 1835.
+
+  [19] This is illustrated in one of the plates to Guest's _History of
+    the Cotton Manufacture_.
+
+  [20] Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_, pp. 15 and 16.
+
+  [21] Page 167.
+
+  [22] Mrs Crompton, wife of Samuel Crompton, we are told, used to
+    employ her son George shortly after he could walk, as a "dolly-peg"
+    to tread the cotton in the soapy water in which it was placed for
+    washing. See French's _Life of Crompton_, pp. 58-59 (3rd ed.).
+    Rowbotham in his diary gives two accounts of fires which were caused
+    by carelessness in drying cotton.
+
+  [23] On the difference between the two machines see Baines's
+    _History_, p. 138 et seq.
+
+  [24] Baines p. 183.
+
+  [25] Baines's _History of the Cotton Manufacture_, p. 86 n.
+
+  [26] These figures are quoted from a pamphlet published in 1788
+    entitled "An Important Crisis in the Calico and Muslin Manufactory in
+    Great Britain explained." Many of the estimates given in this
+    pamphlet are worthless, but there seems no reason why the figures
+    quoted here should not be at least approximately correct.
+
+  [27] See article on COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY.
+
+  [28] Hargreaves' claim to this invention has been disputed, but no
+    satisfactory evidence has been brought forward to disprove his claim.
+    Hargreaves was a carpenter and weaver of Stand-hill near Blackburn,
+    and died in 1778.
+
+  [29] See Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_, pp. 59 et seq.
+
+  [30] See Baines p. 207.
+
+  [31] "Counts" are determined by the number of hanks to the lb. A hank
+    is 840 yds. The origin of the hank of 840 yds. is probably that
+    spinners used a winding-reel of 1½ yds. in circumference, so that 80
+    threads (one "lea" or "rap" according to old phraseology) would
+    contain 120 yds., and seven leas (i.e. a hank) would contain 840 yds.
+    A hank of seven leas was the common measure in the woollen industry,
+    in which the reels were 1 yd. or 2 yds. in circumference. For details
+    see an article on the subject in the _Textile World Record_, vol.
+    xxxi. No. 1.
+
+  [32] The author of the memoir of Crompton (see bibliography).
+
+  [33] Specification 257.
+
+  [34] For further analysis of the arguments current see Chapman's
+    _Lancashire Cotton Industry_, pp. 66 et seq.
+
+  [35] Also in the 17th century a John Barkstead was granted a patent
+    for a method of manufacturing cotton goods, but the method is not
+    described. 1691, Specification 276.
+
+  [36] In the parliamentary reports (1840), xxiv. p. 611, the invention
+    of the swivel-loom is claimed for a "Van Anson." It is a plausible
+    supposition that by "Van Anson" is meant Vaucanson, as he appears to
+    have improved the swivel-loom. But he could not have been the
+    original inventor, since in 1724 (that is, when Vaucanson was at the
+    most fifteen years of age) they were being employed in Manchester.
+
+  [37] Aikin, pp. 175-176, and Guest, p. 44. An explanation of the
+    mechanism of the swivel-loom will be found in the _Encyclopédie
+    méthodique, manufactures, arts et métiers_, pt. i. vol. ii. pp. 202,
+    208, and _Recueil de planches_, vol. vi. (1786), pp. 72-78.
+
+  [38] Figures for the years above up to 1838 will be found in
+    parliamentary reports (1840), xxiv. p. 611.
+
+  [39] This is the manuscript diary of a weaver of Oldham roughly
+    covering the period 1787 to 1830. It is now in the Oldham public
+    library. Mr S. Andrew edited extracts from it in a series of articles
+    in the _Standard_ (an Oldham paper), under the title _Annals of
+    Oldham_, beginning January 1, 1887.
+
+  [40] Printed in _British Industries_. Edited by W. J. Ashley.
+
+  [41] This is explained in the article COTTON: _Marketing and Supply_.
+
+  [42] See chapter on cotton in Bowley's _Wages in the United Kingdom_
+    and table there given.
+
+  [43] A detailed analysis of the whole labour question in the cotton
+   industry will be found in Chapman's _Lancashire Cotton Industry_.
+
+  [44] There are other permissible arrangements, namely from 7 to 7 and
+    from 8 to 8, but they are not used in the textile trades of
+    Lancashire.
+
+  [45] The figures for looms are based upon a number of returns and
+    estimates. Those for spindles are taken from the highly authoritative
+    estimates of the International Federation of Master Cotton Spinners.
+
+  [46] _Journal of Board of Trade_, April 28th, 1904.
+
+  [47] The early history of the industry in the United States is
+    summarized in one of the official bulletins of the state of
+    Massachusetts, dated 1798. See W. R. Bagnall, _Textile Industries of
+    the U. S._ (1893).
+
+  [48] See also the official report of J. P. Harris-Gastrell in 1873.
+
+  [49] Quoted by Schulze-Gaevernitz.
+
+  [50] _Memorandum_ on British and foreign trade and industrial
+    conditions.
+
+  [51] The method of calculating these percentages is discussed in the
+    blue-book mentioned.
+
+  [52] Upon the above see Uttley's report.
+
+  [53] The figures are those quoted by Mr T. M. Young and relate to the
+    year 1902.
+
+  [54] See e.g. some passages upon this point in Uttley's report.
+
+  [55] For an account of the numerous types of automatic looms see the
+    article on WEAVING: § Machinery.
+
+  [56] Of which special mention may be made of Uttley's report as a
+    Gartside scholar of the university of Manchester, already referred
+    to, and Pidgin's report for the Massachusetts Bureau of Labour
+    Statistics.
+
+  [57] _Textile Recorder_, August 15th, 1905.
+
+  [58] Young's _American Cotton Industry_, p. 13.
+
+  [59] Uttley's report, p. 4.
+
+  [60] Similar formulae have been used above, where a fuller
+    explanation is given.
+
+  [61] Deutschland als Industriestaat.
+
+
+
+
+COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. The earliest inventors of spinning machinery
+(see SPINNING) directed their energies chiefly to the improvement of the
+final stage of the operation, but no sooner were these machines put to
+practical use than it became apparent that success depended upon
+mechanically conducting the operations preliminary to spinning. Later
+inventors were, therefore, called upon not only to improve the
+inventions of their predecessors, but to devise machinery for preparing
+the fibres to be spun. Arkwright quickly perceived the importance of
+this aspect of the problem, and he devoted even more energy to it than
+to the invention with which his name is more intimately associated. But,
+given a complete series of machines for preparing and spinning, the
+cotton industry (see COTTON MANUFACTURE) must have remained
+unprogressive without the co-operation of cotton growers, for by the
+then existing methods of separating cotton lint from seed it would have
+been impossible to provide an adequate supply of raw material. By
+inventing the saw gin, Eli Whitney, an American, in the year 1792, did
+for cotton planters what Paul, Arkwright, Crompton, Cartwright, Watt and
+others did for textile manufacturers, for he provided them with the
+means for increasing their output almost indefinitely.
+
+
+PLATE I.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--BLOWING ROOM.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--CARDING ROOM.]
+
+(_From Photographs taken in a Manchester Fine Cotton-spinning Mill, by
+R. Banks._)
+
+
+Plate II.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--JACK-FRAME ROOM.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--SPINNING-ROOM.]
+
+(_From Photographs taken in a Manchester Fine Cotton-spinning Mill, by
+R. Banks._)
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  _Cotton-ginning_ is the process by which cotton seeds are separated
+  from the adhering fibres. The most primitive machine employed in India
+  and China for this purpose is the churka, which consists of two wooden
+  rollers fixed in a frame and revolving in contact. Seed cotton is fed
+  into these rollers and the fibres pass forward but the seeds remain
+  behind. It is a device which does not injure the fibres, but no
+  improvement has been found by which the churka can be converted into a
+  sufficiently productive machine for modern requirements. In a modified
+  form Whitney's saw gin is still used to clean a large portion of the
+  annual crop of short and medium stapled cottons. It consists of from
+  60 to 70 saws (A, fig. 1), which are mounted upon a shaft and revolve
+  between the interstices of an iron grid (B); against this grid the
+  seed cotton is held whilst the fibres are drawn through, the seeds
+  being left behind. The operation is as follows:--seed cotton is fed
+  into the hopper (C), and conveyed by a lattice (D) to a spiked roller
+  (E), which regulates the supply to the hopper (F). Whilst in (F) the
+  cotton is engaged by the teeth of the saws (A), and drawn through the
+  grid (B), but the bars are too close to permit the seeds to pass. A
+  brush (G) strips the cotton lint from the saws, after which it is
+  drawn through a flue (H) to the surface of a perforated roller (I) by
+  pneumatic action; it then passes between (I) and (J) out of the
+  machine. The Macarthy gin is the only other type in extensive use; it
+  is employed to clean both long and short stapled cottons. In this gin
+  the fibres are drawn by a leather-covered roller (A, fig. 2) over the
+  edge of a stationary blade (B) called a doctor, which is fixed
+  tangential to the roller. Two cranks (E) move two other blades (C, D)
+  up and down immediately behind, and parallel to, the fixed blade (B).
+  The cotton is thrown into the hopper (F) and the fibres are drawn by
+  the roller (A) until the seeds are against the edge of the doctor (B),
+  when the beaters (C, D) strike them off, but permit the fibres to go
+  forward with the roller. Attempts continue to be made so to improve
+  both machines, that production may be increased, and labour charges,
+  and the risks of injuring the fibres, reduced.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  _Baling._--As cotton leaves the gin, it is in some cases rolled, under
+  compression, into cylindrical bales; but it is usually packed into
+  rectangular bales, that vary in weight from 160 lb. to 750 lb., by
+  steam or hydraulic presses. After pressing, the cotton is covered with
+  coarse jute bagging, and the whole secured by iron bands. In this form
+  it arrives at the spinning mills.
+
+  In the mill treatment of cotton it soon became an established practice
+  to divide the work into the following operations, namely (1) Mixing
+  the fibres into a homogeneous mass; (2) removing impurities; (3)
+  combing out entanglements in, and ranging the fibres in parallel
+  lines; (4) simultaneous combination and attenuation of groups of
+  parallel fibres; (5) completing the combination and attenuation, and
+  twisting the fibres into a thread; (6) compounding, finishing and
+  making-up of threads. These remain the essential conditions of
+  cotton-spinning. The principal machines used to carry out the
+  foregoing stages are: The bale breaker, opener and scutcher; the card
+  and comber; the drawing, slubbing, intermediate and roving frames;
+  ring and mule spinning; winding, doubling; clearing and gassing the
+  reel, and bundling press, together with several auxiliary machines.
+  All the operations included in this list are not necessarily employed
+  in the production of all kinds of yarn; low counts require fewer, and
+  high counts more processes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  A _bale breaker_ is used to disentangle fibres which have been, by
+  hydraulic or steam presses, converted into hard masses that resist
+  manual efforts to disentangle them. It may consist of three pairs of
+  spiked and one pair of fluted rollers. If so, the matted cotton is fed
+  into the first pair, seized by the second pair, which have a higher
+  surface velocity, and pulled, while the third pair reduce the whole to
+  a more or less fluffy mass, and the fluted rollers deliver it upon a
+  travelling lattice by which it is conveyed to, and deposited upon, the
+  floor of the mixing room. Instead of rollers, a _hopper breaker_ may
+  be used. In this machine the cotton is carried by a horizontal lattice
+  into contact with a sloping spiked one, whose spikes tear away small
+  tufts and deposit them upon a second lattice for removal to the mixing
+  room. A stack of pulled cotton is formed by superposing thin layers
+  from different bales, and when completed the cotton is drawn from top
+  to bottom of the stack. By this means a thorough mixing of fibres is
+  effected.
+
+  _The Opener._--Mixed cotton may be thrown upon a lattice and conveyed
+  to a spiked roller to be pulled, beaten, discharged into a trunk, and
+  drawn by pneumatic force to the opener. Or it may be spread (fig. 3)
+  upon a lattice (I), and carried between feed-rollers (E) to be
+  subjected to the action of a beater (A) whose teeth first seize tufts
+  of cotton and then fling them upon a grid (B), to be subsequently
+  seized by other teeth and again flung off until dirt and other
+  impurities pass between the grating. The beater may be cylindrical (as
+  at A) or in the form of a truncated cone: in either event, from four
+  to twelve rows of teeth project from its surface. It is from 18 in. to
+  upwards of 36 in. in diameter, approximately 40 in. wide, and the
+  largest cylindrical beaters make from 300 to 700 revolutions; whilst
+  conical beaters make about 1000, and small ones make from 1000 to 1500
+  revolutions per minute. The opened cotton is carried, in the direction
+  indicated by the arrows, upon a strong blast of air which is generated
+  by a fan (H), and this deposits it in patches upon the surfaces of two
+  perforated zinc or wire cylinders (C), but dust and foreign particles
+  pass through the interstices. As these cylinders revolve towards each
+  other the cotton passes between them in the form of a sheet to a pair
+  of feed-rollers (D), which may again deliver it to a beater with two
+  or three blades; if so, from this beater the cotton is next borne on
+  an air current to, and between, a second pair of perforated cylinders.
+  In either event, the final cages (C, C) deliver the cotton to
+  feed-rollers (D) and they pass it to calender-rollers (F), by which it
+  is compressed into a sheet, and finally coiled into a lap (G). Various
+  kinds of openers have been patented, all of which differ in some
+  important respects; for example, a hopper feed may be substituted for
+  the trunk or the lattice feed, in which event the cotton from the
+  mixing room is conveyed mechanically upon lattices, and deposited in a
+  hopper affixed to an opener. In this hopper a sloping spiked lattice
+  elevates the cotton to an evening roller, whose office is to sweep
+  back the surplus supply from the spikes, but allow the requisite
+  quantity to pass forward to the beater. A regular supply of cotton to
+  an opener is of great importance, and in order to insure it a table is
+  often formed by substituting for the lower roller (E) a series of
+  levers (A, fig. 4) all mounted upon a fulcrum (B), and having their
+  free arms weighted by wedge-shaped pendents (C), that are separated by
+  bowls (D). A fluted feed-roller (E) is fixed above this table and the
+  cotton is led over the lever but beneath the roller. If the cotton is
+  unequally distributed, thick places will press down the levers and
+  thin ones will permit them to rise (as at A', E'). The rise of one
+  pendent may be cancelled by the fall of another, but any balance of
+  their movements is transmitted to a belt fork which governs a belt
+  running upon a pair of inverted cones, and by this means the belt is
+  traversed to and fro to drive the feed-roller (E) at a superior speed
+  when the supply of cotton is insufficient, and at an inferior speed
+  when the supply is excessive.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  _The Scutcher._--In many respects a scutcher resembles an opener; its
+  function is to continue the cleaning and form laps of uniform weight
+  and density for the carding engine. Occasionally the scutcher is the
+  first cleaning machine, in which event cotton, in a loose fleece, is
+  spread evenly upon a lattice. But in order to carry the combination of
+  fibres one stage further, three or four opener laps are generally
+  placed upon the feeder, so that, as the laps unroll, three or four
+  sheets of cotton will be superposed, and in this form are passed by
+  the lattice (F, fig. 4) and the feed-roller (E) to either one or two
+  beaters, which are furnished with two or three blades. The beater (G)
+  flings the cotton against the bars of a grid (H) to loosen, and cause
+  the dirt to pass between the bars, after which the cotton is carried
+  forward upon an air current, in the same manner as in an opener, and
+  formed into a lap. In case two scutchers are required, the laps from
+  the first are fed into the second, where they are similarly treated;
+  in both machines the lever and pendent mechanism furnishes the means
+  by which uniformity is attained. A beater may consist of a straight,
+  smooth blade (as at G), or of a blade provided with stout teeth; in
+  the latter event the operation resembles combing rather than beating.
+  Two-bladed beaters revolve from 1200 to 1500 times per minute; those
+  with three blades from 900 to 1000 times per minute.
+
+  _Carding Engine._--The functions of a card (see CARDING) are: to place
+  the fibres parallel; to remove remaining impurities and immature
+  fibres; and to form mature fibres into a porous band, called a sliver.
+  A carding engine consists of three cylinders which are covered with
+  cards; the first, or taker-in (see fig. 5), is the smallest; the
+  second and largest is the main cylinder; and the third is the doffer.
+  If the main cylinder is surmounted with a series of small ones (as at
+  A), the engine is called a roller and clearer card. If a series of
+  fixed strips of card are placed above the main cylinder, the engine is
+  known as a stationary flat card. But if the strips move forward (as at
+  B), it is a revolving flat card. In a roller and clearer card the
+  small cylinders (E) are also covered with cards, but their teeth are
+  bent to oppose those on the main cylinder, and they revolve with a
+  different velocity. The taker-in is covered with saw teeth cut in a
+  strip of steel which is fixed in the surface of that cylinder; it
+  receives the cotton (I) from a feed-roller (C) that turns above a
+  smooth iron table (D) called the feed plate, and strikes out the
+  heaviest particles of remaining dirt. In passing through the fringe of
+  lap, the teeth comb the attached fibres but deliver the loose ones to
+  the main cylinder. The latter carries them into contact with the teeth
+  on the rollers (E), by whose lower surface velocity combing is again
+  effected. Short fibres become fixed amongst the teeth of (A) and (E),
+  but those lying crosswise are transferred from (A) to (E) and from (E)
+  to the clearer, which again presents them to the cylinder.
+
+  When long fibres are turned to point in the direction of rotation they
+  advance upon the cylinder A to the doffer teeth, where the scattered
+  fibres on the surface of A are collected into a light fleece. In this
+  condition they are stripped by a vibrating comb (F), drawn together by
+  a funnel, formed into a sliver, and deposited in a can (G). This
+  machine is now chiefly used to card waste and low-class cotton. If
+  such a card is made with two main cylinders, a connecting cylinder
+  called a tummer collects the fibres from the first and passes them on
+  to a second main cylinder, where they are again treated as already
+  described. In a stationary flat card the teeth in the flats are bent
+  to oppose those on the main cylinder, and by this means the fibres are
+  combed and straightened. In a revolving flat card the flats (H) are
+  formed into an endless chain, and they travel slowly in the same
+  direction as the cylinder. In other respects both flat cards are
+  similar to a roller and clearer card. Formerly double carding, namely,
+  two passages of the fibres through separate cards, or one passage
+  through a double card, was general, but single carding is now employed
+  for most purposes.
+
+  _Combing._--For counts from 60s upward, and for exceptionally good
+  yarn of lower counts, from 14 to 20 cans from the carding engine are
+  taken to a _sliver lap machine_ where the slivers are drawn alongside
+  each other, passed between three pairs of drawing rollers and two
+  pairs of calender rollers, and formed into laps that vary in width
+  from 7½ in. to 12 in. This machine is provided with mechanical devices
+  for stopping it on the failure of a sliver, and on the completion of a
+  predetermined length of lap. When the sliver lap machine furnishes
+  laps for the comber, the slivers are previously put through one head
+  of drawing, namely, between four lines of drawing rollers, to
+  straighten out the fibres. The more general practice is to pass sliver
+  laps to a _ribbon lap machine_, at the back of which six laps are
+  placed, end facing end, in one long line and simultaneously unrolled
+  to feed each web between four pairs of drawing rollers. From the
+  rollers the cotton passes in separate films over curved plates to a
+  smooth table where one is superposed upon another, and in the combined
+  state it is led between two pairs of calender rollers and formed into
+  a lap from 7½ to 10½ in. wide. In the cotton industry the _Heilmann
+  comber_, or some modification of that machine, is used to straighten
+  thoroughly the fibres of carded cotton, to cast out all below a
+  certain length, and leave only those that are perfectly clean and
+  approximate to uniformity in length. For fine yarns of medium quality
+  only part of the slivers required to form a thread are combed. But for
+  fine yarns of good quality all slivers are once combed, and those for
+  superfine yarns are twice, or "double combed." This machine is made
+  with six or eight heads, each of which is supplied with a ribbon lap.
+  One end of every lap is fed by a pair of rollers between the open jaws
+  of a nipper which immediately closes upon the sheet of cotton, but a
+  fringe is left protruding into the path of a cylinder, on whose
+  periphery either one set of 17, or two sets of 13, graduated needle
+  combs, and one, or two, fluted segments are secured. The first comb to
+  reach the cotton may have as few as 16, and the last 90 teeth per
+  inch. After the combs have passed successively through the overhanging
+  fringe of fibres, the nipper opens and a fresh length of about 3/16
+  to 4/10 of an inch is fed in. Meanwhile, a fluted segment on the
+  cylinder has moved up to support the fringe; a top comb, which was
+  inoperative when the cylinder combs were acting, has descended into
+  the fringe, and three rollers first return a portion of the material
+  already combed so that it may overlap that last treated. The rollers
+  then reverse the direction of their rotation; one of them and the
+  segment engage the fringe, and draw the tail ends of all free fibres
+  through the teeth of the top comb. The product of all the heads is
+  next united, condensed, formed into a continuous sliver, and deposited
+  in a can. One cycle of movements, therefore, only combs from 8/16 to
+  4/10 of an inch of each fibre; the top comb deals with the tail
+  ends, and the major portion of the work is done by the cylinder combs.
+  The foregoing operations are repeated at the rate of from 85 to 90
+  times per minute, during which from 15% to upwards of 25% of carded
+  material is removed; but this is capable of being spun into coarse
+  yarns. A comber invented by John W. Nasmith is a modification of the
+  foregoing. In his machine the cylinder combs act upon the forward ends
+  of the fibres whilst under the control of the nipper, after which two
+  pairs of rollers return a sufficient portion of the previously combed
+  film to overlap, and to enable the front rollers to engage the fringe.
+  The rollers then draw a part of the fringe through the teeth of the
+  top comb, which, as a sequence, treats all but the forward ends of the
+  fibres. Since one passage through the cylinder and top combs completes
+  the operation for one set of fibres, this machine gives a higher
+  production; it also gives a wider range of adaptability, and a lower
+  percentage of waste than the Heilmann machine.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  _The Drawing Frame._--For fine counts the slivers from the comber, and
+  for low or medium counts those from the card, are passed to the
+  drawing frame, because in both conditions the material is irregularly
+  distributed throughout the several slivers, and it is the function of
+  the drawing frame to eliminate all such irregularities by drawing
+  several slivers down to the dimensions of one, for here the processes
+  of combination and attenuation are carried further than in any other
+  machine. A drawing frame consists of three or four heads, each of four
+  pairs of drawing rollers (A, B, fig. 6). The lower rollers (B) are
+  fluted longitudinally and the upper ones (A) are covered with leather,
+  and weighted as at (H) to give the two a proper hold of the cotton.
+  Each head contains several deliveries. Six or eight slivers (C) are
+  put up to each delivery and drawn down into one by causing succeeding
+  lines of rollers (A, B) to move at an accelerated speed; the front one
+  revolving about six or eight times faster than the back one. On
+  leaving the front roller the sliver is conducted to a trumpet-shaped
+  tube (D), thence between a pair of calender rollers (E), and, finally,
+  through a diagonal passage in a plate (F); the latter coils the sliver
+  into a rotating can (G). Back and front devices are provided to arrest
+  motion in this machine when a sliver fails. At the back, each sliver
+  passes over and depresses a separate spoon-shaped lever (I), thereby
+  lifting the hooked lower end of (I) high enough to allow an arm (J) to
+  vibrate. On the failure of a sliver the hook of (I) engages with (J)
+  and dislocates the driving gear. In front, the trumpet-shaped tube (D)
+  is mounted on a lever (K), and so long as a sliver presses down the
+  mouth of (D), the machine continues in motion, but when a sliver
+  fails, the lever (K) causes the driving gear to stop the machine. Six
+  or eight cans containing once drawn slivers are put up to the second
+  head and similarly drawn, and finally, a similar number of twice drawn
+  slivers are fed into the third head and again drawn, giving in all 6 ×
+  6 × 6 = 216 doublings; or 8 × 8 × 8 = 512 doublings. Occasionally four
+  heads of drawings are used and eight slivers drawn into one, which
+  gives 8 × 8 × 8 × 8 = 4096 doublings; hence, irregularities in an
+  original sliver have been minimized by successive combination and
+  attenuation.
+
+  _Flyer Frames._--Cotton in cans, from the final head of drawing, is
+  transferred to the _slubbing frame_, by which it is attenuated,
+  slightly twisted, and wound upon spools. Each sliver is drawn out by
+  means of three pairs of rollers, and as it emerges from the front
+  pair, a flyer (A, fig. 7), which revolves uniformly upon a spindle
+  (B), carries the sliver (C) round with it to twist the fibres axially.
+  This flyer coils the twisted material upon a wooden tube (D) in
+  close-wound spirals and in successive layers. The tube is loosely
+  mounted upon, but driven independently of, the spindle, in order that
+  as the tube increases in diameter the number of revolutions it makes
+  may be reduced to suit the constant delivery of the roving. This is
+  effected by a differential motion which usually consists of a large
+  wheel, within which two other wheels are made to work; the interior
+  wheels have a regular motion, but the large wheel is driven from a
+  pair of cone drums at a decreasing speed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  _The intermediate frame_ comes between the slubbing and roving frames
+  and is of similar construction to the slubber, but has a larger number
+  of spindles and smaller tubes. Instead of having cans put at the back,
+  the slubbing tubes are mounted vertically in a creel, passed in pairs
+  through the rollers, and drawn down to a smaller diameter than a
+  single slubbing. In this machine, therefore, the fourfold processes of
+  combination, attenuation, twisting and winding are effected
+  consecutively and continuously.
+
+  _The roving frame_ is similar in principle to the slubber and
+  intermediate machines, but it contains a greater number of spindles,
+  and the tubes are smaller than either. It receives the rovings from
+  the intermediate frame, draws two into one, twists them and winds them
+  upon tubes. This machine is usually the last employed to prepare
+  cotton for spinning, but for spinning fine yarns from the best
+  Egyptian and Sea Islands cottons, a second roving, or _Jack frame_ may
+  be required, in which event pairs of rovings from the first machine
+  are similarly treated in the second in order to render the final
+  product sufficiently fine for spinning yarns of the requisite counts.
+
+  _Spinning_ (see SPINNING).--Improvements upon the Saxony wheel caused
+  continuous spinning to become a mechanical art at an earlier date than
+  intermittent spinning. Arkwright's water-twist frame was gradually
+  changed to the _throstle_, which was a duplex machine furnished with
+  one set of drawing rollers, and one set of spindles and flyers at each
+  side of the frame-work. All the bosses of one line of rollers were
+  connected so that one driving gear would serve for the whole length,
+  and all the spindles were driven by bands from a central cylinder. The
+  roving spools were placed vertically in a creel between the two sets
+  of rollers, and the rovings reduced to the requisite fineness by the
+  latter; after which each was passed through a coiled eye at the lower
+  end of a flyer leg, and attached to a double-flanged spool which was
+  loosely mounted upon a spindle. At each revolution of a flyer a twist
+  was put into the attenuated roving, and the flyer wrapped as much
+  thread upon a spool as the rollers delivered. The spools rested upon a
+  piece of woollen cloth stretched over a rail, and this rail rose and
+  fell through a space equal to the length of the spool barrel. On
+  account of a thread having to pull a spool round, it was not possible
+  to spin finer counts than 60^s, and since each flyer was mounted upon
+  the top of an unsupported spindle, vibration increased with speed. In
+  order to avoid such vibration Mr Danforth, in or about 1829, placed an
+  inverted cup upon the top of a stationary spindle, and upon the
+  spindle a freely fitting sleeve and wharve; the former to receive a
+  spool, the latter to rotate both. By a traverse motion all the spools
+  were simultaneously raised or depressed, so as to have their barrels,
+  when at the highest point, entirely within the cup, and when at the
+  lowest entirely below it. A thread passed from the drawing rollers,
+  outside the cup, to a spool. As a spool rotated its thread was
+  uniformly twisted, the lower edge of the cup built the yarn equally on
+  every part of the spool barrel, and the requisite drag resulted from
+  friction set up by the thread rubbing against the surface of the cup.
+  The throstle has almost disappeared from the cotton industry, and
+  Danforth's cap frame entirely so, but the latter is still used to spin
+  worsted.
+
+  _Ring spinning_ is practically the only system of continuous spinning
+  used in the cotton industry; it was first patented in the United
+  States of America by J. Thorpe, in 1828, and in that country was
+  extensively used long before it became established in England. Its
+  chief feature consists in the substitution for the flyer, or the cap,
+  of a smooth annular ring (A, fig. 8) formed with a flange at the upper
+  edge, over which a light C-shaped piece of wire (B), called a
+  traveller, is sprung. The rings are secured in a rail (C) that rises
+  quickly and falls slowly, but at each succeeding ascent and descent it
+  attains a higher point than that previously reached. A spindle (D) is
+  supported by, and turns in a bolster secured to a fixed rail (E). If
+  the bolster only provides a bearing for the centre of the spindle, and
+  so leaves the foot free to find its own position of steadiness, it is
+  known as a self-balancing or gravity spindle. A recess in the bolster
+  is filled with oil to automatically lubricate the bearing. A spindle
+  is placed in the centre of each ring; it has a sleeve fitted upon it
+  which carries a wharve (F) that covers the upper part of the bolster,
+  and a band from a pair of drums is drawn round the wharve to drive the
+  spindle. So perfect is the construction of these spindles that they
+  can be run without appreciable vibration at speeds far beyond the
+  ability of operatives to attend them; although a speed of 11,000
+  revolutions per minute is a practicable one. After passing the drawing
+  rollers (G), the roving (H) is twisted, hooked into the traveller (B),
+  and made fast to a spool (I) placed upon the spindle. As spinning
+  proceeds the traveller is pulled round the ring by the thread; it thus
+  puts a drag upon, and holds the thread at the winding point. In all
+  continuous spinning the number of twists inserted into a given length
+  of thread is governed by the surface speed of the front roller,
+  relatively to the revolutions of the flyer, or to the speed of the
+  winding surface.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  _Intermittent Spinning_.--The essential difference between continuous
+  and intermittent spinning is that the former draws and twists
+  consecutively, whilst the latter draws and twists simultaneously. In
+  the _mule_, a creel (A, fig. 9), fixed at the back of the machine, is
+  designed to hold the rovings (B) in three or four tiers, from whence
+  they pass between three lines of drawing rollers (C) and two faller
+  wires (D). They are next led to spindles (E) mounted in a carriage (F)
+  whose wheels run upon rails (G) called slips. As the rollers (C) feed
+  the partially attenuated rovings the carriage recedes from the rollers
+  a little faster than the rovings are delivered, thus completing the
+  attenuation. Meanwhile, the spindles are revolved rapidly by bands
+  passing from a tinned cylinder (H) and the threads are twisted. This
+  twist goes first to the thin places where least resistance is offered
+  to it, leaving thick places almost untwisted; the pull of the
+  carriage, therefore, causes the fibres to slip most readily where
+  there are fewest twists, and gives to a thread an approximation to
+  uniformity in diameter. For fine yarns the rollers cease to rotate
+  slightly before the carriage has attained the end of its outward run,
+  or stretch, and at such times all attenuation is due to the pull of
+  the spindles upon the threads. On the termination of a stretch the
+  carriage stops, the twisting is completed, the spindles reverse the
+  direction of their rotation to back off, or remove the yarn which is
+  coiled round the spindles above the winding point, and whilst one
+  faller wire (D), operating on all the threads at once, descends to the
+  winding position of each spindle, the other rises to take up the yarn
+  delivered by the spindles. This completed, the carriage returns to the
+  roller beam, and in doing so the spindles revolve in their normal
+  direction to wind the stretch of 48 to 66 in. of yarn spun in the
+  outward journey. All the foregoing movements are regulated to succeed
+  each other in their proper order, the termination of one operation
+  being the initiation of the next.
+
+  Crompton's original machine was controlled manually throughout, but
+  later he devised means for moving the carriage out mechanically, for
+  stopping the rollers at the proper time, and for locking the carriage
+  whilst the spindles added the final twist to the threads. After which
+  all parts became stationary and the manual operations commenced. These
+  consisted in backing off, operating the faller wire, rotating the
+  spindles and pushing the carriage home. In the year 1785 the first
+  steam-engine was employed for cotton spinning, and in 1792 William
+  Kelly placed the headstock of a mule, in which the chief mechanism is
+  situated, in the middle of the carriage, instead of at one end. By
+  this device one machine was doubled in length, and shortly afterwards
+  two mules, each of 300 to 400 spindles, were allotted to one spinner
+  and his assistants. Kelly also attempted to control all parts of the
+  machine mechanically, but in this he failed, as did Eaton, Smith and
+  many others, although each contributed something towards the solution
+  of the problems involved in automatic spinning. Eventually the hand
+  mule became a machine in which most of the work was done
+  automatically; the spinner being chiefly required to regulate the
+  velocity of the backing off, and the inward run of the carriage, and
+  to actuate the fallers. As a result of these alterations the machine
+  was made almost double the length of Kelly's. In this state many mules
+  continued to be used until the last decade of the 19th century, and a
+  few are still in use. Between the years 1824 and 1830 Richard Roberts
+  invented mechanism that rendered all parts of the mule self-acting,
+  the chief parts of which are shown at (I, J), and they regulate the
+  rotation of the spindles during the inward run of the carriage. At
+  first his machine was only used to spin coarse and low-medium counts,
+  but it is now employed to spin all counts of yarn. Although numerous
+  changes have since been made in the self-acting mule, the machine
+  still bears indelible marks of the genius of Roberts.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  For many purposes the threads as spun by the ring frame or the mule
+  are ready for the manufacturer; but where extra strength or smoothness
+  is required, as in threads for sewing, crocheting, hosiery, lace and
+  carpets; also where multicoloured effects are needed, as in
+  Grandrelle, or some special form of irregularity, as in corkscrewed,
+  and knopped yarns, two or more single threads are compounded and
+  twisted together. This operation is known as doubling. In order to
+  prepare threads for doubling it may be necessary to wind side by side
+  upon a flanged bobbin, or upon a straight or a tapering spool, from
+  two to six threads before twisting them into one.
+
+  _Winding machines_ for this purpose are of various kinds. There are
+  those in which the threads are laid evenly between the flanges of a
+  bobbin, and those that coil the threads upon a straight or a tapering
+  tube to form "cheeses." In the latter the tubes may be laid upon
+  diagonally split drums and rotated by frictional contact. By placing
+  each group of threads to be wound in the slit of a rotating drum, it
+  is drawn quickly to and fro and coiled upon a spool. If solid instead
+  of split drums be used, the guides for all the threads on one side of
+  a machine are attached to a bar, which is traversed by a cam placed at
+  one end of the frame. Or independent mechanism may be provided
+  throughout for treating each group of threads to be wound. The bobbins
+  or tubes may be filled from cops, ring spools or hanks, but a stop
+  motion is required for each thread, which will come into operation
+  immediately a fracture occurs.
+
+  _Doublers_.--In action doublers are continuous and intermittent. The
+  former resemble throstle and ring spinning machines, but since they do
+  not attenuate the material, only one line of rollers is provided. The
+  folded material is placed in a creel and led through the rollers to
+  the spindles to be twisted in a wet or dry condition. If wet, the
+  moisture flattens down most of the protruding ends of the fibres and
+  produces a comparatively smooth thread; if dry, the doubled yarn
+  retains some of its furry character. There are two types of continuous
+  doublers, which are known respectively as English and Scotch. By the
+  English system of dry doubling the yarn from the creel may be treated,
+  on its way to the spindle, in various ways to obtain the desired
+  tension. It may be led under a rod, over a guide, round and between
+  the rollers, and round a glass peg. For wet doubling, a trough
+  containing water is placed behind the rollers, and the yarn passes
+  beneath a glass rod in the water, thence over a guide, beneath,
+  between and over the rollers to the spindles. By the Scotch system the
+  trough is placed below the rollers, and the bottom roller is partly
+  immersed in water. It is claimed that this system wets the fibres more
+  thoroughly than the English one. For the purpose of twisting the
+  strands together the spindles may be provided either with flyers, as
+  in throstle spinning, or with rings and travellers, as in ring
+  spinning. The twist is generally in the opposite direction to that in
+  the single threads. When more than three strands are required in a
+  compound thread it is customary to pass the material more than once
+  through the doubler, as, for example, in a sixfold thread, two strands
+  may be first twisted together in the same or in the opposite direction
+  to the spinning twist; after which the once-doubled thread is
+  "cleared," folded, and three strands of twofold yarn are twisted in
+  the opposite direction to that employed in the first operation. In
+  some machines folding and twisting proceed simultaneously, and some
+  are furnished with an automatic stop motion. But when twisting two
+  threads together to oppose the spinning twist, the failure of one
+  causes the other to untwist and break, therefore, under such
+  circumstances a stop motion is unnecessary.
+
+  Intermittent doublers are known as twinners, and these are of two
+  kinds, namely, English and French. In the former the spindles are
+  fitted in a stationary rail, but the creel, containing the cops or
+  ring spools, is mounted upon a carriage and moves in and out, as in
+  Hargreaves' spinning jenny (see SPINNING). French twinners have a
+  stationary creel, and the spindles move in and out with the carriage,
+  as in the spinning mule. The material to be folded is often subjected
+  to the action of steam in order to render it less resilient, after
+  which it is mounted upon skewers in the creel, and two or three
+  threads are passed to each spindle to be twisted together and formed
+  into a cop. Between the creel and the spindles all the strands are
+  kept equally tense by drawing them over flannel-covered boards and
+  under porcelain weights. For wet doubling, the strands pass through a
+  trough containing water, and the flannel surfaces are also wet.
+
+  _Clearing_.--After the first, or the final, doubling it is often
+  necessary to remove lumps, imperfect knots and loose fibres from a
+  thread. This is accomplished by passing each through a slit, or
+  clearer, whose width is adjusted to the diameter of the thread to be
+  treated. By this means anything which gives a thread abnormal bulk
+  will be prevented from passing the slit. Once through the slit, a
+  thread is coiled upon a friction-driven, double or single-headed
+  bobbin. If the former, the coils are evenly laid; if the latter, they
+  are disposed into a bottle shape. Or, again, cheeses may be wound.
+
+  _Gassing_.--In cases where a thread with a smooth surface is required
+  the extending ends of fibres must be burned off. Thus: each thread
+  from a creel is drawn over a tension rod to two freely mounted
+  pulleys, having parallel grooves cut in their surfaces and axes in the
+  same horizontal plane. After bending a thread forward and backward in
+  the grooves of both pulleys, it passes through a Bunsen flame and is
+  coiled upon a tube, which is held against the face of a rotating drum,
+  while a vibrating guide distributes the thread across the tube. The
+  gas-burner is situated midway between the grooved pulleys, and so
+  mounted beneath the thread that it will automatically swivel sideways
+  and thus move the flame away from a stationary thread. Winding begins
+  slightly before the flame moves beneath a thread, and the rapid motion
+  of the latter permits the flame to burn off undesirable matters
+  without injuring the thread.
+
+  _Reeling_.--Doubled or gassed yarn may be wound upon warpers' bobbins
+  and made into warps for the loom, or it may be reeled into hanks for
+  the preparing and finishing processes. But a reel hanks yarns for
+  bleaching, dyeing, printing, polishing and bundling, and is adapted
+  for cops, ring spools, doubling bobbins or cheeses. From cops, ring
+  spools and cheeses the yarn is usually drawn over one end, but flanged
+  bobbins are mounted upon spindles and the yarn is drawn from the side.
+  A reel has a circumference of 54 in., and after making 80 or 560
+  revolutions it automatically stops; the first gives a lea of 120 yds.
+  and the last a hank of 840 yds. For grant reeling, however, a hank may
+  be from 5000 to 10,000 yds. long. Reeling is of two kinds, namely,
+  open and crossed. Open reeling forms lease, and seven of these are
+  united in one hank by a lease band which retains the divisions. In
+  cross reeling a thread is traversed over a portion of the reel surface
+  by a reciprocating guide to form a hank without divisions. On the
+  completion of a set of hanks the reel is made to collapse and thus
+  facilitate the removal of the yarn.
+
+  _Bundling Press_.--Hanks are made into short or long bundles, each
+  weighing 5 or 10 lb. In short bundles it is usual to form groups of
+  ten hanks, and these are twisted together, folded and compressed into
+  bundles; but in long bundles the hanks are compressed without being
+  folded. A press consists of a strong table upon which a box, with open
+  ends, is formed. The bottom of this box is grooved transversely and
+  made to rise and fall by wheel gearing or by eccentrics. The sides and
+  top are made of vertical and horizontal bars, set to coincide with the
+  grooves in the bottom. To one set of vertical bars a similar number of
+  horizontal top pieces are hinged, and to the other set levers are
+  jointed, which hold the horizontal bars in position. When the hinged
+  bars are turned up, strings are drawn through the grooves, and the
+  bottom is covered with stout paper. The hanks are then laid in the
+  box, another paper is placed above them, and the hinged bars are drawn
+  down and locked. The bottom then rises a predetermined distance, and
+  automatically stops. While in this position the strings are tied, the
+  bottom of the press next descends, and the bundle is removed.
+      (T. W. F.)
+
+
+
+
+COTYS, a name common to several kings of Thrace. The most important of
+them, a cruel and drunken tyrant, who began to reign in 382 B.C., was
+involved with the Athenians in a dispute for the possession of the
+Thracian Chersonese. In this he was assisted by the Athenian Iphicrates,
+to whom he had given his daughter in marriage. On the revolt of
+Ariobarzanes from Persia, Cotys opposed him and his ally, the Athenians.
+In 358 he was murdered by the sons of a man whom he had wronged.
+
+  See Cornelius Nepos, _Iphicrates_, _Timotheus_; Xenophon, _Agesilaus_;
+  Demosthenes, _Contra Aristocratem_; Theopompus in Müller, _Fragmenta
+  Historicorum Graecorum_, i.
+
+
+
+
+COUCH, DARIUS NASH (1822-1897), American soldier, was born at South
+East, Putnam county, N.Y., on the 23rd of July 1822, and graduated from
+West Point in 1846, serving in the Mexican war and in the war against
+the Seminole Indians. He left the army in 1855, but soon after the
+outbreak of the civil war he was made a brigadier-general U.S.V. He
+served as a divisional commander in the battles of the Army of the
+Potomac in 1862, and at Fredericksburg (December 1862) and
+Chancellorsville (May 1863) he commanded the II. corps. He had been made
+a major-general U.S.V. in July 1862. During the Gettysburg campaign he
+was employed in organizing the Pennsylvanian militia, and he
+subsequently served in the West, taking part in the battle of Nashville,
+and in the final operations in the Carolinas. He left the army after the
+war. General Couch died on the 12th of February 1897 at Norwalk,
+Connecticut.
+
+
+
+
+COUCY, LE CHÂTELAIN DE, French _trouvère_ of the 12th century. He is
+probably the Guy de Couci who was castellan of the castle of that name
+from 1186 to 1203. Some twenty-six songs are attributed to him, and
+about fifteen or sixteen are undoubtedly authentic. They are modelled
+very closely on Provençal originals, but are saved from the category of
+mere imitations by a grace and simplicity peculiar to the author. The
+legend of the love of the Châtelain de Coucy and the Lady of Fayel, in
+which there figures a jealous husband who makes his wife eat the heart
+of her lover, has no historical basis, and dates from a late 13th
+century romance by Jakemon Sakesep. It is worth noting that the story,
+which seems to be Breton in origin, has been also told of a Provençal
+troubadour, Guilhem de Cabestaing, and of the minnesinger Reinmar von
+Brennenberg. Pierre de Belloy, who wrote some account of the family of
+Couci, made the story the subject of his tragedy _Gabrielle de Vergy_.
+
+  The songs of the Châtelain de Coucy were edited by Fritz Fath
+  (Heidelberg, 1883). For the romance see Gaston Paris, in the _Hist.
+  litt. de la France_ (vol. 28, pp. 352-360). An exquisite song,
+  "Chanterai por mon courage," expressing a woman's regrets for her
+  lover at the Crusade, is attributed in one MS., probably erroneously,
+  to the Lady of Fayel (_Hist. litt._ xxiii. 556). An English metrical
+  romance of "The Knight of Curtesy," and the "Fair Lady of Faguell,"
+  was printed by William Copland, and reprinted in Ritson's _Eng.
+  Metrical Romances_ (ed. E. Goldsmid, vol. iii., 1885).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 7, Slice 5, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
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